bibliography means in research

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper

Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.

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• If your assignment calls for a bibliography, list all the sources you consulted in your research.
• If your assignment calls for a works cited or references page, include only the sources you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or mention in your paper.
• If your works cited page includes a source that you did not cite in your paper, delete it.
• All in-text citations that you used at the end of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases to credit others for their ideas,words, and work must be accompanied by a cited reference in the bibliography or works cited. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from.The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was published.

The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.

A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.

Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.

Bibliography Entry for a Book

A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:

Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.

• A book with one author : Hartz, Paula.  Abortion: A Doctor’s Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma . New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc., 1992.
• A book with two or more authors : Landis, Jean M. and Rita J. Simon.  Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?  New York: HarperCollins, 1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format:  Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

• Article in a monthly magazine : Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P. Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.”  Psychology Today  March 1978: 94–106.
• Article in a weekly magazine : Schwartz, Felice N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.”  Newsweek  20 July 2006: 21–22.
• Signed newspaper article : Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order: Finding Relative Calm.”  The Daily News  30 June 1998: 73.
• Unsigned newspaper article : “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest Egg.”  Chicago Tribune  21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.

Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”  Pet Place . 10 November 2006.  23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >

After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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Harvard Guide to Using Sources 

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• Bibliography

If you are using Chicago style footnotes or endnotes, you should include a bibliography at the end of your paper that provides complete citation information for all of the sources you cite in your paper. Bibliography entries are formatted differently from notes. For bibliography entries, you list the sources alphabetically by last name, so you will list the last name of the author or creator first in each entry. You should single-space within a bibliography entry and double-space between them. When an entry goes longer than one line, use a hanging indent of .5 inches for subsequent lines. Here’s a link to a sample bibliography that shows layout and spacing . You can find a sample of note format here .

Complete note vs. shortened note

Here’s an example of a complete note and a shortened version of a note for a book:

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), 27-35.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated , 27-35.

Note vs. Bibliography entry

The bibliography entry that corresponds with each note is very similar to the longer version of the note, except that the author’s last and first name are reversed in the bibliography entry. To see differences between note and bibliography entries for different types of sources, check this section of the Chicago Manual of Style .

For Liquidated , the bibliography entry would look like this:

Ho, Karen, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009.

Citing a source with two or three authors

If you are citing a source with two or three authors, list their names in your note in the order they appear in the original source. In the bibliography, invert only the name of the first author and use “and” before the last named author.

1. Melissa Borja and Jacob Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees,” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17, no. 3 (2019): 80-81, https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983 .

Shortened note:

1. Borja and Gibson, “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics,” 80-81.

Bibliography:

Borja, Melissa, and Jacob Gibson. “Internationalism with Evangelical Characteristics: The Case of Evangelical Responses to Southeast Asian Refugees.” The Review of Faith & International Affairs 17. no. 3 (2019): 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/15570274.2019.1643983 .

Citing a source with more than three authors

If you are citing a source with more than three authors, include all of them in the bibliography, but only include the first one in the note, followed by et al. ( et al. is the shortened form of the Latin et alia , which means “and others”).

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department Discharge in Older Adults,” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020): 1271.

Short version of note:

1. Justine M. Nagurney, et al., “Risk Factors for Disability,” 1271.

Nagurney, Justine M., Ling Han, Linda Leo‐Summers, Heather G. Allore, Thomas M. Gill, and Ula Hwang. “Risk Factors for Disability After Emergency Department Discharge in Older Adults.” Academic Emergency Medicine 27, no. 12 (2020): 1270–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/acem.14088 .

Citing a book consulted online

If you are citing a book you consulted online, you should include a URL, DOI, or the name of the database where you found the book.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), 27-35, https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371 .

Bibliography entry:

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. https://doi-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/10.1215/9780822391371 .

Citing an e-book consulted outside of a database

If you are citing an e-book that you accessed outside of a database, you should indicate the format. If you read the book in a format without fixed page numbers (like Kindle, for example), you should not include the page numbers that you saw as you read. Instead, include chapter or section numbers, if possible.

1. Karen Ho, Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street (Durham: Duke University Press, 2009), chap. 2, Kindle.

Ho, Karen. Liquidated: An Ethnography of Wall Street . Durham: Duke University Press, 2009. Kindle.

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What Is a Bibliography?

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A bibliography is a list of books, scholarly  articles , speeches, private records, diaries, interviews, laws, letters, websites, and other sources you use when researching a topic and writing a paper. The bibliography appears at the end.

The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to authors whose work you've consulted in your research. It also makes it easy for a reader to find out more about your topic by delving into the research that you used to write your paper. In the academic world, papers aren't written in a vacuum; academic journals are the way new research on a topic circulates and previous work is built upon.

Bibliography entries must be written in a very specific format, but that format will depend on the particular style of writing you follow. Your teacher or publisher will tell you which style to use, and for most academic papers it will be either MLA , American Psychological Association (APA), Chicago (author-date citations or footnotes/endnotes format), or Turabian style .

The bibliography is sometimes also called the references, works cited, or works consulted page.

Components of a Bibliography Entry

Bibliography entries will compile:

• Authors and/or editors (and translator, if applicable)
• Title of your source (as well as edition, volume, and the book title if your source is a chapter or article in a multi-author book with an editor)
• Publication information (the city, state, name of the publisher, date published, page numbers consulted, and URL or DOI, if applicable)
• Access date, in the case of online sources (check with the style guide at the beginning of your research as to whether you need to track this information)

Order and Formatting

Your entries should be listed in alphabetical order by the last name of the first author. If you are using two publications that are written by the same author, the order and format will depend on the style guide.

In MLA, Chicago, and Turabian style, you should list the duplicate-author entries in alphabetical order according to the title of the work. The author's name is written as normal for his or her first entry, but for the second entry, you will replace the author's name with three long dashes. 

In APA style, you list the duplicate-author entries in chronological order of publication, placing the earliest first. The name of the author is used for all entries.

For works with more than one author, styles vary as to whether you invert the name of any authors after the first. Whether you use title casing or sentence-style casing on titles of sources, and whether you separate elements with commas or periods also varies among different style guides. Consult the guide's manual for more detailed information.

Bibliography entries are usually formatted using a hanging indent. This means that the first line of each citation is not indented, but subsequent lines of each citation are indented. Check with your instructor or publication to see if this format is required, and look up information in your word processor's help program if you do not know how to create a hanging indent with it.

Chicago's Bibliography vs. Reference System

Chicago has two different ways of citing works consulted: using a bibliography or a references page. Use of a bibliography or a references page depends on whether you're using author-date parenthetical citations in the paper or footnotes/endnotes. If you're using parenthetical citations, then you'll follow the references page formatting. If you're using footnotes or endnotes, you'll use a bibliography. The difference in the formatting of entries between the two systems is the location of the date of the cited publication. In a bibliography, it goes at the end of an entry. In a references list in the author-date style, it goes right after the author's name, similar to APA style.

• What Is a Citation?
• What Is a Senior Thesis?
• Bibliography: Definition and Examples
• Formatting Papers in Chicago Style
• Turabian Style Guide With Examples
• MLA Bibliography or Works Cited
• How to Write a Bibliography For a Science Fair Project
• APA In-Text Citations
• MLA Sample Pages
• How to Use Block Quotations in Writing
• Writing a History Book Review
• What Is a Style Guide and Which One Do You Need?
• Definition of Appendix in a Book or Written Work
• MLA Style Parenthetical Citations
• Bibliography, Reference List or Works Cited?
• Tips for Typing an Academic Paper on a Computer

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• Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Published on 1 May 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 7 November 2022.

In Harvard style , the bibliography or reference list provides full references for the sources you used in your writing.

• A reference list consists of entries corresponding to your in-text citations .
• A bibliography sometimes also lists sources that you consulted for background research, but did not cite in your text.

The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. If in doubt about which to include, check with your instructor or department.

The information you include in a reference varies depending on the type of source, but it usually includes the author, date, and title of the work, followed by details of where it was published. You can automatically generate accurate references using our free reference generator:

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Table of contents

Formatting a harvard style bibliography, harvard reference examples, referencing sources with multiple authors, referencing sources with missing information, frequently asked questions about harvard bibliographies.

Sources are alphabetised by author last name. The heading ‘Reference list’ or ‘Bibliography’ appears at the top.

Each new source appears on a new line, and when an entry for a single source extends onto a second line, a hanging indent is used:

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Reference list or bibliography entries always start with the author’s last name and initial, the publication date and the title of the source. The other information required varies depending on the source type. Formats and examples for the most common source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal without DOI
• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Newspapers and magazines

• Newspaper article
• Magazine article

When a source has up to three authors, list all of them in the order their names appear on the source. If there are four or more, give only the first name followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sometimes a source won’t list all the information you need for your reference. Here’s what to do when you don’t know the publication date or author of a source.

Some online sources, as well as historical documents, may lack a clear publication date. In these cases, you can replace the date in the reference list entry with the words ‘no date’. With online sources, you still include an access date at the end:

When a source doesn’t list an author, you can often list a corporate source as an author instead, as with ‘Scribbr’ in the above example. When that’s not possible, begin the entry with the title instead of the author:

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:

• (Smith, 2019a)
• (Smith, 2019b)

Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .

To create a hanging indent for your bibliography or reference list :

• Highlight all the entries
• Click on the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the ‘Paragraph’ tab in the top menu.
• In the pop-up window, under ‘Special’ in the ‘Indentation’ section, use the drop-down menu to select ‘Hanging’.
• Then close the window with ‘OK’.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 29 April 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-bibliography/

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Jack Caulfield

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31 Bibliography

Annotated bibliography.

A  bibliography  is an alphabetized list of sources showing the author, date, and publication information for each source.

An  annotation  is like a note; it’s a brief paragraph that explains what the writer learned from the source.

Annotated bibliographies combine bibliographies and brief notes about the sources.

Writers often create annotated bibliographies as a part of a research project, as a means of recording their thoughts and deciding which sources to actually use to support the purpose of their research. Some writers include annotated bibliographies at the end of a research paper as a way of offering their insights about the source’s usability to their readers.

Instructors in college often assign annotated bibliographies as a means of helping students think through their source’s quality and appropriateness to their research question or topic.  (23)

Formatting the Annotated Bibliography

The  citations  (bibliographic information – title, date, author, publisher, etc.) in the annotated bibliography are formatted using the particular style manual (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) that your discipline requires.

Annotations  are written in paragraph form, usually 3-7 sentences (or 80-200 words). Depending on your assignment your annotations will generally include the following:

• Summary:  Summarize the information given in the source. Note the intended audience. What are the main arguments? What is the point of this book or article? What topics are covered? If someone asked what this article/book is about, what would you say?
• Evaluate/Assess:  Is this source credible? Who wrote it? What are their credentials? Who is the publisher? Is it a useful source? How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography? Is the information reliable? Is this source biased or objective? What is the goal of this source?
• Reflect/React:  Once you’ve summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into your research. State your reaction and any additional questions you have about the information in your source. Was this source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your argument? How can you use this source in your research project? Has it changed how you think about your topic? Compare each source to other sources in your annotated bibliography in terms of its usefulness and thoroughness in helping answer your research question.  (24)

Annotated Bibliography Examples

In the following examples, the bold font indicates the reflection component of the annotation that is sometimes required in an assignment.

APA style 6  th  edition for the journal citation:

Waite, L. J., Goldschneider, F. K., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily living and the erosion of traditional family orientations among young adults.  American Sociological Review  , 51, 541-554.

The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families.  In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.  (25)

MLA 8 style for a website citation:

Anderson, L.V. “Can You Libel Someone on Twitter?” Slate.com, The Slate Group, A Graham Holdings. Company, 26 Nov. 2012, http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/explainer/2012/11/libel_on_twitter_you_can_be_sued_for_libel_for_what_you_write_on_facebook.html . Accessed 2 Apr. 2018.

This article provides an overview of defamation law in the United States compared to the United Kingdom, in layman’s terms. It also explains how defamation law applies to social media platforms and individuals who use social media. Libelous comments posted on social media can be subject to lawsuit, depending on the content of the statement, and whether the person is a public or private figure. The article is found on the website, Slate.com, which is a web-based daily magazine that focuses on general interest topics. While the writer’s credentials are unavailable, she does thank Sandra S. Baron, Executive Director of the Media Law Resource Center and Jeff Hermes, director of the Digital Media Law Project for providing information. She also links to the United States laws that she cites.  I would use the article to compare United States law to United Kingdom law and for background information.  (1)

Information creation is a process. Scholars produce information in the forms of peer-reviewed journal articles, books, and conference presentations, to name a few. As a student researcher, you will be expected to create research projects such as essays, reports, visual presentations, and annotated bibliographies. Most scholarly writing makes an argument—whether it is to persuade your readers that your claim is true or to act on it. In order to create a sound argument, you must gather sources that will argue and counter-argue your claims.

When creating an argument, the researcher typically organizes their report or presentation with the claim/thesis at the beginning, which answers their research question. Then they provide reasons and supporting evidence to validate their claim. They acknowledge and respond to counter-arguments by citing sources that disagree with them, and refuting or conceding those counter-claims. Their conclusion restates their thesis and discusses why their research is important to the scholarly conversation, as well as potential areas for further research.

A Roman numeral outline is one way to organize your argument before you begin writing. It helps to identify sources for each section of your outline, so you know if you need further research to support your argument.

An annotated bibliography is one way to present research, and can be used as a cumulative assignment, or a precursor to your actual research paper. A good annotated bibliography will provide a variety of sources that met all your research needs—background, evidence, argument, and method. In other words, you should be able to take your annotated bibliography and write a complete research report based on those sources.  (1)

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• Rohan Reddy 4 ,
• Samuel Sorkhi 4 ,
• Saager Chawla 4 &
• Mahadevan Raj Rajasekaran 5  

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This chapter describes the fundamental principles and practices of referencing sources in scientific writing and publishing. Understanding plagiarism and improper referencing of the source material is paramount to producing original work that contains an authentic voice. Citing references helps authors to avoid plagiarism, give credit to the original author, and allow potential readers to refer to the legitimate sources and learn more information. Furthermore, quality references serve as an invaluable resource that can enlighten future research in a field. This chapter outlines fundamental aspects of referencing as well as how these sources are formatted as per recommended citation styles. Appropriate referencing is an important tool that can be utilized to develop the credibility of the author and the arguments presented. Additionally, online software can be useful in helping the author organize their sources and promote proper collaboration in scientific writing.

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Reddy, R., Sorkhi, S., Chawla, S., Rajasekaran, M.R. (2023). How to Create a Bibliography. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_39

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Bibliography and Historical Research

Introduction.

• National Bibliography
• Personal Bibliography
• Corporate Bibliography
• Subject Bibliography
• Searching the Catalog for Bibliographies
• Browsing the Catalog for Bibliographies
• Other Tools for Finding Bibliographies
• Return to HPNL Website

Ask a Librarian

This guide created by Geoffrey Ross, May 4, 2017.

A bibliography is a list of documents, usually published documents like books and articles. This type of bibliography is more accurately called "enumerative bibliography". An enumerative bibliography will attempt to be as comprehensive as possible, within whatever parameters established by the bibliographer.

Bibliographies will list both secondary and primary sources. They are perhaps most valuable to historians for identifying primary sources. (They are still useful for finding secondary sources, but increasingly historians rely on electronic resources, like article databases, to locate secondary sources.)

Think of a bibliography as a guide to the source base for a specific field of inquiry. A high quality bibliography will help you understand what kinds of sources are available, but also what kinds of sources are not available (either because they were never preserved, or because they were never created in the first place).

Take for example the following bibliography:

• British Autobiographies: An Annotated Bibliography of British Autobiographies Published or Written before 1951 by William Matthews Call Number: 016.920041 M43BR Publication Date: 1955

Like many bibliographies, this one includes an introduction or prefatory essay that gives a bibliographic overview of the topic. If you were hoping to use autobiographies for a paper on medieval history, the following information from the preface would save you from wasting your time in a fruitless search:

The essay explains that autobiography does not become an important historical source until the early modern period:

Finally, the essay informs us that these early modern autobiographies are predominantly religious in nature--a useful piece of information if we were hoping to use them as evidence of, for example, the early modern textile trade:

All bibliographies are organized differently, but the best include indexes that help you pinpoint the most relevant entries.

A smart researcher will also use the index to obtain an overview of the entire source base: the index as a whole presents a broad outline of the available sources--the extent of available sources, as well as the the strengths and weaknesses of the source base. Browsing the subject index, if there is one, is often an excellent method of choosing a research topic because it enables you quickly to rule out topics that cannot be researched due to lack of primary sources.

The index to British Autobiographies , for example, tells me that I can find many autobiographies that document British social clubs (like White's and Boodle's), especially from the 19th century:

Unlike indexes you might be familiar with from non-fiction books, the indexes in bibliographies usually reference specific entries, not page numbers.

A bibliography's index will often help guide you systematically through the available sources, as in this entry which prompts you to look under related index entries for even more sources:

There are four main types of enumerative bibliography used for historical research:

Click here to learn more about bibliography as a discipline .

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• Last Updated: Jan 4, 2023 2:21 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.illinois.edu/bibliography

Citation Guide

• What is a Citation?
• Citation Generator
• Chicago/Turabian Style
• Paraphrasing and Quoting
• Examples of Plagiarism

What is a Bibliography?

What is an annotated bibliography, introduction to the annotated bibliography.

• Writing Center
• Writer's Reference Center
• Helpful Tutorials
• the authors' names
• the titles of the works
• the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources
• the dates your copies were published
• the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

Ok, so what's an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is the same as a bibliography with one important difference: in an annotated bibliography, the bibliographic information is followed by a brief description of the content, quality, and usefulness of the source. For more, see the section at the bottom of this page.

What are Footnotes?

Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page. They cite references or comment on a designated part of the text above it. For example, say you want to add an interesting comment to a sentence you have written, but the comment is not directly related to the argument of your paragraph. In this case, you could add the symbol for a footnote. Then, at the bottom of the page you could reprint the symbol and insert your comment. Here is an example:

This is an illustration of a footnote. 1 The number “1” at the end of the previous sentence corresponds with the note below. See how it fits in the body of the text? 1 At the bottom of the page you can insert your comments about the sentence preceding the footnote.

When your reader comes across the footnote in the main text of your paper, he or she could look down at your comments right away, or else continue reading the paragraph and read your comments at the end. Because this makes it convenient for your reader, most citation styles require that you use either footnotes or endnotes in your paper. Some, however, allow you to make parenthetical references (author, date) in the body of your work.

Footnotes are not just for interesting comments, however. Sometimes they simply refer to relevant sources -- they let your reader know where certain material came from, or where they can look for other sources on the subject. To decide whether you should cite your sources in footnotes or in the body of your paper, you should ask your instructor or see our section on citation styles.

Where does the little footnote mark go?

Whenever possible, put the footnote at the end of a sentence, immediately following the period or whatever punctuation mark completes that sentence. Skip two spaces after the footnote before you begin the next sentence. If you must include the footnote in the middle of a sentence for the sake of clarity, or because the sentence has more than one footnote (try to avoid this!), try to put it at the end of the most relevant phrase, after a comma or other punctuation mark. Otherwise, put it right at the end of the most relevant word. If the footnote is not at the end of a sentence, skip only one space after it.

What's the difference between Footnotes and Endnotes?

The only real difference is placement -- footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page, while endnotes all appear at the end of your document. If you want your reader to read your notes right away, footnotes are more likely to get your reader's attention. Endnotes, on the other hand, are less intrusive and will not interrupt the flow of your paper.

If I cite sources in the Footnotes (or Endnotes), how's that different from a Bibliography?

Sometimes you may be asked to include these -- especially if you have used a parenthetical style of citation. A "works cited" page is a list of all the works from which you have borrowed material. Your reader may find this more convenient than footnotes or endnotes because he or she will not have to wade through all of the comments and other information in order to see the sources from which you drew your material. A "works consulted" page is a complement to a "works cited" page, listing all of the works you used, whether they were useful or not.

Isn't a "works consulted" page the same as a "bibliography," then?

Well, yes. The title is different because "works consulted" pages are meant to complement "works cited" pages, and bibliographies may list other relevant sources in addition to those mentioned in footnotes or endnotes. Choosing to title your bibliography "Works Consulted" or "Selected Bibliography" may help specify the relevance of the sources listed.

This information has been freely provided by plagiarism.org and can be reproduced without the need to obtain any further permission as long as the URL of the original article/information is cited. 

How Do I Cite Sources? (n.d.) Retrieved October 19, 2009, from http://www.plagiarism.org/plag_article_how_do_i_cite_sources.html

The Importance of an Annotated Bibliography

An Annotated Bibliography is a collection of annotated citations. These annotations contain your executive notes on a source. Use the annotated bibliography to help remind you of later of the important parts of an article or book. Putting the effort into making good notes will pay dividends when it comes to writing a paper!

Good Summary

Being an executive summary, the annotated citation should be fairly brief, usually no more than one page, double spaced.

• Focus on summarizing the source in your own words.
• Avoid direct quotations from the source, at least those longer than a few words. However, if you do quote, remember to use quotation marks. You don't want to forget later on what is your own summary and what is a direct quotation!
• If an author uses a particular term or phrase that is important to the article, use that phrase within quotation marks. Remember that whenever you quote, you must explain the meaning and context of the quoted word or text. 

Research Process: Bibliographic Information

• Selecting a Topic
• Background Information
• Narrowing the Topic
• Library Terms
• Generating Keywords
• Boolean Operators
• Search Engine Strategies
• Google Searching
• Basic Internet Terms
• Research & The Web
• Search Engines
• Evaluating Books
• Evaluating Articles
• Evaluating Websites

Bibliographic Information

• Off Campus Access
• Periodical Locator

What is a bibliography?

A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or consulted to write a research paper, book or article. It can also be referred to as a list of works cited. It is usually found at the end of a book, article or research paper. 

Gathering Information

Regardless of what citation style is being used, there are key pieces of information that need to be collected in order to create the citation.

For books and/or journals:

• Author name
• Title of publication 
• Article title (if using a journal)
• Date of publication
• Place of publication
• Volume number of a journal, magazine or encyclopedia
• Page number(s)

For websites:

• Author and/or editor name
• Title of the website
• Company or organization that owns or posts to the website
• URL (website address)
• Date of access 

This section provides two examples of the most common cited sources: a print book and an online journal retrieved from a research database. 

Book - Print

For print books, bibliographic information can be found on the  TITLE PAGE . This page has the complete title of the book, author(s) and publication information.

The publisher information will vary according to the publisher - sometimes this page will include the name of the publisher, the place of publication and the date.

For this example :  Book title: HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible Author: Steven M. Schafer Publisher: Wiley Publications, Inc.

If you cannot find the place or date of publication on the title page, refer to the  COPYRIGHT PAGE  for this information. The copyright page is the page behind the title page, usually written in a small font, it carries the copyright notice, edition information, publication information, printing history, cataloging data, and the ISBN number.

For this example : Place of publication: Indianapolis, IN Date of publication: 2010

Article - Academic OneFile Database

In the article view:

Bibliographic information can be found under the article title, at the top of the page. The information provided in this area is  NOT  formatted according to any style.

Citations can also be found at the bottom of the page; in an area titled  SOURCE CITATION . The database does not specify which style is used in creating this citation, so be sure to double check it against the style rules for accuracy.

Article - ProQuest Database

Bibliographic information can be found under the article title, at the top of the page. The information provided in this area is  NOT  formatted according to any style. 

Bibliographic information can also be found at the bottom of the page; in an area titled  INDEXING . (Not all the information provided in this area is necessary for creating citations, refer to the rules of the style being used for what information is needed.)

Other databases have similar formats - look for bibliographic information under the article titles and below the article body, towards the bottom of the page. 

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What is Bibliography?: Meaning, Types, and Importance

A bibliography is a fundamental component of academic research and writing that serves as a comprehensive list of sources consulted and referenced in a particular work. It plays a crucial role in validating the credibility and reliability of the information presented by providing readers with the necessary information to locate and explore the cited sources. A well-constructed bibliography not only demonstrates the depth and breadth of research undertaken but also acknowledges the intellectual contributions of others, ensuring transparency and promoting the integrity of scholarly work. By including a bibliography, writers enable readers to delve further into the subject matter, engage in critical analysis, and build upon existing knowledge.

1.1 What is a Bibliography?

A bibliography is a compilation of sources that have been utilized in the process of researching and writing a piece of work. It serves as a comprehensive list of references, providing information about the various sources consulted, such as books, articles, websites, and other materials. The purpose of a bibliography is twofold: to give credit to the original authors or creators of the sources used and to allow readers to locate and access those sources for further study or verification. A well-crafted bibliography includes essential details about each source, including the author’s name, the title of the work, publication date, and publication information. By having a bibliography, writers demonstrate the extent of their research, provide a foundation for their arguments, and enhance the credibility and reliability of their work.

1.2 Types of Bibliography.

The bibliography is a multifaceted discipline encompassing different types, each designed to serve specific research purposes and requirements. These various types of bibliographies provide valuable tools for researchers, scholars, and readers to navigate the vast realm of literature and sources available. From comprehensive overviews to specialized focuses, the types of bibliographies offer distinct approaches to organizing, categorizing, and presenting information. Whether compiling an exhaustive list of sources, providing critical evaluations, or focusing on specific subjects or industries, these types of bibliographies play a vital role in facilitating the exploration, understanding, and dissemination of knowledge in diverse academic and intellectual domains.

As a discipline, a bibliography encompasses various types that cater to different research needs and contexts. The two main categories of bibliographies are

1. General bibliography, and 2. Special bibliography.

1.2.1. General Bibliography:

A general bibliography is a comprehensive compilation of sources covering a wide range of subjects, disciplines, and formats. It aims to provide a broad overview of published materials, encompassing books, articles, journals, websites, and other relevant resources. A general bibliography typically includes works from various authors, covering diverse topics and spanning different periods. It is a valuable tool for researchers, students, and readers seeking a comprehensive collection of literature within a specific field or across multiple disciplines. General bibliographies play a crucial role in guiding individuals in exploring a subject, facilitating the discovery of relevant sources, and establishing a foundation for further research and academic pursuits.

The general bibliography encompasses various subcategories that comprehensively cover global, linguistic, national, and regional sources. These subcategories are as follows:

• Universal Bibliography: Universal bibliography aims to compile a comprehensive list of all published works worldwide, regardless of subject or language. It seeks to encompass human knowledge and includes sources from diverse fields, cultures, and periods. Universal bibliography is a monumental effort to create a comprehensive record of the world’s published works, making it a valuable resource for scholars, librarians, and researchers interested in exploring the breadth of human intellectual output.
• Language Bibliography: Language bibliography focuses on compiling sources specific to a particular language or group of languages. It encompasses publications written in a specific language, regardless of the subject matter. Language bibliographies are essential for language scholars, linguists, and researchers interested in exploring the literature and resources available in a particular language or linguistic group.
• National Bibliography: The national bibliography documents and catalogs all published materials within a specific country. It serves as a comprehensive record of books, journals, periodicals, government publications, and other sources published within a nation’s borders. National bibliographies are essential for preserving a country’s cultural heritage, facilitating research within specific national contexts, and providing a comprehensive overview of a nation’s intellectual output.
• Regional Bibliography: A regional bibliography compiles sources specific to a particular geographic region or area. It aims to capture the literature, publications, and resources related to a specific region, such as a state, province, or local area. Regional bibliographies are valuable for researchers interested in exploring a specific geographic region’s literature, history, culture, and unique aspects.

1.2.2. Special Bibliography:

Special bibliography refers to a type of bibliography that focuses on specific subjects, themes, or niche areas within a broader field of study. It aims to provide a comprehensive and in-depth compilation of sources specifically relevant to the chosen topic. Special bibliographies are tailored to meet the research needs of scholars, researchers, and enthusiasts seeking specialized information and resources.

Special bibliographies can cover a wide range of subjects, including but not limited to specific disciplines, subfields, historical periods, geographical regions, industries, or even specific authors or works. They are designed to gather and present a curated selection of sources considered important, authoritative, or influential within the chosen subject area.

Special bibliography encompasses several subcategories that focus on specific subjects, authors, forms of literature, periods, categories of literature, and types of materials. These subcategories include:

• Subject Bibliography: Subject bibliography compiles sources related to a specific subject or topic. It aims to provide a comprehensive list of resources within a particular field. Subject bibliographies are valuable for researchers seeking in-depth information on a specific subject area, as they gather relevant sources and materials to facilitate focused research.
• Author and Bio-bibliographies: Author and bio-bibliographies focus on compiling sources specific to individual authors. They provide comprehensive lists of an author’s works, including their books, articles, essays, and other publications. Bio-bibliographies include biographical information about the author, such as their background, career, and contributions to their respective fields.
• Bibliography of Forms of Literature: This bibliography focuses on specific forms or genres of literature, such as poetry, drama, fiction, or non-fiction. It provides a compilation of works within a particular literary form, enabling researchers to explore the literature specific to their interests or to gain a comprehensive understanding of a particular genre.
• Bibliography of Materials of Particular Periods: Bibliographies of materials of particular periods compile sources specific to a particular historical period or time frame. They include works published or created during that period, offering valuable insights into the era’s literature, art, culture, and historical context.
• Bibliographies of Special Categories of Literature: This category compiles sources related to special categories or themes. Examples include bibliographies of children’s literature, feminist literature, postcolonial literature, or science fiction literature. These bibliographies cater to specific interests or perspectives within the broader field of literature.
• Bibliographies of Specific Types of Materials: Bibliographies of specific materials focus on compiling sources within a particular format or medium. Examples include bibliographies of manuscripts, rare books, visual art, films, or musical compositions. These bibliographies provide valuable resources for researchers interested in exploring a specific medium or format.

1.3 Functions of Bibliography

A bibliography serves several important functions in academic research, writing, and knowledge dissemination. Here are some key functions:

• Documentation: One of the primary functions of a bibliography is to document and record the sources consulted during the research process. By providing accurate and detailed citations for each source, it can ensure transparency, traceability, and accountability in scholarly work. It allows readers and other researchers to verify the information, trace the origins of ideas, and locate the original sources for further study.
• Attribution and Credit: The bibliography plays a crucial role in giving credit to the original authors and creators of the ideas, information, and materials used in research work. By citing the sources, the authors acknowledge the intellectual contributions of others and demonstrate academic integrity. This enables proper attribution and prevents plagiarism, ensuring ethical research practices and upholding the principles of academic honesty.
• Verification and Quality Control: It acts as a means of verification and quality control in academic research. Readers and reviewers can assess the information’s reliability, credibility, and accuracy by including a list of sources. This allows others to evaluate the strength of the evidence, assess the validity of the arguments, and determine the scholarly rigor of a work.
• Further Reading and Exploration: The bibliography is valuable for readers who wish to delve deeper into a particular subject or topic. By providing a list of cited sources, the bibliography offers a starting point for further reading and exploration. It guides readers to related works, seminal texts, and authoritative materials, facilitating their intellectual growth and expanding their knowledge base.
• Preservation of Knowledge: The bibliography contributes to the preservation of knowledge by cataloguing and documenting published works. It records the intellectual output within various fields, ensuring that valuable information is not lost over time. A bibliography facilitates the organization and accessibility of literature, making it possible to locate and retrieve sources for future reference and research.
• Intellectual Dialogue and Scholarship: The bibliography fosters intellectual dialogue and scholarship by facilitating the exchange of ideas and enabling researchers to build upon existing knowledge. By citing relevant sources, researchers enter into conversations with other scholars, engaging in a scholarly discourse that advances knowledge within their field of study.

A bibliography serves the important functions of documenting sources, crediting original authors, verifying information, guiding further reading, preserving knowledge, and fostering intellectual dialogue. It plays a crucial role in maintaining academic research’s integrity, transparency, and quality and ensures that scholarly work is built upon a solid foundation of evidence and ideas.

1.4 Importance of Bibliographic Services

Bibliographic services are crucial in academia, research, and information management. They are a fundamental tool for organizing, accessing, and preserving knowledge . From facilitating efficient research to ensuring the integrity and credibility of scholarly work, bibliographic services hold immense importance in various domains.

Bibliographic services are vital for researchers and scholars. These services provide comprehensive and reliable access to various resources, such as books, journals, articles, and other scholarly materials. By organizing these resources in a structured manner, bibliographic services make it easier for researchers to locate relevant information for their studies. Researchers can explore bibliographic databases, catalogues, and indexes to identify appropriate sources, saving them valuable time and effort. This accessibility enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of research, enabling scholars to stay up-to-date with the latest developments in their fields.

Bibliographic services also aid in the process of citation and referencing. Proper citation is an essential aspect of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. Bibliographic services assist researchers in accurately citing the sources they have used in their work, ensuring that credit is given where it is due. This not only acknowledges the original authors and their contributions but also strengthens the credibility and authenticity of the research. By providing citation guidelines, formatting styles, and citation management tools, bibliographic services simplify the citation process, making it more manageable for researchers.

Another crucial aspect of bibliographic services is their role in preserving and archiving knowledge. Libraries and institutions that provide bibliographic services serve as custodians of valuable information. They collect, organize, and preserve various physical and digital resources for future generations. This preservation ensures that knowledge is not lost or forgotten over time. Bibliographic services enable researchers, students, and the general public to access historical and scholarly materials, fostering continuous learning and intellectual growth.

Bibliographic services contribute to the dissemination of research and scholarly works. They provide platforms and databases for publishing and sharing academic outputs. By cataloguing and indexing research articles, journals, and conference proceedings, bibliographic services enhance the discoverability and visibility of scholarly work. This facilitates knowledge exchange, collaboration, and innovation within academic communities. Researchers can rely on bibliographic services to share their findings with a broader audience, fostering intellectual dialogue and advancing their respective fields.

In Summary, bibliographic services are immensely important in academia, research, and information management. They facilitate efficient analysis, aid in proper citation and referencing, preserve knowledge for future generations, and contribute to the dissemination of research. These services form the backbone of scholarly pursuits, enabling researchers, students, and professionals to access, utilize, and contribute to the vast wealth of knowledge available. As we continue to rely on information and research to drive progress and innovation, the significance of bibliographic services will only grow, making them indispensable resources in pursuing knowledge.

References:

• Reddy, P. V. G. (1999). Bio bibliography of the faculty in social sciences departments of Sri Krishnadevaraya university Anantapur A P India.
• Sharma, J.S. Fundamentals of Bibliography, New Delhi : S. Chand & Co.. Ltd.. 1977.  p.5.
• Quoted in George Schneider, Theory of History of Bibliography. Ralph Robert Shaw, trans., New York : Scare Crow Press, 1934, p.13.
• Funk Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of the English language – International ed – Vol. I – New York : Funku Wagnalls Co., C 1965, p. 135.
• Shores, Louis. Basic reference sources. Chicago : American Library Association, 1954. p. 11-12.
• Ranganathan, S.R., Documentation and its facts. Bombay : Asia Publishing House. 1963. p.49.
• Katz, William A. Introduction to reference work. 4th ed. New York : McGraw Hill, 1982. V. 1, p.42.
• Robinson, A.M.L. Systematic Bibliography. Bombay : Asia Publishing House, 1966. p.12.
• Chakraborthi, M.L. Bibliography : In Theory and practice, Calcutta : The World press (P) Ltd.. 1975. p.343.

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National bibliography, bibliographic services.

This site was… how do I say it? Relevant!! Finally I’ve found something which helped me. Thanks!

You really make it seem so easy along with your presentation but I find this topic to be actually something which I think I would never understand. It kind of feels too complex and very vast for me. I am having a look ahead in your next publish, I’ll try to get the grasp of it!

I’m Ghulam Murtaza

Thank for your detailed explanation,the work really help me to understand bibliography more than I knew it before.

thanks for this big one, and i get concept about bibliography( reference) that is great!!!!!

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• Online Guide to Writing

Types of Documentation

Bibliographies and Source Lists

What is a bibliography.

A bibliography is a list of books and other source material that you have used in preparing a research paper. Sometimes these lists will include works that you consulted but did not cite specifically in your assignment. Consult the style guide required for your assignment to determine the specific title of your bibliography page as well as how to cite each source type. Bibliographies are usually placed at the end of your research paper.

What is an annotated bibliography?

A special kind of bibliography, the annotated bibliography, is often used to direct your readers to other books and resources on your topic. An instructor may ask you to prepare an annotated bibliography to help you narrow down a topic for your research assignment. Such bibliographies offer a few lines of information, typically 150-300 words, summarizing the content of the resource after the bibliographic entry.   

Example of Annotated Bibliographic Entry in MLA Style

Waddell, Marie L., Robert M. Esch, and Roberta R. Walker. The Art of Styling         Sentences: 20 Patterns for Success. 3rd ed. New York: Barron’s, 1993.         A comprehensive look at 20 sentence patterns and their variations to         teach students how to write effective sentences by imitating good style.

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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How To Write a Bibliography (Three Styles, Plus Examples)

Give credit where credit is due.

Writing a research paper involves a lot of work. Students need to consult a variety of sources to gather reliable information and ensure their points are well supported. Research papers include a bibliography, which can be a little tricky for students. Learn how to write a bibliography in multiple styles and find basic examples below.

IMPORTANT: Each style guide has its own very specific rules, and they often conflict with one another. Additionally, each type of reference material has many possible formats, depending on a variety of factors. The overviews shown here are meant to guide students in writing basic bibliographies, but this information is by no means complete. Students should always refer directly to the preferred style guide to ensure they’re using the most up-to-date formats and styles.

What is a bibliography?

When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources, organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.

A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited to):

• Books and e-books
• Periodicals like magazines or newspapers
• Online articles or websites
• Primary source documents like letters or official records

Bibliography vs. References

These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.

A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled “List of Works Cited” or simply “References.”

Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they don’t, consider choosing a bibliography, to show all the works you used in researching your paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported, and allow them to do further reading on their own if they’re interested.

Bibliography vs. Citations

Citations refer to direct quotations from a text, woven into your own writing. There are a variety of ways to write citations, including footnotes and endnotes. These are generally shorter than the entries in a reference list or bibliography. Learn more about writing citations here.

What does a bibliography entry include?

Depending on the reference material, bibliography entries include a variety of information intended to help a reader locate the material if they want to refer to it themselves. These entries are listed in alphabetical order, and may include:

• Author/s or creator/s
• Publication date
• Volume and issue numbers
• Publisher and publication city
• Website URL

These entries don’t generally need to include specific page numbers or locations within the work (except for print magazine or journal articles). That type of information is usually only needed in a footnote or endnote citation.

What are the different bibliography styles?

In most cases, writers use one of three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . There are many others as well, but these three are the most common choices for K–12 students.

Many teachers will state their preference for one style guide over another. If they don’t, you can choose your own preferred style. However, you should also use that guide for your entire paper, following their recommendations for punctuation, grammar, and more. This will ensure you are consistent throughout.

Below, you’ll learn how to write a simple bibliography using each of the three major style guides. We’ve included details for books and e-books, periodicals, and electronic sources like websites and videos. If the reference material type you need to include isn’t shown here, refer directly to the style guide you’re using.

APA Style Bibliography and Examples

Source: Verywell Mind

Technically, APA style calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography. If your teacher requires you to use the APA style guide , you can limit your reference list only to items you cite throughout your work.

How To Write a Bibliography (References) Using APA Style

Here are some general notes on writing an APA reference list:

• Title your bibliography section “References” and center the title on the top line of the page.
• Do not center your references; they should be left-aligned. For longer items, subsequent lines should use a hanging indent of 1/2 inch.
• Include all types of resources in the same list.
• Alphabetize your list by author or creator, last name first.
• Do not spell out the author/creator’s first or middle name; only use their initials.
• If there are multiple authors/creators, use an ampersand (&) before the final author/creator.
• Place the date in parentheses.
• Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, unless the word would otherwise be capitalized (proper names, etc.).
• Italicize the titles of books, periodicals, or videos.
• For websites, include the full site information, including the http:// or https:// at the beginning.

Books and E-Books APA Bibliography Examples

For books, APA reference list entries use this format (only include the publisher’s website for e-books).

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title with only first word capitalized . Publisher. Publisher’s website

• Wynn, S. (2020). City of London at war 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military. https://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical APA Bibliography Examples

For journal or magazine articles, use this format. If you viewed the article online, include the URL at the end of the citation.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title of article. Magazine or Journal Title (Volume number) Issue number, page numbers. URL

• Bell, A. (2009). Landscapes of fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945. Journal of British Studies (48) 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

Here’s the format for newspapers. For print editions, include the page number/s. For online articles, include the full URL.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date) Title of article. Newspaper title. Page number/s. URL

• Blakemore, E. (2022, November 12) Researchers track down two copies of fossil destroyed by the Nazis.  The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic APA Bibliography Examples

For articles with a specific author on a website, use this format.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date). Title . Site name. URL

• Wukovits, J. (2023, January 30). A World War II survivor recalls the London Blitz . British Heritage . https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

When an online article doesn’t include a specific author or date, list it like this:

Title . (Year, Month Date). Site name. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL

• Growing up in the Second World War . (n.d.). Imperial War Museums. Retrieved May 12, 2023, from https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war

When you need to list a YouTube video, use the name of the account that uploaded the video, and format it like this:

Name of Account. (Upload year, month day). Title [Video]. YouTube. URL

• War Stories. (2023, January 15). How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? | Cities at war: London | War stories [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc

For more information on writing APA bibliographies, see the APA Style Guide website.

APA Bibliography (Reference List) Example Pages

Source: Simply Psychology

More APA example pages:

• Western Australia Library Services APA References Example Page
• Ancilla College APA References Page Example
• Scribbr APA References Page Example

MLA Style Bibliography Examples

Source: PressBooks

MLA style calls for a Works Cited section, which includes all materials quoted or referred to in your paper. You may also include a Works Consulted section, including other reference sources you reviewed but didn’t directly cite. Together, these constitute a bibliography. If your teacher requests an MLA Style Guide bibliography, ask if you should include Works Consulted as well as Works Cited.

How To Write a Bibliography (Works Cited and Works Consulted) in MLA Style

For both MLA Works Cited and Works Consulted sections, use these general guidelines:

• Start your Works Cited list on a new page. If you include a Works Consulted list, start that on its own new page after the Works Cited section.
• Center the title (Works Cited or Works Consulted) in the middle of the line at the top of the page.
• Align the start of each source to the left margin, and use a hanging indent (1/2 inch) for the following lines of each source.
• Alphabetize your sources using the first word of the citation, usually the author’s last name.
• Include the author’s full name as listed, last name first.
• Capitalize titles using the standard MLA format.
• Leave off the http:// or https:// at the beginning of a URL.

Books and E-Books MLA Bibliography Examples

For books, MLA reference list entries use this format. Add the URL at the end for e-books.

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military, 2020. www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical MLA Bibliography Examples

Here’s the style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing.

For magazines and journals:

Last Name, First Name. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–Last Page Number.

• Bell, Amy. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies , vol. 48, no. 1, pp. 153–175. www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

When citing newspapers, include the page number/s for print editions or the URL for online articles.

Last Name, First Name. “Title of article.” Newspaper title. Page number/s. Year, month day. Page number or URL

• Blakemore, Erin. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post. 2022, Nov. 12. www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic MLA Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title.” Month Day, Year published. URL

• Wukovits, John. 2023. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” January 30,   2023. https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

Website. n.d. “Title.” Accessed Day Month Year. URL.

• Imperial War Museum. n.d. “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Accessed May 9, 2023. https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war.

Here’s how to list YouTube and other online videos.

Creator, if available. “Title of Video.” Website. Uploaded by Username, Day Month Year. URL.

• “How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? | Cities at war: London | War stories.” YouTube . Uploaded by War Stories, 15 Jan. 2023. youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing MLA style bibliographies, see the MLA Style website.

MLA Bibliography (Works Cited) Example Pages

Source: The Visual Communication Guy

More MLA example pages:

• Writing Commons Sample Works Cited Page
• Scribbr MLA Works Cited Sample Page
• Montana State University MLA Works Cited Page

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

The Chicago Manual of Style (sometimes called “Turabian”) actually has two options for citing reference material : Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Regardless of which you use, you’ll need a complete detailed list of reference items at the end of your paper. The examples below demonstrate how to write that list.

How To Write a Bibliography Using The Chicago Manual of Style

Source: South Texas College

Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago -style bibliography:

• You may title it “Bibliography” or “References.” Center this title at the top of the page and add two blank lines before the first entry.
• Left-align each entry, with a hanging half-inch indent for subsequent lines of each entry.
• Single-space each entry, with a blank line between entries.
• Include the “http://” or “https://” at the beginning of URLs.

Books and E-Books Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For books, Chicago -style reference list entries use this format. (For print books, leave off the information about how the book was accessed.)

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . City of Publication: Publisher, Date. How e-book was accessed.

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military, 2020. Kindle edition.

Periodical Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For journal and magazine articles, use this format.

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , Volume Number, issue number, First Page Number–Last Page Number. URL.

• Bell, Amy. 2009. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies, 48 no. 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966.

When citing newspapers, include the URL for online articles.

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Newspaper , Month day, year. URL.

• Blakemore, Erin. 2022. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post , November 12, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/.

Electronic Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. “Title.” Site Name . Year, Month Day. URL.

• Wukovits, John. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” British Heritage. 2023, Jan. 30. britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz.

“Title.” Site Name . URL. Accessed Day Month Year.

• “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Imperial War Museums . www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war. Accessed May 9, 2023.

Creator or Username. “Title of Video.” Website video, length. Month Day, Year. URL.

• War Stories. “How Did London Survive the Blitz During WW2? | Cities at War: London | War Stories.” YouTube video, 51:25. January 15, 2023. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing Chicago -style bibliographies, see the Chicago Manual of Style website.

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Example Pages

Source: Chicago Manual of Style

More Chicago example pages:

• Scribbr Chicago Style Bibliography Example
• Purdue Online Writing Lab CMOS Bibliography Page
• Bibcitation Sample Chicago Bibliography

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How to Write a Bibliography in APA Format

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Emily is a board-certified science editor who has worked with top digital publishing brands like Voices for Biodiversity, Study.com, GoodTherapy, Vox, and Verywell.

• APA Bibliography
• How to Create One
• Why You Need It

Sample Bibliography

An APA format bibliography lists all of the sources that might be used in a paper. A bibliography can be a great tool to help you keep track of information during the research and writing process. In some cases, your instructor may require you to include a bibliography as part of your assignment.

At a Glance

A well-written APA format bibliography can help you keep track of information and sources as you research and write your psychology paper. To create a bibliography, gather up all of the sources that you might use in your paper. Create an APA format reference for each source and then write a brief annotation. Your annotation should be a brief summary of what each reference is about. You can quickly refer to these annotations When writing your paper and determine which to include.

What Is an APA Format Bibliography?

An APA format bibliography is an alphabetical listing of all sources that might be used to write an academic paper, essay, article, or research paper—particularly work that is covering psychology or psychology-related topics. APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA). This format is used by many psychology professors, students, and researchers.

Even if it is not a required part of your assignment, writing a bibliography can help you keep track of your sources and make it much easier to create your final reference page in proper APA format.

Creating an APA Bibliography

A bibliography is similar in many ways to a reference section , but there are some important differences. While a reference section includes every source that was actually used in your paper, a bibliography may include sources that you considered using but may have dismissed because they were irrelevant or outdated.

Bibliographies can be a great way to keep track of information you might want to use in your paper and to organize the information that you find in different sources. The following are four steps you can follow to create your APA format bibliography.

Start on a New Page

Your working bibliography should be kept separate from the rest of your paper. Start it on a new page, with the title "Bibliography" centered at the top and in bold text. Some people use the title "References" instead, so it's best to check with your professor or instructor about which they prefer you to use.

Gather Your Sources

Compile all the sources you might possibly use in your paper. While you might not use all of these sources in your paper, having a complete list will make it easier later on when you prepare your reference section.

Gathering your sources can be particularly helpful when outlining and writing your paper.

By quickly glancing through your working bibliography, you will be able to get a better idea of which sources will be the most appropriate to support your thesis and main points.

Reference Each Source

Your references should be listed alphabetically by the author’s last name, and they should be double-spaced. The first line of each reference should be flush left, while each additional line of a single reference should be a few spaces to the right of the left margin, which is known as a hanging indent.

The format of each source is as follows for academic journals:

• Last name of first author (followed by their first initial)
• The year the source was published in parentheses
• The title of the source
• The journal that published the source (in italics)
• The volume number, if applicable (in italics)
• The issue number, if applicable
• Page numbers (in parentheses)
• The URL or "doi" in lowercase letters followed by a colon and the doi number, if applicable

The following examples are scholarly articles in academic journals, cited in APA format:

• Kulacaoglu, F., & Kose, S. (2018). Borderline personality disorder (BPD): In the midst of vulnerability, chaos, and awe.  Brain sciences ,  8 (11), 201. doi:10.3390/brainsci8110201
• Cattane, N., Rossi, R., & Lanfredi, M. (2017). Borderline personality disorder and childhood trauma: exploring the affected biological systems and mechanisms.  BMC Psychiatry,   18 (221). doi:10.1186/s12888-017-1383-2

Visit the American Psychological Association's website for more information on citing other types of sources including online media, audiovisual media, and more.

Create an Annotation for Each Source

Normally a bibliography contains only references' information, but in some cases you might decide to create an annotated bibliography. An annotation is a summary or evaluation of the source.

An annotation is a brief description of approximately 150 words describing the information in the source, your evaluation of its credibility, and how it pertains to your topic. Writing one of these for each piece of research will make your writing process faster and easier.

This step helpful in determining which sources to ultimately use in your paper. Your instructor may also require it as part of the assignment so they can assess your thought process and understanding of your topic.

Reasons to Write a Bibliography

One of the biggest reasons to create an APA format bibliography is simply to make the research and writing process easier.

If you do not have a comprehensive list of all of your references, you might find yourself scrambling to figure out where you found certain bits of information that you included in your paper.

A bibliography is also an important tool that your readers can use to access your sources.

While writing an annotated bibliography might not be required for your assignment, it can be a very useful step. The process of writing an annotation helps you learn more about your topic, develop a deeper understanding of the subject, and become better at evaluating various sources of information.

The following is an example of an APA format bibliography by the website EasyBib:

There are many online resources that demonstrate different formats of bibliographies, including the American Psychological Association website . Purdue University's Online Writing Lab also has examples of formatting an APA format bibliography.

Check out this video on their YouTube channel which provides detailed instructions on formatting an APA style bibliography in Microsoft Word.

You can check out the Purdue site for more information on writing an annotated APA bibliography as well.

What This Means For You

If you are taking a psychology class, you may be asked to create a bibliography as part of the research paper writing process. Even if your instructor does not expressly require a bibliography, creating one can be a helpful way to help structure your research and make the writing process more manageable.

For psychology majors , it can be helpful to save any bibliographies you have written throughout your studies so that you can refer back to them later when studying for exams or writing papers for other psychology courses.

American Psychological Association. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . 7th Edition. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2020.

Masic I. The importance of proper citation of references in biomedical articles.   Acta Inform Med . 2013;21(3):148–155. doi:10.5455/aim.2013.21.148-155

American Psychological Association. How do you format a bibliography in APA Style?

Cornell University Library. How to prepare an annotated bibliography: The annotated bibliography .

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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• Citing Sources

Citing Sources: What are citations and why should I use them?

What is a citation.

Citations are a way of giving credit when certain material in your work came from another source. It also gives your readers the information necessary to find that source again-- it provides an important roadmap to your research process. Whenever you use sources such as books, journals or websites in your research, you must give credit to the original author by citing the source. 

Why do researchers cite?

Scholarship is a conversation  and scholars use citations not only to  give credit  to original creators and thinkers, but also to  add strength and authority  to their own work.  By citing their sources, scholars are  placing their work in a specific context  to show where they “fit” within the larger conversation.  Citations are also a great way to  leave a trail  intended to help others who may want to explore the conversation or use the sources in their own work.

In short, citations

(1) give credit

(2) add strength and authority to your work

(3) place your work in a specific context

(4) leave a trail for other scholars

"Good citations should reveal your sources, not conceal them. They should honeslty reflect the research you conducted." (Lipson 4)

Lipson, Charles. "Why Cite?"  Cite Right: A Quick Guide to Citation Styles--MLA, APA, Chicago, the Sciences, Professions, and More . Chicago: U of Chicago, 2006. Print.

What does a citation look like?

Different subject disciplines call for citation information to be written in very specific order, capitalization, and punctuation. There are therefore many different style formats. Three popular citation formats are MLA Style (for humanities articles) and APA or Chicago (for social sciences articles).

MLA style (print journal article):  

Whisenant, Warren A. "How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX." Sex Roles Vol. 49.3 (2003): 179-182.

APA style (print journal article):

Whisenant, W. A. (2003) How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX. Sex Roles , 49 (3), 179-182.

Chicago style (print journal article):

Whisenant, Warren A. "How Women Have Fared as Interscholastic Athletic Administrators Since the Passage of Title IX." Sex Roles 49, no. 3 (2003): 179-182.

No matter which style you use, all citations require the same basic information:

• Author or Creator
• Container (e.g., Journal or magazine, website, edited book)
• Date of creation or publication
• Publisher 

You are most likely to have easy access to all of your citation information when you find it in the first place. Take note of this information up front, and it will be much easier to cite it effectively later.

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bibliography

Definition of bibliography

Examples of bibliography in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'bibliography.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

probably from New Latin bibliographia , from Greek, the copying of books, from bibli- + -graphia -graphy

1689, in the meaning defined at sense 1

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“Bibliography.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bibliography. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.

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What's a Bibliography?

A bibliography is a list of all of the sources you have used (whether referenced or not) in the process of researching your work. In general, a bibliography should include:

• the authors' names
• the titles of the works
• the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources
• the dates your copies were published
• the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

OK, So What's an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is the same as a bibliography with one important difference: in an annotated bibliography, the bibliographic information is followed by a brief description of the content, quality, and usefulness of the source.

OK, So How Is a Bibliography Different from a "Works Cited" or "References" List?

The Works Cited or References list is only comprised of references to those items actually cited in the paper.

This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 29.4.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Effectiveness of a Smartphone App–Based Intervention With Bluetooth-Connected Monitoring Devices and a Feedback System in Heart Failure (SMART-HF Trial): Randomized Controlled Trial

Authors of this article:

Original Paper

• Minjae Yoon 1 , MD   ; 
• Seonhwa Lee 2 , MD   ; 
• Jah Yeon Choi 3 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Mi-Hyang Jung 4 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Jong-Chan Youn 4 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Chi Young Shim 5 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Jin-Oh Choi 6 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Eung Ju Kim 3 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Hyungseop Kim 2 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Byung-Su Yoo 7 , MD, PhD   ; 
• Yeon Joo Son 8 , BS   ; 
• Dong-Ju Choi 1 , MD, PhD  

1 Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seognam, Republic of Korea

2 Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Keimyung University Dongsan Hospital, Daegu, Republic of Korea

3 Cardiovascular Center, Korea University Guro Hospital, Korea University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea

4 Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, Catholic Research Institute for Intractable Cardiovascular Disease, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Republic of Korea

5 Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Severance Hospital, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea

6 Cardiac and Vascular Center, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea

7 Department of Internal Medicine, Wonju Severance Christian Hospital, Yonsei University Wonju College of Medicine, Woonju, Republic of Korea

8 Healthcare Business Department, AI/DX Convergence Business Group, KT, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Corresponding Author:

Dong-Ju Choi, MD, PhD

Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine

Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seoul National University College of Medicine

82, Gumi-ro 173 Beon-gil, Bundang-gu

Seognam, 13620

Republic of Korea

Phone: 82 317877007

Fax:82 317877041

Email: [email protected]

Background: Current heart failure (HF) guidelines recommend a multidisciplinary approach, discharge education, and self-management for HF. However, the recommendations are challenging to implement in real-world clinical settings.

Objective: We developed a mobile health (mHealth) platform for HF self-care to evaluate whether a smartphone app–based intervention with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and a feedback system can help improve HF symptoms.

Methods: In this prospective, randomized, multicenter study, we enrolled patients 20 years of age and older, hospitalized for acute HF, and who could use a smartphone from 7 tertiary hospitals in South Korea. In the intervention group (n=39), the apps were automatically paired with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices. The patients could enter information on vital signs, HF symptoms, diet, medications, and exercise regimen into the app daily and receive feedback or alerts on their input. In the control group (n=38), patients could only enter their blood pressure, heart rate, and weight using conventional, non-Bluetooth devices and could not receive any feedback or alerts from the app. The primary end point was the change in dyspnea symptom scores from baseline to 4 weeks, assessed using a questionnaire.

Results: At 4 weeks, the change in dyspnea symptom score from baseline was significantly greater in the intervention group than in the control group (mean –1.3, SD 2.1 vs mean –0.3, SD 2.3; P =.048). A significant reduction was found in body water composition from baseline to the final measurement in the intervention group (baseline level mean 7.4, SD 2.5 vs final level mean 6.6, SD 2.5; P =.003). App adherence, which was assessed based on log-in or the percentage of days when symptoms were first observed, was higher in the intervention group than in the control group. Composite end points, including death, rehospitalization, and urgent HF visits, were not significantly different between the 2 groups.

Conclusions: The mobile-based health platform with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and a feedback system demonstrated improvement in dyspnea symptoms in patients with HF. This study provides evidence and rationale for implementing mobile app–based self-care strategies and feedback for patients with HF.

Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05668000; https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT05668000

Introduction

Heart failure (HF) is a rapidly growing public health problem, with an estimated prevalence of 64 million people globally [ 1 - 5 ]. Although outcomes of HF have recently improved with the development of medications, a high rate of readmission remains after initial hospitalization for acute HF [ 6 - 10 ]. Recent studies have shown that 18%-23% of patients with acute HF were readmitted within 1 month, and these numbers have not decreased recently [ 6 , 11 , 12 ]. Therefore, the postdischarge management of patients with HF is important. In particular, multidisciplinary interventions, in addition to pharmacotherapy and discharge education, are known to improve quality of life and reduce hospitalizations [ 13 - 16 ]. A recent meta-analysis has shown that self-management interventions, including symptom and sign monitoring, education, and enhancement of drug adherence, improve outcomes of HF-related hospitalization and all-cause death, despite heterogeneity in the interventions [ 17 ]. Thus, current HF guidelines recommend multidisciplinary management, specific discharge education, and support to facilitate HF self-care [ 18 - 20 ].

Although encouraging self-care and providing feedback from health care providers are the most effective means, they are difficult to implement in a real-world clinical setting. These are also associated with higher costs and require more infrastructure and manpower. Smartphones are currently available to most of the general population at an affordable cost. The advent of mobile health (mHealth) technology and advances in artificial intelligence (AI) have enabled patient self-care, symptom, and sign monitoring, as well as mobile-based feedback via smartphone apps. Recent studies using smartphone apps for the self-management of cardiovascular disease demonstrated that this intervention led to better outcomes than the control groups [ 21 - 23 ]. Additionally, some recent studies and meta-analyses regarding mHealth apps have supported self-care among patients with HF [ 24 - 30 ]. However, these previous studies had a small number of participants and limited app functionality. Self-monitoring and feedback are particularly important, and the lack of these critical features limits the interpretation of the effectiveness of HF apps. Furthermore, functions provided in previous mobile-based interventions for HF were heterogeneous and varied between studies, which may lead to inconsistent results.

Given the uncertainty regarding the benefits of mobile apps for HF and their diverse functionality, we developed a mHealth platform to provide self-management interventions for patients with HF. This study aimed to evaluate whether this smartphone app–based intervention with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and a feedback system could improve the symptoms and clinical outcomes of HF.

Study Design and Population

The self-monitoring using a mobile app to improve symptoms and reduce rehospitalization and mortality in heart failure (SMART-HF) study is a prospective, multicenter, randomized, open-label trial to evaluate the efficacy of smartphone apps in improving the symptoms and outcomes of HF. A total of 7 tertiary university hospitals in South Korea participated in this study. The study design was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05668000).

We enrolled patients aged older than 20 years who were hospitalized for acute HF with obvious symptoms or signs of HF at admission. Patients with N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) levels ≥400 pg/mL or brain natriuretic peptide levels ≥100 pg/mL were enrolled. Since smartphone use was essential in this study, participants should be able to use Android smartphones well and be capable of following instructions on how to use apps. Patients with a baseline systolic blood pressure (BP) of <90 mm Hg or a resting heart rate (HR) of <50 beats per minute were excluded from this study. Additionally, patients were excluded if they had a cardiac [ 30 ] implantable electronic device that could interfere with body water analysis. Patients who were expected to have a prolonged hospital stay owing to medical problems other than HF were also excluded. The detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria are presented in Table S1 in Multimedia Appendix 1 .

Ethical Considerations

This clinical trial was approved by the institutional review boards of Seoul National University Bundang Hospital (B-2211-795-304) and other hospitals. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and all study data were deidentified. All patients provided written informed consent upon enrollment.

Patient Recruitment and Randomization

After a comprehensive interview, eligible participants were asked to provide written informed consent before being discharged from the hospital. At baseline (visit 1), all participants were assessed for sex, age, demographics, vital signs, comorbidities, laboratory data, and medication use. Eligible participants were randomized 1:1 to either the intervention group (app with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and feedback) or the control group (app only) using a web-based central randomization service ( Figure 1 A). Due to the nature of the intervention, the study participants and investigators interacting with the patients were not blinded to the group allocation.

Intervention and Follow-Up

We developed a mobile app and operating platform to improve the symptoms and outcomes of patients with HF. The app and platform comprised three parts: (1) a smartphone app for patients, (2) a dashboard system for physicians, and (3) a clinical decision support system (CDSS) on the platform ( Figure 1 B and Figures S1 and S2 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ).

The smartphone app comprised 4 menu screens ( Figure 2 ), and the detailed functions of the app are described in Table S2 in Multimedia Appendix 1 . In the “Today” menu, patients can enter their information, including body water, weight, BP, HR, symptom diary, medications, diet, and exercise. Patients can input their symptoms of HF, including dyspnea, fatigue, ankle edema, and palpitations, daily. Symptoms were scored as 0 (no symptoms), 1 (mild symptoms), 2 (moderate symptoms), and 3 (severe symptoms; Table S3 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ). Moreover, they could enter their daily diet or physical activity into the apps, and the amount of sodium in their diet was assessed through a camera image using AI (Figure S3 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ). Additionally, the BP, HR, weight, and body water could be entered into the app by the patients (intervention + control group) or automatically paired using Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices (intervention group only). In the “Records” menu, patients can access and review their historical data entered by date, as well as receive feedback regarding medication adherence, dietary habits, and exercise. Furthermore, the app can analyze and evaluate a patient’s symptom scores or measured vital signs and subsequently generate alerts based on a predefined algorithm (Tables S3 and S4 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ) using the CDSS. In the event of rapid changes in a patient’s symptoms or vital signs, the app prompts the patient to provide information regarding medication adherence, symptom severity, and any other concerns. Upon perceiving significant changes, it sends a message to the patients, advising them to contact their health care provider. In the “Contents” menu, the app can provide patients with information about HF, including symptoms, treatment, dietary guidelines, and exercise recommendations using chatbots.

The dashboard system was designed to present stored information to physicians (Figure S4 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ). This information included BP, HR, body weight, body water composition, HF symptom score, medications, diet, exercise, and any data entered by the patient. Physicians could easily observe the vital sign trends (daily, weekly, and monthly) of the participants. The CDSS analyzes the input data and generates recommendations for users using AI and algorithms. For example, it aggregates data and information from the patient and sends necessary messaging alerts to the patient’s app and, if needed, to the health care provider’s dashboard during office visits.

After randomization, both groups installed the study app on their Android smartphones, which the research nurse provided. Only the intervention group had full access to all functions of the app, and the apps were automatically paired with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices, including a BP monitor, weight scale, and body water analyzer. The intervention group received feedback and alerts from the app. In the control group, patients could enter their BP, HR, and weight into the app using conventional non-Bluetooth devices only. Additionally, they received no feedback or alerts from the app. The “Contents” menu providing information about HF was available in both groups. The study aimed to evaluate the improvement in HF symptoms based on the functionality of the mobile app between the intervention and control groups, with a particular focus on Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and the feedback function of the app.

We used a Bluetooth-enabled BP monitor BP170 (InBody Co). Bioimpedance analysis was performed using a portable multifrequency bioimpedance device (BWA ON; InBody Co) to analyze body water composition. Bioimpedance analysis has recently proven its efficacy in patients with acute HF with dyspnea [ 31 ], and the device can estimate body fluid status using extracellular water divided by total body water of the 4 limbs and trunk. The parameters of extracellular water divided by total body water <0.390, 0.390-0.400, and >0.400 were considered to be “normal,” “slightly over,” and “over,” respectively (Table S5 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ). The device classifies body water levels from levels 1 to 16.

Follow-up visits were scheduled at 2 (visit 2, optional) and 4 (visit 3) weeks after randomization. Both groups received standard care according to the current HF guidelines [ 20 , 32 ], and HF medication could be modified at the discretion of the treating physicians.

Study Outcomes

The primary end point of the study was the change in dyspnea symptom scores from baseline to 4 weeks, which was assessed using a questionnaire. We used a visual analog scale and a numerical rating scale for dyspnea ranging from 0 to 10 based on previous studies [ 33 , 34 ] (Figure S5 in Multimedia Appendix 1 ).

There were two secondary end points: (1) a composite outcome, including death, rehospitalization, and urgent visit for HF and (2) the change in body water composition from baseline to the last measurement in the intervention group. The exploratory clinical outcome was adherence to the app, which was calculated using either log-in access logs or the percentage of days when symptoms were entered into the app. App adherence was defined as follows:

We also compared app satisfaction scores at 4 weeks through a questionnaire, ranging from 0 to 10, between the intervention and control groups. If patients could not attend the scheduled study date, the outcome measures were assessed telephonically.

Sample Size and Statistical Analysis

Due to the absence of previous research and the pioneering nature of our intervention, our study adopts an exploratory approach. The primary objective was not to test a specific hypothesis regarding efficacy but rather to collect preliminary data and assess feasibility in preparation for a larger-scale study. Consequently, a sample size calculation was not conducted at this preliminary stage. Since this was a pilot study to explore the benefits of mobile apps for HF, we enrolled a total of 84 participants across 7 institutes, considering the duration of the study and the number of participating hospitals.

Categorical variables are reported as frequencies (percentages), and continuous variables are expressed as means (SD) or medians with IQR. Categorical variables were compared using the Pearson chi-square test or Fisher exact test, and continuous variables were compared using the Student t test or the Mann-Whitney U test. The change in body water composition from baseline to the last measurement after randomization was analyzed using the paired t test.

The intention-to-treat analysis included all randomized patients. The efficacy end points were primarily analyzed using the full analysis set, which included randomized participants who used the mobile app at least once. We also performed a per-protocol sensitivity analysis, including patients who completed the study protocol. For patients who dropped out before the end of the trial or had missing data, we used the latest available records for analysis, namely, the last observation carried forward method.

All tests were 2-tailed, and a P value <.05 was considered statistically significant. Statistical analyses were performed by using R (version 4.2.0; R Core Team).

Patient Enrollment and Clinical Characteristics

From October 2022 to January 2023, 132 patients from 7 centers were screened for eligibility, and 84 were randomly assigned to the intervention (n=43) or control (n=41) group ( Figure 3 and CONSORT [Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials] checklist in Multimedia Appendix 2 ). After allocation, 7 patients (4 and 3 in the intervention and control groups, respectively) were excluded because they did not use the app at least once; thus, 77 patients (39 and 38 in the intervention and control groups, respectively) were included in the full analysis set.

The baseline characteristics of the groups are presented in Table 1 . The mean age of the total population was 62.1 (SD 14.7) years; 62% were male, 61% had de novo HF, and 30% had HF of an ischemic etiology. The median left ventricular ejection fraction was 38.7% (IQR 28%-58%) and the median NT-proBN P value was 2572 (IQR 1211-6651) pg/mL. The baseline characteristics, including age, sex, demographic data, laboratory values, and comorbidities, were well balanced between the 2 groups, except for diastolic BP. Additionally, the medication use at discharge was not significantly different between the 2 groups.

a HF: heart failure.

b NYHA: New York Heart Association.

c LVEF: left ventricular ejection fraction.

d eGFR: estimated glomerular filtration rate.

e NT-proBNP: N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide.

f RAS: renin-angiotensin system.

g SGLT2: sodium-glucose cotransporter 2.

Dyspnea Symptom Score

The dyspnea symptom scores assessed using the questionnaire are presented in Table 2 and Figure 4 . The baseline dyspnea symptom scores were not significantly different between the 2 groups (intervention vs control: mean 2.4, SD 2.8 vs mean 2.0, SD 2.0; P =.46). Regarding the primary end point, change in dyspnea symptom score from baseline to 4 weeks was significantly greater in the intervention group than in the control group (mean –1.3, SD 2.1 vs mean –0.3, SD 2.3; P =.048).

Secondary End Points

Secondary composite end points, including death, rehospitalization, and urgent visit for HF, were not significantly different between the 2 groups (3/39 vs 3/38; P >.99). A significant reduction was found in the level of body water composition from baseline to the last measurement in the intervention group (baseline level mean 7.4, SD 2.5 vs final level mean 6.6, SD 2.5; P =.003; Figure 5 ).

App Adherence and Patient Satisfaction

The distribution of app adherence among the treatment and control groups is presented in Figure 6 . App adherence, which was assessed based on log-in access logs was higher in the intervention group than in the control group (80.0%, IQR 45.0%-96.8% vs 39.3%, IQR 20.6%-77.4%; P =.003). Additionally, the app adherence evaluated based on the percentage of days when symptom was entered into the app was significantly higher in the intervention group than in the control group (58.6%, IQR 19.2%-79.5% vs 30.6%, IQR 9.1%-64.3%; P =.046).

We also analyzed differences in app adherence according to age. Patients aged 65 years and older showed lower app adherence, as indicated by log-in access logs than those aged younger than 65 years in the overall population (45.9%, IQR 8.9%-79.2% vs 74.9%, IQR 35.7%-95.5%; P =.02). The intervention group showed similar results (61.4%, IQR 13.5%-89.5% vs 92.9%, IQR 64.2%-98.5%; P =.04); however, in the control group, no significant difference was found in app adherence according to the age cutoff of 65 years (39.4%, IQR 5.7%-76.7% vs 39.3%, IQR 27.8%-74.6%; P =.40).

App satisfaction scores at 4 weeks tended to be higher in the intervention group than in the control group; however, the difference was not statistically significant (mean 7.1, SD 2.6 vs mean 6.2, SD 2.9; P =.15).

Sensitivity Analysis

Overall, 74 patients (37 in the intervention group and 37 in the control group) completed the trial over 4 weeks (per-protocol analysis; Figure 3 ). Table S6 and Figure S6 in Multimedia Appendix 1 show the results of sensitivity analyses of the per-protocol population. There was a trend toward a greater reduction in dyspnea symptom scores from baseline to 4 weeks in the intervention group than in the control group, similar to the primary analyses (mean –1.4, SD 2.1 vs mean –0.5, SD 2.1; P =.08). Regarding body water composition, the intervention group showed a greater reduction in the level of body water composition from baseline to last measurement, consistent with the main analysis (baseline level mean 7.4, SD 2.5 vs final level mean 6.6, SD 2.6; P =.006).

Principal Results

We developed a smartphone app and mHealth platform for patients with HF. The main findings of this study are (1) a mobile-based health platform with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and feedback improved dyspnea symptoms compared with the control group and (2) this app-based intervention led to an improvement in the level of body water composition and higher adherence to the app. We believe that the findings of this prospective, randomized study will help in formulating public health strategies to improve HF outcomes using smartphones.

Support for facilitating self-care is crucial for patients with HF [ 18 - 20 ]. However, proper patient self-care and delivery of health care provider feedback are challenging to implement in a real-world clinical setting because of the required time, financial, and human resources. It is challenging for patients to know how to respond to changes in their symptoms or vital signs. It is also impossible for medical staff to quickly check patient information or provide feedback 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. These disadvantages can be overcome by self-management interventions via smartphones, including self-care, symptom and sign monitoring, and mobile-based feedback, which are easily accessible anytime, anywhere. Considering these advantages of a smartphone app–based intervention, including cost-effective and accessible methods, our group has previously developed mobile app platforms for patients with atrial fibrillation [ 35 , 36 ] or hypertension [ 37 ]. Therefore, we planned to develop an app for patients with HF.

Our mobile app for HF provides diverse functions using the concept of mHealth platforms for personalized interventions. Vital signs and body water can be paired with Bluetooth-connected devices, and patients can enter their HF symptoms into the apps. Patients can also receive feedback or alerts from the app based on the information they have entered. Additionally, patients can obtain information about HF using chatbots. Although direct interaction between patients and health care providers may be an ideal situation, it may not be feasible owing to rising costs and a shortage of medical staff. Our app-based monitoring and feedback system had the advantage of being accessible and quick for patients to receive feedback promptly on their changes without high personnel or cost. Although patients in the control group had access to the smartphone app for HF self-care, the improvement in dyspnea symptoms was more pronounced in the intervention group than in the control group. Patients in the control group could only use the limited functionality of the app, were unable to use Bluetooth devices, and could not receive any feedback or alerts. Therefore, our study suggests that the comprehensive functionality of apps, especially in the monitoring and feedback system, is particularly important for their role.

Comparison With Prior Work

Some previous studies have focused on mHealth apps for HF [ 24 - 30 ]. However, these studies were limited by the small number of participants and limited app functionality. Additionally, previous mobile apps have heterogeneous functions and platforms [ 24 , 25 ], and this diversity might have influenced the benefits of mobile apps in HF. Considering the inconsistent benefits of mobile apps in HF [ 25 ], we developed a mobile app with multiple functions in collaboration with 1 of the largest high-tech information technology companies in Korea (KT). In our opinion, this app has a considerably wider range of features and is more efficiently organized than other existing apps [ 28 - 30 ]. Our app has the advantage of keeping patients engaged in their condition and self-management after leaving the hospital. Not only does this provide psychological reassurance, but it also serves the patient’s best interests by keeping a close eye on any changes in their clinical presentation or symptoms. Patients can assess their symptoms more frequently, make lifestyle changes, or contact health care providers earlier. The dashboard system also enables health care professionals to identify changes in a patient’s condition quickly. Furthermore, the app contains elements that may be of interest to patients, including sodium analysis in food using AI and various HF information. Overall, we assumed that the monitoring and feedback function and app adherence are especially important for the mobile app’s role in HF and believe that the benefits of our app could improve the symptoms of HF.

Increasing app adherence has been a common challenge in many studies. For example, a recent study showed that only approximately 30% of patients actively used the HF app, underscoring the importance of caution regarding the enrollment of critically ill, postacute, and older patients [ 30 ]. In our study, median adherence to apps based on log-in access logs was 80% and 39% in the intervention and control groups, respectively, which we believe should be further improved. In the intervention group, we believe that a more comprehensive functionality of apps, including Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and a feedback system, may lead to higher adherence to apps than in the control group. Additionally, this disparity in app functionality may be associated with a higher trend in app satisfaction scores within the intervention group.

Particularly, as a large proportion of patients with HF tend to be older and app adherence appears to decline in those aged 65 years and older in our study, increasing adherence to apps for HF is crucial; this can be achieved by improving the platform to make it more user-friendly for older patients. Interestingly, at the cutoff age of 65 years, a difference was observed in app adherence according to age category in the intervention group but not in the control group, probably due to overall higher app adherence in the intervention group. In the subgroup analysis, no difference was found in the change of dyspnea symptom scores between the intervention and control groups according to an app adherence cutoff of 50%. This is probably due to the small sample size. Therefore, further research with larger study populations is warranted to confirm whether the frequency of app usage directly affects the outcomes.

Limitations and Strengths

This study had some limitations. First, our results are limited by the small sample size of the study. Second, we only enrolled patients who had smartphones and could use them; therefore, the results of our trial may not be applicable to patients who cannot use smartphones, such as very old adults. Since a large proportion of patients with HF are older and have difficulty using smartphones, excluding them from participation may lead to bias and study limitations. Third, the true engagement and use frequency of the apps and the real responses of participants to feedback could not be analyzed. There is a lack of clarity on exactly how the frequency of app use affects clinical outcomes. Additionally, there was a relatively large number of older patients, and adherence to the app declined toward the end of the study. These limitations are commonly observed in studies that use mobile apps. Fourth, we evaluated the dyspnea symptom score using a visual analog scale and a numerical rating scale ranging from 0 to 10. However, at baseline, the average of these scores was <3 points, suggesting that this study was conducted on patients who already had achieved significant improvement in their dyspnea, which limits surveying on a scale of 0-10 over 4 weeks. Fifth, the HF medications could be modified at the discretion of each physician, which could be a confounding factor. Sixth, baseline diastolic BP was higher in the intervention group than in the control group, while patients in the intervention group tended to be younger. This difference in baseline characteristics may limit the generalizability of our conclusions. Seventh, the follow-up period in our studies was only 4 weeks, which was shorter than that in a similar study [ 29 ]; therefore, the effect of mobile apps on patients’ symptoms for a long-term follow-up period was unknown. Furthermore, secondary clinical outcomes, including death, rehospitalization, and urgent visits for HF, were not significantly different between the 2 groups in this study, although a similar study using apps [ 28 ] for HF showed reduced hospitalization for HF by mobile app. Finally, we tested a single app, and our results may not be generalizable to other smartphone-based apps for patients with HF.

Despite these limitations, the major strength of this study is the use of a mobile app with various functions developed in collaboration with a cutting-edge technology company. We believe that the features of our app can be effective solutions for improving self-care in patients with HF.

Conclusions

The smartphone app–based intervention with Bluetooth-connected monitoring devices and feedback improved dyspnea symptoms among patients with HF compared with the control group. Considering the high cost of classical patient-provider interventions, self-care, and feedback through mobile apps are promising alternatives. Therefore, our study provides evidence and rationale for mobile app–based self-care and feedback for patients with HF.

Acknowledgments

The app used in this study was developed in collaboration between the Digital Health Council (DHC) from the Korean Society of Heart Failure and KT Corporation. This research was supported by KT’s Internalization of Digital Therapeutics Business project. This research was supported by a grant from the Korea Health Technology Research & Development Project through the Korea Health Industry Development Institute (KHIDI), funded by the Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea (HI21C1074).

Data Availability

The data sets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

None declared.

App characteristics and functionalities, and participants’ clinical characteristics and outcomes.

CONSORT-EHEALTH checklist.

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• Kalagara R, Chennareddy S, Scaggiante J, Matsoukas S, Bhimani A, Smith C, et al. Blood pressure management through application-based telehealth platforms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Hypertens. 2022;40(7):1249-1256. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Alessa T, Abdi S, Hawley MS, de Witte L. Mobile apps to support the self-management of hypertension: systematic review of effectiveness, usability, and user satisfaction. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2018;6(7):e10723. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Wali S, Demers C, Shah H, Wali H, Lim D, Naik N, et al. Evaluation of heart failure apps to promote self-care: systematic app search. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2019;7(11):e13173. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Athilingam P, Jenkins B. Mobile phone apps to support heart failure self-care management: integrative review. JMIR Cardio. 2018;2(1):e10057. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Mortara A, Vaira L, Palmieri V, Iacoviello M, Battistoni I, Iacovoni A, et al. Would you prescribe mobile health apps for heart failure self-care? An integrated review of commercially available mobile technology for heart failure patients. Card Fail Rev. 2020;6:e13. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Giordan LB, Tong HL, Atherton JJ, Ronto R, Chau J, Kaye D, et al. The use of mobile apps for heart failure self-management: systematic review of experimental and qualitative studies. JMIR Cardio. 2022;6(1):e33839. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Sahlin D, Rezanezad B, Edvinsson ML, Bachus E, Melander O, Gerward S. Self-care management intervention in heart failure (SMART-HF): a multicenter randomized controlled trial. J Card Fail. 2022;28(1):3-12. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Dorsch MP, Farris KB, Rowell BE, Hummel SL, Koelling TM. The effects of the ManageHF4Life mobile app on patients with chronic heart failure: randomized controlled trial. JMIR Mhealth Uhealth. 2021;9(12):e26185. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Zisis G, Carrington MJ, Oldenburg B, Whitmore K, Lay M, Huynh Q, et al. An m-Health intervention to improve education, self-management, and outcomes in patients admitted for acute decompensated heart failure: barriers to effective implementation. Eur Heart J Digit Health. 2021;2(4):649-657. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Park CS, Lee SE, Cho HJ, Kim YJ, Kang HJ, Oh BH, et al. Body fluid status assessment by bio-impedance analysis in patients presenting to the emergency department with dyspnea. Korean J Intern Med. 2018;33(5):911-921. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Park SM, Lee SY, Jung MH, Youn JC, Kim D, Cho JY, et al. Korean Society of Heart Failure guidelines for the management of heart failure: management of the underlying etiologies and comorbidities of heart failure. Korean Circ J. 2023;53(7):425-451. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Zhang X, Zhao C, Zhang H, Liu W, Zhang J, Chen Z, et al. Dyspnea measurement in acute heart failure: a systematic review and evidence map of randomized controlled trials. Front Med (Lausanne). 2021;8:728772. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Placido R, Gigaud C, Gayat E, Ferry A, Cohen-Solal A, Plaisance P, et al. Assessment of dyspnoea in the emergency department by numeric and visual scales: a pilot study. Anaesth Crit Care Pain Med. 2015;34(2):95-99. [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Kim IC, Lee JH, Choi DJ, Park SJ, Lee JH, Park SM, et al. Rationale design and efficacy of a smartphone application for improving self-awareness of adherence to edoxaban treatment: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial (adhere app). BMJ Open. 2022;12(4):e048777. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Yoon M, Park JJ, Hur T, Hua CH, Shim CY, Yoo BS, et al. The ReInforcement of adherence via self-monitoring app orchestrating biosignals and medication of RivaroXaban in patients with atrial fibrillation and co-morbidities: a study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (RIVOX-AF). Front Cardiovasc Med. 2023;10:1130216. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]
• Choi DJ, Park JJ, Yoon M, Park SJ, Jo SH, Kim EJ, et al. Self-monitoring of blood pressure and feed-back using APP in TReatment of UnconTrolled Hypertension (SMART-BP): a randomized clinical trial. Korean Circ J. 2022;52(10):785-794. [ FREE Full text ] [ CrossRef ] [ Medline ]

Abbreviations

Edited by A Mavragani; submitted 22.08.23; peer-reviewed by O El-Gayar, P Athilingam; comments to author 18.10.23; revised version received 07.11.23; accepted 12.03.24; published 29.04.24.

©Minjae Yoon, Seonhwa Lee, Jah Yeon Choi, Mi-Hyang Jung, Jong-Chan Youn, Chi Young Shim, Jin-Oh Choi, Eung Ju Kim, Hyungseop Kim, Byung-Su Yoo, Yeon Joo Son, Dong-Ju Choi. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 29.04.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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How to Create a Culture of Innovation in Your Marketing Team

By Alex Bloore     April 29, 2024    

I n today's marketing landscape, innovation isn't just a "nice to have." It's become a necessity for growth. Tech and consumer choices change so frequently and rapidly now that companies must actively pursue innovation to remain profitable and stay ahead of the curve. That's why 97 percent of respondents to PwC's 27th Annual Global CEO Survey reported having taken steps to change how they create, deliver and capture value over the past five years — through reinvention and innovation, especially with the emergence of gen AI and how it's poised to disrupt work as we know it. But innovation isn't just coming up with new ideas and products without producing results. Today's marketing teams must infuse innovation into everything they do with a structured approach anchored in business reinvention, value creation and differentiation. So, how do you achieve this?

Know What Innovation Really Means

To harness the full power of innovation, you need to move out of the mindset of innovation for innovation's sake. Instead, rally around how McKinsey defines it : "Innovation is the systematic practice of developing and marketing breakthrough products and services for adoption by customers... to increase value and drive growth." To pursue effective innovation, make sure that your efforts to do so meet some, if not all, of the following criteria:

• Help your company grow.
• Be relevant to the industry and business.
• Align with a client, business and/or market problem — i.e., be outcomes-focused.
• Bring your company to the forefront and build brand awareness.

Establish an Innovation Framework

Your innovation framework will need a few variables. First, reserve time, space, and the ability to focus. Ensure anyone involved has both comfort and safety when meeting. Prep work will need to occur beforehand. Innovation thrives under constraints, rather than freedom, so ensure your team has a focus and constraints. Define success metrics for each innovation and how to consistently give progress updates. Implement evaluation and validation processes. Finally, intentionally invest once you know which ideas are good.

Create Innovation Guilds

In the Middle Ages, guilds were associations of people with similar interests or pursuits — for instance, craft guilds for artisans and merchant guilds for traders. Apply the same idea to innovation now. Assemble cross-functional teams that can focus on a specific innovative idea for a specific period of time. Instead of having one team dedicated to innovation, have several teams dedicated to innovation. Bring in folks with different marketing specialties and functions or even from outside departments altogether. You may want to consider including people with different personality profiles if you use this in your company. Each guild will be accountable to investigate an area related to a problem, explore different options, develop prototypes and tests and report on results.

Run Innovation Hackathons

Most people in tech are familiar with the idea of hackathons. To infuse innovation into your company culture, use the same concept of these hackathons for innovation and follow the same guidelines. Set aside two to five days of dedicated focus on a clear innovation theme. Brainstorm ahead of time. Work with a team you already know (i.e., other members of your innovation guild). Scope your ideas, select the one to work on and develop a proof of concept (POC). Then, identify which recommended ideas to continue after the hackathon and know what you'll test.

Set Up an Innovation Sandbox

Whether virtual or somewhere physical, you'll want to have one dedicated area where you can house innovations that have been created, are in progress or are just ideas waiting to be acted on, like a backlog. This repository can serve as a main area to capture the challenges of your clients, business or marketplace and then demonstrate how you're using innovation to solve them. You can lean into tech to track this — for example, using a project management system, your internal company intranet or collaboration apps like Miro or Figma — or even having a wall or room if making it visual in an office setting.

Ensure Psychological Safety

For innovation to flourish, your guilds will need to feel safe. That way, they aren't afraid to take risks or fail. Risk-taking and failure are necessities for true growth and change to happen. One way to do this is to consider the four stages of psychological safety as defined by Timothy R. Clark in his book of the same name . Steward your teams through each of the four stages . In the first stage, inclusion safety, you'll want your teams to feel included and welcomed. After your teams feel included and welcomed, they'll move onto to the learner safety stage. During this stage, feedback from all sides will be provided and encouraged. Then, each guild can move onto stage three, contributor safety, where each person feels they have purpose, meaning and can proactively contribute.

For more, see:

• Brand Purpose and Sustainability
• We Need to Level Up If We Want to Hit Sustainability Targets

Once the teams move past stage three, they'll enter stage four, challenger safety. This is where magic happens for innovation. In this stage, your teams must be willing to be vulnerable. Everyone should be open to learning from mistakes in an arena where the reward outweighs risks. Divergent thinking should be encouraged — even if constructively challenging senior leaders. In this stage, true innovation will occur.

Unleash Marketing Potential Through Innovation

Innovation is the lifeblood of successful marketing in today's rapidly changing landscape. By fostering a culture that values creativity, cross-functional collaboration, and a willingness to take calculated risks, marketing teams can unlock their full potential. Implement structured frameworks, dedicated spaces, and processes that empower individuals to challenge the status quo and explore groundbreaking ideas. Celebrate failures as stepping stones to success, and embrace an outcomes-driven mindset. Only through continuous innovation can marketers deliver exceptional value, differentiate their brand, and drive sustainable business growth.

The views and opinions expressed are solely those of the contributor and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the ANA or imply endorsement from the ANA.

Alex Bloore is the VP of product and data at Goodway Group . He has over 15 years of experience in software and product leadership in many industries from medical software to PropTech to ad tech and marketing. An executive leader of award-winning cross-functional product and data teams, he's driven strategic technical innovation across Goodway Group's diverse client base. 

Physical Review Research

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Activity-induced ferromagnetism in one-dimensional quantum many-body systems

Kazuaki takasan, kyosuke adachi, and kyogo kawaguchi, phys. rev. research 6 , 023096 – published 26 april 2024.

• No Citing Articles
• INTRODUCTION
• NUMERICAL RESULTS
• PROOF OF THE FERROMAGNETIC GROUND STATE
• TWO-PARTICLE PROBLEM
• MEAN-FIELD THEORY
• TWO-LANE MODEL
• SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We study a non-Hermitian quantum many-body model in one dimension analogous to the Vicsek model or active spin models, and investigate its quantum phase transitions. The model consists of two-component hard-core bosons with ferromagnetic interactions and activity, i.e., spin-dependent asymmetric hopping. Numerical results show the emergence of a ferromagnetic order induced by the activity, a quantum counterpart of flocking, that even survives in the absence of ferromagnetic interaction. We confirm this phenomenon by proving that activity generally increases the ground-state energies of the paramagnetic states, whereas the ground-state energy of the ferromagnetic state does not change. By solving the two-particle case, we find that the effective alignment is caused by avoiding the bound-state formation due to the non-Hermitian skin effect in the paramagnetic state. We employ a two-site mean-field theory based on the two-particle result and qualitatively reproduce the phase diagram. We further numerically study a variant of our model with the hard-core condition relaxed, and confirm the robustness of ferromagnetic order emerging due to activity.

• Received 4 September 2023
• Revised 19 January 2024
• Accepted 1 March 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.023096

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

Physics Subject Headings (PhySH)

• Research Areas
• Physical Systems

Authors & Affiliations

• 1 Department of Physics, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
• 2 Nonequilibrium Physics of Living Matter RIKEN Hakubi Research Team, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
• 3 RIKEN Interdisciplinary Theoretical and Mathematical Sciences Program, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako 351-0198, Japan
• 4 RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research, 2-2-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
• 5 Institute for Physics of Intelligence, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
• * These authors contributed equally to this work.

Article Text

Vol. 6, Iss. 2 — April - June 2024

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• Atomic and Molecular Physics
• Computational Physics
• Statistical Physics

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(a) The one-dimensional model ( 1 ) for quantum active matter with aligning interaction. The chain is in the z direction and the magnetic field (orange arrow) is applied in the x direction. (b)–(d) Microscopic ingredients in the model. (b) corresponds to H ̂ hop [Eq. ( 2 )] and H ̂ act [Eq. ( 3 )]. (c) and (d) are described by H ̂ TFIM [Eq. ( 4 )].

(a) Normalized squared magnetization 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 / N 2 , which is the order parameter for ferromagnetic (polar) order corresponding to a flocking phase. FM: ferromagnetic phase; PM: paramagnetic phase. (b) Binding strength C 1 , which takes a large value in the paramagnetic phase near the phase boundary. (c) Correlation function C j [ j = 0 , ... , 5 ( = L / 2 ) ] for J z = 0.01 . (d) The + − configuration behaves like a two-particle bound state under a large activity. The panels (a)–(c) are the numerical results based on the exact diagonalization of the Hamiltonian ( 1 ) for L = 10 and ρ = 0.5 , with t = 1 and h x = 0.01 .

System-size dependence of (a), (b) normalized squared magnetization 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 / N 2 and (c), (d) binding strength C 1 . We used J z = 0.01 for (a) and (c) and J z = 0 for (b) and (d). Here, all the numerical results are based on the exact diagonalization of the Hamiltonian ( 1 ) for L = 8 , ... , 16 at ρ = 0.5 . We set the parameters as t = 1 ,   h x = 0.01 .

Distribution of the total magnetization P m for the ground state of the Hamiltonian ( 1 ) with L = 8 , 16 and ɛ = 0.0 – 0.4 . Other parameters are set as ρ = 0.5 ,   t = 1.0 ,   J z = 0.0 , and h x = 0.01 .

(a)  h x dependence of normalized squared magnetization 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 / N 2 . (b) Transition point ɛ c for different values of h x . Here, ɛ c is defined as the value of ɛ where 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 / N 2 takes 0.6, represented by a red dashed line in (a). The inset of the panel (b) is the log-log plot. The green dashed line represents ɛ c = h x 1 / 2 for comparison. All numerical results are based on the exact diagonalization of the Hamiltonian ( 1 ) for L = 10 at ρ = 0.5 . We set the parameters as t = 1 ,   h x = 0.01 .

System-size dependence of ground-state energies for different magnetization sectors E GS ( n ) , where n labels the different sectors characterized by ( M z , S ) . The plotted values are subtracted by the lowest ground-state energy min k [ E GS ( k ) ] for each system size. The color of dots represents the value of squared magnetization 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 / N 2 where the expectation value 〈 ⋯ 〉 is taken for the ground state of each sector. When the ground-state energies are degenerated, the data points are shifted horizontally for visibility. We put a red dashed line obtained by fitting the largest values for L = 8 , 10 , ... , 16 as a guide. We set the parameter as ρ = 0.5 ,   t = 1 ,   ɛ = 0.3 , and h x = J z = 0 .

Normalized expansion coefficients 〈 m | ψ GS 〉 of the two-particle paramagnetic ground state for h x = J z = 0 and L = 100 . Index m represents the coordinate of the particle with spin − relative to the other particle with spin + . In contrast to the case with ɛ = 0 (blue circles), 〈 m | ψ GS 〉 decays exponentially as a function of m for ɛ > 0 (orange squares and green triangles), reflecting the two-particle bound state.

Magnetic phase diagram obtained by the two-site mean-field theory for t = 1 ,   h x = 0.01 , and ρ = 0.5 . (a) Heat map of the normalized squared total magnetization 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 MF / N 2 in the J z − ɛ plane. The inset shows the ɛ dependence of 〈 M ̂ z 2 〉 MF / N 2 , which indicates the ferromagnetic transition, for several values of J z from 0 to 0.03. (b) Heat map of the mean-field binding strength C 1 MF . The inset shows the ɛ dependence of C 1 MF , which shows a peak at the ɛ -induced transition point.

(a) Two-lane model [Eq. ( 25 )]. + ( − ) particles run only on the upper (lower) lane. There is a repulsive Hubbard-type interaction H ̂ Hub [Eq. ( 26 )] between the lanes. (b)–(d) Normalized squared magnetization for the two-lane model with (b)  U = 10 4 , (c)  U = 10 , and (d)  U = 5 . The inset of panel (b) is the normalized squared magnetization at J z = 0.0 . For comparison, the same quantity for the one-lane model ( 1 ) is also plotted. For panels (b)–(d), we set the parameters as L = 10 ,   ρ = 0.5 ,   t = 1.0 , and h x = 0.01 .

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Lifeway Research

Enlightening today’s church with relevant research and insights

Defining What It Means to Be a Woman

Insights | Faith & Culture | Apr 29, 2024

As diagnoses of gender dysphoria rise, the resulting confusion over female identity has the potential to reshape what it means to be a woman.

By Amy Whitfield

Gender confusion is not just growing, it’s erupting, and by a landslide, it’s girls who seem to be most affected by the explosion.” – Katie McCoy, To Be a Woman

That statement, from the introduction of Katie McCoy’s book To Be a Woman , sets the stage for the conversation our culture is afraid to have but can’t afford to avoid. As diagnoses of gender dysphoria rise dramatically and we see an increase in societal pressure to affirm the gender preferences of even children, the resulting confusion over female identity has the potential to reshape what it means to be a woman.

Perhaps the strongest indicator of this came in 2022, when a judicial nominee was asked to define the word “woman” and opted to abstain from answering the question. The resulting public firestorm went in two directions, with many affirming the non-response and others appalled by it.

Unfortunately, when battle lines are drawn, humans can become overshadowed by politics. In this case, the actual issue—and the very real girls at the center of it—often gets lost in the war over the dictionary.

Engaging with culture

McCoy steps up without hesitation to answer the question. And the fact she can fill an entire book doing so indicates how far the conversation has gone and how much clarity is needed. But the defining mark of this work is the sincere compassion with which she delivers clarity.

Defining womanhood in the 21st century requires not only a foundational understanding of the created order but also an ability to converse with the ideas of the day. Like Paul addressed the people at Mars Hill with a working knowledge of their philosophies before presenting the truth of the gospel (Acts 17:22-34), we do well to understand the prevailing views of our day as we defend God’s intent for His creation.

RESEARCH: U.S. Protestant Pastors See Gender Change as Immoral

It’s important to understand the impact social influence can have on cultural formation, the philosophical ideas that shape Western culture and how those ideas affect women, and the relational component of gender confusion.

But we cannot stop there. Those concepts can serve the broader context and help us know the prevailing beliefs of the culture, but they aren’t truth claims that have the final say. First, we must be willing to boldly name the physiological and neurobiological differences between men and women. But ultimately, we must proclaim the most important reality of all—the theological meaning of gendered identity, that male and female are independent expressions of our Creator and interdependent on each other.

McCoy states in the book, “Trans ideologies disconnect the outer body from the inner self. The body and the self are not just distinct but divisible aspects of human identity. But they also separate the body from its purpose. By severing the physical self from the gendered self, they deprive the body of the theological meaning God bestowed on it.”

Missional tone

Perhaps the most important aspect of To Be a Woman is its gospel-centered perspective and missional tone. Engaging the issue of gender ideology isn’t about achieving political power or worldly gain. Rather, it’s our calling to reflect the character of God and seek the common good.

It’s also our responsibility to care for those the world has harmed. Standing for truth doesn’t have to conflict with caring for those who are hurting. McCoy calls for Christlike compassion and carefully demonstrates that we can minister to those experiencing pain and confusion without abandoning the biblical vision for men and women created in the image of God.

McCoy is an experienced theologian with a heart for the local church. Her expertise in the doctrine of humanity mixed with her calling to serve women uniquely positions her to write this book. Her caring voice shines through as she explains ideologies of today’s world in a way anyone can grasp and repeatedly applies the truth of the gospel.

Equipping parents and ministry leaders

The book is eye-opening—sometimes discouragingly so. But it displays the importance of preparing to face situations no one imagined even a decade ago. McCoy saw the rapid cultural shifts and knew they would have significant implications for women and girls. In particular, parents of adolescent girls and those who work with students will benefit from this resource.

In a rapidly changing context, we cannot keep our heads in the sand and pretend as if everything is the same. But we also cannot let those sands shift underneath our feet and simply go along with their direction. We must understand the times we live in to know exactly what God has called us to speak against and to live with grace for those affected by the ideologies of the age. To Be a Woman tells us what we need to know and encourages us to stand for truth and care for a hurting world at the same time.

For permission to republish this article, contact  Marissa Postell Sullivan .

Amy Whitfield

To Be a Woman: The Confusion Over Female Identity and How Christians Can Respond

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Computer Science > Robotics

Title: research on robot path planning based on reinforcement learning.

Abstract: This project has conducted research on robot path planning based on Visual SLAM. The main work of this project is as follows: (1) Construction of Visual SLAM system. Research has been conducted on the basic architecture of Visual SLAM. A Visual SLAM system is developed based on ORB-SLAM3 system, which can conduct dense point cloud mapping. (2) The map suitable for two-dimensional path planning is obtained through map conversion. This part converts the dense point cloud map obtained by Visual SLAM system into an octomap and then performs projection transformation to the grid map. The map conversion converts the dense point cloud map containing a large amount of redundant map information into an extremely lightweight grid map suitable for path planning. (3) Research on path planning algorithm based on reinforcement learning. This project has conducted experimental comparisons between the Q-learning algorithm, the DQN algorithm, and the SARSA algorithm, and found that DQN is the algorithm with the fastest convergence and best performance in high-dimensional complex environments. This project has conducted experimental verification of the Visual SLAM system in a simulation environment. The experimental results obtained based on open-source dataset and self-made dataset prove the feasibility and effectiveness of the designed Visual SLAM system. At the same time, this project has also conducted comparative experiments on the three reinforcement learning algorithms under the same experimental condition to obtain the optimal algorithm under the experimental condition.

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Discrimination Experiences Shape Most Asian Americans’ Lives

3. asian americans and the ‘model minority’ stereotype, table of contents.

• Key findings from the survey
• Most Asian Americans have been treated as foreigners in some way, no matter where they were born
• Most Asian Americans have been subjected to ‘model minority’ stereotypes, but many haven’t heard of the term
• Experiences with other daily and race-based discrimination incidents
• In their own words: Key findings from qualitative research on Asian Americans and discrimination experiences
• Discrimination in interpersonal encounters with strangers
• Racial discrimination at security checkpoints
• Encounters with police because of race or ethnicity
• Racial discrimination in the workplace
• Quality of service in restaurants and stores
• Discrimination in neighborhoods
• Experiences with name mispronunciation
• Discrimination experiences of being treated as foreigners
• In their own words: How Asian Americans would react if their friend was told to ‘go back to their home country’
• Awareness of the term ‘model minority’
• Views of the term ‘model minority’
• How knowledge of Asian American history impacts awareness and views of the ‘model minority’ label
• Most Asian Americans have experienced ‘model minority’ stereotypes
• In their own words: Asian Americans’ experiences with the ‘model minority’ stereotype
• Asian adults who personally know an Asian person who has been threatened or attacked since COVID-19
• In their own words: Asian Americans’ experiences with discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic
• Experiences with talking about racial discrimination while growing up
• Is enough attention being paid to anti-Asian racism in the U.S.?
• Acknowledgments
• Sample design
• Data collection
• Weighting and variance estimation
• Methodology: 2021 focus groups of Asian Americans
• Appendix: Supplemental tables

In the survey, we asked Asian Americans about their views and experiences with another stereotype: Asians in the U.S. being a “model minority.” Asian adults were asked about their awareness of the label “model minority,” their views on whether the term is a good or bad thing, and their experiences with being treated in ways that reflect the stereotype.

What is the ‘model minority’ stereotype?

Amid the Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s, another narrative about Asian Americans became widespread: being characterized as a “model” minority. In 1966, two articles were published in The New York Times Magazine and U.S. News and World Report that portrayed Japanese and Chinese Americans as examples of successful minorities. Additionally, in 1987 Time magazine published a cover story on “those Asian American whiz kids.” The model minority stereotype has characterized the nation’s Asian population as high-achieving economically and educationally, which has been attributed to Asians being hardworking and deferential to parental and authority figures, among other factors. The stereotype generalizes Asians in the U.S. as intelligent, well-off, and able to excel in fields such as math and science. Additionally, the model minority myth positions Asian Americans in comparison with other non-White groups such as Black and Hispanic Americans.

For many Asians living in the United States, these characterizations do not align with their lived experiences  or reflect their diverse socioeconomic backgrounds . Among Asian origin groups in the U.S., there are wide differences in economic and social experiences. Additionally, academic research has investigated how the pressures of the model minority stereotype can impact Asian Americans’ mental health and academic performance . Critics of the myth have also pointed to its impact on other racial and ethnic groups, especially Black Americans. Some argue that the myth has been used to minimize racial discrimination and justify policies that overlook the historical circumstances and impacts of colonialism, slavery and segregation on other non-White racial and ethnic groups.

More than half of Asian adults (55%) say they have not heard of the term “model minority.” Just under half (44%) say they have heard of the term.

There are some differences in awareness of the term across demographic groups:

• Ethnic origin: About half of Korean and Chinese adults say they have heard of the term, while only about one-third of Indian adults say the same.
• Nativity: 57% of U.S.-born Asian adults have heard the term “model minority,” compared with 40% of immigrants.
• Immigrant generation: Among immigrants, 60% of those who came to the U.S. as children (“1.5 generation” in this report) say they have heard of the term “model minority,” compared with 32% of those who came to the U.S. as adults (first generation). And among U.S.-born Asian Americans, those who are second generation are more likely than those who are third or higher generation to say the same (62% vs. 40%).
• Age: 56% of Asian adults under 30 say they have heard of the term, compared with fewer than half among older Asian adults.
• Party: 51% of Asian adults who identify with or lean to the Democratic Party say they’ve heard the term, compared with 34% of those who identify with or lean to the Republican Party.

Awareness of the term ‘model minority’ varies across education and income

Asian adults with higher levels of formal education and higher family income are more likely to say they have heard of the term “model minority”:

• 53% of Asian adults with a postgraduate degree say they have heard the term, compared with smaller shares of those with a bachelor’s degree or less.
• 54% of Asian adults who make $150,000 or more say they have heard the term, higher than the shares among those with lower incomes. Among Asian Americans who make less than $30,000, only 29% say they have heard of the term “model minority.”

Notably, awareness of the term is higher among those born in the U.S. than immigrants across all levels of education and income.

Among Asian adults who have heard of the term “model minority,” about four-in-ten say using it to describe Asians in the U.S. is a bad thing. Another 28% say using it is neither good nor bad, 17% say using it is a good thing, and 12% say they are not sure.

These views vary by ethnic origin, nativity, age and party. Among those who have heard of the term:

• Ethnic origin: Among Indian adults, the gap between those who say the term “model minority” is a bad thing and those who say it is a good thing (36% vs. 27%) is smaller than among other ethnic origin groups.
• Nativity: 60% of U.S.-born Asian adults say describing Asians as a model minority is a bad thing, while 9% say it is a good thing. Meanwhile, immigrants’ views of the model minority stereotype are more split (33% vs. 21%, respectively).
• Immigrant generation: Among immigrants, 43% of 1.5-generation Asian adults say using the term “model minority” is a bad thing, compared with 26% of first-generation Asian adults.
• Age: Asian adults under 30 are far more likely to say the model minority label is a bad thing than a good thing (66% vs. 8%). Meanwhile, Asian adults 65 and older are more likely to say describing Asian Americans as a model minority is a good thing (36%) than a bad thing (17%).
• Party: 52% of Asian Democrats say describing Asians as a model minority is a bad thing, about three times the share of Asian Republicans who say the same (17%). 

Among those who know the term “model minority,” views of whether using it to describe Asians in the U.S. is a good or bad thing does not vary significantly across education levels. By income, Asian adults who make less than $30,000 are somewhat less likely to say it is a bad thing than those with higher incomes. 18

Views of the ‘model minority’ label are linked to perceptions of the American dream

In the survey, we asked Asian Americans if they believe they have achieved the American dream, are on their way to achieving it, or if they believe the American dream is out of their reach. Among those who have heard of the term “model minority”:

• 54% of Asian adults who believe the American dream is out of their reach say describing Asian Americans as a model minority is a bad thing. This is higher than the shares among those who believe they are on their way to achieving (44%) or believe they have already achieved the American dream (30%).
• Meanwhile, 26% of Asian adults who believe they have achieved the American dream say the model minority label is a good thing. In comparison, 14% of those who believe they are on their way to achieving the American dream and 11% of those who believe that the American dream is out of their reach say the same.

In this survey, we asked Asian Americans how informed they are about the history of Asians in the U.S.

Whether Asian adults have heard of the model minority label is linked to their knowledge of Asian American history:

• 62% of Asian adults who are extremely or very informed of U.S. Asian history have heard of the term “model minority.”
• Smaller shares of those who are somewhat informed (44%) or a little or not at all informed (29%) about U.S. Asian history say they are aware of the term.  

However, among those who have heard of the “model minority” label, views on whether using it to describe Asian Americans is good or bad are similar regardless of how informed they are on Asian American history. About four-in-ten across knowledge levels say describing Asian Americans as a model minority is a bad thing.

The model minority stereotype often paints Asian Americans as intellectually and financially successful, deferential to authority, and competent but robotic or unemotional , especially in comparison with other racial and ethnic groups. Additionally, some stereotypes associated with the model minority characterize Asian Americans as successful in fields such as math and science, as well as lacking in creativity.

Nearly two-thirds of Asian adults (63%) say that in their day-to-day encounters with strangers, they have at least one experience in which someone assumed they are good at math and science or not a creative thinker.

Broadly, Asian adults are far more likely to say someone has assumed they are good at math and science (58%) than not a creative thinker (22%).

Across these experiences, there are some differences by demographic groups:

• Ethnic origin: 68% of Indian adults say strangers have assumed they are good at math and science, a higher share than among most other origin groups. Meanwhile, about half or fewer of Japanese (47%) and Filipino (43%) adults say people have made this assumption about them.
• Immigrant generation: About seven-in-ten Asian adults who are 1.5 generation and second generation each say people have assumed they are good at math and science, compared with 50% among the first generation and 46% among third or higher generations.
• Education: About two-thirds of Asian adults with a postgraduate degree or a bachelor’s degree say strangers have assumed they are good at math and science, compared with roughly half of those with some college experience or less. Similar shares regardless of education say people have assumed they are not a creative thinker.
• Income: 69% of those who make $150,000 or more say strangers have assumed they are good at math and science, compared with 43% of those who make less than $30,000.  
• Race: 59% of single-race Asian adults (those who identify as Asian and no other race) say someone assumed they are good at math and science, compared with 45% of Asian adults who identify with two or more races (those who identify as Asian and at least one other race).

In our 2021 focus groups of Asian Americans, participants talked about their views of and experiences with the “model minority” stereotype.

Many U.S.-born Asian participants shared how it has been harmful , with some discussing the social pressures associated with it. Others spoke about how the stereotype portrays Asians as monolithic and compares them with other racial and ethnic groups.

“You have to be polished. There’s no room for failure. There’s no room for imperfections. You have to be well-spoken, well-educated, have the right opinions, be good-looking, be tall. [You] have to have a family structure. There’s no room for any sort of freedom in identity except for the mold that you’ve been painted as – as a model citizen.”

–U.S.-born man of Pakistani origin in early 30s

“As an Asian person, I feel like there’s a stereotype that Asian students are high achievers academically. They’re good at math and science. … I was a pretty mediocre student, and math and science were actually my weakest subjects, so I feel like it’s either way you lose. Teachers expect you to fit a certain stereotype and if you’re not, then you’re a disappointment, but at the same time, even if you are good at math and science, that just means that you’re fitting a stereotype. It’s [actually] your own achievement, but your teachers might think ‘Oh, it’s because they’re Asian,’ and that diminishes your achievement.”

–U.S.-born woman of Korean origin in late 20s

“The model minority myth … mak[es] us as Asians [and] South Asians monoliths. … I’ve had people go, ‘Oh, so your dad’s a doctor? Is he a lawyer? Do you have money? Do you have this? Do you have that? Are you [in] an arranged marriage?’ And just the kind of image that portrays and gives us. But the expectations put on us as being high performing and everyone assumes you’re going to be smart. … I am a black sheep in many ways, not only within my family, but within Asian [and] South Asian culture, being [in my profession], someone who’s not a doctor, who hasn’t gone the professional, traditional, educational route. So, it’s very harmful, that too, for those communities within the Asian diaspora who have come to the United States. … [M]any of them come from impoverished and underrepresented communities and the expectations put on them to produce or the types of jobs and menial labor they have to take on as a result is really a very poisonous mythos to have out there.”

–U.S.-born woman of Indian origin in early 40s

“One of the reasons the model minority fallacy works so well as an argument against affirmative action [for Indians is] they are a newer immigrant group that has come here and … [t]here’s a lot of education [in India]. People have opportunity there that then they can come [to America] and continue with those connections. Whereas Blacks and Hispanics have had generations of oppression, so they don’t have anything to build off of. So when you bucket everybody – Black, Hispanics and Asians – into one group, then you can make those arguments of, ‘Oh, [Asians] are the model minority, they can do it.’”

Some participants talked about having mixed feelings about being called the “model minority” and how they felt like it put them in a kind of “middle ground.” 

“I feel like Asians are kind of known as the model minority. That kind of puts us in an interesting position where I feel like we’re supposed to excel and succeed in the media, or we’re seen in the media as exceeding in all these things as smart. All of us are not by any means. Yeah, I feel like we’re in this weird middle ground.”

–U.S.-born man of Chinese origin in early 20s

“A lot of people believe that Japanese are the most humble and honest people, even among other Asians. I feel like I need to live up to that. I have to try hard when people say things like that. Of course, it is good, but it’s a lot of work sometimes. As Japanese, and for my family, I try hard.”

–Immigrant man of Japanese origin in mid-40s (translated from Japanese)

Others had more positive impressions of the model minority label, saying it made them proud to be Asian and have others see them that way:

“Whenever I apply for any job, in the drop-down there is an option to choose the ethnicity, and I write Asian American proudly because everyone knows us Asians as hardworking, they recognize us as loyal and hardworking.”

–Immigrant woman of Nepalese origin in mid-40s (translated from Nepali)

“I think any model is a good thing. I mean the cognitive, the word ‘model,’ when you model after somebody it’s a positive meaning to it. So personally for me I have no issues with being called the model minority because it only tells me that I’m doing something right.”

–U.S.-born man of Hmong origin in early 40s

• Some of these groups had relatively small sample sizes. For shares of Asian adults who have heard of the term “model minority” and say using the term to describe the U.S. Asian population is a good or bad thing, by education and income, refer to the Appendix . ↩

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