guidebook for social work literature reviews and research questions

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Guidebook for Social Work Literature Reviews and Research Questions

• Rebecca L. Mauldin , M. DeCarlo
• Published 2020
• Sociology, Education

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Guidebook for Social Work Literature Reviews and Research Questions

This short guidebook provides information about selecting a research topic and research questions, searching for literature, reading and understanding scholarly writing, and writing a literature review to synthesize what is known and what remains to be learned about a social problem. For students who appreciate the availability of resources on the internet, it also provides links to additional materials....

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This short guidebook provides information about selecting a research topic and research questions, searching for literature, reading and understanding scholarly writing, and writing a literature review to synthesize what is known and what remains to be learned about a social problem. For students who appreciate the availability of resources on the internet, it also provides links to additional materials.

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Literature Review Resources

A literature review is a very practical part of the research process.  It's how you build on other research in the field - identify best practices and tools and learn what doesn't work.  The resources on the page are here to help you structure you literature review so it's as useful as possible.  

Also take a look at any literature reviews you find as you search for articles - in addition to content and further references they'll also provide helpful structural hints. 

• Social Work Literature Review Guidelines Literature reviews are designed to do two things: 1) give your readers an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic or idea and 2) demonstrate how your research fits into the larger field of study, in this case, social work.
• Considerations in Writing a Literature Review This article will briefly outline key points for you to keep in mind when writing literature reviews for social work.
• Undertaking a literature review: a step-by-step approach The purpose of this article is to present a step-by-step guide to facilitate understanding by presenting the critical elements of the literature review process. While reference is made to different types of literature reviews, the focus is on the traditional or narrative review that is undertaken, usually either as an academic assignment or part of the research process.

"Literature reviews are systematic syntheses of previous work around a particular topic. Nearly all scholars have written literature reviews at some point; such reviews are common requirements for class projects or as part of theses, are often the first section of empirical papers, and are sometimes written to summarize a field of study. Given the increasing amount of literature in many fields, reviews are critical in synthesizing scientific knowledge." - Encyclopedia of Research Design

• Literature Review Overview and Sample Paper (University of Arizona)
• Sample APA Paper (lit. review begins page 3)
• Why search here? ProQuest Dissertations and Theses: Global (PQDTGlobal) is the world's most comprehensive collection of full-text dissertations and theses.
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Social Work Literature Review Guidelines

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Literature reviews are designed to do two things: 1) give your readers an overview of sources you have explored while researching a particular topic or idea and 2) demonstrate how your research fits into the larger field of study, in this case, social work.

Unlike annotated bibliographies which are lists of references arranged alphabetically that include the bibliographic citation and a paragraph summary and critique for each source, literature reviews can be incorporated into a research paper or manuscript. You may quote or paraphrase from the sources, and all references to sources should include in-text parenthetical citations with a reference list at the end of the document. Sometimes, however, an instructor may require a separate literature review document and will have specific instructions for completing the assignment.

Below you will find general guidelines to consider when developing a literature review in the field of social work. Because social work is a social science field, you will most likely be required to use APA style. Please see our APA materials for information on creating parenthetical citations and reference lists.

1. Choose a variety of articles that relate to your subject, even if they do not directly answer your research question. You may find articles that loosely relate to the topic, rather than articles that you find using an exact keyword search. At first, you may need to cast a wide net when searching for sources.

For example: If your research question focuses on how people with chronic illnesses are treated in the workplace, you may be able to find some articles that address this specific question. You may also find literature regarding public perception of people with chronic illnesses or analyses of current laws affecting workplace discrimination.

2. Select the most relevant information from the articles as it pertains to your subject and your purpose. Remember, the purpose of the literature review is to demonstrate how your research question fits into a larger field of study.

3. Critically examine the articles. Look at methodology, statistics, results, theoretical framework, the author's purpose, etc. Include controversies when they appear in the articles.

For example: You should look for the strengths and weaknesses of how the author conducted the study. You can also decide whether or not the study is generalizable to other settings or whether the findings relate only to the specific setting of the study. Ask yourself why the author conducted the study and what he/she hoped to gain from the study. Look for inconsistencies in the results, as well.

4. Organize your information in the way that makes most sense. Some literature reviews may begin with a definition or general overview of the topic. Others may focus on another aspect of your topic. Look for themes in the literature or organize by types of study.

For example: Group case studies together, especially if all the case studies have related findings, research questions, or other similarities.

5. Make sure the information relates to your research question/thesis. You may need to explicitly show how the literature relates to the research question; don't assume that the connection is obvious.

6. Check to see that you have done more than simply summarize your sources. Your literature review should include a critical assessment of those sources. For more information, read the Experimental Psychology - Writing a Literature Review handout for questions to think about when reading sources.

7. Be sure to develop questions for further research. Again, you are not simply regurgitating information, but you are assessing and leading your reader to questions of your own, questions and ideas that haven't been explored yet or haven't been addressed in detail by the literature in the field.

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Helpful Resources for Social Work Literature Reviews

• Social Work Literature Review Guidelines Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) general guidelines to consider when developing a literature review in the field of social work
• Considerations in Writing a Literature Review From THE NEW SOCIAL WORKER, the social work careers magazine, this article will briefly outline key points for you to keep in mind when writing literature reviews for social work.
• Guidebook for Social Work Literature Reviews and Research Questions This short guidebook provides information about selecting a research topic and research questions, searching for literature, reading and understanding scholarly writing, and writing a literature review to synthesize what is known and what remains to be learned about a social problem.
• The Columbia Guide to Social Work Writing SBU Libraries Ebook. See the section on literature reviews in Chapter 2 'Writing Strategies for Academic Papers'
• Research Methods for Social Workers SBU Libraries Ebook. See Chapter 4 Literature Review

Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students

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Social Work Research Guide: Literature Review

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Literature Review Overview

NCSU. (n.d.). “Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students.” [YouTube]. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/t2d7y_r65HU

What is a literature review?

A literature review is a systematic review of the published literature on a specific topic or research question.  The literature review is designed to analyze-- not just summarize-- scholarly writings that are related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents the literature that provides background information on your topic and shows a correspondence between those writings and your research question.

University of Pittsburgh. (n.d.).  Retrieved from  http://pitt.libguides.com/c.php?g=210872&p=1391698

• Social Work Literature Review Guidelines

Planning your literature review

Planning your literature review.

Writing a literature review will take time to gather and analyze the research relevant to your topic, so it best to start early and give yourself enough time to gather and analyze your sources.  The process of writing a literature review usually covers the following steps:

• Define your Research question
• Plan your approach to your research and your review
• Search the Literature
• Analyze the material you’ve found
• Manage the results of your research
• Write your Review

Defining Your Research Question

One of the hardest parts of a literature review is developing a good research question.  You don't want a research question that is so broad it encompasses too many research areas and can't be reasonably answered. 

Defining your topic may require an initial review of literature to get a sense of the scope about your topic.   Select a topic of interest, and do a preliminary search to see what kinds of research is being done and what is trending in that area.  This will give you a better sense of the subject and help you focus your research question.

In specifying your topic or research question, you should think about setting appropriate limitations on the research you are seeking. Limiting, for example, by time, personnel, gender, age, location, nationality etc. results in a more focused and meaningful topic. 

Using an example from the Duke University Writing Studio, you may start with a general question: 

Why did the chicken cross the road ?  This question is so general that you could be gathering relevant research for days. 

A more precise research question might be: 

What are some of the environmental factors that occurred in New York City between November and December 2017 that would cause a chicken to cross Amsterdam Avenue at 185th Street?   This research question is specific about a number of variables like time, geography, etc.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature:

• Sources in your literature review do not clearly relate to the research problem
• You do not take sufficient time to define and identify the most relevant sources to use in the literature review related to the research problem
• Relying exclusively on secondary analytical sources rather than including relevant primary research studies or data
• Uncritically accepting another researcher's findings and interpretations as valid, rather than examining critically all aspects of the research design and analysis
• Not describing the search procedures that were used in identifying the literature to review
• Reporting isolated statistical results rather than synthesizing them in chi-squared or meta-analytic methods
• Only includes research that validates assumptions and not considering contrary findings and alternative interpretations found in the literature

USC. (n.d.). Retrieved from  http://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/literaturereview

• When working on a literature review, it's a good idea to save your research in a citation manager such as RefWorks or Zotero.
• If a book or article is not available in the YU Libraries, it can be ordered through Interlibrary Loan.  You should never need to pay for your information.
• The Dissertations & Theses Global database is a good place to start.  You will see what research has already been done on your topic.
• For more detailed information, see below:
• Systematic Literature Searching in Social Work: A Practical Guide with Database Appraisal
• Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples
• Literature Reviews (From UNC College of Arts & Sciences)
• The Literature Review: a Few Tips on Conducting It
• Conducting a Literature Review: A Brief Interactive Tutorial

Books on Literature Review

These books can be found on reserve at the Pollack Library:

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4.4 Qualitative research questions

Learning objectives.

• List the key terms associated with qualitative research questions
• Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research questions

Qualitative research questions differ from quantitative research questions. Because qualitative research questions seek to explore or describe phenomena, not provide a neat nomothetic explanation, they are often more general and vaguely worded. They may include only one concept, though many include more than one. Instead of asking how one variable causes changes in another, we are instead trying to understand the experiences , understandings , and meanings that people have about the concepts in our research question.

Let’s work through an example from our last section. In Table 4.1, a student asked, “What is the relationship between sexual orientation or gender identity and homelessness for late adolescents in foster care?” In this question, it is pretty clear that the student believes that adolescents in foster care who identify as LGBTQ may be at greater risk for homelessness. This is a nomothetic causal relationship—LGBTQ status causes homelessness.

However, what if the student were less interested in predicting homelessness based on LGBTQ status and more interested in understanding the stories of foster care youth who identify as LGBTQ and may be at risk for homelessness? In that case, the researcher would be building an idiographic causal explanation. The youths whom the researcher interviews may share stories of how their foster families, caseworkers, and others treated them. They may share stories about how they thought of their own sexuality or gender identity and how it changed over time. They may have different ideas about what it means to transition out of foster care.

Because qualitative questions usually look for idiographic causal explanationsthey look different than quantitative questions. (For a detailed discussion of idiographic causal explanations, see DeCarlo (2018), Chapter 7.2) .  Table 4.3 below takes the final research questions from Table 4.1 and adapts them for qualitative research. The guidelines for research questions previously described in this chapter still apply, but there are some new elements to qualitative research questions that are not present in quantitative questions. First, qualitative research questions often ask about lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories. These keywords indicate that you will be using qualitative methods. Second, qualitative research questions may be more general and less specific. Instead of asking how one concept causes another, we are asking about how people understand or feel about a concept. They may also contain only one variable, rather than asking about relationships between multiple variables.

Qualitative research questions have one final feature that distinguishes them from quantitative research questions. They can change over the course of a study. Qualitative research is a reflexive process, one in which the researcher adapts her approach based on what participants say and do. The researcher must constantly evaluate whether their question is important and relevant to the participants. As the researcher gains information from participants, it is normal for the focus of the inquiry to shift.

For example, a qualitative researcher may want to study how a new truancy rule impacts youth at risk of expulsion. However, after interviewing some of the youth in her community, a researcher might find that the rule is actually irrelevant to their behavior and thoughts. Instead, her participants will direct the discussion to their frustration with the school administrators or their family’s economic insecurity. This is a natural part of qualitative research, and it is normal for research questions and hypothesis to evolve based on the information gleaned from participants.

Key Takeaways

• Qualitative research questions often contain words like lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning, and stories.
• Qualitative research questions can change and evolve as the researcher conducts the study.

Image attributions

Empathy by  sean macentee   cc-by-2.0.

Guidebook for Social Work Literature Reviews and Research Questions Copyright © 2020 by Rebecca Mauldin and Matthew DeCarlo is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Frequently Asked Questions (And Answers) About Literature Reviews

• Literature Review FAQ
• Literature Review FAQ Videos

If you feel overwhelmed or confused about writing a literature review, you are not alone! Read on for some frequently asked questions about literature reviews...

What is a literature review?

Flip the words around and you have the beginning of your answer: a review of the literature.

“The literature”  means scholarly sources (mostly academic journal articles and books) conducted on a specific topic.

“Review”  means that you’ve read that work carefully in order to create a piece of writing that  organizes, summarizes, analyzes, and makes connections between sources , as well as  identifying areas of research still needed .

Why write a literature review?

A lit review can serve several purposes:

• Orient the reader to a topic of study  in order to validate the need for a new study.
• Reveal patterns or problems in previous research , which is its own kind of “finding” or result.

In primary research that includes the results of an experiment or fieldwork, it precedes the results and  sets up a later discussion of the results  in the context of previous findings.

What is the difference between a literature review and an annotated bibliography?

There is not just one way to write a literature review or an annotated bibliography, so differences vary. However,  one of the main differences is that an annotated bibliography is typically organized source by source —each one has its own paragraph of explanation, analysis, etc.

In a literature review, the   writing is organized thematically , often with multiple sources addressed in each paragraph, and there is an overarching narrative driving the review.

Although there are “bibliographic essays” that are essentially narratively-driven annotated bibliographies ,  in general  annotated bibliographies are a drafting step toward a more formal piece of writing , while a literature review is more likely to be that more formal piece itself.

Ok, what about the difference between a literature review and a research paper?

Here’s a secret: there’s no such thing as “A Research Paper.” There are papers that use research in many different ways, and a literature review is one of those ways. Typically, though, if your assignment is specifically to write a “literature review,” it may mean you are being asked to focus  less  on creating your own argument, driven by a thesis with research as supporting evidence, and more on  finding something to say based on the patterns and questions of the research you’ve read .

How should I organize a literature review?

Typically,  literature reviews are organized thematically , not chronologically or source by source. This means that you will need to identify several sub-topics and figure out how to group sources to tell a story in themes. Some sources may show up in multiple sections, and some sources will only appear once. For practical suggestions on how to organize, see  organizing a literature review (as of 3/23/20: in progress!).

How comprehensive should my review be?

This really depends on the assignment or type of literature review that you’re doing. Some reviews are quite extensive and aim to be “exhaustive,” looking at every article on a particular topic. Chances are, yours is not that. For guidance  you may want to ask your professor this question , or more specific questions like, “should I consider articles published more than 20 years ago? What about 10?” etc.

You may also want to consider  if it makes sense to narrow your focus to a particular region, demographic, or even type of study or article,  such as focusing on specific methods used.

Finally,  the scope of your review may also be influenced by the state of prior research . If you are exploring a relatively under-researched or interdisciplinary topic, you may draw from a broader and more diverse set of articles. If you are looking at something that has a well-established scholarly history, your focus will likely be much narrower.

How do I know if I’m “done” researching/haven’t missed anything?

The truth is, research is never “done.” But it’s true you have to come to a stopping point so you can write and finish your review! Here are a few tips for making this assessment:

• You see the same authors being cited over and over again in your sources and you have those sources, too . That can be a sign that you’ve hit on a particular scholarly conversation and identified most of the major voices in it.
• Ask a librarian to help you!  While librarians are great at finding sources, we can also help you determine if there are no more sources available to find. 
• Outline your review  and make sure that each section of your review is supported by adequate research. If you have sections that are much lighter than others, you may want to give those a second look.
• Make sure you’ve given yourself achievable parameters . If you feel like there are just thousands more articles on your exact topic, you may need to narrow yours down, or at least explain why you have selected certain articles instead of other, similar ones.
• Finally, don’t forget  to evaluate as you write . It’s likely that the writing process itself will help you determine whether you have the sources you need to achieve your goals.

A literature review can be challenging, and requires a lot of careful thinking as well as the steps of finding articles and writing. But with time, patience, and help, you can do it, and you'll be proud of the results once you're done.

Gallin-Parisi, A. (n.d.).  Social Science Research Skills . Coates Library: Trinity University.  https://libguides.trinity.edu/socialresearch/faq

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Further Reading

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Home > SOCIALWORK > Social Work Faculty Publications & Presentations > 79

Social Work Faculty Publications & Presentations

Guidebook for social work literature reviews and research questions.

Rebecca L. Mauldin Matthew DeCarlo

Document Type

This short guidebook provides information about selecting a research topic and research questions, searching for literature, reading and understanding scholarly writing, and writing a literature review to synthesize what is known and what remains to be learned about a social problem. For students who appreciate the availability of resources on the internet, it also provides links to additional materials. It can be used with its companion textbook, Foundations of Social Work Research by Rebecca L. Mauldin and Matthew DeCarlo, or as a stand-alone guide. [Visit the books’ Pressbooks page to download the OER in other formats or to access an updated web version of it. https://uta.pressbooks.pub/literaturereviewsforsocialworkresearch/]

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Mauldin, Rebecca L. and DeCarlo, Matthew, "Guidebook for Social Work Literature Reviews and Research Questions" (2022). Social Work Faculty Publications & Presentations . 79. https://mavmatrix.uta.edu/socialwork_facpubs/79

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Article Contents

Introduction, theoretical framing, disciplinarity, conventions and implicit codes, academic writing to teach practice-based writing, practice-based writing, a ‘writing intensive’ profession, writing as enacting practice, challenges and the experience of social workers, acknowledgements, writing as social work: thematic review of the literature.

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Lucy Rai, Gillian Ferguson, Lindsay Giddings, Writing as Social Work: Thematic Review of the Literature, The British Journal of Social Work , 2024;, bcae124, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcae124

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This article offers a thematic review of research and analysis of academic and practice-based social work writing. It aims to highlight specific challenges, arguing that support is needed in the development of writing as a core element of professional practice. Social work writing in the United Kingdom has been framed as a ‘problematic’, time-intensive activity [Lillis, T. (2023) ‘Professional written voice “in flux”: The case of social work’, Applied Linguistics Review , 14(3), pp. 615–41]. It records practice, but is also a vital tool for undertaking assessments, formulating professional judgements, decision making and multi-agency collaboration. However, the centrality of writing to social work practice is not reflected in the regulatory frameworks for the profession in the United Kingdom where it only appears in the context of ‘report writing’ and loosely ‘communication’. The discussion is contextualised within a theoretical framing of social work writing followed by a discussion of student writing and then writing in professional practice. The article addresses the themes related to academic writing of concerns about the quality of writing; disciplinarity; conventions and implicit codes; and challenges to teach professional writing. In relation to practice-based writing, the article addresses the themes of social work as a ‘writing intensive’ profession; writing as enacting practice; and the challenges and experience of social work writers.

This article provides a thematic review of research and analysis of academic and practice-based social work writing. This includes literature based on empirical research, practitioner reflections and theoretical analysis of existing literature publications, emerging primarily from the UK, the USA and Australia. Publications can broadly be divided into those focusing on student writing and practice-based writing. The review conformed to internationally accepted ethical guidelines ( BERA, 2018 ). The article draws on a body of work undertaken in the UK which culminated in the Writing in Professional Social Work Practice in a Changing Communicative Landscape (WiSP) project. WiSP was a three year, nationally funded UK-based research project which concluded its empirical phase in 2019. At the time of writing, it is the most extensive original research undertaken in the UK on social work writing. The study developed from over twenty years of research at The Open University investigating both student and practice-based writing in social work practice ( Rai, 2004 , 2006 , 2008 , 2012 , 2014 ; Lillis and Rai, 2012 ; Lillis et al. , 2012 ; Rai and Lillis, 2013 ; Lillis, 2017a , b ).

WiSP focused specifically on practice-based social work writing, gathering data from five local authorities in England which deliver services to children and families, generic adult care and adults’ mental health services. Data collected comprised eighty-one interviews with seventy-one social workers, field notes from ten weeks of observations, 483 days of social worker writing logs and 4,806 texts ( Lillis et al. , 2017 ; 2020 ). This project signalled ‘the need for educators and trainers to pay attention to professional writing within programmes of study and professional development, an aspect currently largely missing’ ( Lillis, 2017a , p. 47).

This article aims to raise awareness of the challenges and importance of practice-based social work writing with educators, policy makers and leaders within the context of social work practice. It contextualises current debates about the nature of social work writing and highlights the importance of embedding effective educational practices for social during their qualifying training and post-qualifying careers.

Theoretical perspectives that have informed this body of work include sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, writing for academic purposes and writing across the curriculum (WAC). The underlying theoretical model for the WiSP project was a social practices approach to writing, which recognises that writing is a socially and culturally situated communicative activity ( Lea and Street, 2006 ; Lillis, 2013 ; Lillis and Scott, 2007 ). Support for student writing has been influenced by several theoretical perspectives ranging from writing being an individual skill attributed to the writer, through to a complex, contextually and institutionally embedded social communication, as illustrated in Figure 1 .

Theoretical perspectives on writing adapted from Lea and Street (2006) and Lillis and Scott (2007) .

Literacy brokers based on Lillis (2017b , p. 636).

Figure 1 provides a relatively simple summary of three of the most influential approaches to academic writing addressed in this literature review. Overlaps exist, and within each there are different perspectives and applications. For example, the academic socialisation model includes WAC and writing in the disciplines, both of which have been highly influential within writing centres attached to higher education institutions in the USA. The social practices approach includes the concept of ‘academic literacies’, developed in the UK, but influenced by the theorisation of applying discourses on widening participation, diversity and social justice developed in the USA, South Africa and UK to academic writing ( Lillis and Scott, 2007 ). Whilst Figure 1 relates to theorisation of academic or student writing, the concept of writing as a social practice has also been applied to other forms of writing, including professional or workplace writing ( Lillis, 2023 ).

Student writing

Social work is a degree or postgraduate level academic and professional qualification; consequently, in the UK, during which students are assessed on their academic ability as well as their practice. Rai (2004 , 2006 , 2008 ) suggests that whilst students undertake practice-based writing as part of their practice learning, it is primarily the quality of their academic writing which is assessed. Rai and Lillis suggest that there are some elements of academic writing which can potentially help students develop their practice-based writing, but that these are often implicit. Social work programmes may not explicitly assess or teach students to transfer their academic writing skills to writing in a professional context ( Rai and Lillis, 2013 ). Practice-based writing presents significantly more complex and varied writing challenges. Social workers may not encounter or have an opportunity to learn the range of practice-based writing tasks required until after they have qualified.

Reported ‘poor quality’ of writing/concerns about writing

Longstanding concerns have been expressed about the quality of writing in social work ( Lillis et al. , 2017 ; 2020 ). Whilst such concerns are directed at both students and qualified social workers, there has been an implication that responsibility begins at recruitment and teaching stages. The validity of these concerns is not taken for granted in this article, but the commonality of this theme across the literature highlights the importance of social work writing as a focus when the effectiveness or safety of social practice is scrutinised.

Concerns about the quality of student writing, initially identified in the USA, focused on what has been described as a skills deficit model. Alter and Adkins wrote that the most serious deficiency has been in our students' declining ability to write ( Alter and Adkins, 2001 ). The same authors follow up study concluded that social work students have the most trouble with producing a writing sample that marshalled evidence in a clear and persuasive voice ( Alter and Adkins, 2006 ). Also in the USA, Waller expressed concern about the quality of social work student writing and proposed a model of developmental writing tasks and feedback to increase criticality and the use of voice in writing ( Waller et al. , 1996 ; Waller, 2000 ). Moor et al. (2012) , Kilgore et al. (2013) and Cronley and Kilgore (2016) all identified social work student writing as problematic and proposed more effective use of writing centres to directly support students or faculty staff and Woody et al. (2014) proposed a bespoke course to improve the quality of student writing.

In the UK, Nelson and Weatherald (2014) reflected a shift away from a skills deficit approach by identifying the need to prepare students for particular challenges of practice-based social work writing, suggesting that some students struggled with writing due to coming from a non-traditional educational background. Horton and Diaz similarly proposed interventions to address identified difficulties that students had with the effectiveness of their writing, specifically critical thinking ( Horton and Diaz, 2011 ). Increasingly, authors have foregrounded these more nuanced representations of the challenges of social work writing which move away from a deficit model. This is exemplified by Lillis and Rai, whose social practices approach questions the systemic responsibility of institutions, policies, managers and technologies all of which contribute to the quality and effectiveness of social work writing (e.g. Rai and Lillis, 2013 ; Rai, 2014 ). This body of work has been influential on thinking around social work writing, for example Jin et al. suggest that deficit approaches to student writing have disadvantaged students from non-traditional backgrounds, specifically those from ‘racial and socioeconomic minorities, specifically at historically black colleges and universities’ ( Jin et al. , 2016 , p. 464). Similarly, Christensen et al. (2017) recognised some of the complexities of social work writing, including the multidisciplinary theory base and the need to draw together theory and practice, both of which impact on the challenge of writing.

Educators appear to remain challenged by the most effective way to support students to develop the writing skills required for professional practice ( Lillis and Leedham, 2024 ). Social work programmes in the UK offer varied approaches which include a traditional study skills approach, through which writing is presumed to be a transferable skilled and taught generically. Some universities now have writing centres modelled on those in the USA which offer more of an academic socialisation approach which recognises the specific nature of writing in the discipline of social work. Applying an academic literacies approach to student writing would involve not only a recognition of the specific disciplinary nature of writing in social work, but engagement of educators in addressing the institutional, cultural and social factors which impact on students’ experiences of writing. In social work, one important area that has been explored is that of identity and reflective writing ( Rai, 2006 , 2010, 2012 , 2014 , 2021 ), both of which are addressed below.

The emergence of academic socialisation approaches, and latterly academic literacies, has resulted in theorisation of the specific writing conventions primarily within student writing (e.g. Rai, 2004 , 2006 ; Horton and Diaz, 2011 ; Jani and Mellinger, 2015 ) and academic social work writing for publication ( Heron and Murray, 2004 ). The concept of writing conventions refers to specific, normally implicit, ways in which students are expected to write. Examples include whether or not to use the first person, whether evidence can include personal or professional experiences and the structure of specific genres of writing such as essays, reports, case studies and portfolios ( Rai, 2014 , 2021 ). Social work has the complexity of drawing on a range of disciplines such as sociology, psychology and social policy, each with their own distinct writing conventions ( Rai, 2014 , 2021 ). As the discipline has evolved, social work has developed its own writing conventions, one important example being reflective writing. There is a particular challenge for students who have already developed writing skills in one discipline transferring these to social work where the conventions can be very different ( Rai, 2004 , 2006 , 2008 ).

They were keenly aware of the professional importance of being able to produce clear and well-constructed written English and felt that this was knowledge to which they were entitled as part of their preparation for professional practice. ( Nelson and Weatherald, 2014 , p. 116)

Embedded within the social practices approach is an understanding that students do not enter higher education on a level playing field. Individual social, educational, linguistic and cultural experiences and identities result in some students being able to interpret, consciously or unconsciously, the ‘rules of the game’ with greater ease ( Lillis, 2001 ). The concept of implicit conventions which need to be interpreted and understood in order to write successfully, also opens up debates around the best way to support students in developing their academic writing. The social practices approach encourages educators to broaden their approach so that students are not perceived as solely responsible for the quality of their writing. Strategies could include reflecting on the transparency of marking criteria, the nature of assessment tasks and the guidance and support offered to students. One specific example, provided by Rai (2021) is the use of ‘language and writing histories’ which enable students to reflect on and share their journey in developing writing skills in order to open up a conversation with educators which can address not only the writing demands of a particular discipline or assignment, but individual strengths and challenges such as native language use, identity and the way in which previous experiences and studies impact on their understanding of current writing ( Rai, 2021 , pp. 3 and 13).

Students from social groups historically excluded from higher education: these include students from working-class backgrounds, those who are older than 18 when they start a university course and students from a much wider range of cultural, linguistic and religious backgrounds. ( Lillis, 2001 , p. 16)

Lillis uses examples from her work with non-traditional student writers to illustrate how they are inclined to minimise or exclude aspects of ‘themselves’ which they perceive as being contrary to the social practice of essayist literacy in the university. ( Rai, 2008 , p. 110)

Such regulation of student writers’ voices and identities can be through the ways that knowledge is expected to be conveyed, such as the exclusion of writer’s own views, thoughts or experiences ( Lillis, 2001 , p. 83).

Rai draws on Lillis’s work in the context of social work students, focusing in particular on the ways in which writers struggle with the differences between essays and reflective writing (2004, 2006, 2008). Social work students are challenged by the specific disciplinary expectations of writing in social work. Their academic writing can include diverse text types, commonly including essays and reflective writing. Rai suggests that the differences in writing conventions between ‘reflective’ and ‘essay’ tasks can be very challenging, largely because such differences are not explicit. Rai identifies reflective writing as a specific genre with its own distinct expectations, but also as a learning tool intended to help students become more effective reflective practitioners. Non-traditional students can be particularly disadvantaged when they both need to learn the ’rules’ of academic writing and the sometimes-contradictory expectations of reflective writing ( Rai, 2006 ).

Writing on social work courses also has been researched in relation to how well it prepares students for writing as professionals, post qualification. Requirements and guidance on teaching practice-based writing in the UK social work curriculum is imprecise. Each of the four nations of the UK has a set of regulated education standards, which students must meet prior to qualification. Writing appears inconsistently across these standards, variously referred to as record keeping, report writing and a range of related professional skills, such as: demonstrating professional judgement; gathering, managing and evaluating information; and, communicating with service users, carers and other professionals, which includes writing as one of the forms of communication. Related competencies are also included which could be argued to contribute to effective writing, such as information sharing, using technology, using analysis and maintaining confidentiality ( Social Work England, 2021 ; Northern Ireland Social Care Council, 2015; Scottish Social Services Council, 2019 ; Social Care Wales, 2011).

Literature and research into teaching practice-based writing has primarily focused on writing in university, as opposed to the writing students undertake in their mandatory field practicum. Whilst writing is primarily assessed as ‘academic work’, the range of genres can include simulated reports and writing tasks which include reflections on practice or case summaries. Some authentic practice writing might be included in portfolios, which form an important part of the assessment of social work students’ practice competence. The practice writing itself, which can include documents such as anonymised extracts of case records, reports or assessments, meeting and supervision notes, are not directly assessed but referenced to as evidence of the student’s practice and referred to by the student and their supervisor portfolio commentary ( Rai and Lillis, 2013 , p. 362; Rai, 2014 ).

Despite the lack of systematic teaching of practice writing, students in this study identified transferable writing skills, such as selection of evidence, concise writing, analysis and reflection ( Rai and Lillis, 2013 , p. 359). Nelson and Weatherald evaluated a small-scale initiative which aimed to improve the ways in which social work programmes could better prepare students for practice writing. The authors suggest that in part practice-based writing in social work is challenging as it requires students to write about complex situations which ‘… involves careful use of the past and present tense, ability to express degrees of certainty and provisionality, accurate use of negative and adjectival forms, and subtle and sensitive use of vocabulary’ (2014, p. 116). This illustrates the close relationship between the technical skills of writing and the cognitive processes involved in practice-based writing, such as collecting evidence, synthesis of information and the ability to write rhetorically, or persuasively. In academic writing, rhetorical writing takes the form of developing a persuasive argument to address a question. In professional practice the purpose of rhetorical writing is to achieve an outcome based on evidence and the author’s professional view ( Rai, 2021 , pp. 57–58). This final element of practice-based writing emerges as an important and challenging element of practice-based writing.

The second part of this article considers themes arising from literature on writing in professional social work practice. Such writing is undertaken during practice placements and then after qualification where it forms a core element of social work practice. The discussion is organised into three areas:

Challenges and experience

Drawing on Brandt (2005) , Lillis refers to social work as a ‘writing intensive’ profession. This is defined as a profession where 30 per cent of time is spent on writing or preparing for writing, pointing to professions where writing is explicitly a core part of the work (2017a, p. 47). Table 1 outlines the typology of writing functions identified by Lillis. The WiSP research evidenced that the amount of time spent writing ranged from 50 per cent, based on social workers daily logs, but up to 95 per cent based on researcher observations ( Lillis, 2023 , p. 4), placing it clearly within Brandt’s characterisation, despite the International Federation of Social Workers global definition of social work as a ‘practice based’ profession in which ‘practice spans a range of activities including various forms of therapy and counselling, group work and community work; policy formulation and analysis; and advocacy and political interventions’ ( IFSW, 2024 ). The significance of writing is also not clearly signalled in the social work professional standards across the UK. These standards primarily refer to writing as ‘records/recording’ or ‘reports/reporting’ ( Northern Ireland Social Care Council, 2019 ; Scottish Social Services Council, 2019 ; Social Work England, 2019 ; Social Care Wales, 2022 ). In reality, social workers write a diverse range of text types as a core element of their professional role. The result is that whilst writing is a core element of social work practice, it is not identified as such in the professional standards. As suggested by Lillis, it is ‘central whilst invisible’ (2023, p. 6).

The WiSP research indicates that there has been an increased ‘textualisation’ of social work, or in other words that the emphasis and role of writing has increased as an element of practice ( Lillis, 2023 , p. 3). The WiSP research illustrates the way in which actions in social work practice are intrinsically associated with writing. The characterisation of social work as a ‘writing intensive profession’ ( Lillis, 2017a , 2023 ) is also supported by the range and complexity of texts as well as the time spent writing. Lillis (2017a , b ) identified eleven functions of practice-based writing and provided examples of text types drawn from children, adult and mental health services. This analysis illustrates the range of texts that social workers write, each differing with regard to the purpose, intended audience and method of writing, including handwritten, digital forms with prescribed fields and free text formats including emails and meeting notes.

Lillis et al. narrowed this list down to the four key genres of case notes, assessment reports, emails and handwritten notes. These were identified as ‘key’ as they were the most commonly used and were relevant to all service user groups of children, adults and mental health ( Lillis, 2017a , b , p. 34).

Social work writing involves more than keeping an accurate record of facts. Writing in social work is a ‘high stakes’ activity ( Lillis, 2017b , p. 485); life changing decisions rely on documents such as assessments and court reports. It is through written documents that social workers enact their practice based on their professional training and judgements. Documents often do not stand alone but have connections to other contemporaneous diverse text types as well as documents mapped across time, which are not necessarily clear or linear. The WiSP research gathered data which illustrates this concept of ‘text trajectories’ ( Lillis, 2017b ). These text trajectories reflect the complexity of the lives of individuals and families with whom social workers practice.

Description and analysis are often talked about as if the difference were absolutely clear but as we’ve already discussed, careful description is what social workers are often expected to produce—and careful description always involves analysis, even if this is implied rather than made explicit. ( Balkow and Lillis, 2019 , p. 15)

The immediate contexts of production; theirs (and others) specific histories of language use; their sense of agency as professional social workers and the discourses that may enact such agency; and, importantly. their imagining of how both real (e.g. a particular manager reading a report, a particular service user) and imagined addresses (e.g. more abstract entities, such as the “courts”) may engage with such texts. ( Lillis, 2017b , p. 621)

Social work documentation also includes the voices of service users, carers, family members and other professionals, or the representation of these voices mediated through the social worker writers. This process of mediating the meaning of texts is described as ‘literacy brokering’ ( Curry and Lillis, 2013 , p. 371). Literacy brokers are contributors to a final document who may not be visible or primary authors. Lillis suggests that there are differences in the visibility, power and agency of contributors, some of which depend on the nature and purpose of the document.

In the three examples of texts provided by Lillis (2017b ), she explains that whilst the social worker was the visible author, or ‘lead orchestrator’, others contributed in different ways as ‘literacy brokers’ and each had different levels of power, visibility and involvement. Figure 2 summarises the different brokers that Lillis identifies in texts. The Institutional broker had the greatest level of power as the person able to sign off the documents. The practice expertise broker brought specialist knowledge or experience relating to a specific area of practice, in this case a family support worker who had worked closely with the family. The discoursal expertise broker brought specialist knowledge of how to construct a text with a specific rhetorical function, in this case, an application for a specific welfare benefit. The final broker, not directly identified in Lillis (2017b ), are the service user and their family, who may also be ‘unpaid carers’ ( Oldridge and Larkin, 2020 ).

In addition to the literacy brokers, documents have different addressees, or potential intended readers, who also vary in terms of their visibility and time of access to the document. Lillis suggests that addressees can be primary or secondary, the latter unpredictable in terms of if and when they may read a document.

Lillis (2017b ) suggests that whilst the expression of a professional view was expected by managers, social workers also expressed caution about including their views in writing. This caution arose from social workers experiencing their own individual judgements as being secondary to the position of the agency, which they represented. As a result, the study found that writers sometimes ‘hedged’ their own judgement or ensured that clear and direct evidence was given to support views expressed ( Lillis, 2017b , p. 505).

The findings of the WiSP project illustrate the complexity of practice-based social work writing in terms of the diversity of texts, the multiple voices contributing to the drafting of documents and the immediate and potential readers. Table 2 and Table 3 provide examples that show the nuances of social work writing for different audiences. Findings that are still emerging have also continued the work of Rai and Lillis (2013) on the expression of professional judgement and its role in combining descriptive and analytical writing. Through ‘text-orientated ethnography’ ( Lillis, 2017a , b ), the WiSP project also focused on the lived experience and challenges for social workers of producing professional documents.

I would like to be able to actually focus on the direct work which is the reason I came into social work, and not you know walk away because I can’t give you the quality that I want—And it’s within that scenario I really would like to know you. There’s too many limitations because, you know, I’ve got to also get this written up. ( Lillis et al. , 2020 , p. 468)

Lillis et al. also use the concept of ‘textual time’ (2020, p. 36 based on Smith, 2005 ) to explore the way in which writing is treated as an institutionally significant measurement of time. This arises in part from the accountability function of writing in social work, for example, case recoding evidencing that practice was actioned in line with statutory and agency requirements. The pervasive relationship between texts and timescales also reflects the way in which written documents often become a measure of work that is done. In simple terms, the level of activity of a social worker is measured by the texts that are written. This creates a tension for practitioners between time spent in direct contact with service users or other colleagues risks becoming invisible and texts produced which evidence ‘action’ ( Lillis et al. , 2017 ; 2020 , p. 36). Where writing becomes driven by institutional accountability demands it risks becoming ‘defensive’, with the purpose distorted so that the priority becomes evidencing institutional requirements rather than responding to the needs of service users ( Balkow and Lillis, 2019 ).

Bureaucratisation of documentation in social work has also been driven by digital technology. White et al. (2009) reported on findings from a research study in England into the impact of the introduction of digital technologies to assessment in children’s services through the ‘common assessment framework’. The study suggested that the content of assessments was being driven by the technology and institutional demands, resulting in social worker professional judgement being curbed. Since this study, digital systems used in social work have developed, arguably now taking more account of both local agency requirements, practitioner and managerial perspectives. Holland reminds us that regardless of whether documentation is digital or not, ‘the recording of assessment work on standard forms constitutes an intervention in the assessment process that is not neutral’ ( Holland, 2011 , p. 25). Lillis et al. (2020) identifies the centrality of ICT systems for formal documentation despite social workers choices to also use a range of other writing technologies, including handwritten notes, in part arising from a desire to maintain more agency over their writing ( Lillis et al. , 2020 , p. 474).

Writing in social work is central to practice but remains marginal in social work education and lacking a clear focus in UK professional standards. Whilst there has been some research into academic writing in social work, the WiSP project is one of the only national studies into professional writing in social work. This thematic review of writing across academic and practice domains highlights some important issues for educators, policy makers and practitioners. First, writing is a skill which needs to be developed both during qualifying training and beyond into practice. This requires clarity embedded in standards for social work education about the role of writing within social work practice and expectations of students and early career practitioners in developing this area of their practice. The WiSP findings suggest that practice writing is often experienced negatively; as an unwelcome demand, a distraction from ‘real practice’ and as a bureaucratic necessity. Despite the frustrations, the reality is that writing does much more than document practice. It is through writing that assessments are undertaken and reported, recommendations and decisions are made and daily practice is recorded. Writing constructs current decisions and documents service users’ lives which may inform reviews and are retained as future life histories. At the centre of all documentation is a life, a person for whom the documentation writes their life, creates opportunities, opens and closes doors and creates a history.

Everything about social work writing should reflect the views, voices and experiences of the people who are being written about. Writing should be respectful, and respect peoples’ differences including any protected characteristics, preferences, interests and identities. Written products should be usable and understandable by all relevant stakeholders that need to access it. ‘Nothing about us without us’ is applicable to all aspects of social work writing. (WiSP Team, 2023 )

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Conflict of interest statement . None declared.

Functions of everyday practice-based writing.

Lillis et al. (2017  p. 33).

Addressees example 1: Court report.

(Developed from Lillis et al. 2017 ).

Addressees example 2: Application for a welfare benefit.

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