google scholar research topics 2022

500+ Google Scholar Research Topics

Google Scholar is a powerful search engine designed to help researchers find scholarly articles, books, and other academic resources. It’s a fantastic tool for exploring new research topics and staying up-to-date with the latest developments in your field.

In this article, we’ll be exploring a wide range of research topics that you can explore using Google Scholar. Whether you’re a student, an academic, or a curious mind looking to expand your knowledge, you’ll find something of interest here.

We’ll cover topics from various fields, including science, technology, engineering, mathematics, social sciences, and humanities. We’ll also discuss how to use Google Scholar effectively to find relevant research and explore new ideas.

Google Scholar Research Topics

Google Scholar Research Topics ideas are as follows:

• The impact of artificial intelligence on the job market
• Climate change mitigation strategies for small island states
• Analysis of social media and its effects on mental health
• The role of education in reducing income inequality
• Investigating the potential use of gene editing for disease prevention
• The impact of globalization on cultural diversity
• A critical analysis of corporate social responsibility practices in multinational corporations
• Understanding the mechanisms of drug resistance in cancer cells
• Exploring the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions for stress reduction
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and cognitive function in aging adults.
• Investigating the effects of music therapy on mental health disorders
• Examining the relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health outcomes
• A critical analysis of police brutality and the use of excessive force
• The role of renewable energy in mitigating climate change
• Understanding the mechanism of action of novel drugs for treating Alzheimer’s disease
• Investigating the impact of cultural diversity on team performance in multinational corporations
• The use of virtual reality in pain management
• The impact of COVID-19 on mental health outcomes and healthcare systems
• Examining the use of big data in predicting and preventing disease outbreaks
• Investigating the relationship between diet and mental health outcomes
• A critical analysis of the use of surveillance technology in public spaces
• The role of social support in promoting mental health resilience
• Investigating the relationship between air pollution and respiratory disease
• A comparative analysis of different approaches to conflict resolution
• The use of gene therapy for treating genetic disorders
• The impact of microplastics on marine ecosystems
• The role of early childhood education in reducing the achievement gap
• Examining the effects of mindfulness meditation on emotional regulation
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes
• A critical analysis of the ethics of artificial intelligence
• The use of stem cells in regenerative medicine
• The impact of climate change on food security
• Examining the effects of exercise on mental health outcomes in adolescents
• Investigating the role of social media in political polarization
• A comparative analysis of different healthcare systems around the world
• The use of virtual reality in treating phobias
• The impact of gentrification on urban communities
• The role of nutrition in preventing chronic diseases
• Investigating the relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction
• A critical analysis of the impact of social media on body image
• The use of nanotechnology in drug delivery
• The impact of technology on social relationships
• Examining the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy for treating anxiety disorders
• Investigating the relationship between cultural values and mental health outcomes
• The role of public policy in reducing income inequality
• The use of precision medicine in cancer treatment
• The impact of social inequality on health outcomes
• Examining the effects of social isolation on mental health outcomes in older adults
• Investigating the role of the microbiome in human health
• A critical analysis of the use of performance-enhancing drugs in sports
• The use of biotechnology in food production
• The impact of gentrification on affordable housing availability
• Examining the effects of early childhood trauma on brain development
• Investigating the relationship between gender and mental health outcomes
• The role of the arts in promoting mental health and well-being
• The use of artificial intelligence in healthcare diagnostics
• The impact of social media on political participation
• Examining the effects of meditation on immune function
• Investigating the relationship between income and health outcomes
• A critical analysis of the use of social media in promoting mental health literacy.
• Investigating the impact of artificial light at night on wildlife behavior
• The role of nutrition in brain development and cognitive function
• Examining the effects of mindfulness interventions on workplace productivity
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in law enforcement
• The use of genetic engineering for crop improvement
• The impact of media on body dissatisfaction and eating disorders
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on brain function in older adults
• Investigating the relationship between cultural identity and mental health outcomes
• The use of personalized medicine for treating rare diseases
• The impact of air pollution on cognitive function
• A critical analysis of the use of surveillance capitalism in data collection
• Investigating the relationship between music and mental health outcomes
• The role of nature exposure in promoting mental health and well-being
• Examining the effects of cognitive training on brain plasticity
• Investigating the impact of climate change on infectious disease transmission
• The use of robotics in healthcare delivery
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships
• A critical analysis of the use of autonomous weapons in military conflicts
• Investigating the relationship between spirituality and mental health outcomes
• The role of nutrition in preventing chronic inflammation
• Examining the effects of meditation on stress and anxiety in college students
• Investigating the impact of climate change on water availability and quality
• The use of artificial intelligence in finance and investment
• The impact of social media on self-esteem and body image in adolescents
• A critical analysis of the use of autonomous vehicles in transportation
• Investigating the relationship between sleep disorders and mental health outcomes
• The role of traditional medicine in improving healthcare access in developing countries
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on addiction recovery
• Investigating the impact of climate change on biodiversity loss
• The use of gene editing for treating inherited diseases
• The impact of social media on political polarization and civic engagement
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in public spaces
• Investigating the relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health outcomes
• The role of community-based interventions in promoting mental health in marginalized populations
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on academic achievement in children
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in vulnerable populations
• The use of artificial intelligence in customer service and sales
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships and intimacy
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive policing algorithms in law enforcement
• Investigating the relationship between spirituality and aging well-being
• The role of dietary supplements in improving immune function
• Examining the effects of sleep on athletic performance
• Investigating the impact of climate change on human migration patterns
• The use of 3D printing in medicine and healthcare
• The impact of social media on political participation and civic knowledge
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in workplace monitoring
• Investigating the relationship between cultural competence and mental health outcomes
• The role of community gardens in promoting mental health and well-being
• Examining the effects of outdoor adventure programs on adolescent mental health.
• The use of virtual reality in treating phobias and anxiety disorders
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in indigenous communities in the Arctic region
• The role of family therapy in improving mental health outcomes in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Investigating the relationship between childhood trauma and mental health outcomes in adulthood
• The role of yoga therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with anxiety disorders
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on stress and burnout in healthcare professionals
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in low-income communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating social anxiety disorder in adolescents
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in healthcare fraud detection
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with bipolar disorder
• The role of animal-assisted therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with intellectual disabilities
• Examining the effects of expressive arts therapy on self-esteem and resilience in individuals with depression
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in refugees and asylum seekers
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in military personnel
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD)
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in law enforcement and criminal justice systems
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with schizophrenia
• The role of play therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Examining the effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic pain
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in urban communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating phobias in adults
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in disaster response and emergency management
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The role of art therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with schizophrenia
• Examining the effects of dance/movement therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with anxiety disorders
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in coastal fishing communities
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing relapse in individuals with substance use disorders
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with postpartum depression
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in public safety and security
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with eating disorders
• The role of occupational therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with spinal cord injuries
• Examining the effects of art therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic illnesses
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in rural fishing communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating depression in older adults
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with hoarding disorder
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in financial fraud detection
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• The role of drama therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with personality disorders
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on self-compassion and self-criticism in individuals with eating disorders
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in urban heat island effects
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in rural farming communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in adults
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with borderline personality disorder
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in online privacy and security
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• The role of music therapy in improving mental health outcomes in veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Examining the effects of cognitive-behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic pain
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in small island developing states (SIDS)
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing suicide risk in adolescents
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in election forecasting
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with diabetes
• The role of group therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with substance use disorders
• Examining the effects of horticultural therapy on stress and anxiety in individuals with depression
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in nomadic communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) in adolescents
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with schizophrenia
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in education and student privacy
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• The role of art therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with eating disorders
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on depression and anxiety in individuals with postpartum depression
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in coastal tourism communities
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing depression relapse in individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD)
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with social anxiety disorder (SAD)
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in cybersecurity
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with anxiety disorders
• The role of occupational therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with Parkinson’s disease
• Examining the effects of dance/movement therapy on self-esteem and body image in individuals with eating disorders
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in indigenous communities in the South Pacific
• The use of virtual reality in treating panic disorder in adults
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with bipolar disorder
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in border security and immigration policies
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain
• The role of peer support in mental health recovery for individuals with eating disorders
• Examining the effects of art therapy on self-esteem and body image in individuals with chronic illnesses
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in urban development and infrastructure projects
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing workplace violence
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)
• The use of virtual reality in treating post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans
• The role of mindfulness-based interventions in improving cognitive function in older adults
• The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem in adolescent girls
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with Parkinson’s disease
• The role of family-based interventions in improving mental health outcomes in refugees
• Examining the effects of animal-assisted therapy on stress and anxiety in college students
• The use of artificial intelligence in detecting and predicting mental health disorders in children and adolescents
• The impact of social media on interpersonal communication and social skills development in young adults
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in the criminal justice system
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• The role of group therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• Examining the effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in indigenous communities in the Amazon region
• The use of virtual reality in treating anxiety and stress in healthcare professionals
• The impact of social media on the self-perception of physical appearance and body satisfaction in men
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in the workplace
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with heart disease
• The role of art therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with traumatic brain injury
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on stress and anxiety in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in urban slum communities
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing mental health crises in college students
• The role of occupational therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with intellectual disabilities
• Examining the effects of dance/movement therapy on depression and anxiety in individuals with fibromyalgia
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Pacific island communities
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with eating disorders
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in border control and migration management
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis
• The role of peer support in mental health recovery for individuals with bipolar disorder
• Examining the effects of art therapy on depression and anxiety in individuals with cancer
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in refugee camps
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing workplace burnout
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with substance use disorders
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in housing and real estate markets
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in indigenous populations
• The role of exercise in managing symptoms of depression and anxiety during pregnancy
• The impact of social media on academic achievement and performance in college students
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in healthcare decision-making
• Investigating the relationship between diet and mental health outcomes in individuals with eating disorders
• The use of cognitive behavioral therapy in treating insomnia and sleep disorders
• The impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in urban communities
• The role of art therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with autism spectrum disorder
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on immune function and health outcomes in older adults
• Investigating the impact of social media on mental health outcomes in individuals with disabilities
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in border control and immigration
• The use of mindfulness-based interventions in treating substance use disorders
• The impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in disaster-affected communities
• Investigating the relationship between socioeconomic status and mental health outcomes in children and adolescents
• The role of occupational therapy in promoting successful aging and quality of life
• Examining the effects of music therapy on pain and anxiety in cancer patients
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in rural communities
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing suicide risk
• The impact of social media on body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors in young adults
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in public policy decision-making
• The role of family-based interventions in promoting mental health and well-being in children and adolescents
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on pain management in chronic pain patients
• The use of telepsychiatry in improving access to mental health care in underserved areas
• The impact of social media on body image and self-esteem in men and boys
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in public protests and demonstrations
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in college students
• The role of dance/movement therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with PTSD
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on depression and anxiety in individuals with chronic pain
• The use of virtual reality in pain management for burn patients
• The impact of social media on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic pain
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in employment decision-making
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with diabetes
• The role of peer support in mental health recovery for individuals with schizophrenia
• Examining the effects of art therapy on anxiety and depression in older adults
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in agricultural communities
• The use of artificial intelligence in diagnosing and treating mental health disorders in emergency departments
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships and satisfaction
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in education and schools
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in older adults
• The role of occupational therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in the workplace
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on anxiety and depression
• The use of virtual reality in education and training
• Examining the effects of job stress on mental health outcomes in healthcare workers
• Investigating the relationship between social media use and sleep quality in adolescents
• The role of nutritional supplements in preventing age-related cognitive decline
• The impact of climate change on crop yields and food security in developing countries
• Investigating the relationship between childhood trauma and addiction
• The use of telemedicine in improving healthcare access and outcomes in rural areas
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on mental health outcomes in individuals with schizophrenia
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in refugees
• The role of mindfulness-based interventions in addiction recovery
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing falls in older adults
• The impact of social media on political polarization and echo chambers
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in public transportation
• Investigating the relationship between sleep disorders and mental health outcomes in children
• The role of animal-assisted therapy in improving mental health outcomes
• Examining the effects of cognitive training on executive function in older adults
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in coastal communities
• The use of virtual reality in pain management and rehabilitation
• The impact of social media on interpersonal relationships and communication
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in financial decision-making
• Investigating the relationship between chronic pain and mental health outcomes in adults
• The role of peer support in mental health recovery for veterans
• Examining the effects of music therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with autism
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Arctic populations
• The use of artificial intelligence in early detection and prevention of heart disease
• The impact of social media on self-disclosure and privacy
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in retail marketing
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in pregnant women
• The role of community-based interventions in promoting healthy aging and well-being
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on emotional regulation in individuals with borderline personality disorder
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in low-income populations
• The use of telemedicine in improving mental health access and outcomes in prisons
• The impact of social media on adolescent substance use and addiction
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in criminal justice decision-making
• Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in individuals with HIV/AIDS
• The role of creative arts therapies in improving mental health outcomes in children and adolescents
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on cognitive function in individuals with Parkinson’s disease
• The use of artificial intelligence in diagnosing and treating mental health disorders in primary care
• The impact of social media on mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic illnesses
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in workplace surveillance
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in shift workers
• The role of occupational therapy in mental health recovery
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on cognitive function in individuals with traumatic brain injury
• Investigating the impact of parental divorce on children’s mental health
• The role of artificial intelligence in healthcare diagnosis and treatment
• Examining the effects of workaholism on employee well-being and productivity
• Investigating the impact of climate change on coastal erosion
• A critical analysis of the use of biometric data in online security
• The use of genetic testing in personalized nutrition and fitness plans
• The impact of technology on romantic relationships and communication
• Examining the effects of mindfulness interventions on chronic pain management
• Investigating the relationship between trauma and addiction recovery
• The use of wearable technology in improving sports performance and injury prevention
• The impact of climate change on urban heat islands
• A critical analysis of the use of blockchain technology in healthcare
• Investigating the relationship between exercise and depression in older adults
• The role of natural disasters in mental health outcomes
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression in adolescents
• Investigating the impact of climate change on food security
• The use of virtual reality in mental health treatment
• The impact of social media on mental health outcomes in LGBTQ+ populations
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in education
• Investigating the relationship between diet and mental health outcomes in children and adolescents
• The role of music therapy in improving mental health outcomes in cancer patients
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on cognitive function in individuals with multiple sclerosis
• Investigating the impact of climate change on wildfire frequency and severity
• The use of robotics in agriculture and food production
• The impact of social media on workplace communication and productivity
• A critical analysis of the use of algorithmic decision-making in hiring and recruitment
• Investigating the relationship between personality traits and mental health outcomes
• The role of peer support in addiction recovery
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on sleep quality and quantity
• Investigating the impact of climate change on air quality and respiratory health
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing medication errors
• The impact of social media on mental health outcomes in older adults
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in border security
• The role of physical activity in preventing chronic diseases
• Examining the effects of cognitive training on academic achievement in children
• The use of 3D printing in creating prosthetics and assistive devices
• The impact of social media on body positivity and self-acceptance
• Investigating the relationship between social support and mental health outcomes in college students
• The role of community-based interventions in promoting healthy eating habits in children
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on caregiver burden and stress
• Investigating the impact of climate change on water scarcity and conflicts
• The use of artificial intelligence in improving mental health diagnosis and treatment
• The impact of social media on mental health outcomes in individuals with eating disorders
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in retail surveillance
• Investigating the relationship between social isolation and mental health outcomes in older adults
• The role of complementary and alternative medicine in mental health treatment
• Examining the effects of physical exercise on executive function in individuals with ADHD.
• Investigating the impact of workplace bullying on mental health outcomes in healthcare workers
• The use of cognitive behavioral therapy in improving sleep outcomes in individuals with insomnia
• Examining the effects of music therapy on social skills and communication in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• The role of narrative therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with complex trauma histories
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in credit scoring
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with schizophrenia
• The role of dance/movement therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with intellectual disabilities
• Examining the effects of cognitive remediation therapy on cognitive functioning in individuals with traumatic brain injuries
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing workplace accidents
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in retail environments
• The role of drama therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in incarcerated individuals
• Examining the effects of art therapy on emotional regulation in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Indigenous youth
• The use of virtual reality in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in veterans
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in social media advertising
• The role of horticulture therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with depression
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on emotional dysregulation in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in migrant populations
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing cyberbullying
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with personality disorders
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in airport security
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with cardiovascular disease
• The role of expressive writing therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with trauma histories
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on pain management in individuals with chronic pain
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in First Nations communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating phobias in individuals with developmental disabilities
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with chronic illnesses
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in criminal justice reform
• The role of bibliotherapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with anxiety disorders
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on rumination and worry in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
• The role of equine-assisted therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with trauma histories
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic pain
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Indigenous communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating phobias in children
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with body-focused repetitive behaviors (BFRBs)
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in public health surveillance
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with Huntington’s disease
• The role of music therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on self-regulation and emotion regulation in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing domestic violence
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in immigration enforcement
• The role of art therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with traumatic brain injuries
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in disaster survivors
• The use of virtual reality in treating anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic illnesses
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with gender dysphoria
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in hiring and recruitment processes
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease
• The role of play therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in children with trauma histories
• Examining the effects of art therapy on self-esteem and body image in individuals with eating disorders
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing school violence
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with intellectual disabilities
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in public transportation systems
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with spinal cord injuries
• The role of drama therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with substance use disorders
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on emotional regulation and impulsivity in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in forest-dependent communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating postpartum depression in new mothers
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with gambling disorder
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in sports performance analysis
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with fibromyalgia
• The role of animal-assisted therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• The use of cognitive behavioral therapy in treating depression in individuals with chronic pain
• The role of art therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in survivors of sexual assault
• Examining the effects of music therapy on pain management in individuals with fibromyalgia
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in border control
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The role of animal-assisted therapy in improving mental health outcomes in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on impulsivity in individuals with borderline personality disorder (BPD)
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in farming communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating agoraphobia in individuals with anxiety disorders
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with chronic pain
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in the hiring process
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with cancer
• The role of narrative therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in refugees
• Examining the effects of art therapy on body image in individuals with eating disorders
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in coastal Indigenous communities
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting and preventing traffic accidents
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome
• The role of dance/movement therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in older adults
• Examining the effects of cognitive remediation therapy on social cognition in individuals with schizophrenia
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Arctic communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating acrophobia in individuals with anxiety disorders
• The impact of social media on the mental health outcomes of individuals with gambling disorders
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in healthcare resource allocation
• Investigating the relationship between physical activity and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease on dialysis
• The role of bibliotherapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with postpartum depression
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on self-esteem in individuals with social anxiety disorder
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Pacific Islander communities
• The use of animal-assisted therapy in treating anxiety disorders in children and adolescents
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in public protests
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with traumatic brain injuries
• The role of drama therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in LGBTQ+ individuals
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on anxiety and depression in individuals with Parkinson’s disease
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in refugee communities
• The use of virtual reality in treating claustrophobia in individuals with anxiety disorders
• The impact of childhood trauma on mental health outcomes in adulthood
• The use of music therapy in improving cognitive function in individuals with dementia
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on depression in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Indigenous communities in Australia
• The role of mindfulness-based interventions in promoting mental health and well-being in college students
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in criminal justice sentencing
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
• The use of art therapy in improving self-esteem in individuals with substance use disorders
• Examining the effects of animal-assisted therapy on aggression in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• The role of cognitive remediation therapy in improving executive functioning in individuals with traumatic brain injuries
• A critical analysis of the use of facial recognition technology in the criminal justice system
• The use of narrative therapy in promoting resilience in individuals who have experienced trauma
• Examining the effects of dance/movement therapy on body image in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder (BDD)
• The use of virtual reality in treating fear of flying in individuals with anxiety disorders
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in predicting student performance in higher education
• The role of mindfulness-based interventions in promoting mental health and well-being in older adults
• Examining the effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on insomnia in individuals with depression
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in Arctic Indigenous communities
• The use of animal-assisted therapy in improving social skills in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
• The role of art therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with chronic pain
• Examining the effects of cognitive remediation therapy on attention in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• The use of virtual reality in treating fear of needles in children with medical conditions
• A critical analysis of the use of predictive analytics in predicting criminal behavior
• Investigating the relationship between sleep and mental health outcomes in individuals with chronic kidney disease not on dialysis
• The role of drama therapy in promoting mental health and well-being in individuals with schizophrenia
• Examining the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on pain management in individuals with chronic migraines
• Investigating the impact of climate change on mental health outcomes in communities affected by natural disasters

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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18 Google Scholar tips all students should know

Dec 13, 2022

[[read-time]] min read

Think of this guide as your personal research assistant.

“It’s hard to pick your favorite kid,” Anurag Acharya says when I ask him to talk about a favorite Google Scholar feature he’s worked on. “I work on product, engineering, operations, partnerships,” he says. He’s been doing it for 18 years, which as of this month, happens to be how long Google Scholar has been around.

Google Scholar is also one of Google’s longest-running services. The comprehensive database of research papers, legal cases and other scholarly publications was the fourth Search service Google launched, Anurag says. In honor of this very important tool’s 18th anniversary, I asked Anurag to share 18 things you can do in Google Scholar that you might have missed.

1. Copy article citations in the style of your choice.

With a simple click of the cite button (which sits below an article entry), Google Scholar will give you a ready-to-use citation for the article in five styles, including APA, MLA and Chicago. You can select and copy the one you prefer.

2. Dig deeper with related searches.

Google Scholar’s related searches can help you pinpoint your research; you’ll see them show up on a page in between article results. Anurag describes it like this: You start with a big topic — like “cancer” — and follow up with a related search like “lung cancer” or “colon cancer” to explore specific kinds of cancer.

Related searches can help you find what you’re looking for.

3. And don’t miss the related articles.

This is another great way to find more papers similar to one you found helpful — you can find this link right below an entry.

4. Read the papers you find.

Scholarly articles have long been available only by subscription. To keep you from having to log in every time you see a paper you’re interested in, Scholar works with libraries and publishers worldwide to integrate their subscriptions directly into its search results. Look for a link marked [PDF] or [HTML]. This also includes preprints and other free-to-read versions of papers.

5. Access Google Scholar tools from anywhere on the web with the Scholar Button browser extension.

The Scholar Button browser extension is sort of like a mini version of Scholar that can move around the web with you. If you’re searching for something, hitting the extension icon will show you studies about that topic, and if you’re reading a study, you can hit that same button to find a version you read, create a citation or to save it to your Scholar library.

Install the Scholar Button Chrome browser extension to access Google Scholar from anywhere on the web.

6. Learn more about authors through Scholar profiles.

There are many times when you’ll want to know more about the researchers behind the ideas you’re looking into. You can do this by clicking on an author’s name when it’s hyperlinked in a search result. You’ll find all of their work as well as co-authors, articles they’re cited in and so on. You can also follow authors from their Scholar profile to get email updates about their work, or about when and where their work is cited.

7. Easily find topic experts.

One last thing about author profiles: If there are topics listed below an author’s name on their profile, you can click on these areas of expertise and you’ll see a page of more authors who are researching and publishing on these topics, too.

8. Search for court opinions with the “Case law” button.

Scholar is the largest free database of U.S. court opinions. When you search for something using Google Scholar, you can select the “Case law” button below the search box to see legal cases your keywords are referenced in. You can read the opinions and a summary of what they established.

9. See how those court opinions have been cited.

If you want to better understand the impact of a particular piece of case law, you can select “How Cited,” which is below an entry, to see how and where the document has been cited. For example, here is the How Cited page for Marbury v. Madison , a landmark U.S. Supreme Court ruling that established that courts can strike down unconstitutional laws or statutes.

10. Understand how a legal opinion depends on another.

When you’re looking at how case laws are cited within Google Scholar, click on “Cited by” and check out the horizontal bars next to the different results. They indicate how relevant the cited opinion is in the court decision it’s cited within. You will see zero, one, two or three bars before each result. Those bars indicate the extent to which the new opinion depends on and refers to the cited case.

In the Cited by page for New York Times Company v. Sullivan, court cases with three bars next to their name heavily reference the original case. One bar indicates less reliance.

11. Sign up for Google Scholar alerts.

Want to stay up to date on a specific topic? Create an alert for a Google Scholar search for your topics and you’ll get email updates similar to Google Search alerts. Another way to keep up with research in your area is to follow new articles by leading researchers. Go to their profiles and click “Follow.” If you’re a junior grad student, you may consider following articles related to your advisor’s research topics, for instance.

12. Save interesting articles to your library.

It’s easy to go down fascinating rabbit hole after rabbit hole in Google Scholar. Don’t lose track of your research and use the save option that pops up under search results so articles will be in your library for later reading.

13. Keep your library organized with labels.

Labels aren’t only for Gmail! You can create labels within your Google Scholar library so you can keep your research organized. Click on “My library,” and then the “Manage labels…” option to create a new label.

14. If you’re a researcher, share your research with all your colleagues.

Many research funding agencies around the world now mandate that funded articles should become publicly free to read within a year of publication — or sooner. Scholar profiles list such articles to help researchers keep track of them and open up access to ones that are still locked down. That means you can immediately see what is currently available from researchers you’re interested in and how many of their papers will soon be publicly free to read.

15. Look through Scholar’s annual top publications and papers.

Every year, Google Scholar releases the top publications based on the most-cited papers. That list (available in 11 languages) will also take you to each publication’s top papers — this takes into account the “h index,” which measures how much impact an article has had. It’s an excellent place to start a research journey as well as get an idea about the ideas and discoveries researchers are currently focused on.

16. Get even more specific with Advanced Search.

Click on the hamburger icon on the upper left-hand corner and select Advanced Search to fine-tune your queries. For example, articles with exact words or a particular phrase in the title or articles from a particular journal and so on.

17. Find extra help on Google Scholar’s help page.

It might sound obvious, but there’s a wealth of useful information to be found here — like how often the database is updated, tips on formatting searches and how you can use your library subscriptions when you’re off-campus (looking at you, college students!). Oh, and you’ll even learn the origin of that quote on Google Scholar’s home page.

18. Keep up with Google Scholar news.

Don’t forget to check out the Google Scholar blog for updates on new features and tips for using this tool even better.

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Google Scholar reveals its most influential papers for 2021

Early clinical observations of COVID-19 and its mortality risk factors among the most cited output, while a five-year-old AI paper continues to command attention.

Examples of using SSD, an object-detection algorithm described in a highly cited artificial intelligence paper. Credit: Wei Liu et al. European Conference on Computer Vision (2016)

24 August 2021

Wei Liu et al. European Conference on Computer Vision (2016)

Examples of using SSD, an object-detection algorithm described in a highly cited artificial intelligence paper.

COVID-19-related papers have eclipsed artificial intelligence research in the annual listing of the most highly-cited publications in the Google Scholar database. The most highly cited COVID-19 paper, published in The Lancet in early 2020, has garnered more than 30,000 citations to date (see below for paper summary).

But, in the database of almost 400 million academic papers and other scholarly literature, even it fell a long way short of the most highly cited paper of the last five years, ‘Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition’, published in Proceedings of the IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition by a team from Microsoft in 2016.

The five-year-old paper’s astonishing ascendancy continues, from 25,256 citations in 2019 to 49,301 citations in 2020 to 82,588 citations in 2021. We wrote about it last year here .

The 2021 Google Scholar Metrics ranking tracks papers published between 2016 and 2020, and includes citations from all articles that were indexed in Google Scholar as of July 2020. Google Scholar is the largest database in the world of its kind.

Below we describe selections from Google Scholar’s most highly-cited articles for 2021. COVID-19 research dominated new arrivals in the list, but we’re also featuring a popular AI paper from 2016, and research that provides an economical shortcut to seeing patterns of human genetic variation, also from 2016.

See our coverage of the 2019 and 2020 lists.

‘Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China’

30,529 citations

Published in February 2020, this is one of the earliest papers to describe the clinical characteristics of COVID-19. It was authored by researchers in China and doctors working in hospitals in Wuhan, the city where COVID-19 was first detected in late 2019.

The team, from institutions such as the Jin Yin-tan Hospital in Wuhan and China-Japan Friendship Hospital in Beijing, reviewed the clinical and nursing reports, chest X-rays and lab results of the first 41 COVID-19 patients. They noted that the novel virus acts similarly to SARS and MERS, in that it causes pneumonia, but is different in that it seldom manifests as a runny nose or intestinal symptoms.

The final sentences of the paper call for robust and rapid testing, because of the likelihood of the disease spreading out of control:

“Reliable quick pathogen tests and feasible differential diagnosis based on clinical description are crucial for clinicians in their first contact with suspected patients. Because of the pandemic potential of 2019-nCoV, careful surveillance is essential to monitor its future host adaption, viral evolution, infectivity, transmissibility, and pathogenicity.”

The paper has been referenced or cited in almost 100 policy documents to date , including several released by the World Health Organization on topics such as mask-wearing and clinical care of patients with severe symptoms .

‘Clinical Characteristics of Coronavirus Disease 2019 in China’

New England Journal of Medicine

19,656 citations

Published online in February 2020, this study was a retrospective review of medical records for 1,099 COVID-19 cases reported to the National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China between 11 December 2019 and 29 January 2020.

The team, which included almost 40 researchers from China from institutions such as the Guangzhou Medical University in Guangzhou and Wuhan Jinyintan Hospital in Wuhan, accessed electronic medical records from 552 hospitals in mainland China to summarise exposure risk, signs and symptoms, laboratory and radiologic findings related to COVID-19 infection.

The study garnered a lot of media attention based on the evidence it put forward that men might be more severely impacted by disease – 58% of the patient cohort were male.

However, as Sharon Begley reported for STAT , “It’s possible the apparent sex imbalance reflects patterns of travel and contacts that make men more likely to be exposed to carriers of the virus, not any inherent biological differences. It’s also possible the apparent worse disease severity in men could skew the data.”

A paper published in JAMA around the same time by researchers in the United States reported that, among hospitalized patients, there is “a slight predominance of men”.

A Nature Communications meta-analysis , published in December 2020, looked at 92 studies covering more than three million patients and concluded that, while males and females appeared to be susceptible to infection, men were 2.84 times more likely to be end up in intensive care and 1.39 times more likely to die from the disease.

‘Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: a retrospective cohort study’

17,047 citations

Published in March 2020, The Lancet described this study as the first time researchers have examined risk factors associated with severe symptoms and death in hospitalised or deceased patients. Of the 191 patients studied, 137 were discharged from hospital and 54 died.

The study, by researchers from hospitals in China, also presented new data on viral shedding – information that informed early understanding of how the virus spreads and can be detected over the cause of infection.

“The extended viral shedding noted in our study has important implications for guiding decisions around isolation precautions and antiviral treatment in patients with confirmed COVID-19 infection,” said co-lead author, Bin Cao, from the China-Japan Friendship Hospital and Capital Medical University in Beijing.

“However, we need to be clear that viral shedding time should not be confused with other self-isolation guidance for people who may have been exposed to COVID-19 but do not have symptoms, as this guidance is based on the incubation time of the virus.”

‘A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019’

The New England journal of medicine

16,194 citations

On 31 December 2019, the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention (China CDC) dispatched a rapid response team to accompany health authorities in Hubei province and Wuhan city in conducting COVID-19 investigations.

This study, published in January 2020, reported the results of that investigation, including the clinical features of the pneumonia of two patients.

Described by Jose Manuel Jimenez-Guardeño, a researcher in the Department of Infectious Diseases at King's College London , UK and colleagues in an article for The Conversation as “the article that released this virus to the world”, the paper details how the virus was isolated from patients with pneumonia in Wuhan in cell cultures.

“In fact, actual photographs of SARS-CoV-2 were shown to the world for the first time here,” say Jimenez-Guardeño and his co-authors .

The study authors urged that more epidemiologic investigations were needed in order to characterize transmission modes, reproduction intervals and other characteristics of the virus to inform strategies to control and stop its spread.

‘SSD: Single Shot MultiBox Detector’

European Conference on Computer Vision

15,368 citations

A change of pace from recent COVID-19 studies, this paper, led by Wei Liu from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and published in 2016, remains one of the most highly cited in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). It describes a new method for detecting objects in images or video footage using a single deep neural network – a set of AI algorithms inspired by the neurological processes that fire in the human cerebral cortex.

The approach, called the Single Shot MultiBox Detector, or SSD, has been described as faster than Faster R-CNN – another object detection technology that was described in a very highly cited paper published in 2015 ( see our coverage here ).

SSD works by dividing the image into a grid, with each grid cell responsible for detecting objects within that part of the image. As the name indicates, the network is able to identify all objects within an image in a single pass, allowing for real-time analysis.

SSD is now one of a handful of object detection technologies that are now available. YOLO (You Only Look Once) is a similar single-shot object detection algorithm, whereas R-CNN and Faster R-CNN use a two-step approach , which involves first identifying the regions where objects might be, and then detecting them.

‘Analysis of protein-coding genetic variation in 60,706 humans’

7,696 citations

Led by Monkol Lek from the University of Sydney in Australia and Daniel MacArthur from the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard University , this 2016 paper presents an open-access catalogue of more than 60,000 human exome sequences (exomes are the coding portions of genes) from people of European, African, South Asian, East Asian, and Latinx ancestry.

The collection was compiled as part of the Exome Aggregation Consortium project, run by an international group of researchers with a focus on exome sequencing. As exomes only make up about 2% of the human genome , the approach has been praised for being able to highlight patterns of genetic variation, including known disease-related variants, in a more cost-effective way than whole-genome sequencing.

Presented at a 2015 genomics conference, the catalogue encompasses 7.4 million genetic variants, which can be used to identify those connected to rare diseases. “Large-scale reference datasets of human genetic variation are critical for the medical and functional interpretation of DNA sequence changes,” Lek said when the paper was published.

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100+ Best Google Scholar Research Topics

Google Scholar provides a simple and unique way to search for scholarly literature. In a nutshell, it is a search engine for educational applications, especially dissertation and thesis research. Unfortunately, writing a dissertation, thesis, or research paper that is researchable on google scholar can be challenging, especially when finding a good topic or think about pay for dissertation .

Top Google Scholar Research Proposal Topics

Great examples of google scholar thesis topics, great google scholar dissertation topics, creative google scholar research topics in marketing, great google scholar research topics in computer science, fantastic google scholar accounting research topics, excellent google scholar research topics in education, samples of google scholar research topics in business, the best google scholar research topics for nursing, incredible google scholar research topics in economics, top google scholar research topics in finance, interesting google scholar research topics in psychology, top google scholar research topics in chemistry, good google scholar quantitative research topics, good google scholar qualitative research topics.

A good google scholar search by topic should be well-researched, original, exciting and compelling, clear and competitive, relevant to your field of study, manageable, and enticing. If you are seeking excellent google scholar topics in 2022, you are in the right place. We spent hours creating some interesting ideas listed below for you.

A good google scholar research proposal topic should be unique and original. Also, it should be relevant to your area of study. Here are examples of research topics research google scholar search:

• The relationship between the relevance of search engines and clicks
• How does implicit impact provide better results from search engines?
• Ways to enhance the effectiveness of search engines
• Is social media experience dependent on search engines?
• Social media vs. traditional media: The analytics
• A comparison of social networks and search engines for information seeking
• How to use search engines for better decision-making

A thesis paper involves comprehensive research and is required to complete a master’s degree. Therefore, when choosing a topic, you must not forget its vitality. Below are some exciting google scholar thesis topics you should explore:

• Paid placement strategies for website search engines
• The causes of the decline in employment rates
• Are men more employable than women?
• Climate change and its impact on natural resources
• Bullying in schools: Measures to prevent it
• Climate change trends over the last four years
• Is there a correlation between school status and performance?

A dissertation is a research project completed by undergraduate and postgraduate students. A good topic can make your project easy or complicate it more than it should. Here are some incredible google scholar dissertation topic examples:

• The pros and cons of international joint ventures
• Impacts of organizational culture on business decision making
• Does organizational culture influence performance?
• Does training employees alter business productivity?
• Human resource strategies for non-profit organizations
• An extensive exploration of cultural changes and their impacts on social lives
• How the integration of technology in the SCM sector works

Creativity is a critical element in creating great topics. Here are some marketing google scholar research topics:

• How companies can influence the consumer buying behavior
• The impact of social media advertising on consumer behavior
• The interwoven impacts of brand marketing and political campaigns
• An overview of the outcomes of advertising strategies in a recession
• How impulse buying influences the internet world
• An analysis of customer retention in online businesses
• How businesses are positioning themselves for hard economic times

As we have said earlier, a good google scholar research topic should be relevant to the specific field of study. So here are topics relevant to computer science:

• An analysis of search algorithms
• The evolution of artificial intelligence over the past ten years
• The role of human intelligence in artificial intelligence
• How do mobile gadgets employ unique software development?
• A data-based comparison of iOS and Android
• The role of development in future computer systems
• Effective ways of improving computer data security

Finding a research topic in accounting can cause a headache. So, we prepared the following examples:

• The impact of managerial accounting in large corporate organizations
• Activity-based costing: meaning and components
• How accounting can revolutionize medical care
• A look at the accounting parameters in public service
• How managerial accounting influences global finance practices
• How does managerial accounting influence human resources?
• Capital budgeting: What is it all about?

Even education students benefit from the google scholar search engine. Here are some education-related google scholar research topics:

• An analysis of the real-time performance of education data
• Online vs. offline studies: The comparison
• Why the present curriculums are generating results
• The mental impacts of distance learning
• Creative ways of monitoring student’s mental health
• Ways to empower girls’ education
• The role of technology in digital learning

You may also benefit from some topic inspirations in business. Here are some business-related research topics on google scholar ;

• Theories in outsourcing and the findings
• Business understaffing in today’s setting explained
• Are most businesses reluctant on technology?
• How can companies survive international competition?
• The value of educating the public on international investment
• How to transform a local business into an internationally recognized brand
• Economic problems that small local businesses incur

Here are some excellent google scholar nursing research topics you can rely on. While nursing is a broad topic, these are some of the best topics.

• The nursing adaptation in the digital era
• Health issues that immigrant women face
• How technology in nursing favors the maternal sector
• A look at the nurses vs. doctors relationship in the private sector
• Guidelines for promoting diversity in the nursing sector
• How can the nursing sector overcome vaccine hesitancy among pregnant women?
• New developments in childhood cancer treatment

Studying economics is exciting, until when it comes to writing research papers. Let’s look at excellent google scholar project topics in economics:

• How income changes influence consumer choices
• Is the cost of living likely to shift in two years?
• The influence of governance on economics
• A comparison of the impacts of labor force participation on the budget and economy
• The connections between salary levels and economic conflict in the United States
• An analysis of salary fluctuations in your country
• An exploration of the evolution of consumption in your country over the past ten years

Do you want to write a research paper in finance? Here are research paper google scholar research topics for your consideration:

• How can finance serve as a tool for regulating economies?
• The role of financial markets in the mobilization and dispersal of financial resources
• Financial challenges that third-world countries face
• Comparing finance utilization in the private and public sector
• Joint-stock companies and the financial challenges they encounter
• The financial function of social security in your country

Here are great title examples on psychology to give you an idea of what’s expected.

• Examining the concept of free will in the current society
• Finding an equilibrium between the conscious and unconscious mind
• The impact of bullying and harassment on mental well-being in adulthood
• How psychology is shaping the modern world
• How social phobias and anxiety influences psychological growth
• The impact of effective parenting on child development

Here are examples of top google scholar research topics in chemistry:

• The knowledge of chemistry and how it influences farmers
• Avoiding pesticides in agriculture
• How farmers should view GMO
• The role of sustainable elements in the chemical synthesis
• The function of organic chemical reactivity functioning
• The side effect chains of amino acids

Let’s look at some great google scholar – research topics in quantitative research:

• The link between mortality rates and the sex of individuals
• Effective ways to promote the acceptance of cancer screening processes
• Data-based analysis of mortality rates on kids below five.
• The impact of unhealthy workplaces on individuals’ mental health
• How to develop critical thinking
• How has education fueled the success of the technological sector?

Here are google scholar research topics in qualitative research:

• How long-term planning methods improve project management
• The best practices when dealing with time management and goal setting
• Guidelines for achieving affordable medical care in low-income societies
• An analysis of dealing with loss and the recovery process
• Is poor kids’ upbringing a contributor to bad performance in schools?
• How to establish eco-friendly facemasks

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Google Research, 2022 & beyond: Natural sciences

It's an incredibly exciting time to be a scientist. With the amazing advances in machine learning (ML) and quantum computing, we now have powerful new tools that enable us to act on our curiosity, collaborate in new ways, and radically accelerate progress toward breakthrough scientific discoveries.

Since joining Google Research eight years ago, I’ve had the privilege of being part of a community of talented researchers fascinated by applying cutting-edge computing to push the boundaries of what is possible in applied science. Our teams are exploring topics across the physical and natural sciences. So, for this year’s blog post I want to focus on high-impact advances we’ve made recently in the fields of biology and physics, from helping to organize the world’s protein and genomics information to benefit people's lives to improving our understanding of the nature of the universe with quantum computers. We are inspired by the great potential of this work.

Using machine learning to unlock mysteries in biology

Many of our researchers are fascinated by the extraordinary complexity of biology, from the mysteries of the brain, to the potential of proteins, and to the genome, which encodes the very language of life. We’ve been working alongside scientists from other leading organizations around the world to tackle important challenges in the fields of connectomics , protein function prediction , and genomics , and to make our innovations accessible and useful to the greater scientific community.

Neurobiology

One exciting application of our Google-developed ML methods was to explore how information travels through the neuronal pathways in the brains of zebrafish , which provides insight into how the fish engage in social behavior like swarming. In collaboration with researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Biological Intelligence , we were able to computationally reconstruct a portion of zebrafish brains imaged with 3D electron microscopy — an exciting advance in the use of imaging and computational pipelines to map out the neuronal circuitry in small brains, and another step forward in our long-standing contributions to the field of connectomics.

The technical advances necessary for this work will have applications even beyond neuroscience. For example, to address the difficulty of working with such large connectomics datasets, we developed and released TensorStore , an open-source C++ and Python software library designed for storage and manipulation of n -dimensional data. We look forward to seeing the ways it is used in other fields for the storage of large datasets.

We're also using ML to shed light on how human brains perform remarkable feats like language by comparing human language processing and autoregressive deep language models (DLMs). For this study, a collaboration with colleagues at Princeton University and New York University Grossman School of Medicine , participants listened to a 30-minute podcast while their brain activity was recorded using electrocorticography . The recordings suggested that the human brain and DLMs share computational principles for processing language, including continuous next-word prediction, reliance on contextual embeddings, and calculation of post-onset surprise based on word match (we can measure how surprised the human brain is by the word, and correlate that surprise signal with how well the word is predicted by the DLM). These results provide new insights into language processing in the human brain, and suggest that DLMs can be used to reveal valuable insights about the neural basis of language.

Biochemistry

ML has also allowed us to make significant advances in understanding biological sequences. In 2022, we leveraged recent advances in deep learning to accurately predict protein function from raw amino acid sequences. We also worked in close collaboration with the European Molecular Biology Laboratory's European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI) to carefully assess model performance and add hundreds of millions of functional annotations to the public protein databases UniProt , Pfam/InterPro , and MGnify . Human annotation of protein databases can be a laborious and slow process and our ML methods enabled a giant leap forward — for example, increasing the number of Pfam annotations by a larger number than all other efforts during the past decade combined. The millions of scientists worldwide who access these databases each year can now use our annotations for their research.

Although the first draft of the human genome was released in 2003, it was incomplete and had many gaps due to technical limitations in the sequencing technologies. In 2022 we celebrated the remarkable achievements of the Telomere-2-Telomere (T2T) Consortium in resolving these previously unavailable regions — including five full chromosome arms and nearly 200 million base pairs of novel DNA sequences — which are interesting and important for questions of human biology, evolution, and disease. Our open source genomics variant caller, DeepVariant , was one of the tools used by the T2T Consortium to prepare their release of a complete 3.055 billion base pair sequence of a human genome . The T2T Consortium is also using our newer open source method DeepConsensus , which provides on-device error correction for Pacific Biosciences long-read sequencing instruments, in their latest research toward comprehensive pan-genome resources that can represent the breadth of human genetic diversity.

Using quantum computing for new physics discoveries

When it comes to making scientific discoveries, quantum computing is still in its infancy, but has a lot of potential. We’re exploring ways of advancing the capabilities of quantum computing so that it can become a tool for scientific discovery and breakthroughs. In collaboration with physicists from around the world, we are also starting to use our existing quantum computers to create interesting new experiments in physics.

As an example of such experiments, consider the problem where a sensor measures something, and a computer then processes the data from the sensor. Traditionally, this means the sensor’s data is processed as classical information on our computers. Instead, one idea in quantum computing is to directly process quantum data from sensors. Feeding data from quantum sensors directly to quantum algorithms without going through classical measurements may provide a large advantage. In a recent Science paper written in collaboration with researchers from multiple universities, we show that quantum computing can extract information from exponentially fewer experiments than classical computing, as long as the quantum computer is coupled directly to the quantum sensors and is running a learning algorithm. This “ quantum machine learning ” can yield an exponential advantage in dataset size, even with today’s noisy intermediate-scale quantum computers. Because experimental data is often the limiting factor in scientific discovery, quantum ML has the potential to unlock the vast power of quantum computers for scientists. Even better, the insights from this work are also applicable to learning on the output of quantum computations, such as the output of quantum simulations that may otherwise be difficult to extract.

Even without quantum ML, a powerful application of quantum computers is to experimentally explore quantum systems that would be otherwise impossible to observe or simulate. In 2022, the Quantum AI team used this approach to observe the first experimental evidence of multiple microwave photons in a bound state using superconducting qubits . Photons typically do not interact with one another, and require an additional element of non-linearity to cause them to interact. The results of our quantum computer simulations of these interactions surprised us — we thought the existence of these bound states relied on fragile conditions, but instead we found that they were robust even to relatively strong perturbations that we applied.

Given the initial successes we have had in applying quantum computing to make physics breakthroughs, we are hopeful about the possibility of this technology to enable future groundbreaking discoveries that could have as significant a societal impact as the creation of transistors or GPS . The future of quantum computing as a scientific tool is exciting!

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank everyone who worked hard on the advances described in this post, including the Google Applied Sciences, Quantum AI, Genomics and Brain teams and their collaborators across Google Research and externally. Finally, I would like to thank the many Googlers who provided feedback in the writing of this post, including Lizzie Dorfman, Erica Brand, Elise Kleeman, Abe Asfaw, Viren Jain, Lucy Colwell, Andrew Carroll, Ariel Goldstein and Charina Chou.

Google Research, 2022 & beyond

This was the seventh blog post in the “Google Research, 2022 & Beyond” series. Other posts in this series are listed in the table below:

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The Future of Education

Google for Education collaborated with research partner Canvas8 to conduct a study across 24 countries on the future of education. The result is a three-part global report highlighting insights from around the world.

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Preparing for a new future

As educators work to equip students with the skills and mindsets they’ll need to navigate massive change, the experts we interviewed discussed how and why they’re rethinking the role of education.

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Evolving how we teach and learn

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Making learning personal

Reimagining learning design

Elevating the teacher

Reimagining learning ecosystems

Learn how educators are taking a more systemic approach to transformation, by reimagining the education ecosystem around the learner.

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Upgrading learning environments

Empowering educators with data

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Building the report

This report contains insights from interviews with education thought leaders from around the world, including experts in policy, academic researchers covering education, district-level representatives, school principals and teachers and edtech leaders.

FROM THE EXPERTS

“There is a need to develop human beings who are internally strong and resilient. The importance of knowledge transmission will decline in order to place a greater emphasis on fundamental and higher thinking skills, including children's socio-affective spheres.”

Sylvia Schmelkes, researcher at Universidad Iberoamericana, Mexico

“The education system has to enable young people to be great career navigators, to learn transferable skills that enable them to change fields and not just change jobs. And, to be alert to the changing workforce needs in ways that were probably less apparent previously.”

Valerie Hannon, co-founder, Innovation Unit, United Kingdom

“The power of technology in education [is a major force shaping it], changing learning experiences, changing the role and nature of educators — your work in knowledge transmission is no longer that relevant. You have to instead become a great coach, a great mentor, a social worker, and career advisor.”

Andreas Schleicher, director for education and skills, and special advisor on education policy to the secretary-general at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Global

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Trends and Topics in Educational Technology, 2023 Edition

• Column: Guest Editors’ Notes
• Published: 05 April 2023
• Volume 67 , pages 583–591, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Bohdana Allman 1 ,
• Royce Kimmons 1 ,
• Joshua Rosenberg 2 &
• Monalisa Dash 3  

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Introduction

In this editorial, we present trends and popular topics in educational technology for the year 2022. We used a similar public internet data mining approach (Kimmons & Veletsianos, 2018 ) to previous years (Kimmons, 2020 ; Kimmons et al., 2021 ; Kimmons & Rosenberg, 2022 ), extracting and analyzing data from three large data sources: the Scopus research article database, the Twitter #EdTech affinity group, and K-12 school and district Facebook pages. This year, we also added information related to Open Educational Resources (OER), specifically data from an edtech-focused open publishing platform, EdTech Books. Our analysis provides a snapshot of educational technology trends in 2022 from four different perspectives, affording insights into what is of interest in the field as institutions, educators, learners, and researchers adjust to the post-pandemic ‘normal’ and adopt educational technologies, resources, and practices at a more mature level.

What Were Trending Topics in EdTech Journals in 2022?

Research topics in the field of educational technology in 2022 were, with a few exceptions, noticeably consistent with those of previous years (see Table  1 ; Kimmons et al., 2021 ; Kimmons & Rosenberg, 2022 ). We compiled the titles of 2699 articles from top educational technology journals ( n  = 16) identified by Google Scholar and retrieved their abstracts from Scopus. Following this, we looked at the number of times each keyword and bigram (two-word phrase) appeared in the titles and abstracts of the papers to see which words were most frequently referenced. Generic word stems like “learn,” “student,” “education,” and “teach,” modalities like “online” and “digital,” and methods-related terms like “study” and “review” were the most frequently occurring words in titles. Analysis of bigrams showed recurring references to (a) educational settings, like “higher education,” (b) specific modalities like “online learning,” “virtual reality,” and “augmented reality,” and (c) methods, like “systematic review,” “meta-analysis,” and “case study.” Moreover, references to “COVID-19” understandably dropped from 2021 to 2022, while references to “online learning” continued to grow. This may imply that interest in online learning has continued and even grown beyond the pandemic. Appearance of “during+COVID” in the top 15 bigrams in EdTech article titles in 2022 suggested that researchers and practitioners were still reporting on educational practices during the pandemic.

To aid in making sense of the results, we further manually categorized keywords and bigrams into the four information types suggested by the data (contexts, methods, modalities, and topics). Context included terms related to the research settings. Methods included terms referring to research methods in the article. Modalities included terms referring to the technical modality featured in the study. Topics included terms referring to the intervention, objective, or theoretical goal of the study. The most common keywords and bigrams for each type may be found in Table  2 . Contextual bigrams like “higher education” (3.9%) and “COVID-19” (3.6%) were among the most popular bigrams used in educational technology journal article titles in 2022. When we looked specifically at the educational level, we found that references to “higher+education” (3.9%) continued to be considerably higher than to “K-12” (1.2%). The abstract analysis of context bigrams paralleled the title bigram analysis.

A closer analysis of methods mentioned in the titles suggested that the terms “systematic review” (3.1%), “case study” (2.2%), and “meta-analysis” (2%) remained the top three methods mentioned in the journal article titles, just like in previous years., followed by “literature review” (1.5%) and “systematic literature” (1.1%; see Table 2 for details). Rather than assuming that these methods were more prevalent, we recognized that researchers commonly mention these particular methods in their titles, whereas other methods are generally mentioned only in the abstract or in the body of an article. Bigram analyses of abstracts confirmed this notion, suggesting a broader coverage of distinct research approaches, such as “mixed method,” “quasi-experimental,” “randomly assigned,” “pre-post,” “systematic review,” and “meta-analysis.” Amongst the methods, bigrams “mixed method” and “quasi-experimental” occupied the leading position in journal abstracts, each carrying an equal percentage of 4.6%, whereas “systematic review” and “meta-analysis” scored 2.3% and 1.8%, respectively. These results suggested that in 2022 EdTech articles with primary data sources were published more frequently than articles using secondary data sources, although secondary data methods were more frequently mentioned in the article titles. Moreover, quantitative components (e.g., “test,” “experiment,” and “survey”) were found more frequently than qualitative components (e.g., “interview” and “qualitative”) in the 2022 EdTech journal article abstracts. Finally, several specific methods that frequently appeared in the article abstracts included “structure equation,” “thematic analysis,” “equation modeling,” “network analysis,” “data mining,” and “cluster analysis.”

When we looked at modality types, we saw that, similarly to 2021, “online learning” (3.5%) and “virtual reality” (2.7%) were the most referenced modalities mentioned in EdTech journal titles (Table 2 ). In abstracts, the occurrence of “virtual reality,” “online learning,” and “online courses” were far more common than “emergency remote” learning, clearly indicating a post-pandemic adoption of online technologies and an end of pandemic-related emergency remote learning research. Finally, the analysis of topics revealed that “computational thinking” (2.8%) and “learning environments” (2.8%) were the most-referenced bigrams in journal titles (Table 2 ). In the abstracts, the keyword “science” was used 33.9% and “language” 14.6% implying research focus in these content areas. Another noteworthy trend in the topic analysis of article abstracts was the popularity of terms related to Open Educational Resources (OER), specifically, the frequent use of terms such as “creative commons” and “cc license.”

What Were the Trending #EdTech Topics and Tools on Twitter in 2022?

We also continued to analyze trending #EdTech topics on Twitter (cf., Kimmons et al., 2021 ; Kimmons & Rosenberg, 2022 ). In 2022, #EdTech continued to be popular, and its analysis provided a window into relevant conversations, resources, and ideas that researchers and practitioners shared. We collected all English-language original tweets using the hashtag #EdTech for 2022. This included 478,269 original tweets (ignoring retweets) posted by 35,789 authors, which was 39,856 average monthly tweets. This indicated a 10.43% growth in #edtech original tweets (45,191) and average tweets (3766) from 2021, whereas the number of authors declined by 12.21% (4978; cf. Table  3 ).

The increase in total tweets indicated continuous popularity of the #edtech affinity space in general. The growth in tweets despite declining authorship suggested that the loyal authors increased their activity. Decreases in authorship could be connected to the general Twitter struggle to keep its most active users (Dang, 2022 ), but it could also be connected to uncertainties brought on by changes in Twitter ownership. Some users might have become more hesitant tweeters, fearing and anticipating changes in the platform’s nature and culture. Others may have abandoned the platform completely for more deeply-rooted reasons (Sweney, 2022 ). In the future, changes in Twitter ownership may even impact this report. Shifts in the platform’s business model may make data collection less feasible and analyzed information may become less useful.

We also looked at the most popular #EdTech co-occurring hashtags in two categories: audience and topics (see Table  4 ). #edchat remained the most popular co-occurring hashtag in the audience category. Other top hashtags from 2021 representing audience, such as #edutwitter, #teachers, #edtechchat, #students, #highered, and #k12, remained in the top 10 but slightly changed ranking. Interestingly, many top co-occurring hashtags (#edchat, #highered, #k12, #school, #highereducation) experienced at least a 15% reduction in the number of tweets and at least a 20% decrease in authorship. Another noteworthy trend is the appearance of more specialized, audience-related hashtags, such as #homeschool, #homeschooling, #suptchat, and #iste, in the top 50. Such differentiation in hashtag usage may reflect evolving users’ needs and desires (Kimmons & Veletsianos, 2016 ; Veletsianos, 2017 ).

The most popular topic by number of tweets in 2022 was #byjus, a hashtag associated with an educational technology company from India. In spite of its popularity (108,794 or 22.75% of all #edtech tweets), the low diversity score (0.62%) indicated that this hashtag was used by relatively few accounts at high frequencies, likely a result of focused marketing campaigns. This points to the fact that the Twitter space, and #edtech space in particular, can be unduly influenced by corporate influences and marketing. To keep these outliers from our dataset, we determined popularity first through sorting by number of users, then we sorted the top 200 by number of tweets.

We saw similar trends in co-occurring topics. The top ten topics slightly changed order but remained popular overall. The top two hashtags, #education and #learning, remained top ranking, but both experienced a significant loss of total tweets and number of authors. Other top hashtags, such as #technology, #stem, #teaching, and #innovation, had both fewer tweets and fewer authors. The exception was #ai, which had 2908 (25.7%) more tweets despite 484 (22.9%) fewer authors. This may not be a surprising trend as #ai has been gaining popularity in recent years. Other hashtags, such as #artificialintelligence, #machinelearning, #ML, and #mlearning, also appeared in the list. We can probably anticipate a sharp rise in this subgroup’s activity, including #chatGTP and related hashtags, in the #EdTech space in 2023.

As with the audience co-occurring hashtags, there was a clear pattern of emerging specialized topic-related hashtags that modified previously popular ones. For example, the popular term #stem evolved to include #steam, #stemeducation, #stemed, and #womeninstem appearing in the top 100. This differentiation and increased related hashtag usage could be one reason for decreased tweet count for top hashtags in 2022: greater specialization yields lower numbers in the general tags. Users gravitated to related, more specialized hashtags to create more focused dialogic spaces. Additionally, looking at the overall trends in both the audience and topic co-occurring hashtags, we noticed that diversity (#dei, #inclusion, #diversity, #quality, #equity), women (#womenintech, #womeninstem, #womenempowerment), and English language learning (#esl, #tefl, #efl, #elt, #tesol) became increasingly important in the #EdTech space. This specific type of differentiation may reflect the rising importance of these issues to the audience.

Another important trend in the #EdTech space this year was related to COVID-19 hashtags. In 2020, the most popular co-occurring hashtags after #education and #edchat were #remotelearning, #onlinelearning, #elearning, and #distancelearning, making up 11.47% (15,114 tweets by 4600 authors). These hashtags remained very popular in 2021, and together with #virtuallearning, #blendedlearning, #onlineeducation, and #digitallearning made up 16.10% (69,737 tweets by 10,611 authors) of #EdTech, while dropping to a mere 9% (43,034 tweets by 5910 authors) in 2022 (see Fig.  1 ). Clearly, conversations on Twitter paralleled a shift in perspective as we transitioned from the pandemic years. Of note, #elearning and #onlinelearning remained relatively popular (31,029 tweets or 72.1% of the 2022 subset). These two hashtags are more general and may represent the post-pandemic transition into accepting online learning environments and digital courseware (Seaman & Seaman, 2022a ). On the other hand, #remotelearning and #distancelearning, hashtags closely tied to COVID-19 emergency learning, significantly decreased in usage (76.6% and 69.2%, respectively) in 2022.

COVID-19 Related Tweets in the #EdTech Affinity Space

Our #EdTech tweet analysis also examined attached external links. We found that 454,258 (95.0%) tweets included either an external link or an embedded media item (e.g., an image). Similarly, as in the past, prominent external links included news sites ( edsurge.com , edtechmagazine.com , eschoolnews.com ), specifically those connected to India ( timesofindia.indiatimes.com , financialexpress.com , and indiaeducationadiary.com ). Multimedia resources ( youtube.com ), file-sharing platforms ( drive.google.com ), and other social media ( linkedin.com ) links were also among the most common external links. Noteworthy among the top shared external links is the increased popularity of links to learning resource sites, such as oodlu.org , shakeuplearning.com , ilearn2.co.uk , and freetech4teachers.com .

What Were Trending Topics among School and School District Facebook Groups in 2022?

To understand which technologies were shared on school and district Facebook pages, we examined the domain names for all the hyperlinks posted by 16,309 publicly accessible pages. To carry out this analysis, we searched the homepages of all of the schools and school districts in the U.S. for links to Facebook pages. We then uploaded the links to Facebook pages we found to the CrowdTangle platform Footnote 1 to access publicly available posts for 2020–2022 and identified the domains of websites linked within schools’ and districts’ posts; more information on the data collection approach is provided in Rosenberg et al. ( 2022 ). The ten most-shared domains broken down by year (2020, 2021, and 2022) are presented in Table  5 . The n represents the number of schools or districts sharing one or more links to these domains, and the percentage is the proportion of pages sharing one or more links that year. Thus, 9705 is the frequency with which links to YouTube were shared in 2020, and the percentage indicates that 60% of schools and districts with publicly accessible Facebook pages posted one or more links to YouTube over the year.

Looking across the years, we found that domains shared were largely consistent, with Google services—YouTube, Google Docs, and Google Drive—being the most shared in 2020, 2021, and 2022. We note that a greater proportion of districts shared links to YouTube in 2020 than in 2021 and 2022, possibly due to fewer activities being recorded and shared during the months following the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically, late 2019 and early 2020. After Google services, links to Zoom were commonly shared the fourth-most across all three years, though the number of districts sharing Zoom links decreased from 26% in 2020 and 21% in 2021 to 11% in 2022—like fewer links to YouTube, a suggestion that districts were carrying out fewer activities remotely. Links to the CDC were the eighth-most shared in 2020, but such links were not in the top ten in 2021 and 2022. Apart from these, the domains shared were similar in makeup and frequency across years, showing the importance of tools for carrying out digital work and productivity as well as tools to facilitate event sign-ups (SignUpGenius), school-parent communication (Smore), and book and sports ticket sales (Scholastic and GoFan).

What Were Trends in EdTech Open Educational Resources (OER) in 2022?

In addition to Scopus and social media trends, we also examined an EdTech-focused Open Educational Resource (OER) platform EdTech Books ( https://edtechbooks.org ). OER are “teaching, learning, and research materials that reside in the public domain or have been released under an open license that permits their free use and re-purposing by others” (Creative Commons, 2020 ). OER can take various forms and sizes, including textbooks, lessons, courses, learning activities, assessments, technologies, syllabi, images, presentations, videos, and graphics. Being ‘open’ means that OER are freely accessible to anyone with internet access and can be retained, reused, redistributed, revised, and remixed as needed (Wiley, n.d. ), providing significant opportunities for improving “the quality and affordability of education for learners everywhere” (Wiley & Hilton, 2018 , p. 144). Research has repeatedly shown that OER quality is comparable to commercial resources (Clinton & Khan, 2019 ; Kimmons, 2015 ), and their adoption does not negatively impact student learning (Hilton, 2016 ; Hilton, 2019 ) while saving students money (Clinton, 2018 ; Hilton, 2016 ; Ikahihifo et al., 2017 ) and providing a variety of other benefits (Kimmons, 2016 ).

Though a shift to OER over the years has been slower than many would like (Seaman & Seaman, 2022b ), and research on adoption patterns is problematized by an absence of central controlling agencies and systems, the field of educational technology may be somewhat ahead of the curve when compared to many other fields (cf., Rosenberg, 2023 ). The emergence of OER platforms like EdTech Books, Pressbooks, and LibreTexts supports this notion. For this year’s OER analysis, we selected EdTech Books as the authors are most familiar with this platform and have ready access to data. We believe that as an EdTech-focused platform, EdTech Books analytics may provide valuable insights into user behavior and how OER are developed, adopted, and used in our field.

In 2022, ETB provided free OER to more than 1.4 million users worldwide. A perusal of the most popular books or journal issues (Table  6 ), chapters (Table  7 ), and search terms revealed that readers seemed to be drawn to these resources when they were seeking information on broad theoretical aspects of educational technology (e.g., cognitivism, constructivism, sociocultural theory), technology-specific guidance (e.g., how to use Blooket, MySQL, or Photopea), or research and evaluation materials (e.g., sampling procedures or survey design), and analysis of end-of-chapter quality assurance ratings (similar to e-commerce five-star reviews) revealed that readers generally found the provided OER to be “High Quality” (3.0 = “Moderate Quality,” 4.0 = “High Quality,” 5.0 = “Very High Quality”).

Some of these works were peer-reviewed, while others were not. Some chapters and books were authored by professional scholars, while others were authored by students as part of open pedagogical learning projects (cf. Casey et al., 2023 ). Notably, some of the most-used and highest-quality OER in EdTech Books were authored by students or were published without peer review. This trend suggests the need to rethink peer reviews as a sole indicator of quality (Woodward et al., 2017 ; Kimmons, 2015 ), potentially including triangulation of data points, such as quality assurance ratings, citations and dissemination rates, times remixed, accessibility, usefulness, and prestige of adopting organizations.

Additionally, one of the stated goals of EdTech Books (and OER more broadly) is to improve access to learning opportunities for people all over the world. Analysis of readers’ country of origin and device type (Fig. 2 ) revealed that EdTech Books resources were heavily used throughout the world and accessed on a variety of devices. The top users of the site were the United States (33.8%), the Philippines (16.6%), and India (6.7%), with each other country accounting for 2.7% or less of total traffic. Moreover, more than one-third of users accessed resources on mobile devices, underscoring the importance of mobile-first design when creating OER because, in many countries, mobile devices with limited internet access are the norm for online-enabled learning.

Most Common Countries and Device Types of ETB Users for 2022

Summary and Discussion

The analysis of 2022 edtech-related data from Scopus, Twitter, Facebook, and EdTech Books provided triangulated snapshots of the state of the educational technology field in 2022. Additionally, comparisons of the 2022 data trends to trends from previous years afforded additional insights into developments, directions, and shifts as the EdTech field responds to past and current events. We observed several noteworthy patterns, such as the general stability of trends in the field, specific post-pandemic shifts, the maturation of specialized topics, and emerging areas of interest. We hope that researchers and practitioners find the overall trends useful and those focusing on specific areas find the more detailed analyses of topics and terms helpful.

First, we found that the overall patterns across the platforms remained similar to previous years. The emphasis remained on “e-learning” and “online learning” in Scopus and on Twitter and Facebook. We continued to see a keen interest in emergent technologies, such as artificial intelligence and virtual/augmented reality, in Scopus data and on Twitter. It is possible that these topics are not as frequently mentioned on school and district Facebook pages because they serve a different communication function than Twitter and Scopus (schools-to-families vs. scholars-to-scholars). Rather than exchanging the latest technology ideas and tips among researchers and practitioners, school and district Facebook pages serve as a day-to-day communication tool and an information hub between schools (teachers and administrators) and families (students and parents). As in previous years, the school and school district Facebook page analysis and the Twitter external link analysis highlighted the continuous predominance of digital services by a single tech company: Google. Indeed, tools such as YouTube, Google Docs, and Google Drive have been widely adopted and have become intrinsic to any technology-related activities.

Second, not surprisingly, the analysis revealed a strong post-pandemic shift across the data on all three platforms: Scopus, Twitter, and Facebook. The Twitter data analysis suggested a sharp decline in COVID-19-related terms usage, including technology terms like “remote teaching.” Facebook data clearly indicated a shift from remote learning (a decline in remote technology use) to in-person activities (an increase in sports and events). Despite this shift, we saw increased references to online and hybrid learning across all three platforms, suggesting more ubiquitous use of these technologies and practices within existing educational systems as a supplement rather than a wholesale replacement (e.g., Seaman & Seaman, 2022a , b ). Additionally, the appearance of “COVID-19,” “online learning,” and “during COVID” bigrams in Scopus data suggested that researchers are still reporting on EdTech activities during the pandemic.

Third, among other trends, Twitter data analysis suggested the maturation and specialization of topics reflective of evolving users’ needs and desires. Many popular hashtags remained at the top in 2022. However, the number of their tweets dropped, and new, yet related hashtags noticeably appeared at the top. For example, #stem evolved to include #steam, #stemeducation, #stemed, and #womeninstem. Such development suggests users’ understanding of hashtag functionality and responsiveness to the dynamic social media landscape. As hashtags become popular and mature, they may lose their differentiating power, and users start coining related hashtags to create more specialized spaces. As a related trend, we saw the emergence of diversity, women, and English language learning hashtags on Twitter this year, possibly suggesting that these issues are becoming increasingly important to the EdTech community.

In response to the commentaries from previous editorials, this year’s analysis indicates that many technology-related changes initiated during the pandemic may influence longer-term shifts, such as the increased interest in and normalization of online and blended learning. In addition, our OER analysis suggests that there is an appetite for resources to support both theoretical and practical work in educational technology and that the quality of resources available to professionals at all levels may be indicated by a variety of emergent methods beyond historic reliance on peer review and expertise (e.g., consider the widespread use and perceived quality of student-generated OER). As educational technology professionals grapple with this new reality in a world that increasingly requires focused guidance for our professionals worldwide, we should continue to move the field in directions that are responsive to the needs of a global educational technology community, in terms of topics, resources, contexts, formats, and accessibility.

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Allman, B., Kimmons, R., Rosenberg, J. et al. Trends and Topics in Educational Technology, 2023 Edition. TechTrends 67 , 583–591 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-023-00840-2

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SYSTEMATIC REVIEW article

Positive psychology: looking back and looking forward.

• Department of Psychology, Institute on Aging, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, United States

Envisioning the future of positive psychology (PP) requires looking at its past. To that end, I first review prior critiques of PP to underscore that certain early problems have persisted over time. I then selectively examine recent research to illustrate progress in certain areas as well as draw attention to recurrent problems. Key among them is promulgation of poorly constructed measures of well-being and reliance on homogeneous, privileged research samples. Another concern is the commercialization of PP, which points to the need for greater oversight and quality control in profit-seeking endeavors. Looking ahead, I advocate for future science tied to contemporary challenges, particularly ever-widening inequality and the pandemic. These constitute intersecting catastrophes that need scientific attention. Such problems bring into focus “neglected negatives” that may be fueling current difficulties, including greed, indifference, and stupidity. Anger, which defies easy characterization as positive or negative, also warrants greater scientific study. Going forward I advocate for greater study of domains that likely nurture good lives and just societies – namely, participation in the arts and encounters with nature, both currently under study. Overall, my entreaty to PP is to reckon with persistent problems from its past, while striving toward a future that is societally relevant and virtuous.

Introduction

I have studied psychological well-being for over 30 years ( Ryff, 1989 , 2014 , 2018 ), seeking to define its essential features as well as learn about factors that promote or undermine well-being and probe how it matters for health. I bring this past experience and expertise to thinking about positive psychology (PP), noting that I have never considered myself a positive psychologist, mostly because it has always seemed misguided to me to partition science by valence. Everything that interests me involves complex blends of good and bad things, what Rilke called the beauty and terror of life. With these ideas in mind, I reflect about the future of PP by first looking at its past to highlight what it has, or has not, contributed over the last two decades. My views represent personal observations from an outsider who, from the outset, was dubious about the point of launching the PP movement.

I begin with a look at early critiques, including my own, that distilled various concerns about the launching of PP. Some of those problems have endured, such as the failure to embrace the deeper history of psychology and related fields that have long addressed optimal human functioning. This distortion undermines the building of cumulative and coherent knowledge, while also contributes to insularity within PP. Additional past critiques, some from within PP, emphasized the need to put negative and positive experience together, as in dialectical approaches. I made similar points along the way. For this essay, I describe work outside the PP umbrella doing exactly that, drawing largely on the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) national longitudinal study 1 , which I have led over the past two decades.

Returning to PP, on the topic of scientific progress I highlight select contributions over the past 20 years, but again underscore that most of these topics predated PP. On the downside, two notable problems are discussed: (1) poorly constructed measures of well-being and problematic findings, which contradict the claim that PP rests on solid science; and (2) widespread use of homogeneous research samples (white, well-educated, Western) in PP, thereby ignoring how race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and culture matter for positive human functioning. Linked to these problems is widespread pursuit of financial profit, purportedly grounded in rigorous scientific findings. Such commercialization, illustrated by products and shopping carts on websites, makes clear that PP has become a major business. Money-making, I observe, is a strange counterpoint to the recurring emphasis on character strengths and virtue. Financial gain raises additional issues of ethical oversight and quality control in what is being sold.

Going forward, PP and the human sciences in general need to address contemporary societal problems. I focus on ever-widening inequality, now compounded by the pandemic. What we know is that the suffering is not occurring equally, but is happening disproportionately among those who were already vulnerable. These difficulties bring into high relief topics that psychology has largely neglected. Among pernicious negatives of our era that may be fueling the problems we see are greed and indifference, especially among the privileged, as well as stupidity, which seems to cut across educational strata. Anger is another important contemporary emotion that defies easy characterization as positive or negative. These topics stand in marked contrast to what PP was meant to correct – namely, the preoccupation with psychopathology, weakness and damage ( Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000 ).

Looking ahead, I examine factors that may be key in nourishing good lives and just societies, such as active engagement with the arts, broadly defined. Widespread initiatives are moving in this direction, though few emphasize the critical role of the arts in understanding human suffering, which I bring into high relief. A key question is whether great literature, music, poetry, painting, and film can activate caring and compassion, particularly among the advantaged. Encounters with nature constitute another domain for nourishing good lives, while also strengthening commitments to take care for our planet. I note currently unfolding work along these lines.

Looking Back

Early critiques of positive psychology.

Most cite Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) as the definitive statement of what PP was about and why it was needed. The essay began with the authors describing what led each of them to believe that psychology as a discipline was preoccupied with “pathology, weakness, and damage” (p. 7). These assertions were remarkably at odds with extensive literatures on the positive in clinical, developmental, existential, and humanistic psychology – decades of prior work, much of which I drew on to formulate an integrative model of psychological well-being ( Ryff, 1989 ). Instead, most of the foundational exegesis was devoted to describing the 15 articles that followed. All represented longstanding programs of research on such topics as evolution, subjective well-being, optimism, self-determination, maturity, health, wisdom, creativity, and giftedness. These realms were themselves notably at odds with the assertion that psychology was preoccupied with the negative, a point strangely missed by the founders of PP.

Three years later Psychological Inquiry published a target article titled “Does the Positive Psychology Movement Have Legs?” ( Lazarus, 2003 ), followed by numerous commentaries. Ryff (2003) found fault with many aspects of the Lazarus critique (e.g., subjectivism, dimensional versus discrete models of emotion, and cross-sectional research), most of which I clarified were not problems specific to PP. On the topic of emotion, however, I argued for joint focus on negative and positive emotions because “…bad things happen to people, and the healthy response is to feel the sadness, pain, frustration, fear, disappointment, anger, or shame resulting from the adverse experience. However, good things also happen to people, and the healthy response is to feel joy, pride, love, affection, pleasure, or contentment from such experience positive experiences. Thus, the capacity for experiencing and expressing both realms of emotion is central to healthy functioning.” (p. 154).

The unsatisfactory Lazarus critique meant that the central strengths and limitations of PP had not been addressed. On the credit side of the ledger, I praised the special issue for bringing together in the same forum research programs that addressed positive, healthy, adaptive features of human functioning, but underscored that everything assembled came from longstanding programs of prior research. Nothing meant to exemplify this new movement was new : “This myopia about past and present is damaging not for the superficial reason of taking credit for advances already contributed by others but for more serious problems of increasing the likelihood of reinventing wheels, both conceptual and empirical, such that science fails to be incremental and cumulative” ( Ryff, 2003 , p. 155).

To illustrate historical precursors, I drew on Coan’s (1977) Hero, Artist, Sage, or Saint. It described centuries of scholarly efforts to depict the more noble attributes of humankind, such as the ancient Greeks’ emphasis on reason and rationality, St. Augustine’s emphasis on close contact with the divine, the Renaissance emphasis on creative self-expression, and the poets and philosophers of the Enlightenment. I also noted James (1902/1958) eloquent writings about healthy-mindedness juxtaposed with the sick soul, along with others who formulated individuation ( Jung, 1933 ; Von Franz, 1964 ), ego development ( Erikson, 1959 ), maturity ( Allport, 1961 ), self-actualization ( Maslow, 1968 ), the fully functioning person ( Rogers, 1961 ), and positive mental health ( Jahoda, 1958 ).

My own work on well-being ( Ryff, 1989 ) had drawn extensively on these sources, while Ryan and Deci’s (2001) review of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being distilled other philosophical precursors. I noted other contributions on positive topics, such as studies of ego development ( Loevinger, 1976 ), adult personality development ( Helson and Srivastava, 2001 ), generativity ( McAdams and St. Aubin, 1998 ), the human quest for meaning ( Wong and Fry, 1998 ), effective coping and self-regulation ( Carver and Scheier, 1998 ), and proliferating research on human resilience and post-traumatic growth ( Tedeschi et al., 1998 ; Luthar et al., 2000 ). My point: “Taken as a whole, this impressive array of current and past research on the upside of human condition leaves one wondering what all the fanfare has been about. Positive psychology is alive and well, and it most assuredly has legs, which stretch back into the distant history of the discipline. It is only from particular vantage points, such as clinical or abnormal psychology that the positive focus constitutes a novelty. For other subfields, especially life-span developmental and personality psychology, there has always been a concern for healthy, optimal human functioning. Perhaps the main message in the positive psychology initiative is thus how deeply entrenched and divided are the subfields within which psychologists work” ( Ryff, 2003 , p. 157). Unfortunately, this failure to consider relevant wider literatures has persisted through time. More than a decade later, the positive in PP was defined entirely from “Three Foundational Documents” ( Pawelski, 2016 ), which included Seligman (1999) and Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) , and an unpublished paper from a 2000 conference in Akumal, Mexico organized by Seligman. Effectively, all meanings of the positive in PP emanated from its founder, thus more deeply entrenching the historical myopia.

My 2003 essay concluded with a call for psychology to organize its house of strengths and to be circumspect about generating new assessments: “Those who would add to the many tools already available need to be clear that they are not contributing to clutter – that is, generating instruments that are redundant with extant measures.” (p. 157). The concern went unheeded, as I detail later.

Calls to Put Negative and Positive Realms Together

Wong (2011) advocated for a balanced and interactive model of the good life: “the development of character strengths and resilience may benefit from prior experience of having overcome negative conditions” (p. 70). The call to maximize positive affect and minimize negative affect could also create a “happy person as a well-defended fortress, invulnerable to the vicissitudes of life” ( King, 2001 , p. 53). New to the discourse, Wong called for a balance between individualist and collectivist orientations, thereby signaling the need to address cultural issues. Similarly, Lomas and Ivtzan (2016) called for second wave positive psychology to recognize the insufficiency of the admonition of first wave PP to go beyond a psychology preoccupied with disorder and dysfunction. Negative states could be conducive to flourishing, calling again for recognition of the dialectical nature of wellbeing. Five dichotomies were examined: optimism versus pessimism, self-esteem versus humility, freedom versus restriction, forgiveness versus anger, and happiness versus sadness. Within each, the value of both sides was described. These ideas aligned with other prior work, such as Carver and Scheier’s (2003) observation that doubt and disengagement play critical roles alongside commitment and confidence as well as Larsen et al. (2003) emphasis on co-activation of positive and negative emotions that allow individuals to make sense of stressors and gain mastery over them.

At the 6th European Conference on PP in Moscow, I spoke about “Contradiction at the Core of the Positive Psychology Movement: The Essential Role of the Negative in Adaptive Human Functioning” ( Ryff, 2012 ), beginning with a quote from Dostoyevsky’s Notes From the Underground: “And why are you so firmly and triumphantly certain that only what is normal and positive – in short, only well-being is good for man? Is reason mistaken about what is good? After all perhaps prosperity isn’t the only thing that pleases mankind. Perhaps he is just as attracted to suffering. Perhaps suffering is just as good to him as prosperity.” I then drew on Mill’s (1893/1989) Autobiography: “Those only are happy, I thought, who have their minds fixed on some object other than their own happiness, on the happiness of others, on the improvement of mankind, even on some art or pursuit, followed not as a means, but as itself an ideal end. Aiming thus as something else, they find happiness by the way.”

Arguing that psychology should not be partitioned by valence because all lives encompass both positives and negatives, I provided three examples of how they might come together. In the first, the positive is construed as an antidote to the negative, such as how positive emotions can help undo negative emotions ( Fredrickson, 1998 ), or how psychological well-being can help prevent relapse of depression or anxiety ( Fava et al., 1998 ; Ruini and Fava, 2009 ). In the second, the negative is seen as the route or path to the positive, as in trauma contributing to personal growth ( Tedeschi et al., 1998 ), or the expression of negative emotion fostering relational intimacy ( Reis, 2001 ), or the expression of negative emotion in childhood contributing, via skilled parenting, to emotional development ( Gottman, 2001 ). In the third, the positive and negative emotions are inextricably linked, such that embedded within every negative is a positive and within every positive is a negative. This dialectical perspective is more common in interdependent cultural contexts, with our findings ( Miyamoto and Ryff, 2011 ) showing that Japanese adults report experiencing both positive and negative affect, whereas United States adults report mostly positive affect. The dialectical emotional style was also linked with better health (fewer physical symptoms) in Japan compared to the United States.

Around the same time, McNulty and Fincham (2012) issued an important new challenge to PP: to consider that psychological traits and processes are not inherently positive or negative, but can be either depending on the context in which they occur. This insight was illustrated with interpersonal research (longitudinal studies of marital partners). Four putatively positive processes (forgiveness, optimism, benevolent attributions, and kindness) were shown to be beneficial, or harmful, depending on the context in which they occurred. For example, whether forgiveness was linked with self-respect differed by levels of agreeableness of one’s partner. Martial satisfaction over time also varied depending on whether attributions for spouses’ undesirable behaviors were more or less benevolent. This work, including numerous other examples, offered compelling evidence that simplistic characterizations of phenomena as positive or negative are misguided.

Integrative Work Outside the Positive Psychology Umbrella

Extensive research not part of PP has brought negative and positive aspects of human experience together. To illustrate, I describe select findings from the MIDUS (Midlife in the United States) national longitudinal study (see text Footnote 1), which is based on diverse probability samples, thereby facilitating analyses of how well-being and health vary by age, race, gender, and socioeconomic status. A counterpart study in Japan (MIDJA) has illuminated cultural differences in well-being and health. MIDUS has unprecedented depth in high quality measures of hedonic well-being (life satisfaction, positive, and negative affect), eudaimonic well-being (autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance), optimism, sense of control, personality traits, generativity, social responsibility, and social ties with spouse/significant other as well as parents during childhood. Deeply multidisciplinary in scope, MIDUS has facilitated linkage of all of the above variables to epidemiology, biology, neuroscience, and genetics. Most importantly, MIDUS data are publicly available and are widely used by scientists around the world.

Many findings have combined positive and negatives. For example, Morozink et al. (2010) showed that those with lower educational attainment had elevated levels of IL-6 (interleukin-6, an inflammatory marker implicated in numerous diseases) but higher psychological well-being buffered against such effects. Miller et al. (2011) showed that those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds had increased risk for metabolic syndrome in adulthood, but maternal nurturance buffered such risk. Resilience findings (see Ryff et al., 2012 ) showing that positive psychosocial factors afforded protection against poor health and physiological dysregulation in the face of various challenges (aging, inequality, early life adversity, cancer, loss of spouse). Breaking new ground, multiple studies have documented that higher purpose in life predicts increased length of life and better health behaviors ( Ryff and Kim, 2020 ). Regarding underlying mechanisms, Heller et al. (2013) showed that sustained activation of reward circuitry in the brain predicted higher eudaimonic well-being as well as better diurnal regulation of cortisol. Personality researchers have studied “healthy neuroticism,” with findings from multiple international studies showing that neuroticism is less strongly linked with poor health behaviors (smoking, inactivity) among those who are high in conscientiousness ( Graham et al., 2020 ).

With regard to race, MIDUS has advanced knowledge of the Black-White paradox in health ( Keyes, 2009 ) – i.e., despite inequality and discrimination, Blacks show higher levels of flourishing and lower levels of mental disorders than Whites. Keyes (2005 , 2007) also revealed neglected types of mental health in the general population by jointly examining mental distress (depression and anxiety) and well-being (emotion, psychological, and social). In contrast to those who are flourishing (high well-being and no mental distress) are those who are languishing, defined as not suffering from mental distress but having low well-being. Declining well-being over time also predicted increased subsequent risk of mental distress ( Keyes et al., 2010 ), while positive mental health predicted subsequent recovery from mental illness ( Iasiello et al., 2019 ). Space does not permit the details, but many findings from MIDUS and MIDJA have documented cultural differences in how emotion and well-being matter for health and biological risk ( Miyamoto and Ryff, 2021 ).

To reiterate, I include the above glimpse at MIDUS research is to underscore the need for greater interplay and exchange between the field of PP and much parallel science being done by those who do not view themselves as positive psychologists and are not publishing in journals aligned with PP or happiness.

Recent Work in Positive Psychology

This section first below examines select areas of research that represent forward progress of PP over the past two decades. Then I note recent evaluative overviews of PP from those within the field. Some of their concerns are elaborated in the next sections on what I see as problems within PP science: first, the promulgation of poor instruments for assessing well-being, and second, the reliance on largely privileged, homogeneous samples for conducting PP research.

Forward Empirical Progress

Whether the science of PP is moving constructively forward can examined in various ways. Rather than conduct a systematic review of empirical findings, I choose to focus on chapter-writing, mostly from 3rd Edition of the Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology ( Snyder et al., 2021 ). Unlike journal articles, chapters allow authors to combine many advances on particular topics over time thereby offering a narrative overview of multiple findings. The book includes 68 chapters written by 153 authors, 86% of whom were from the United States.

In the study of emotion, multiple lines of progress are evident. The broaden and build theory continues to evolve by showing short- and long-term benefits of positive emotions in multiple domains, including thoughts, actions, stress, health, physiological and neurological connections ( Tugade et al., 2021 ). Studies of positive affectivity, a trait composed of different components (joviality, self-assurance, and attentiveness) have also progressed via linkages to other constructs (extraversion, happiness, and well-being) as well as psychological disorders, health, marital and job satisfaction, and cultural issues ( Naragon-Gainey and Watson, 2021 ). Positive affect has been linked to longer life, lower incidence of disease, better recovery from disease and better overall health ( Hunter et al., 2021 ), with calls for further work on mechanisms, culture, and technology. The emotional approach to coping (EAC) shows evidence on the intentional use of emotional processing and expression to manage adverse circumstances, such as infertility, sexual assault, diabetes, cancer ( Moreno et al., 2021 ), while calling for more work on interventions, including who benefits (which contexts).

Happiness studies have examined ways in which happy and unhappy people respond to social comparisons, make decisions, and reflect ( Boehm et al., 2021 ), along with strategies (experiments and activities) to improve happiness and formulation of underlying mechanisms. Veenhoven (2021) reviewed differences in happiness across nations and linked them to important questions about what governments can or cannot do to raise levels of happiness, thus reaching toward issues of public policy. A unified model of meaning in life was advanced, underscoring the need for conceptual integration in this growing area of science ( Steger, 2021 ). Positive aging was covered via multiple positive formulations that have been extensively studied, in some cases with interventions ( Nakamura and Chan, 2021 ).

Shifting to life outlooks, how the future is construed was covered with work on optimism showing that those who expect good things to occur have higher well-being, better health, and higher quality social ties, partly attributable to how they cope with adversity ( Mens et al., 2021 ). Detrimental consequences of hope were considered, while calling for greater work on the origins of hope and cultural issues. Hope, defined as the perceived ability to achieve desired goals via pathways and agency, was examined with a goal pursuit process model and linked to academic and athletic performance, health and well-being, social relationships, and work ( Rand and Touza, 2021 ). Resilience, the capacity for positive adaptation in the face of significant adversity, was examined in models that illuminated self-regulation skills, good parenting, community resources and effective schools ( Cutuli et al., 2021 ). Strategies for reducing risk, building strengths and mobilizing adaptive systems were future directions.

Positive mental health was covered with a thoughtful historical perspective and overview of current conceptualizations and measures ( Delle Fava and Negri, 2021 ), examined from life course and cultural perspectives. Illustrating methodological novelty, Tarragona (2021) considered the benefits of personal narratives and expressive writing on mental health and physical health (immune function and cardiovascular health), particularly in the context of trauma. Dominant approaches to mental health interventions (psychotherapy, counseling, and coaching) were examined for commonalities and differences in time perspectives, therapeutic strategies and recipients ( Ruini and Marques, 2021 ), while emphasizing the need for professional regulation and oversight.

Several chapters covered interpersonal themes. Attachment theory was presented as a framework for studying positive relationships ( Mikulincer and Shaver, 2021 ) via links between mental representations of attachment security and how they matter for diverse outcomes (health, social adjustment or interpersonal conflict, and personal growth). Relationship complexities were examined, underscoring both meaningful rewards and substantial risks of close social ties ( Gable and Maisel, 2021 ). They highlighted positive processes, involving positive emotions, intimacy, growth of self-concept, and benefits of sharing positive events. Past research on empathy was reviewed and emerging work on the neuroscience of empathy described ( Duan and Sager, 2021 ). How empathy relates to racial/ethnic diversity, multiculturalism, and social justice were future directions. Forgiveness was described in terms of the methods used and the differentiation of various antecedents, some intrapersonal (empathy, personality, attributions, and religion) and others interpersonal (closeness and conciliatory behavior) ( Tsang and Martin, 2021 ). Whether forgiveness is uniformly positive was considered.

Pawelski and Tay’s (2021) described efforts to connect PP to the humanities through new conceptual analyses and various interventions. Silvia and Kashdan (2021) examined curiosity and interest, framed as recognizing, seeking out, and preferring things outside one’s normal experience. How these tendencies matter for well-being is under study in the laboratory and everyday life. Courage, defined as facing personal risks in pursuit of worthy goals, was examined historically and via modern theory and measurement tools focused on volition, goals, and risk ( Pury et al., 2021 ). Humility, formulated as accurate and modest self-presentation and being other-oriented, showed steady progress in empirical findings from 2000 to 2015 ( Worthington et al., 2021 ).

In sum, considerable evidence reveals forward progress on important topics in PP. Even though most areas of inquiry predated PP, it is useful to bring such contributions together to convey the range and diversity of topics on adaptive human functioning. At the same time, several chapters in the collection were not current in coverage, and some had a paucity of empirical findings. All ended with future questions. An interesting question is whether these have evolved over the past 20 years, or are largely similar to where the field was back then. Before addressing problematic areas of PP science, I next examine evaluative reviews from within the PP field.

Overarching Concerns About Positive Psychology

Lomas et al. (2021) call for PP to broaden toward complexity – go beyond the individual toward analysis of groups, organizations, and broader systems as well as to embrace diverse methodologies. Better understanding of context (historical, social, cultural, and institutional) was also emphasized. Contextual approaches were illustrated with positive organizational scholarship ( Cameron et al., 2003 ), positive educational approaches in schools ( Waters et al., 2010 ), and family-centered positive psychology ( Sheridan et al., 2004 ; Henry et al., 2015 ). Lomas et al. (2021) called for greater ethical oversight of the ever-expanding cadre of PP practitioners from applied programs: “…unless practitioners are affiliated to a particular profession, they may be operating outside the advice and provisions of any set of ethical guidelines” (p. 16).

Kern et al. (2020) contrasted the rapid growth of PP with concern about exaggerated claims, inflated expectations, disillusionment, and possibly, unintentional harms. Issues of over-promising and under-delivering in programs with individuals, schools, the workplace, and communities were noted. To help the field mature, they advocated for systems informed PP, which would clarify epistemological, political, and ethical assumptions and commitments. The implications of such ideas for research and practice were examined.

van Zyl (2022) reviewed criticisms and concerns about PP, including the lack of a unifying metatheory that underpins the science as well as fundamental ideas for how positive psychological phenomena should be researched. Related criticisms were that PP has borrowed most of its theories from social, behavioral and cognitive psychology, thereby advancing few of its own unique perspectives. There is the problem of terminological confusion – e.g., using terms like flourishing or well-being interchangeably when operationalizations of them are notably different, or failing to recognize the possible overlap among putatively distinct topics, such as grit, conscientiousness, or diligence. Inconsistency in the factorial structures of various measurement models is a further problem. The fact that most PP has failed to produce significant or sustainable changes was noted, along with its cultural (Western) biases.

Taken together, I agree with most of the above assessments and further illustrate them below.

Problems in Positive Psychology Science: Flawed Conceptualization and Measurement of Well-Being

I bring my expertise in the study of psychological well-being to how some have approached this topic in PP. As noted above, I foresaw problems of measurement clutter at the dawning of PP ( Ryff, 2003 ). My prediction was prescient and needs attention, given growing interest in the measurement of well-being across scientific disciplines. A recent edited volume ( Lee et al., 2021 ) included scrutiny of multiple measurement approaches along with an animated exchange among contributors ( Ryff et al., 2021a , b ; VanderWeele et al., 2021a , b ) on the pluses and minuses of various assessment strategies. What came into high relief was concern about the proliferation of thin, poorly validated measures that are undermining quality science in the study of well-being.

Although not considered in the above volume, Seligman and his collaborators have contributed to this problem. I offer two examples of the promulgation of poorly constructed and poorly validated measures of well-being that are at odds with claims that PP rests on rigorous science. A first study ( Seligman et al., 2005 ) sought to validate five different interventions (gratitude visit, three good things, you at your best, using signature strengths in a new way, and identifying signature strengths). Internet-based samples were recruited through the authentic happiness website 2 ; most participants were white and highly educated.

All completed baseline assessments and five follow-up assessments over a 6-month period after completion of the intervention assignment. As a general observation, the findings were overstated – most comparisons between the control group and intervention groups were not significantly different across time, nor was there coherence in when such effects were evident. There was also insufficient attention given to pre–post comparisons, which are central for demonstrating intervention effectiveness. My primary focus, however, is on the outcomes assessed – specifically, the measure of happiness.

Described as “scientifically unwieldy” (p. 413) happiness was “dissolved” into three distinct components: “(a) positive emotion and pleasure (the pleasant life), (b) engagement (the engaged life), and (c) meaning (the meaningful life).” I note the redundancy in defining each component. The source for this tripartite formulation was Seligman’s (2002) trade book, Authentic Happiness , which was operationalized with the Steen Happiness Index (SHI), an unpublished 20-item inventory. No evidence was provided that the inventory measures three distinct components of well-being, nor is it likely such evidence could be assembled. Many items lack face validity – i.e., they pertained to other constructs, such as optimism, positive self-regard, frustration, energy, social connection, making good choices. Adding to the befuddlement was this statement: “We continue to use the word happiness, but only in the atheoretical sense of labeling the overall aim of the positive psychology endeavor and referring jointly to positive emotion, engagement, and meaning” (p. 413). All analyses focused the atheoretical construct of happiness – i.e., the component parts were nowhere to be seen.

Next came PERMA, defined by Seligman (2011) in Flourish , another popular book. Added to the prior components of positive emotion, engagement, and meaning, were now two additional components: relationships and accomplishment. Again, none were explicitly defined, nor was the pronouncement about what happiness entails theoretically grounded in anything , nor was it linked with the extensive prior empirical literatures on subjective and psychological well-being as well as research on positive emotions (exemplified by the diverse MIDUS measures). Such obliviousness to what the field had been investigating for decades made inevitable that there would be redundancy with already validated approaches and assessment tools. Such duplication became a certainty given how PERMA was operationalized – namely, by taking items from prior instruments ( Butler, 2011 ). These were transformed into the PERMA-Profiler ( Butler and Kern, 2016 ) via multiple studies (none clearly defined) involving a large samples recruited mostly through online systems; most participants were well-educated.

Missing from the reported analyses were key preliminaries required to develop quality assessments. For example, of central importance was whether the item pools for the five components were empirically distinct (i.e., did each item correlate more highly with its own scale than another scale?). In subsequent tests of convergent validity with other measures, a further problem, not addressed, was the degree of item-overlap (redundancy), given that all PERMA items came from prior instruments. Additional analyses correlated PERMA scales with 20+ measures. For many (e.g., organizational practices, political orientation, work performance, social capital, burnout, values, self-efficacy, perceived stress, and gratitude), the relevance of these analyses was unclear.

Subsequent work showed that PERMA and subjective well-being are indistinguishable ( Goodman et al., 2018 ). Seligman (2018) responded by calling for the need to “transcend psychometrics,” accompanied by an exegesis on the psychometrics of baseball pitching. Also offered was the observation that “SWB probably is the useful final common path of the elements of well-being” (p. 1) – presumably an effort to deflect evidence away from the clear empirical redundancy of PERMA with subjective well-being. Most incoherent was the following: “All of this is to say that a good theory of the elements of well-being helps to build well-being and that the psychometric findings that the elements correlate perfectly with overall well-being and that the elements correlate very well with each other is not very instructive when it comes to building well-being” (p. 2).

Other findings have shown questionable support for the putative five-factor structure of PERMA ( Watanabe et al., 2018 ; Ryan et al., 2019 ; Umucu et al., 2020 ). Data from German speaking countries Wammerl et al. (2019) supported for the five-factor model but also bifactor models ( Reise, 2012 ). My observation is that these latter methodological studies examining various multivariate structures are largely disconnected from substantive issues of what well-being is, or critical questions needed to advance the field. Those are not about dimensional structures of recycled items, but about the antecedents and consequents well-being, whether well-being is protective in the face of adversity, and whether interventions can promote well-being. On all of these questions, the above two efforts to articulate a meaningful, conceptually grounded theory of happiness that works empirically (i.e., the data support the claimed multifactorial structure) AND that is distinct from what was already in the field, have failed.

Problems in Positive Psychology Science: Samples and Contexts

A second major problem in PP research, already illustrated in preceding sections, is the overwhelming reliance on homogeneous, privileged samples . This lack of diversity pervades subfields of psychology that have tended to conduct their research with readily available college students or community volunteers. Others call this the WEIRD phenomenon ( Henrich et al., 2010 ) – doing research with western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic societies. Minorities and socioeconomically disadvantaged individuals are missing in such inquiries, although population research makes clear that well-being and health are linked with sociodemographic factors ( Ryff et al., 2021c ). Our review, which included findings from MIDUS and other large studies, made clear that numerous aspects of well-being (hedonic and eudaimonic) do, in fact, differ by age, socioeconomic status, race, and gender. These differences also predict diverse health outcomes, assessed in terms of symptoms, chronic conditions, biological risk factors, and mortality. Thanks to the MIDJA (Midlife in Japan) study, we have illuminated cultural differences in many of these same topics ( Miyamoto and Ryff, 2021 ).

Closer to PP, I note that Frontiers in Psychology issued a recent call for papers to address with PPI (positive psychology interventions) work in non-WEIRD contexts ( van Zyl et al., 2021 ). Their bibliographic analyses showed that only about 2% of PPIs to date have been conducted with vulnerable groups, or in multi-cultural contexts. Clearly, a major need going forward is the importance of reducing the bias toward Western (often United States) samples of privileged people whose lives are clearly not representative of those from other cultural contexts as well as focusing on disadvantaged groups within such contexts.

The Commercialization of Positive Psychology: Needed Oversight

It is without question that PP has become a big business ( Horowitz, 2018 ). Happiness promotion involves billions of dollars spent on popular books, workshops, counseling/coaching, apps, websites, and social media platforms. PP has entered the corporate world through happiness consulting companies that claim to “bridge the gap between cutting-edge research in the field of positive psychology and best practices within corporate and community cultures around the globe” (p. 244). Horowitz wryly observes that few promoting happiness as the route to success consider the alternative – i.e., that success leads to happiness. There is also a marked failure to address the needs of lower echelon workers, such as better wages and benefits. Instead, motivational speakers cheer on executives, managers and workers with messages consonant with positive psychology and neoliberalism. Via apps and other gadgets happiness has become a “measurable, visible, improvable entity” (p. 246), thus replacing global commitments to combat stress, misery, and illness was with relaxation, happiness, and wellness.

I will not detail the dizzying array of websites promoting happiness, flourishing, and positive psychology; they are easily found online. Instead, I ask whether the for-profit cart has gotten seriously ahead of the scientific horse. This is a matter the scientific community cannot afford to ignore because it addresses whether the evidential basis behind the proliferation of products is truly there, or has been glossed over in the frenzy to sell. Prior to the commercialization of PP, scientists had shared understanding of what is required to demonstrate intervention effectiveness, as in randomized clinical trials, a staple of the National Institutes of Health. These guidelines exist to protect the public from products that are not credible. That the advertised promise of happiness promotion may be overstated is intimated by the “Earnings Disclaimer and Statement of Individual Responsibility” from the Flourishing Center 3 . It states that “the Flourishing Center, Inc. makes no guarantees that you will achieve results similar to ours or anyone else’s.” Additional text in this format follows: YOU FULLY AGREE AND UNDERSTAND THAT YOU AND YOU ALONE ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR YOUR SUCCESS OR FAILURE. NO REFUNDS ARE AVAILABLE UNLESS STATED OTHERWISE ON A PROGRAM’S SALES PAGE.

Closer to the heart of PP, we need to ask what it means when character strengths are being sold, when virtue has become a commodity, and when PP scientists have shopping carts on their websites. There is also the matter of pricing. Horowitz (2018) describes some who are receiving $25,000 speaker fees – are these defensible in academia? Many believe we have a responsibility to share our knowledge and expertise, but not to do so in pursuit of personal profit. Scrutiny also is required regarding the content of educational programs. Here I focus on the flagship program that is presumably leading the field – namely, the Master’s in Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) at the University of Pennsylvania, described with no shortage of hubris, as Medici II ( Seligman, 2019 ). MAPP offers two semesters (nine courses) and a summer capstone project for a price of over $70,000. The curriculum is thinly described on the website, but if students are being taught that the theory, history, and meanings of PP (Introduction to Positive Psychology) began with Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000) and other foundational documents ( Pawelski, 2016 ), they are not getting what they paid for. Further, if PERMA is being taught as a credible tool for measuring well-being (Research Methods and Evaluation), they are being miseducated. The theoretical, empirical, and experiential nature of positive interventions (Foundations of Positive Interventions) are not detailed on the website, but if Seligman et al. (2005) , reviewed above, is presented as credible evidence that PP interventions work, they are being misled.

Amidst these questions, it is important to underscore that high quality teaching materials for such programs do exist, such as the recent book on Positive Psychology Through the Life Span: An Existential Perspective ( Worth, 2022 ) and another on Positive Psychology in the Clinical Domains ( Ruini, 2017 ). Both offer thoughtful, historically comprehensive perspectives in their respective domains, which are essential features of quality education in PP.

The larger issue is the quality of what PP is marketing, not just in master’s programs, but also certificate programs and short-term seminars. Horowitz (2018) notes those who have expressed concerns about ethical oversight, calling for standardized nomenclature, formal training and certification guidelines, given uneven credentialing among those doing this work. Central concerns are whether the teaching in some programs is superficial and short-term practices lack scientific evidence of effectiveness. Stated otherwise, the commercialized end of PP appears to be fundamentally unregulated. “Despite all the research carried out in the field, what remains too often neglected are the who, why, and with what results ordinary consumers gain from all the money and time they spend on pursuing positive psychology by reading books, attending workshops, and carrying out recommended exercises.” (Horowitz, p. 274).

Looking Forward: Suggested New Directions for Positive Psychology

Societal ills as research imperatives.

Two major challenges of our era, ever-widening inequality and the world-wide pandemic, need scientific attention. Together, they constitute intersecting catastrophes ( Ryff, forthcoming ). Among those who were already disadvantaged, the pandemic has aggravated difficulties many were already facing plus added new challenges (unemployment, loss of healthcare, evictions due to unpaid rent, and food lines/hunger). MIDUS has been a prominent forum for investigating health inequalities, given its rich psychosocial, behavioral, and biological assessments ( Kirsch et al., 2019 ). Our findings have linked lower education and incomes to compromised well-being, greater psychological distress, poorer health behavior, higher stress exposures, elevated biological risk factors, greater morbidity and earlier mortality (see Text Footnote 1). A unique feature of the study has been recruitment of two national samples situated on either side of the Great Recession. Over the period covered by these two samples, educational attainment in the United States improved.

Despite such educational gains, the post-Recession refresher sample reported less household income (after adjusting for inflation), lower financial stability, worse health (multiple indicators) and lower well-being (multiple indicators) than the pre-Recession baseline sample. Further work compared the two samples on measures of negative and positive emotions, showing more compromised mental health in the later refresher sample, particularly among those with lower socioeconomic standing (measured with a composite of education, occupation, income, and wealth) ( Goldman et al., 2018 ). This worsening of mental health among disadvantaged Americans has occurred in the context of the opioid epidemic, growing alcoholism and increased death rates, including suicide, among middle-aged white persons of low SES standing ( Case and Deaton, 2015 ; Kolodny et al., 2015 ; Grant et al., 2017 ; Schuchat et al., 2017 ), a phenomenon known as deaths of despair ( Case and Deaton, 2020 ).

Positive psychologists need to engage with these societal changes. I note promising work already underway ( Waters et al., 2021 ). Although human strengths constitute important protective resources in the face of adversity, it is also the case that significant challenge can sometimes disable pre-existing strengths ( Shanahan et al., 2014 ). We found evidence of such disablement among those exposed to high levels of hardship in the Great Recession ( Kirsch and Ryff, 2016 ). Going forward, it is critical that studies of psychological strengths in the face of pandemic stress include assessment of key sociodemographic variables such as socioeconomic status in national samples. Vazquez et al. (2020) illustrated such work in a representative sample of Spanish adults. It is critical that future PP contributions to understanding impacts of the pandemic not perpetuate the longstanding prior focus on privileged, homogeneous samples.

Neglected Negatives Behind the Current Societal Problems

The founders of PP advocated that psychology should encompass more than psychopathology (depression and anxiety) and other forms of dysfunction. Hence, the call to elevate positive aspects of human functioning. I observe that psychology as a discipline has neglected something else: namely, a category of negative characteristics that may be implicated in the societal problems we now face. These include greed, indifference, and stupidity ( Ryff, 2017 , 2021a ), along with anger, which is not inherently positive or negative. I cover these topics below because they reveal a possibly pernicious blind spot in the larger vision of PP: namely, that the well-being and positive human functioning of some (especially those who are disadvantaged) may be compromised by the priorities and actions of others (especially those who are advantaged). To the extent that PP ministers primarily to the better educated and economically comfortable in conveying how to get the most out of life and achieve personal potential, PP may, itself, be part of the problem.

To illustrate, I note the widespread marketing of mindfulness meditation, including to CEOs as described by Horowitz (2018) in Happier? Purser (2019) offers more, observing that “mindfulness programs do not ask executives to examine how their managerial decisions and corporate policies have institutionalized greed, ill will, and delusion. Instead, the practice is being sold to executives as a way to de-stress, improve productivity and focus, and bounce back from working 80-h weeks. They may well be ‘meditating,’ but it works like taking an aspirin for a headache. Once the pain goes away, it is business as usual. Even if individuals become nicer people, the corporate agenda of maximizing profits does not change.”

Following from the above quote, we must consider that among the malevolent forces contributing to ever-widening inequality are behaviors of excessive self-interest orchestrated by those in positions of power. These problems are empirically evident when corporate profits soar, but worker paychecks lag ( Cohen, 2018 ), a problem described by economists as “monopsony power” – the ability of employers to suppress wages below the efficient or perfectly competitive level of compensation ( Kruger and Posner, 2018 ). Human history shows longstanding concern about problems of greed. The ancient Greeks saw greed and injustice as violating virtues of fairness and equality, and thereby, contributing to civic strife ( Balot, 2001 ). Dante’s Divine Comedy ( Dante’s, 1308/2006 ) placed sins of greed and gluttony, along with fraud and dishonesty, in his nine circles of hell. Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations ( Smith’s, 1776/1981 ) made the case for self-interest and capitalism, but recognized the problem of greed, framed as the limitless appetites of the vain and insatiable.

Some within psychology are addressing what lies behind the worship of money and selfish wealth gratification, sometimes orchestrated through fraudulent tactics ( Nikelly, 2006 ). Motivational psychologists have studied “the dark side of the American Dream” ( Kasser and Ryan, 1993 ), showing that those motivated by primarily extrinsic factors (financial success) have lower well-being and adjustment compared to those motivated by less materialistic values. Social psychologists have shown that those with higher social class standing have increased sense entitlement and narcissism compared to those from lower class backgrounds; those in the upper-class are also more likely to behave unethically than those in the lower-class ( Piff et al., 2012 ; Piff, 2013 ). A large study of United States students examined what lies behind the widespread acceptance of inequality ( Mendelberg et al., 2017 ) by asking them to indicate their agreement or disagreement with the statement: “Wealthy people should pay a larger share of taxes than they do now.” The main finding was that students from affluent colleges (defined by family SES background) were more likely than those from public or less affluent colleges and universities to disagree with the statement – i.e., the most privileged were also the most strongly opposed to having the wealthy pay more taxes. In addition, such tendencies were most pronounced among those who were active in college fraternities and sororities.

The seamy underside of philanthropy, usually thought of as elites doing good in the world, is also under scrutiny ( Giridharadas, 2018 ). The Sackler family, well-known for their philanthropy in art museums around the world, offers a singular example. They owned Purdue Pharma, which created oxycontin, the highly addictive opioid painkiller that was aggressively marketed, thereby leading to massive over-prescribing. To date, more than 500,000 have died from overdose deaths. A 2021 HBO documentary, Crime of the Century , revealed the widespread individual actions behind this public health tragedy – within drug companies, political operatives, and government regulators, all of whom backed the reckless distribution of this deadly, but highly profitable, drug.

Some might argue that the above examples are isolated actions of those of extreme wealth and do not represent most of the rest of us. Stewart’s (2021) recent look at the new American aristocracy suggests otherwise. With a solid evidential basis, he shows that a much larger segment of the population is involved in warping our culture – i.e., how those laser-focused on career success are relying on an underpaid servant class to fuel their forward progress, while also making personal fitness a national obsession, even as large segments of the population lose healthcare and grow sicker. The privileged also segregate themselves in exclusive neighborhoods and compete relentlessly in getting their children into elite schools, which has contributed to ever-more extreme costs of higher education. Perhaps most troubling is the ethos of merit they have created to justify their advantages. Stewart powerfully distils that these people are not just around us, they are us.

Indifference

On this topic I have little to say other than to quote Elie Wiesel, Nobel Prize winning author and Holocaust survivor: “I believe that a person who is indifferent to the suffering of others is complicit in the crime. And that I cannot allow, at least not for myself. The opposite of love is not hate, it’s indifference.” In the present era, such indifference to the widespread suffering of others must be studied and documented. It is a character weakness that psychologists should try to understand – where does it come from? How is it enacted? What are its consequents?

Marmion’s (2018) tongue-in-cheek edited collection on the Psychology of Stupidity warrants consideration, given psychology’s long preoccupation with studying intelligence (of multiple types) and cognitive capacities (also of multiple types). The book offers a taxonomy of morons and links stupidity with established topics (cognitive bias, narcissism, and negative social networks). Wisely, Marion asserts: “No matter what form it takes, stupidity splatters us all. Rumor has it that we ourselves are the source of it. I am no exception” (p. ix). The kind of stupidity that most interests me and needs critical study is the swallowing of lies, or being duped by others. Lies are perpetrated by people in high or low places, but the essential question is why they have impact – why they are believed. Some in the clinical realm have examined such questions, focusing on those who lie with impunity, sometimes revealing clear sociopathy ( Peck, 1983 ; Stout, 2006 ). We need more science about these assaults on the truth and why they have become such pervasive part of contemporary life. My hypothesis is that all levels of human experience (personal ties, the workplace, communities, and societies) are damaged by the swallowing of lies, whether knowingly or unknowingly.

Often depicted as toxic, anger is sometimes legitimate as Aristotle understood. He reminded that at the right time, to the right degree, and for the right reasons, anger can be a powerful and needed response. Indeed, its neural underpinnings look more like positive affect than depression or anxiety ( Harmon-Jones et al., 2011 ). Anger may be uniquely justified vis-à-vis profoundly unequal life opportunities. Mishra’s Age of Anger ( Mishra’s, 2017 ), offers an astonishing integration of history, philosophy, literature, politics, economics, and cultural studies on the topic. He begins with this: “Individuals with very different pasts find themselves herded by capitalism and technology into a common present, where grossly unequal distributions of wealth and power have created humiliating new hierarchies. This proximity is rendered more claustrophobic by digital communications and the improved capacity for envious and resentful comparison” (p. 13). Drawing on Arendt, Mishra describes existential resentments that are poisoning civil society and fueling authoritarianism.

Most powerful is Mishra’s portrayal of the distinct philosophies of Rousseau and Voltaire, eighteenth century interpreters of life. Voltaire praised material prosperity and consumerism, boldly professing his love of conspicuous consumption. Rousseau reminded that the ancients spoke incessantly about morals and virtue whereas the French philosophes spoke only of business and money. He saw the new commercial society as acquiring features of class division, inequality, and callous elites whose members were corrupt, hypocritical and cruel. According to Mishra: “What makes Rousseau, and his self-described ‘history of the human heart,’ so astonishingly germane and eerily resonant is that, unlike his fellow eighteen-century writers, he described the quintessential inner experience of modernity for most people: the uprooted outsider in the commercial metropolis, aspiring for a place in it, and struggling with complex feelings of envy, fascination, revulsion, and rejection” (p. 90). Although Rousseau’s books were best sellers in his era, they are rarely invoked in current discourse. He castigated the Enlightenment philosophes for their self-love and self-interest, writing that amour propre ( McLendon, 2009 ) was a dangerous craving to secure recognition for self over others and an insatiable ambition to raise personal fortunes. These observations need serious examination vis-à-vis the thriving business of PP – to what extent are self-interest and personal ambition the central motives behind what is being sold?

Returning to empirical science, I note that MIDUS includes multidimensional assessments of anger, from over 20 publications have been generated (see Text Footnote 1). Anger expression has been linked to multiple indicators of health (sleep, cognitive function, inflammation, and allostatic load) as well as to race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, early life adversity, and cultural context.

What Nurtures Our Better Selves: The Arts and Humanities

To those who find my views to be overly negative, I end this section with more hopeful topics. I note that my career journey has reflected this dual focus on the forces that both undermine as well as nurture positive psychological functioning ( Ryff, 2022 ). As stated at the outset and multiple times long the way, I have always believed both are fundamental parts of the human experience. I begin this part with distant observations from Matthew Arnold, who in Culture and Anarchy ( Arnold, 1867/1993 ), emphasized that freedom should be employed in the service of higher ideals and further noted that these ideals are critically important during times of great peril, such as pandemics and wars. For him, culture was the study of perfection tied to the moral and social passion for doing good.

I have long believed that the arts (broadly defined) and humanities (history and philosophy) can help us discern how to do good and be well ( Ryff, 2019 ). Growing research is now linking diverse art (music, literature, poetry, art, film, and dance) to health ( Fancourt, 2017 ; Fancourt and Finn, 2019 ). To maintain a thread to current societal challenges, I here consider the arts in a somewhat different way – namely, whether they might be venues for nurturing compassion and insight about human suffering, which has become so widespread. Starting with contemporary film, multiple examples (e.g., The Florida Project, American Honey, Paterson, Parasite , and Nomadland ) reveal the lived experience of inequality, including descending into prostitution to feed a child, growing up with addicted parents, having dreams of self-realization stymied, experiencing homelessness, and working in physically-difficult, mind-numbing jobs. These works also portray the poetry in disadvantaged lives, including cleverness and resourcefulness vis-à-vis insensitive elites. The relevance of these domains for contemporary science, largely unstudied, is whether such inputs increase quotients of caring and compassion, and possibly challenge the complacency and indifference among those who are not suffering. Such questions elevate themes of social justice in ongoing research on well-being and health, while pointing to the arts as possible venues for informing and mobilizing individual and societal action.

The visual arts may also powerfully activate compassion vis-à-vis the pandemic or contemporary conflicts. The self-portrait of the Austrian artist, Egon Schiele, painted in 1912 and looking gravely ill before his death at age 28 from the Spanish flu, which also took his wife and their unborn child, is an example. Kandinsky painted Troubled in 1917, an abstract work of turbulence and trauma created during the Russian revolution when he was lived in Moscow and had a child die of malnourishment. A last visual example comes from over 1,000 watercolors painted from 1940 to 1942 and brought together in Charlotte Salomon: Life? Or Theater? ( Salomon, 2017 ). Born in 1917, this woman experienced multiple suicides in her family during her brief lifetime. She was a student at the Berlin Fine Arts Academy and in 1938 fled to southern France where an intense period of creativity unfolded. Next to a series of paintings depicting multiple faces with dramatic eyes and sad countenances, she wrote: “I realized that no heaven, no sun, no star could help me if I did not contribute by my own will. And then I realized that actually I still had no idea who I was. I was a corpse. And I expected life to love me now. I waited and came to the realization: what matters is not whether life loves us, but that we love life.” This insight about loving life had tragic salience: she was transported to Auschwitz in 1943 where, at age 26 and 5 months pregnant, she died.

Literature is another powerful realm for revealing travesties of the human condition. In A Tale of Two Cities ( Dickens, 1859/2004 ), Charles Dickens brought horrors of the French Revolution to the hearts and minds of his readers. We learned of the awful lives of those imprisoned within the Bastille, and after it was stormed, the executions by guillotine at the Place de La Concorde in Paris. The bloodbath of class retribution took more than 1,200 lives, including the French Queen and King. Here is how Dickens described the context: “…the frightful moral disorder born of unspeakable suffering, intolerable oppression, and heartless indifference” (p. 344). At the core of the book is Madame DeFarge, the tigress quietly knitting, observing, and overseeing the acts of vengeance. Near the end, we have insight into her fury, learning that her younger sister was the victim of shameless male aristocrats who carelessly exploited her and destroyed her life and family.

Two contemporary books of fiction address the current migration crisis. Mohsin Hamid’s Exit West ( Hamid’s, 2017 ) describes the awful realities of refugees whose lives have been stolen out from under them, only to be subjected to endless trauma as they try to find another home. Another recent work, Call Me Zebra ( Van der Vliet Oloomi, 2018 ), winner of the 2019 PEN/Faulkner award for fiction, tracks a family escaping from Iran by foot. The mother dies along the way, but the father and daughter eventually make their way to New York. The family is a group of anarchists, atheists, and autodidacts who took refuge in books; their distilled philosophy: “Love nothing except literature, the only magnanimous host there is in this decaying world…. The depth of our knowledge, the precision of our tongues, and our capacity for detecting lies is unparalleled” (p. 8). Memorization is key; thus, sprinkled throughout the book are quotes from Nietzsche, Omar Khayyam, Dante, Goethe, Rilke, Kafka, Cervantes, Garcia Lorca, Dali, and Picasso – “These writers’ sentences deposited me at the edge of the unknown, far from the repulsive banality of reality others refer to as life” (p. 205).

I conclude with examples of satire vis-à-vis experiences of oppression and want. Jonathan Swift’s, A Modest Proposal , written in Swift’s (1729) , was put forth with the stated intent of preventing the children of the poor people in Ireland from being a burden to their parents or the country, as well as to make them beneficial to the wider public. Swift began by describing female beggars in Dublin followed by their many children, all in rags, importuning every passing person for alms. He elaborated on the numerical scope of the problem and then observes that these young children cannot be fruitfully employed until they are around age twelve. Swift thus suggests that these children, if well nursed for their first year, be sent to England to provide “a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout” (p. 3). Calculations were included to show the financial benefits that would follow. This satirical hyperbole mocked the heartless attitudes toward the poor among the British as well as their policies toward the Irish in general. The book is widely recognized as one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language.

Moving to the present, Paul Beatty’s The Sellout ( Beatty’s, 2015 ) won the Man Booker Prize and was praised as “Swiftian satire of the highest order.” The book covers race relations in the fictional township of Dickens (meaningfully named), California, a place where residents are left to fend for themselves. With masterful humor, Beatty parodies everything – from contemporary psychology to “slapstick racism” to public transportation to depict the obstacles of being poor and black in racist America. Sister cities for Dickens are identified: Chernobyl, Juárez, and Kinshasa – all known for their pollution, poverty, and dysfunction. The satire and razor-sharp wit reveal what it means to exist in a culture saturated with negative stereotypes.

To summarize, I have emphasized the role of the arts in awakening the wider public to human suffering. Central questions for science and praxis are whether these inputs can effectively increase needed supplies of compassion and empathy, while perhaps also provoke awareness of complacency among those who are comfortable, if not indifferent. Such topics can and should be studied, including in experimental and educational contexts. The National Endowment for the Humanities regularly tracks who partakes of the arts and further shows variation therein by educational status. Such practices are fundamentally not different from studying health behaviors (smoking, drinking, and exercise). These parts of living, focused on the content of what people are taking in, need to part of large epidemiological studies, where they could be linked with other important topics such as reported levels of social responsibility and caring ( Ryff and Kim, 2020 ) as well as their views about who should be taxed at what levels ( Mendelberg et al., 2017 ).

What Nurtures Human Flourishing: The Natural Environment

Nature is powerfully present in the visual arts and music as well and has been throughout human history. I have recently covered these topics elsewhere, including nature’s role in nurturing the human spirit ( Ryff, 2021b ) and here highlight some of that work. My overall messages are that those interested in understanding influences that nurture good lives as well as a concern for our planet need to bring encounters with nature into their scientific studies, including interventions designed to promote diverse aspects of well-being and health.

Vibrant research is now investigating how nature contributes to human flourishing ( Capaldi et al., 2015 ; Mantler and Logan, 2015 ). These ideas take on greater salience as more of the world’s population live in nature-impoverished urban milieus. Multiple theories have been invoked to explain how we benefit from nature, such as the biophilia hypothesis from evolutionary thinking, which suggests that our human ancestors depended on connecting with nature to survive ( Kellert and Wilson, 1993 ), or stress-reduction theory ( Ulrich et al., 1991 ), which proposes that past exposures to unthreatening natural environments contributed to survival via stress-reducing physiological responses. Other perspectives consider roles of the natural environment in addressing existential anxieties, such as meaning in life, isolation, freedom, and death ( Yalom, 1980 ). Eco-existential positive psychology ( Passmore and Howell, 2014 ) thus describe how restorative experiences with nature might contribute to sense of identity, multiple forms of happiness, meaning, social connectedness, freedom, and awareness of one’s mortality.

Empirical evidence has linked encounters with nature to high hedonic well-being, both short and long-term, and to aspects of eudaimonic well-being ( Capaldi et al., 2015 ; Mantler and Logan, 2015 ; Triguero-Mas et al., 2015 ). Some inquiries have examined intervening mechanisms, such as increased physical activity, increased social contact, stress reduction and restoration of cognitive attention. The focus on green spaces underscores growing concerns about urbanization, loss of biodiversity, and environmental degradation. Increasingly dire consequences of climate change (droughts, wildfires, and floods) have also led to research on pro-nature behaviors that support conservation of nature and biodiversity. Richardson et al. (2020) conducted an innovative population survey in the United Kingdom examining links between pro-nature actions with time spent in nature as well as knowledge of and concerns about nature.

Nature as a source of inspiration and uplift is pervasively present in poetry, literature, music, art, history, and philosophy. An example is the life of Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859), beautifully written about in The Invention of Nature ( Wulf, 2016 ). Primarily a scientist, naturalist, and explorer (of South America and Siberia), Humboldt influenced many of the great thinkers of his day, including Jefferson, Darwin, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Thoreau, and Goethe. Humboldt was ahead of his time in thinking about the degradation and exploitation of nature, warning that humankind had the power to destroy the natural environment, the consequences of which would be catastrophic. He wanted to excite a ‘love of nature’ and thereby, revolutionized how the natural world was seen. He believed that nature speaks to humanity in a voice “familiar to our soul” (p. 61), thereby aligning himself with the Romantic poets of his time who believed nature could only be understood by turning inward.

The educator Mark Edmundson uses great literature and poetry to nurture well-being, including the ideals needed by the human soul such as courage, contemplation, and compassion ( Edmundson, 2015 ). In Why Read ( Edmundson, 2004 ). Edmundson elaborates what a liberal, humanistic education can contribute to personal becoming. Apropos of Humboldt and his contemporaries, Edmondson examined Wordsworth’s famous poem, “Lines Composed a Few Miles from Tintern Abbey” written in 1798. Wordsworth’s life had become flat – “he lived in a din-filled city, among unfeeling people, and sensed that he is becoming one of them …there is a dull ache settling in his spirit” (p. 57). Returning to a scene from his childhood, he remembered himself as a young boy, free and reveling in nature. The return to nature, which is the heart of the poem, reminds him of its role in nurturing his own vitality. “Wordsworth’s poem enjoins us to feel that it (the answer to one’s despondency) lies somewhere within our reach – we are creatures who have the capacity to make ourselves sick, but also the power to heal ourselves” (p. 49).

Wordsworth’s poetry served the same vital function in the life of John Stuart Mill (1893/1989) , who in early adulthood realized something deeply troubling – that he lacked the happiness central to the utilitarian philosophy in which he was immersed. Reflecting on his life, Mill described an early educational experience that was exceptional, but profoundly deficient. His father began teaching him Greek and Latin at a young age and then expanded the pedagogy to fields of philosophy, science, and mathematics. However, his father was deeply opposed to anything connected to sentiment or emotion. To escape the logic machine he had become, Mill began a quest to feel, and it was the poetry of Wordsworth, mostly about nature, that ministered deeply to the longings in his soul. He credited it for helping him recover from the crisis in his mental history.

To summarize, amidst the many interventions under study in PP, I lobby for a focus on encounters with nature, which some are already investigating. The preceding examples give us reason to believe that human lives may be enriched by such experiences. These can occur by being in nature as well as from reading about nature in poetry and literature, taking it in through film, or listening to music inspired by nature.

Concluding Thoughts

My observations about what PP has accomplished over the last two decades are clearly mixed. Some may see the criticism as unfounded, if not mean-spirited, while others may view the input as long overdue straight talk about problems with an initiative intended to be transformational. I have long believed that self-criticism is central to making progress, whether in our individual lives, or our collective pursuits. My hope is thus that the field of PP will grow and flourish going forward, but also come to grips with its limitations. How might this happen?

One way is to pay attention to the problem of overreach in what PP claims to have accomplished. This will require greater scrutiny of the science touted as the evidential basis that PP works. Peer review is all we have to monitor the quality of the work that we do, but alas, it is an imperfect system, such that seriously flawed work sometimes gets published, even in high visibility outlets. There is the related problem of PP taking credit for more than it can credibly call its own achievements – i.e., the impact of PP ( Rusk and Waters, 2013 ) has been overstated. As conveyed at the outset, extensive science on positive human functioning was happening well before PP declared its visionary new path. The upshot is that quantitative summaries of positive science unavoidably include many products that have nothing to do with the field of PP. Work from MIDUS is but one example of such wide-ranging science, much published in top-tier journals, showing protective benefits of psychological strengths. These studies were not created or nurtured by PP, and therefore, do not constitute evidence of its impact. Such distortion diminishes the stature of PP.

Relatedly there is need to recognize the insularity of PP, much seeming United States-centric, particularly in leadership. By creating its own professional society and journal, PP unfortunately removed itself from the wider discipline of psychology and its subfields, each with their own organizations and journals. While new groups can nurture comradery and a sense of identity, they can also create distance from related areas of inquiry. Most problematic, they can lead to insider peer reviewing that likely lowers rather than elevates the quality of the work generated.

On the matter of the commercialization of PP, I am perhaps an outlier in seeing this as a significant problem. However, it is construed, those who care about the long-term future of PP need to grapple with how to prevent the pursuit of profit from becoming a force that could ultimately take the enterprise down – on grounds that it is not scientifically substantiated, nor is it properly regulated, or doing lasting good, or is even creating harm. Without proper oversight, business pursuits could become the antithesis of the original promise and purpose of PP – to advance optimal human functioning.

Most of my essay has not been about these troublesome matters. Rather, I have tried to underscore the widespread consensus, from within PP and beyond, that thoughtful formulations are needed going forward, which put positives and negative together – i.e., research and practice that integrates human strengths and vulnerabilities. Parenthetically, one benefit of this shift may be that the adjective “positive” is less relentlessly present in titles of articles, books, and journals. As many have observed, greater attention must be given to diversity – i.e., how the wide array of topics being studied vary by numerous dimensions (e.g., age, gender, race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability status, sexual orientation, and cultural context). It is also critical that societal relevance be a priority in the future science and practice that lies ahead. So doing demands attending to contemporary problems, and how they are negotiated in diverse life contexts. Our societal ills further call for study of negatives that have historically been neglected (greed, indifference, stupidity, and anger). Nonetheless, amidst the contemporary turbulence is the promise of the arts and of nature to help us be better – in seeing and caring about the suffering of others as well as in inspiring us to make the most of the lives we have been given and do so with commitment that encompasses families, schools, the workplace, communities, and the planet.

Data Availability Statement

Publicly available datasets were analyzed in this study. This data can be found here: www.midus.wisc.edu .

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

National Institute on Aging Grants (P01-AG020166; U19-AG051426).

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• ^ www.midus.wisc.edu
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Ryff, C. D., Boylan, J. M., and Kirsch, J. A. (2021c). “Eudaimonic and hedonic well-being: An integrative perspective with linkages to sociodemographic factors and health,” in Measuring well-being: Interdisciplinary Perspectives from the Social Sciences and Humanities , eds M. T. Lee, L. D. Kubzansky, and T. J. VanderWeele (Oxford: Oxford University Press), doi: 10.1093/oso/9780197512531.003.0005

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Keywords : positive, negative, commercialization, inequality, greed, indifference, arts, nature

Citation: Ryff CD (2022) Positive Psychology: Looking Back and Looking Forward. Front. Psychol. 13:840062. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.840062

Received: 20 December 2021; Accepted: 21 February 2022; Published: 17 March 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Ryff. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Carol D. Ryff, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Reference management. Clean and simple.

The top list of academic search engines

1. Google Scholar

4. science.gov, 5. semantic scholar, 6. baidu scholar, get the most out of academic search engines, frequently asked questions about academic search engines, related articles.

Academic search engines have become the number one resource to turn to in order to find research papers and other scholarly sources. While classic academic databases like Web of Science and Scopus are locked behind paywalls, Google Scholar and others can be accessed free of charge. In order to help you get your research done fast, we have compiled the top list of free academic search engines.

Google Scholar is the clear number one when it comes to academic search engines. It's the power of Google searches applied to research papers and patents. It not only lets you find research papers for all academic disciplines for free but also often provides links to full-text PDF files.

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BASE is hosted at Bielefeld University in Germany. That is also where its name stems from (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).

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CORE is an academic search engine dedicated to open-access research papers. For each search result, a link to the full-text PDF or full-text web page is provided.

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Science.gov is a fantastic resource as it bundles and offers free access to search results from more than 15 U.S. federal agencies. There is no need anymore to query all those resources separately!

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Semantic Scholar is the new kid on the block. Its mission is to provide more relevant and impactful search results using AI-powered algorithms that find hidden connections and links between research topics.

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Although Baidu Scholar's interface is in Chinese, its index contains research papers in English as well as Chinese.

• Coverage: no detailed statistics available, approx. 100 million articles
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RefSeek searches more than one billion documents from academic and organizational websites. Its clean interface makes it especially easy to use for students and new researchers.

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Consider using a reference manager like Paperpile to save, organize, and cite your references. Paperpile integrates with Google Scholar and many popular databases, so you can save references and PDFs directly to your library using the Paperpile buttons:

Google Scholar is an academic search engine, and it is the clear number one when it comes to academic search engines. It's the power of Google searches applied to research papers and patents. It not only let's you find research papers for all academic disciplines for free, but also often provides links to full text PDF file.

Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature developed at the Allen Institute for AI. Sematic Scholar was publicly released in 2015 and uses advances in natural language processing to provide summaries for scholarly papers.

BASE , as its name suggest is an academic search engine. It is hosted at Bielefeld University in Germany and that's where it name stems from (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine).

CORE is an academic search engine dedicated to open access research papers. For each search result a link to the full text PDF or full text web page is provided.

Science.gov is a fantastic resource as it bundles and offers free access to search results from more than 15 U.S. federal agencies. There is no need any more to query all those resources separately!

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Striking findings from 2022

Pew Research Center’s surveys have shed light on public opinion around some of the biggest news events of 2022 – from Russia’s military invasion of Ukraine to the overturning of Roe v. Wade to Americans’ experiences with extreme weather events . Here’s a look back at the past year through 15 of our most striking research findings, which cover these topics and more. These findings represent just a sample of the Center’s research publications this year .

Today, roughly four-in-ten Americans (41%) say none of their purchases in a typical week are paid for using cash , a July survey found. This is up from 29% in 2018 and 24% in 2015.

Meanwhile, the portion of Americans who say that all or almost all of their purchases are paid for with cash in a typical week has declined from 24% in 2015 to 18% in 2018 to 14% today.

While growing shares of Americans across income groups are relying less on cash than in the past, this is especially the case among the highest earners. Roughly six-in-ten adults whose annual household income is $100,000 or more (59%) say they make none of their typical weekly purchases using cash, up sharply from 43% in 2018 and 36% in 2015.

If recent trends continue, Christians could make up a minority of Americans by 2070. That’s according to a September report that models several hypothetical scenarios of how the U.S. religious landscape might change over the next 50 years, based on religious switching patterns.

Since the 1990s, large numbers of Americans have left Christianity to join the growing ranks of U.S. adults who describe their religious identity as atheist, agnostic or “nothing in particular.”

Depending on whether religious switching continues at recent rates, speeds up or stops entirely – the last of which is not plausible because it assumes all switching has already ended – the projections show Christians of all ages shrinking from 64% to somewhere between 54% and 35% of all Americans by 2070. Over that same period, “nones” would rise from their current 30% of the population to somewhere between 34% and 52%.

Views of reparations for slavery vary widely by race and ethnicity , especially between Black and White Americans, a November analysis found. Overall, 30% of U.S. adults say descendants of people enslaved in the United States should be repaid in some way, such as given land or money. About seven-in-ten (68%) say these descendants should not be repaid.

Around three-quarters of Black adults (77%) say the descendants of people enslaved in the U.S. should be repaid in some way. Just 18% of White adults hold this view.

There are also notable differences by party affiliation and age. Among Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents, views are split: 48% say descendants of enslaved people should be repaid in some way, while 49% say they should not. Only 8% of Republicans and GOP leaners say these descendants should be repaid in some way, and 91% say they should not.

And 45% of adults under 30 say these descendants should be repaid, compared with 18% of those 65 and older.

Notably, three-quarters of adults who say descendants of those enslaved in the U.S. should be repaid (including 82% of Black adults who say this) say it’s a little or not at all likely this will happen in their lifetime.

A growing share of adult TikTok users in the U.S. are getting news on the platform , bucking the trend on other social media sites, according to a survey fielded in July and August. A third of adults who use TikTok say they regularly get news there, up from 22% two years ago. The increase comes even as news consumption on many other social media sites has either decreased or stayed about the same in recent years. For example, the share of adult Facebook users who regularly get news there has declined from 54% in 2020 to 44% this year.

Most Americans who have experienced extreme weather in the past year – including majorities in both political parties – see climate change as a factor, according to a May survey .

Overall, 71% of Americans said that, in the past 12 months, their community had experienced at least one of the five forms of extreme weather the Center’s survey asked about. Among those who had recently encountered extreme weather, more than eight-in-ten said climate change contributed at least a little to each type of event.

Among Democrats as well as Republicans, majorities of those who had experienced one of these forms of extreme weather said climate change contributed to the event. But Democrats were more likely than Republicans to say climate change contributed  a lot .

Following Russia’s military invasion of Ukraine, Americans became much more likely to see Russia as an enemy of the United States . In March, just after the invasion, 70% of Americans said that, on balance, Russia is an enemy of the U.S., up sharply from 41% who held this view in January. In the January survey, Americans were more likely to describe Russia as a competitor of the U.S. than as an enemy. In both surveys, very few Americans described Russia as a U.S. partner.

Democrats and Republicans largely agreed in the March survey that Russia is an enemy of the U.S., but partisan and ideological differences still existed. Liberal Democrats, for example, were the most likely to see Russia as an enemy (78%), while moderate and liberal Republicans were the least likely to do so (63%).

Relatively few Americans take an absolutist view on the legality of abortion – either supporting or opposing it at all times, according to a survey conducted in March, before the Supreme Court overturned Roe v. Wade. The vast majority of the public is somewhere in the middle when it comes to abortion : Most think it should be legal in at least some circumstances, but most are also open to limitations on its availability in others.

Overall, 19% of Americans say that abortion should be legal in all cases, with no exceptions. Fewer (8%) say abortion should be illegal in every case, without exception. But 71% either say it should be mostly legal or mostly illegal, or say there are exceptions to their blanket support for or opposition to legal abortion.

A separate survey conducted in June and July – after the Supreme Court struck down Roe – found that 57% of adults disapproved of the decision, including 43% who strongly disapproved. About four-in-ten (41%) approved, including 25% who strongly approved. 

Following the Supreme Court’s decision to overturn Roe v. Wade, the partisan gap in views of the court grew wider than at any point in more than three decades. While 73% of Republicans expressed a favorable view of the court in an August survey, only 28% of Democrats shared that view. That 45-point gap was wider than at any point in 35 years of polling on the court.

The current polarization follows a term that included the ruling on abortion and  several other high-profile cases  that often split the justices along ideological lines.

Growing shares of Democrats also say the Supreme Court has a conservative tilt: 67% said this in August, up from 57% in January. And about half of Democrats (51%) said in August that the justices on the court are doing a poor job of keeping their own political views out of their judgments on major cases, nearly double the share who said this in January (26%).

About 5% of Americans younger than 30 are transgender or nonbinary – that is, their gender is different from their sex assigned at birth, according to a survey conducted in May. By comparison, 1.6% of those ages 30 to 49 and 0.3% of those 50 and older say that their gender is different from their sex assigned at birth. Overall, 1.6% of U.S. adults are transgender or nonbinary – that is, someone who is neither a man nor a woman or isn’t strictly one or the other.

While a relatively small share of U.S. adults are transgender or nonbinary, many say they know someone who is. More than four-in-ten (44%) say they personally know someone who is trans and 20% know someone who is nonbinary. The share of adults who know someone who is transgender  has increased  from 42% in 2021 and from 37% in 2017.

In focus groups with trans and nonbinary adults, most participants said they knew from an early age – many as young as preschool or elementary school – that there was something different about them, even if they didn’t have the words to describe what it was.

Most Americans say journalists should always strive to give every side equal coverage , but journalists themselves are more likely to say every side does not always deserve equal coverage, according to two separate surveys conducted in late winter amid debate over “ bothsidesism ” in the media.

Among Americans overall, 76% say journalists should always strive to give all sides equal coverage, while 22% say every side does not always deserve equal coverage. The balance of opinion is reversed among journalists themselves: A little more than half (55%) say every side does not always deserve equal coverage, while 44% say journalists should always strive to give every side equal coverage.

This issue gained  new intensity  during Donald Trump’s presidency and the  widespread disinformation and competing views  surrounding the 2020 election and the COVID-19 pandemic. Those who favor  equal coverage argue that it’s always necessary to allow the public to be equally informed about multiple sides of an argument, while those who disagree contend that people making false statements or unsupported conjectures do not warrant as much attention as those making factual statements with solid supporting evidence.

A recent surge in U.S. drug overdose deaths has hit Black men the hardest, a January analysis found. While overdose death rates have increased in every major demographic group in recent years, no group has seen a bigger increase than Black men. As a result, Black men have overtaken White men and are now on par with American Indian or Alaska Native men as the demographic groups most likely to die from overdoses.

Nearly 92,000 Americans died of drug overdoses in 2020, up from around 70,000 in 2017. During the same period, the  rate  of fatal overdoses rose from 21.7 to 28.3 per 100,000 people.

Despite these increases, the share of Americans who say drug addiction is a major problem in their local community  declined by 7 percentage points  in subsequent surveys – from 42% in 2018 to 35% in 2021. And in a  separate survey  in early 2022, dealing with drug addiction ranked lowest out of 18 priorities for the president and Congress to address this year.

Nearly half of U.S. teens now say they use the internet “almost constantly,” according to a survey conducted in April and May. This percentage has roughly doubled since 2014-15, when 24% said they were almost constantly online.

Black and Hispanic teens stand out for being on the internet more frequently than White teens. Some 56% of Black teens and 55% of Hispanic teens say they are online almost constantly, compared with 37% of White teens. (There were not enough Asian American teens in the sample to analyze separately.)

Older teens are also more likely to be online almost constantly. About half of 15- to 17-year-olds (52%) say they use the internet almost constantly, while 36% of 13- to 14-year-olds say the same. And 53% of urban teens report doing this, compared with somewhat smaller shares of suburban and rural teens (44% and 43%, respectively).

Since 2014-15, there has been a 22-point rise in the share of teens who report having access to a smartphone (from 73% then to 95% now). While teens’ access to smartphones has increased, their access to other digital technologies, such as desktop or laptop computers or gaming consoles, has remained statistically unchanged.

The share of aggregate U.S. household income held by the middle class has fallen steadily since 1970, according to an analysis published in April.

In 1970, adults in middle-income households accounted for 62% of aggregate income, a share that fell to 42% by 2020. Meanwhile, the share of aggregate income held by upper-income households has increased steadily, from 29% in 1970 to 50% in 2020. Part of this increase reflects the rising share of adults who are in the upper-income tier; another part reflects more rapid growth in earnings for these adults.

The share of U.S. aggregate income held by lower-income households edged down from 10% to 8% over these five decades, even though the proportion of adults living in lower-income households increased over this period.

Growing shares of both Republicans and Democrats say that members of the other party are more immoral, dishonest and closed-minded than other Americans, according to a survey conducted in June and July.

The percentage of Americans who view the people in the opposing political party in a negative light has increased in recent years. In 2016, 47% of Republicans and 35% of Democrats said those in the other party were a lot or somewhat more immoral than other Americans. Today, 72% of Republicans regard Democrats as more immoral than other Americans, and 63% of Democrats say the same about Republicans. Similar patterns exist when it comes to seeing members of the other party as more dishonest, closed-minded and unintelligent than other Americans.

There is one negative trait that Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to link to their political opponents. A 62% majority of Republicans say Democrats are “more lazy” than other Americans, up from 46% in both  2019  and  2016 .

Majorities in nations around the world generally see social media as a good thing for democracy – but not in the United States, a survey of people in 19 advanced economies found.

Americans are the most negative about the impact of social media on democracy: 64% say it has been bad. Republicans are much more likely than Democrats (74% vs. 57%) to see the ill effects of social media on the political system.

In addition to being the most negative about social media’s influence on democracy, Americans are consistently among the most negative in their assessments of specific ways that social media has affected politics and society. For example, 79% in the U.S. believe access to the internet and social media has made people more divided in their political opinions, the highest percentage among the countries polled.

Read the other posts in our striking findings series:

• Striking findings from 2021
• 20 striking findings from 2020
• 19 striking findings from 2019
• 18 striking findings from 2018
• 17 striking findings from 2017
• 16 striking findings from 2016
• 15 striking findings from 2015
• 14 striking findings from 2014
• Other Topics
• Politics & Policy

Katherine Schaeffer is a research analyst at Pew Research Center

What the data says about crime in the U.S.

Most americans think u.s. k-12 stem education isn’t above average, but test results paint a mixed picture, about 1 in 4 u.s. teachers say their school went into a gun-related lockdown in the last school year, changing partisan coalitions in a politically divided nation, about half of americans say public k-12 education is going in the wrong direction, most popular.

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