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104 Socioeconomic Status Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Socioeconomic status plays a significant role in shaping individuals' lives and opportunities. It can impact access to education, healthcare, employment, and overall well-being. As such, it is a crucial topic for research and discussion. If you are looking for essay topics on socioeconomic status, here are 104 ideas and examples to get you started.

• The impact of socioeconomic status on educational achievement
• Income inequality and its effects on society
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and health outcomes
• Poverty and its implications for mental health
• Social mobility and its challenges in today's society
• The role of social class in shaping individuals' identities
• The effects of wealth on social relationships
• The consequences of growing up in a low-income household
• Socioeconomic disparities in access to healthcare
• The intersection of race and socioeconomic status
• The effects of economic recession on low-income families
• The influence of socioeconomic status on career choices
• The impact of poverty on children's development
• Social exclusion and its consequences for individuals
• The relationship between poverty and crime rates
• The effects of socioeconomic status on mental health stigma
• The role of social class in shaping political beliefs
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to technology
• Income inequality and its effects on economic growth
• The relationship between education level and socioeconomic status
• The effects of gentrification on low-income communities
• The influence of social class on social mobility
• The consequences of living in a food desert
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and parenting styles
• The effects of poverty on access to quality housing
• The impact of unemployment on mental health
• The role of socioeconomic status in shaping educational opportunities
• The effects of income inequality on social cohesion
• The consequences of living in a high-crime neighborhood
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to legal representation
• The impact of poverty on access to clean water
• The influence of social class on access to cultural resources
• The effects of income inequality on social trust
• The role of socioeconomic status in shaping health behaviors
• The consequences of living in a segregated neighborhood
• The relationship between poverty and access to quality education
• The effects of income inequality on social mobility
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to transportation
• The role of social class in shaping access to social services
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with environmental hazards
• The relationship between poverty and access to mental health services
• The effects of income inequality on political participation
• The influence of social class on access to legal rights
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to recreational opportunities
• The relationship between poverty and access to quality healthcare
• The effects of income inequality on access to affordable housing
• The role of social class in shaping access to nutritious food
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited social support
• The relationship between poverty and access to job opportunities
• The effects of income inequality on access to social capital
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to financial resources
• The role of social class in shaping access to educational resources
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to public transportation
• The relationship between poverty and access to safe recreational spaces
• The effects of income inequality on access to quality childcare
• The influence of social class on access to mental health resources
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to legal representation
• The relationship between poverty and access to affordable housing
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to healthcare
• The relationship between income inequality and access to quality education
• The effects of social class on access to job training programs
• The impact of poverty on access to affordable transportation
• The role of socioeconomic status in shaping access to financial literacy programs
• The relationship between income inequality and access to safe neighborhoods
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to healthy food options
• The effects of social class on access to quality healthcare
• The influence of poverty on access to mental health services
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to legal rights
• The relationship between income inequality and access to affordable housing
• The role of social class in shaping access to job opportunities
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to educational resources
• The relationship between poverty and access to recreational opportunities
• The effects of social class on access to quality childcare
• The role of socioeconomic status in shaping access to social services
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to social support
• The relationship between income inequality and access to nutritious food
• The effects of social class on access to safe recreational spaces
• The influence of poverty on access to mental health resources
• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to job training programs
• The relationship between income inequality and access to financial resources
• The effects of social class on access to legal representation
• The role of poverty in shaping access to affordable housing
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to quality healthcare
• The impact of income inequality on access to mental health services
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to job opportunities
• The relationship between poverty and access to financial literacy programs
• The effects of socioeconomic status on access to safe neighborhoods
• The role of income inequality in shaping access to healthy food options
• The relationship between social class and access to recreational opportunities
• The impact of poverty on access to quality childcare
• The consequences of living in a neighborhood with limited access to affordable transportation
• The effects of income inequality on access to social support
• The influence of socioeconomic status on access to educational resources
• The relationship between poverty and access to social services
• The impact of social class on access to financial resources
• The role of socioeconomic status in shaping access to legal representation
• The consequences of income inequality on access to affordable housing
• The effects of social class on access to mental health services
• The impact of poverty on access to legal rights
• The influence of socioeconomic status on access to job opportunities

In conclusion, socioeconomic status is a complex and multifaceted topic that has profound implications for individuals and society as a whole. By exploring these essay topics and examples, you can gain a deeper understanding of how socioeconomic status shapes our lives and the challenges that come with it.

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Socio-economic Issues Essay Grade 11 Learning Materials

Overview of important socio-economic issues, business solutions to deal with socio-economic issues, industrial actions, labour relations act, description of the term “trade unions”, history of trade unions, role of trade unions, functions of trade unions, download socio-economic issues essay grade 11 pdf, technology grade 9 term 2 notes: exam questions and answers, business studies socio-economic issues grade 10, civic education ambassadors: nurturing informed and engaged communities, empowering minds, building futures: social-emotional growth in south african education, caliber education: pioneering excellence in personalized learning and innovation, leave a reply cancel reply.

What are the Socio-economic Issues in South Africa?

• May 12, 2023

South Africa is a country that has undergone significant changes over the past few decades, from the fall of apartheid to the country’s first democratic elections in 1994. Despite these changes, the country is still facing significant socio-economic challenges. In this essay, we will examine what are the socio-economic issues in South Africa.

Unemployment

One of the most pressing socio-economic issues in South Africa is unemployment. According to the World Bank, the country’s unemployment rate was 32.5% in 2020, one of the highest in the world. This problem is particularly acute among young people, with more than half of those aged 15-24 out of work. Unemployment has a range of negative consequences, including poverty, crime, and social unrest.

Poverty is another significant socio-economic issue in South Africa. According to the World Bank, 55.5% of the population was living below the poverty line in 2020. This problem is particularly acute among black South Africans, who are more likely to be unemployed and live in poverty than other racial groups. Poverty is linked to a range of other social issues, including poor health outcomes, low educational attainment, and a lack of access to basic services.

South Africa is one of the most unequal countries in the world, with a Gini coefficient of 0.63 in 2020, according to the World Bank. This inequality is largely a result of the legacy of apartheid, which created significant disparities in income and wealth between different racial groups. Today, these disparities persist, with white South Africans on average earning significantly more than their black counterparts. Inequality is linked to a range of other social issues, including poor health outcomes, low educational attainment, and social unrest.

Education is another significant socio-economic issue in South Africa. While the country has made significant strides in improving access to education since the end of apartheid, there are still significant disparities in educational attainment between different racial and socioeconomic groups. According to UNESCO , the country has a literacy rate of 86.4%, but this varies widely depending on factors such as race, location, and socioeconomic status. Education is linked to a range of other social issues, including unemployment and poverty.

Healthcare is another significant socio-economic issue in South Africa. While the country has made significant strides in improving access to healthcare since the end of apartheid, there are still significant disparities in healthcare outcomes between different racial and socioeconomic groups. According to the World Health Organization, the country has a life expectancy of 63 years, one of the lowest in the world. This is linked to a range of factors, including poverty, malnutrition, and the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS.

Housing is another significant socio-economic issue in South Africa. According to the Census 2021, about 15.7% of households live in informal dwellings such as shacks and backyard structures. This problem is particularly acute in urban areas, where there is a shortage of affordable housing. The lack of adequate housing is linked to a range of other social issues, including poor health outcomes, low educational attainment, and social unrest.

In conclusion, South Africa is facing a range of significant socio-economic issues, from high levels of unemployment and poverty to significant disparities in income and wealth between different racial groups. Addressing these issues will require a range of interventions, from improving access to education and healthcare to addressing the shortage of affordable housing. While progress has been made since the end of apartheid, there is still much work to be done to create a more just and equitable society for all South Africans.

• # economic disparity South Africa
• # poverty in South Africa
• # socio-economic challenges South Africa
• # socio-economic issues in South Africa
• # South Africa economic inequality
• # South Africa economic problems
• # South Africa inequality issues
• # South Africa social issues
• # South Africa socio-economic factors
• # unemployment in South Africa

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Essay On Social Issues

500 words essay on social issues.

Social Issues is an undesirable state which opposes society or a certain part of society. It refers to an unwanted situation that frequently results in problems and continues to harm society . Social issues can cause a lot of problems that can be beyond the control of just one person. Through an essay on social issues, we will learn why they are harmful and what types of social issues we face.

Drawbacks of Social Issues

Social issues have a lot of drawbacks that harms our society. They are situations that have an adverse and damaging result on our society. They arise when the public leaves nature or society from an ideal situation.

If you look closely, you will realize that almost all types of social issues have common origins. In the sense that they all are interconnected somehow. Meaning to say, if one solves the other one is also most likely to resolve.

Social issues have a massive lousy effect on our society and ultimately, it affects all of us. In order to solve some social issues, we need a common approach. No society is free from social issues, almost every one of them has some social issue or the other.

For instance, in India, you will find a lot of social issues which the country is facing. It ranges from the caste system to child labour and gender inequality to religious conflicts. Thus, we are going through a critical time where we all must come together to free our society from undesirable social evils.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Major Social Issues

There are a lot of social issues we are facing right now, some more prominent than the others. First of all, poverty is a worldwide issue. It gives birth to a lot of other social issues which we must try to get away with at the earliest.

Further, countries like India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and more are facing the issue of the caste system since times unknown. It results in a lot of caste violence and inequality which takes the lives of many on a daily basis.

Moreover, child labour is another major social issue that damages the lives of young children. Similarly, illiteracy also ruins the lives of many by destroying their chances of a bright future.

In developing countries mostly, child marriage still exists and is responsible for ruining many lives. Similarly, dowry is a very serious and common social issue that almost all classes of people partake in.

Another prominent social issue is gender inequality which takes away many opportunities from deserving people. Domestic violence especially against women is a serious social issue we must all fight against.

Other social issues include starvation, child sex abuse, religious conflicts, child trafficking, terrorism , overpopulation, untouchability, communalism and many more. It is high time we end these social issues.

Conclusion of the Essay on Social Issues

A society can successfully end social issues if they become adamant. These social issues act as a barrier to the progress of society. Thus, we must all come together to fight against them and put them to an end for the greater good.

FAQ on Essay on Social Issues

Question 1: What is the meaning of social problem?

Answer 1: A social problem refers to any condition or behaviour which has a negative impact on a large number of people. It is normally recognized as a condition or behaviour that needs to be addressed.

Question 2: What are the effects of social issues?

Answer 2: Social issues affect our society adversely. Most importantly, it disturbs the harmony of society and gives rise to hostility and suspicion. Moreover, it creates large-scale social dissatisfaction, suffering and misery.

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Mental health effects of poverty, hunger, and homelessness on children and teens

Rising inflation and an uncertain economy are deeply affecting the lives of millions of Americans, particularly those living in low-income communities. It may seem impossible for a family of four to survive on just over $27,000 per year or a single person on just over $15,000, but that’s what millions of people do everyday in the United States. Approximately 37.9 million Americans, or just under 12%, now live in poverty, according to the U.S. Census Bureau .

Additional data from the Bureau show that children are more likely to experience poverty than people over the age of 18. Approximately one in six kids, 16% of all children, live in families with incomes below the official poverty line.

Those who are poor face challenges beyond a lack of resources. They also experience mental and physical issues at a much higher rate than those living above the poverty line. Read on for a summary of the myriad effects of poverty, homelessness, and hunger on children and youth. And for more information on APA’s work on issues surrounding socioeconomic status, please see the Office of Socioeconomic Status .

Who is most affected?

Poverty rates are disproportionately higher among most non-White populations. Compared to 8.2% of White Americans living in poverty, 26.8% of American Indian and Alaska Natives, 19.5% of Blacks, 17% of Hispanics and 8.1% of Asians are currently living in poverty.

Similarly, Black, Hispanic, and Indigenous children are overrepresented among children living below the poverty line. More specifically, 35.5% of Black people living in poverty in the U.S. are below the age of 18. In addition, 40.7% of Hispanic people living below the poverty line in the U.S. are younger than age 18, and 29.1% of American Indian and Native American children lived in poverty in 2018. In contrast, approximately 21% of White people living in poverty in the U.S. are less than 18 years old.

Furthermore, families with a female head of household are more than twice as likely to live in poverty compared to families with a male head of household. Twenty-three percent of female-headed households live in poverty compared to 11.4% of male-headed households, according to the U.S. Census Bureau .

What are the effects of poverty on children and teens?

The impact of poverty on young children is significant and long lasting. Poverty is associated with substandard housing, hunger, homelessness, inadequate childcare, unsafe neighborhoods, and under-resourced schools. In addition, low-income children are at greater risk than higher-income children for a range of cognitive, emotional, and health-related problems, including detrimental effects on executive functioning, below average academic achievement, poor social emotional functioning, developmental delays, behavioral problems, asthma, inadequate nutrition, low birth weight, and higher rates of pneumonia.

Psychological research also shows that living in poverty is associated with differences in structural and functional brain development in children and adolescents in areas related to cognitive processes that are critical for learning, communication, and academic achievement, including social emotional processing, memory, language, and executive functioning.

Children and families living in poverty often attend under-resourced, overcrowded schools that lack educational opportunities, books, supplies, and appropriate technology due to local funding policies. In addition, families living below the poverty line often live in school districts without adequate equal learning experiences for both gifted and special needs students with learning differences and where high school dropout rates are high .

What are the effects of hunger on children and teens?

One in eight U.S. households with children, approximately 12.5%, could not buy enough food for their families in 2021 , considerably higher than the rate for households without children (9.4%). Black (19.8%) and Latinx (16.25%) households are disproportionately impacted by food insecurity, with food insecurity rates in 2021 triple and double the rate of White households (7%), respectively.

Research has found that hunger and undernutrition can have a host of negative effects on child development. For example, maternal undernutrition during pregnancy increases the risk of negative birth outcomes, including premature birth, low birth weight, smaller head size, and lower brain weight. In addition, children experiencing hunger are at least twice as likely to report being in fair or poor health and at least 1.4 times more likely to have asthma, compared to food-secure children.

The first three years of a child’s life are a period of rapid brain development. Too little energy, protein and nutrients during this sensitive period can lead to lasting deficits in cognitive, social and emotional development . School-age children who experience severe hunger are at increased risk for poor mental health and lower academic performance , and often lag behind their peers in social and emotional skills .

What are the effects of homelessness on children and teens?

Approximately 1.2 million public school students experienced homelessness during the 2019-2020 school year, according to the National Center for Homeless Education (PDF, 1.4MB) . The report also found that students of color experienced homelessness at higher proportions than expected based on the overall number of students. Hispanic and Latino students accounted for 28% of the overall student body but 38% of students experiencing homelessness, while Black students accounted for 15% of the overall student body but 27% of students experiencing homelessness. While White students accounted for 46% of all students enrolled in public schools, they represented 26% of students experiencing homelessness.

Homelessness can have a tremendous impact on children, from their education, physical and mental health, sense of safety, and overall development. Children experiencing homelessness frequently need to worry about where they will live, their pets, their belongings, and other family members. In addition, homeless children are less likely to have adequate access to medical and dental care, and may be affected by a variety of health challenges due to inadequate nutrition and access to food, education interruptions, trauma, and disruption in family dynamics.

In terms of academic achievement, students experiencing homelessness are more than twice as likely to be chronically absent than non-homeless students , with greater rates among Black and Native American or Alaska Native students. They are also more likely to change schools multiple times and to be suspended—especially students of color.

Further, research shows that students reporting homelessness have higher rates of victimization, including increased odds of being sexually and physically victimized, and bullied. Student homelessness correlates with other problems, even when controlling for other risks. They experienced significantly greater odds of suicidality, substance abuse, alcohol abuse, risky sexual behavior, and poor grades in school.

What can you do to help children and families experiencing poverty, hunger, and homelessness?

There are many ways that you can help fight poverty in America. You can:

• Volunteer your time with charities and organizations that provide assistance to low-income and homeless children and families.
• Donate money, food, and clothing to homeless shelters and other charities in your community.
• Donate school supplies and books to underresourced schools in your area.
• Improve access to physical, mental, and behavioral health care for low-income Americans by eliminating barriers such as limitations in health care coverage.
• Create a “safety net” for children and families that provides real protection against the harmful effects of economic insecurity.
• Increase the minimum wage, affordable housing and job skills training for low-income and homeless Americans.
• Intervene in early childhood to support the health and educational development of low-income children.
• Provide support for low-income and food insecure children such as Head Start , the National School Lunch Program , and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) .
• Increase resources for public education and access to higher education.
• Support research on poverty and its relationship to health, education, and well-being.
• Resolution on Poverty and SES
• Pathways for addressing deep poverty
• APA Deep Poverty Initiative

Home — Essay Samples — Economics — Socioeconomic Status

Essays on Socioeconomic Status

Socioeconomic status essay topics for college students.

As a college student, choosing the right essay topic is crucial for a successful and engaging paper. It is important to select a topic that interests you and allows for creativity, while also addressing important issues related to socioeconomic status.

Essay Types and ... Read More Socioeconomic Status Essay Topics for College Students

Essay types and topics, argumentative essay.

• The impact of socioeconomic status on access to education
• Income inequality and its effects on society

Paragraph Example: The impact of socioeconomic status on access to education is a crucial issue that affects individuals and communities. In this essay, we will explore the barriers faced by individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and the implications for society as a whole. It is clear that access to education is not equal for all, and this has far-reaching consequences for our future.

Paragraph Example: The barriers to education faced by individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds must be addressed to create a more equitable society. By investing in educational resources and support for these individuals, we can work towards a future where everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed.

Compare and Contrast Essay

• The impact of socioeconomic status on healthcare access in urban and rural areas
• The portrayal of socioeconomic status in literature: A comparison of classic and contemporary works

Descriptive Essay

• Living in poverty: A personal experience
• The impact of socioeconomic status on neighborhood communities

Persuasive Essay

• Implementing policies to reduce income inequality
• Raising awareness about the challenges faced by low-income families

Narrative Essay

• Overcoming socioeconomic barriers to achieve academic success
• A personal journey of upward mobility

Engagement and Creativity

Essay writing is an opportunity to explore your interests and critical thinking skills. Choose a topic that resonates with you and allows for creative expression. Engage with the issues related to socioeconomic status and think critically about the impact on individuals and society.

Educational Value

Each essay type offers unique learning outcomes. Argumentative essays develop analytical thinking and persuasive writing skills, while descriptive essays enhance your ability to create vivid and detailed descriptions. Compare and contrast essays encourage critical thinking and analysis, while narrative essays allow for personal reflection and storytelling.

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Why Do People Commit Crime

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The Relation Between Race and Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status

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Globalization from a Socio-economic Point of View

Understanding social status and its impact, american dream: a mirage for many, in sickness and in wealth, relevant topics.

• American Dream
• Macroeconomics
• Industrialization
• Microeconomics
• Human Development
• Economic Growth
• Freakonomics
• Unemployment

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What Are Socioeconomic Issues?

Effects of Crime on Society

Socioeconomic status profoundly impacts an individual or family’s reputation and standing in the community. Socioeconomic issues include the ethics, fairness and results of policies, theories and institutions that may result in a different standard of treatment and opportunities based on income and background. Poverty is a major socioeconomic issue because lack of money for basic necessities is the source of many other socioeconomic concerns.

Disproportionate Poverty Levels

According to statistics from the U.S. Census Bureau, in 2016, there were 40.6 million people living in poverty, which means the poverty rate was 12.7 percent. For a family of four, the average poverty threshold -- or poverty line -- was $25,086, which means that a family of four making less than this was considered poor, as of 2017. More women than men live in poverty, and children represent 32.6 percent of those in poverty. Also, a family headed by a single adult is more likely to have a female head of household and is at greater risk of being in poverty.

Disparities in Health

People of lower socioeconomic status are less likely to have equal access to quality health care and more likely to develop health problems. Poor people do not have discretionary income to afford gym membership, exercise equipment or expensive hobbies like golf and skiing. They are also more likely to live in areas where they are exposed to environmental toxins, suffer from poor nutrition and develop health conditions. In addition, the anxiety of poverty makes them more vulnerable to stress related ailments, depression and anxiety.

Low Education Levels

Education is both a cause and an effect of socioeconomic status. People of lower socioeconomic status are less likely to be educated and often unable to save money for their children's future education. As a result, these children often have reduced employment levels and make lower wages as adults. In addition, children in low-income families have other extenuating circumstances. For example, they may have a teen mother, live in a non-English-speaking household, or live in a household where no one has a high school diploma, and these factors may also increase the chances that they will not have a successful school experience.

Justice System Inequalities

People in lower socioeconomic classes are more likely to deal with the criminal justice system as well. Poor people tend to be arrested more often than the middle class, and their cases processed through the courts. Additionally, economically disadvantaged defendants face harsher treatment than those who can pay court fees. Defendants are now charged for government services, such pre-trial jail fees, jury fees, public defendant reimbursement fees and drug testing fees. However, many poor people are arrested when they fail to pay for these services, which can range from hundreds to thousands of dollars. Also, electronic monitoring devices are sometimes used as an alternative to jail time, but defendants who cannot afford to pay rental fees for these devices have no choice but to serve jail time.

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• U.S. Census Bureau: Poverty Thresholds
• The Atlantic: How Being Poor Makes You Sick
• University of Wisconsin-Madison Institute for Research on Poverty: Education and Poverty
• National Center for Children in Poverty: Investing in Young Children
• National Public Radio: Increasing Court Fees Punish the Poor
• U.S. Census Bureau: Income and Poverty in the U.S.: 2016

Terri Williams began writing professionally in 1997, working with a large nonprofit organization. Her articles have appeared in various online publications including Yahoo, USA Today, U.S. News & World Report University Directory, and the Center for Digital Ethics and Policy at Loyola University Chicago. Williams has a Bachelor of Arts in English from the University of Alabama at Birmingham.

Social Problems and Its Impact on the Economy Essay

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Educated for what?

Cash for condoms, the loans that were, the growth that wasn’t, forgive us our debts, tales of increasing returns: leaks, matches, and traps.

The importance of education is viewed from various points of view by various individuals, groups of people, and associations or organizations. Education is viewed as and is a way of empowering people by enabling them to gain the necessary skills for handling various challenges in life. The impacts of leadership without education usually have repercussions which are evident in the wrong leaderships. Some of the multi-national organizations have been active in ensuring that education is available to all people.

Education is one of the key aspects of the social, economic, and cultural development of a community as well as for a country as a whole as is evident in some Asian countries. In ensuring that education is rewarding, a proper infrastructure must be put in place.

Since the 1960s, there have been positive improvements in education enrolment in most countries. This has been attributed to the multinational organizations’ efforts and has led to the establishment of more educational institutions in different countries. Despite the rapid development in education in the past years, the GDP of various countries has not improved in the same proportion.

This has led to the undertaking of numerous researches to find out the relationship between education improvement and GDP improvement. The researches have shown that the improvement of the GDP of a country is dependent on the initial education although for a short time basis. Human capital is not directly related to growth as is evident that the returns to any job offered are mainly determined by the experience. This thus means that there must be good infrastructure and strategies for education to yield improved GDP in a country.

Due to the inability of physical and human capital to explain clearly the difference in growth in different countries, some researchers have undertaken researches and come up with models that try to explain the role they play in GDP growth. One of the models used is the Solow model by Mankiw. He illustrated the strong relationship between income and education level specifically secondary education.

The model shows that the accumulation of human and physical capital explains the differences in growth which is evident in some Asian countries. On the other hand, some of the arguments raised by the model were found to be invalid. It was found that the development of various countries was different despite them accumulating both education and physical capital. In any investment, the investor usually invests where there is a knowledgeable labor force to easily achieve the set goals.

The model uses secondary enrolment as a measure of education accumulation in the growth of a country but when different education levels are used, the results are not consistent. The skilled and unskilled wages are found to be different in different countries with working in well-developed countries being more rewarding. Education is very essential for growth if proper infrastructure and motivation are availed to the stakeholders. There should be a good policy with the government providing good incentives.

There has been a failure in education accumulation not producing the expected growth in many countries in the past years. The most probable reason is due to lack of proper infrastructure and incentives. There should be a balance between the skilled labor available and the physical resources available for them to make better use of their knowledge. Due to this failure, a different approach to achieving the anticipated growth ought to be adopted.

Population increase has posed one of the greatest challenges in the growth and development of many countries. To overcome overpopulation various methods such as the use of contraceptives for instance condoms have been improvised to regulate population growth. Fast population growth is evident in most of the developing countries. In previous years some researchers viewed the rapidly increasing population to be due availability of food. Between 1960 and 1990s there was improved food production. Various measures have been undertaken to ensure that the population decreases in number.

Despite the reduction in death rates, population growth has been reduced by the reduction in the birth rate. The increased population growth is a result of neglect on the issue of birth control in the previous years. The high rate of population growth leads to the rise of social, political, and economic problems. Challenges that are observed to stem from overpopulation include deforestation, water security, and famine. The combined international effort to reduce population growth is essential in ensuring that all the people access basic needs. The use of condoms has been observed to be the most efficient way available to control population growth.

There have been cases of children who are born but not planned for. This is mainly due to the lack of using contraceptives such as condoms. There are arguments that the prices of condoms are high and thus they are not used by some people.

The results are usually children whose cost is far much higher than that of a condom. The birth rate in various countries is usually different. The growth of the GDP of the country is found to have no interference from the population increase. Government policies can be altered to show a small relationship between GDP and population growth. The relationship between the GDP and population growth is mainly not observed because the two have been observed to increase or decline together.

Parents usually give birth to more children without taking into account the negative and positive effects they may have on society. It has been argued that a higher population may result in technological innovation, cost-sharing, and the birth of brighter minds. The population growth has been increasing over the years and has always shown positive results. The issue of population growth is best dealt with when each country is considered on its own.

In developed countries, parents usually have fewer children than in poor countries and usually, give good incentives to the development of their children. This is a better method of controlling population growth. Technological advancements have been of great help in the development of different countries.

The population growth rate has increased in the past years posing various challenges to regional development. This has led to the intervention of various organizations. The increase in population growth rate has been shown to have positive attributes. Most organizations have proposed the use of condoms as the best way to reducing the population growth rate. In various researches undertaken, it has been observed that development is also a very important tool in reducing the population growth rate.

Most countries have gotten into debt by borrowing funds to finance national projects. In the 1980s, there were financial crises that hit most countries all over the world. The World Bank projection on development from the funding it offered was not achieved in the early 1980s. To ensure that development was evident, the bank decided to lend some funds to the developing nations on condition that they had to aggressively engage in policy reforms.

The World Bank made some publications concerning the issue of adjustment of policies to achieve growth. The Bank lends to various countries around the world with some showing positive results from the initial stages while others took years to register developments.

The lenders and the infrastructure laid were some of the key aspects of the growth in some countries where there were no adjustments. Inflation has been persistent in many developing countries despite the funding. This was evident in Russia from 1992 to 1995 and Zambia from 1980 to 1994. In the case of Russia, many institutions such as the World Bank and Russian central bank joined hands to bring inflation to an end. Even in transition, there are so many challenges despite the funding that is awarded thus there is the necessity of obtaining the right advice.

There are some aspects which have been pointed out to affect negatively the development of a country. For example, the presence of black markets in some countries has been claimed retard the rate of development. There is a need for a strong development of policies that will make it possible for the efforts channeled towards development to succeed. Examples of countries suffering from a lack of good development policies include Kenya, Ivory Coast, and Pakistan among others.

It is advisable that when money is being lent, consideration ought to be taken on the real interest rate with countries having severely negative interest rates receiving more aid than those with positive interest rates. In the case of corruption, the funds usually do not assist the country as intended. In the 1980s and 1990s, most of the corrupt countries obtained funds from the World Bank. It is observed that the financial assistance provided is usually determined by the donor’s interest rather than the policies in place.

The type of government in place is very crucial as it determines the development growth rate of a country. The funding body may require some changes in the policies before releasing funds. In such cases, some governments usually undertake the necessary reforms while others undergo minor reforms as a cover-up. Despite the cover-ups, these funding bodies usually do not have a good mechanism for intervention. In reducing the deficit of a country in the future, there are many activities that a government can undertake. These usually avoid cascading the current problems in the future.

There are cases where there has been continued funding even when the funds given out are not put into proper use. This has happened when cutting off the funds would adversely affect the citizens of a country.

There are many challenges faced by many countries as they try to achieve their development objectives. Some institutions such as the World Bank and the international monetary fund have been offering funds to these countries. Some of the countries have not shown any appreciable progress in development while some have at least made some progress. Despite these challenges, the World Bank has always been dedicated to ensuring that there is economic growth in these countries by continuously funding national projects in these countries.

Some countries have received too many financial aids from the World Bank. In some cases, the authorities in the recipient countries have misused the funds through corruption deals and misappropriation. When such donated funds are misappropriated then it becomes increasingly challenging for the recipient country to generate some profits which can in turn be used to pay back the loans.

Due to the challenges imposed by these loans, the countries usually encounter challenges despite having good policies. In response to these, the World Bank usually provides debt forgiveness to highly indebted countries as a means of enabling them to develop. A meeting with the G-7 members had approved the writing off of these debts for poor countries as well as increasing their funding. There has been a campaign known as the jubilee campaign that is responsible for pressing on for the implementation of the idea.

The idea of debt forgiveness for poor countries dates back to the late 1970s. Some countries were provided with debt relief. These countries were mainly from Africa and were facing challenges in the repayment of their debts. Towards the end of the 1980s, the G-7 looked into the possible ways of relieving these countries from heavy debts that had already accumulated. The ways suggested included forgiveness and lowering of interest rates among others.

Meeting held thereafter until the year 2000 addressed the same issue with positive progress being achieved. Due to poor governance, these countries that have been relieved of their debts may find themselves again in bigger debts. In acquiring these funds, the administration has been found to use them for various unintended purposes thus creating uncertainty for the future of such countries. The low-income highly indebted countries are selling most of the assets compared to other countries thus posing a challenge for future development.

The highly indebted countries usually have debts in their budgets. The countries are found to implement policies which in the long run do not provide economic growth. In the making of the policies, they should take into account all the long term objectives and the challenges that can be encountered to be in a position to withstand the possible forces that may arise. One of the factors for the heavy debt of these countries is war.

Investors usually invest in projects that are usually rewarding and takes into account the various factors that may affect his investment. Thus there must be proper infrastructure to attract more investors. The heavily indebted countries are found to receive more funding from the World Bank than other poor countries. In the financing of the countries, the donor bodies have been found to fund some governments despite them being irresponsible in undertaking their duties. This method of financing has been referred to as the filling gap.

The forgiving of debts belonging to the poor and the heavily indebted countries is good as it is aimed at assisting such countries to avoid extreme suffering. In debt forgiveness, it should be ensured that the country’s management is responsible so that it can ensure that the country develops. Intensive analysis of the steps undertaken by the country should be analyzed. This helps to make precise decisions on whether the country has qualified for debt forgiveness or not. The donor should ensure that once the debt forgiveness is awarded to the countries, it does not recur. This would reduce the tendency of the country to take more lending to be forgiven in the future. Thus, the countries must establish proper development infrastructure.

The incentives and increasing returns in the undertaking of various activities in a country are very useful for growth. Technology properly integrated with skilled labor usually lays the platform for development. The saving carried out by people usually provides them with a chance for improvement in the future. This is mainly because in the future they would be receiving interests on whatever is saved today and thus they would not have to depend on their income.

To ensure that growth is evident, there should be a good balance in technology and labor. Technology is found to leak but is usually of benefit when it is availed to highly skilled people. This is evident in the growth of the Bangladesh textile industry. Apart from undertaking various investment projects, it is usually good to invest in knowledge. This helps one to tackle various challenges that may arise in the best way possible. The knowledge could be obtained from various stakeholders in the field. Critical analysis of the available channels makes it possible for a person to attain knowledge of any idea. One of the aspects that makes knowledge leak is because it can be used by many people simultaneously.

Knowledge investment usually has very good returns. New ideas are more rewarding than current ideas. The more the capital the higher the returns it has. This is evident even in a society where the presence of productive ideas usually results in improved welfare of the society members involved. Due to the high returns on capital, most people usually work and operate where there is more profit.

The leaking of knowledge is usually good as it ensures that the economic growth and development among different people is uniform. The flow of knowledge between people is found to be facilitated by knowledge investment and leaking. This usually avails the knowledge to numerous people and hence continuous improvements. Despite the success, there are also challenges in that there must be a minimum return on capital that should be attained for investment to be undertaken. This is one of the challenges facing poor countries. In achieving overall success, each stakeholder must undertake his/her duties properly.

This is because the failure of one may cause the total collapse of the entire project. The return of human capital is usually found to be favorable in areas with a large number of skilled labor than in those with unskilled labor. This is usually a key reason for the migration of skilled labor. Improving knowledge usually helps in the long run although in undertaking it some rewarding opportunities are foregone.

Due to the various challenges regarding the availability of skills and knowledge, most poor countries are found to be producers while developed countries are manufacturers. Skilled wages in the developed countries are found to be higher than in poor counties despite the small margin in knowledge difference. Some countries have been found to have poverty traps which may be based on religion, geographic location, and ethnicity. These traps are prevalent in both the rich and poor countries. The steps undertaken are very essential in the growth and development of a country. Good government intervention and policies are very essential in growth.

Technology in a country is very essential in achieving growth and development when well integrated with skilled labor. There are usually leaks in the knowledge that has overall benefits. In making attempts to realize the predicted growth, there are usually barriers that have to be avoided.

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Essays in Socio-Economics

• © 1999
• Amitai Etzioni 0

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Philosophy and Economics

The Order of Social Sciences: Sociology in Dialogue with Neighbouring Disciplines

Rethinking Economics: A Classical Perspective

• A new paradigm
• Decision Making Theory
• Socio-Economics

Table of contents (9 chapters)

Front matter, voluntary simplicity: characterization, select psychological implications, and societal consequences.

Amitai Etzioni

A Communitarian Note on Stakeholder Theory

Opening the preferences: a socio-economic research agenda, the case for a multiple-utility conception, normative-affective factors: toward a new decision-making model, mixed-scanning revisited, making policy for complex systems: a medical model for economics, the mapping of man, whose morality which community what interests socio-economic and communitarian perspectives.

• Richard M. Coughlin

Authors and Affiliations

Bibliographic information.

Book Title : Essays in Socio-Economics

Authors : Amitai Etzioni

Series Title : Ethical Economy

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03900-7

Publisher : Springer Berlin, Heidelberg

eBook Packages : Springer Book Archive

Copyright Information : Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1999

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-540-64466-8 Published: 21 January 1999

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-642-08415-7 Published: 09 December 2010

eBook ISBN : 978-3-662-03900-7 Published: 09 March 2013

Series ISSN : 2211-2707

Series E-ISSN : 2211-2723

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XI, 182

Topics : Economics, general , Operations Research/Decision Theory , Political Science

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Social and economic impact of COVID-19

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Eduardo levy yeyati and eduardo levy yeyati former nonresident senior fellow - global economy and development federico filippini federico filippini visiting professor - universidad torcuato di tella.

June 8, 2021

Introduction

The impact of the pandemic on world GDP growth is massive. The COVID-19 global recession is the deepest since the end of World War II (Figure 1). The global economy contracted by 3.5 percent in 2020 according to the April 2021 World Economic Outlook Report published by the IMF, a 7 percent loss relative to the 3.4 percent growth forecast back in October 2019. While virtually every country covered by the IMF posted negative growth in 2020 (IMF 2020b), the downturn was more pronounced in the poorest parts of the world (Noy et al. 2020) (Figure 2).

The impact of the shock is likely to be long-lasting. While the global economy is expected to recover this year, the level of GDP at the end of 2021 in both advanced and emerging market and developing economies (EMDE) is projected to remain below the pre-virus baseline (Figure 3). As with the immediate impact, the magnitude of the medium-term cost also varies significantly across countries, with EMDE suffering the greatest loss. The IMF (2021) projects that in 2024 the World GDP will be 3 percent (6 percent for low-income countries (LICs)) below the no-COVID scenario. Along the same lines, Djiofack et al. (2020) estimate that African GDP would be permanently 1 percent to 4 percent lower than in the pre-COVID outlook, depending on the duration of the crisis.  

The pandemic triggered a health and fiscal response unprecedented in terms of speed and magnitude. At a global scale, the fiscal support reached nearly $16 trillion (around 15 percent of global GDP) in 2020. However, the capacity of countries to implement such measures varied significantly. In this note, we identify three important preexisting conditions that amplified the impact of the shock:

• Fiscal space: The capacity to support household and firms largely depends on access to international financial markets,
• State capacity: Fast and efficient implementation of policies to support household and firms requires a substantial state capacity and well-developed tax and transfer infrastructure; and
• Labor market structure: A large share of informal workers facing significant frictions to adopt remote working, and high levels of poverty and inequality, deepen the deleterious impact of the crisis.

Additionally, the speed and the strength of the recovery will be crucially dependent on the capacity of the governments to acquire and roll out the COVID-19 vaccines.

This paper presents a succinct summary of the existing economic literature on the economic and fiscal impact of the pandemic, and a preliminary estimate of the associated economic cost. It documents the incidence of initial conditions (with a particular focus on the role of the labor market channel) on the transmission of the shock and the speed and extent of the expected recovery, summarizes how countries attempted to attenuate the economic consequences and the international financial institutions assisted countries, reports preliminary accounts of medium-term COVID-related losses, and concludes with some forward-looking considerations based on the lessons learned in 2020.

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Socioeconomic inequalities and learning

Social and economic inequalities have important and long-lasting effects on children’s cognitive and socio-emotional development as well as on educational outcomes (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Shonkoff and Garner, 2012). Multiple inequities combine, producing a negative impact on the ability of marginalized children to learn (Suárez-Orozco, Yoshikawa, and Tseng, 2015). Thus the gap between advantaged and disadvantaged children widens over time (Shonkoff and Garner, 2012; Suárez-Orozc, Yoshikawa, and Tseng, 2015).

In contexts of high inequality, good quality and equitable education is key to the inclusive, peaceful, and sustained development of a society and a country. Ensuring the participation of marginalized groups and individuals in broader development processes helps reduce social inequalities. Inversely, unless attention is paid to equitable access, learning opportunities, and quality learning outcomes, education can entrench existing inequalities or create new ones.

Socioeconomic inequalities and education in the 2030 Agenda

• Leaving no one behind. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development regards equity as central to achieving sustainable development and calls for leaving no one behind. This means including all vulnerable countries and ensuring all people, regardless of their background, have the right to fulfill their potential and to lead decent, dignified, and rewarding lives in a healthy environment. Sustainable development goal (SDG) 10 is specifically dedicated to reducing inequality, with a focus that goes far beyond economic inequality: ‘By 2030, empower and promote the social, economic and political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or other status’ (SDG10.2) (United Nations, 2015).
• Addressing inequalities in education at the core of SDG 4. SDG 4 stresses the need to combat all forms of exclusion and inequalities relating to access to education and learning processes. This requires refocused efforts to improve learning outcomes for the full life cycle, especially for women, girls, and marginalized people in vulnerable settings. Equity is all-inclusive within SDG 4 (‘all girls and boys’, with all indicators disaggregated by sex) but is also the focus of a specific target (SDG 4.5): ‘By 2030, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations’ (United Nations, 2015).

How socioeconomic inequalities affect learning

Whereas wide disparities exist across countries, this brief focuses on socioeconomic inequalities between groups or individuals within countries. It is important to understand who is vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion and how different types of exclusion affect learning.

Exclusion is contextual and influenced by supply- and demand-side barriers that prevent children and young people from enrolling and/or succeeding at school. Exclusion can occur:

• at the individual level , based on socioeconomic status (poverty or low levels of parental education), location of residence (rural vs. urban, regional disparities), or other vulnerabilities;
• at the group level (marginalized ethnic or linguistic groups, nomadic or indigenous peoples, gender or socio-cultural and religious factors, or migration status); or
• as the result of environmental and contextual factors, such as state fragility, conflict, or natural disaster that often lead to displacement.

Factors of exclusion

• Poverty. Children from poor families are less likely to meet the basic pre-requisites for learning and are often ill-prepared to attend school. Children who live in low-resourced communities are more likely to be malnourished, to have absent parents, and to be exposed to violence and stress. Their schools may receive less funding. These factors often lead to poor outcomes (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Shonkoff and Garner, 2012). School attendance may be affected by the need to work to contribute to family finances and by difficulties with paying school fees and other costs.
• Parental education and literacy. The home environment plays a critical role in children’s development and early learning (Save the Children, 2018). Results from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) show that children of parents with high socioeconomic status demonstrated higher reading literacy than children of parents with low socioeconomic status (Xin Ma, 2008). Findings from the Third Regional Comparative and Explanatory Study (TERCE) show that students achieve higher when their parents believe they will reach higher education (UNESCO Santiago, 2015). Inequities in parents’ level of education can significantly affect children’s ability to benefit from formal schooling. Parents who have not attended school, or who are illiterate, may avoid engaging in homework activities with their children or interacting with teachers and other service providers (Eccles, 2005; Tusiime et al., 2014). They may be unable to provide access to books and other literacy materials.
• Location of residence. Most countries have regionally unequal conditions of economic development, funding, and social services, as well as significant rural-urban divides. Schools in low-resourced areas – including rural areas and informal urban settlements – often receive less funding than schools in high-resourced areas. This results in reduced access to early childhood centres, high-quality schools, and well-trained teachers. This, in turn, results in lower literacy rates, poor academic performance, and higher drop-out rates, ultimately contributing to the cycle of poverty (Hindle, 2007). According to a 2018 UNICEF report, the poorest urban children in 1 in 6 countries are less likely to complete primary school than their counterparts in rural areas (UNICEF, 2018).
• Gender. In many countries, girls have less access to schools than boys and are more likely to drop out early. Factors may include practical matters, such as distance, safety, adequate facilities, etc. as well as expectations regarding participation in household chores, child marriage practices, etc., and limited opportunities for girls’ employment after school (GEM Report, 2016; Rihani, 2006; UNESCO, 2012). In some countries boys may drop out of school or underperform because of pressures to earn money or because school is deemed irrelevant (GEM Report, 2016). In school, teaching practices or instructional materials may contain gender stereotyping (Rihani, 2006), and students may face school-related gender-based violence that severely impedes their learning.
• Sexual orientation and gender identity. Bullying, violence, and other mistreatment is often compounded for LGBTI or gender non-conforming children and young people (UNESCO Bangkok, 2015), and has a significant educational impact. They may miss classes, avoid school activities, or drop out of school altogether. International learning assessments show that bullying reduces students’ achievements in key subjects such as mathematics (UNESCO, 2017b).
• Ethnicity, religion, and culture. Children who face direct and indirect discrimination based on their ethnicity, religion, or culture may suffer from negative psychological and physical effects from an early age (Shonkoff and Garner, 2012. This may cause them to underperform or struggle to learn.
• Language. International surveys regularly show that speaking a language in the home other than the language of instruction at school amounts to a handicap (Duru-Bellat, 2004), which leads to a greater risk of grade repetition and drop out (Pinnock, 2009).
• Conflicts, crises, disasters, and displacement. The experience of conflicts, crises, and disasters can leave children physically and emotionally traumatized. Migrant and refugee or displaced children may not have the formal residence papers allowing them to attend school or may face hostility and prejudice in school. Due to damage and/or insecurity, children may not have access to school buildings, learning materials, or qualified teachers (GEM Report, 2018b; IIEP-UNESCO, 2011).

Policy and planning responses

Education policies are among the most powerful levers to reduce income disparities. ‘In countries with currently low levels of education attainment, policies that promote equal access to basic education could help reduce inequality by facilitating the accumulation of human capital, and making educational opportunities less dependent on socio-economic circumstances’ (Brueckner, Dabla-Norris and Gradstein, 2014: 19). Education policies need to be inclusive, with the principle of equity being fundamental to all education sector plans and policies (UNESCO, 2017a). In addition, targeted policies to address specific instances of exclusion should be introduced.

Pro-poor education policies

Inequities can be addressed, and learning outcomes improved, when governments ensure that the most disadvantaged children and their families have access to quality education services in the formative years (Grantham-McGregor et al., 2007; Shonkoff and Garner, 2012).

Policy-makers should provide fair funding and special assistance to the lowest-performing schools and students, and implement school-community partnerships. They should identify priority education zones to compensate for regional funding disparities, and allocate resources based on specific criteria (e.g. percentage of children of foreign origin or whose mother tongue is not the language of instruction). (Duru-Bellat, 2004).

Pro-poor education policies that promote equal access to basic education, such as cash transfers to encourage attendance or spending on public education that benefits the poor, can reduce inequality by helping build human capital and making educational opportunities less dependent on socioeconomic circumstances (WEF, 2014).

Extending access to private schools through vouchers to reduce segregation has been implemented in some countries, with mixed results.

Targeted policies to address specific dimensions of exclusion

Education planners may also ensure targeted support for population groups faced with specific types of discrimination.

• Early childhood education policies should target the most disadvantaged children before they enter school.
• Language/bilingual education policies may help improve the educational outcomes of children whose mother tongue is not the language of instruction.
• Inclusive school curricula and teaching and learning materials can help reduce discrimination (e.g. providing age-appropriate information on sexual health, including information on sexual and gender diversity, can help address bullying).
• ICT policies can provide the tools to help close the educational divide and make classrooms an inclusive place for all (UNESCO, 2011).
• Policies to combat bullying based on gender and sexual identity can help schools establish relevant mechanisms and reporting requirements, and outline sanctions for non-compliance. For example, the Philippines 2013 Anti-Bullying Act provides the framework for national awareness-raising initiatives and school policies (UNESCO Bangkok, 2018).
• Moving to later tracking can ensure that all students get a broad education. Later tracking is associated with better outcomes, particularly for disadvantaged children, who are more likely to otherwise be directed into vocational education (Blanden and McNally, 2014).
• Affirmative action policies encourage and train people from under-represented groups to help them overcome disadvantages in competing with others, particularly in higher education. The benefits are widely recognized, but each country takes a different approach (e.g. Sweden pays special attention to gender, India to caste, and Sri Lanka to the district of origin) (GEM Report, 2018a).
• Crisis-sensitive education sector plans and policies can build resilient systems, help prepare for potential disasters or conflict, and provide equitable access to schooling in crisis- and conflict-affected areas.
• Non-formal or alternative education policies may target children and young people who are outside the formal school system. Adapted curricula and methods can reconnect young people to education or provide them with the skills needed to enter the world of work: ‘Non-formal education … can play a crucial role in providing second-chance education for out-of-school children … [as long as] such educational opportunities provide a recognized pathway into the formal system’ (UIS and UNICEF, 2015: 41).

The need for holistic and cross-sectoral policies

Policy-makers and planners need to investigate other ways to mitigate the impact of inequities on learning outcomes, including health interventions, parenting and community support, and employment policies. Targeting families and communities is particularly important as educational outcomes are shaped much more by the family than by the school. Families are responsible for the initial socialization of their children and for nurturing their educational aspirations (Duru-Bellat, 2004).

Social inequities may also be addressed through wider policies to fight racism and discrimination, strategies for welcoming refugees and migrants into communities, and child-friendly spaces for children who have experienced trauma. Due to the interconnected and cumulative nature of most social inequities, working both outside and inside schools is the best way to ensure that all children meet their learning potential (Suárez-Orozco, Yoshikawa, and Tseng, 2015).

Plans and policies

• El Salvador: Política de equidad e igualdad de género  (2019)
• Malta: Trans, gender variant and intersex students in schools: policy  (2015)
• South Africa: Rural education draft policy  (2017)
• Chronic Poverty Advisory Network, 2012. ‘ Chronic Poverty and Education: A guide to what works in policy and practice’ . Education Policy Guide.
• Education for All Fast Track Initiative Secretariat, EFA-FTI; United Nations. 2010. Equity and inclusion in education: A guide to support education sector plan preparation, revision, and appraisal. Washington, D.C.: EFA-FTI Secretariat.
• UIS; FHI360; Oxford Policy Management; University of Cambridge, Research for Equitable Access and Learning Centre. 2018. Handbook on measuring equity in education . Montreal: UIS.
• UNESCO. 2017. A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education . Paris: UNESCO. 
• UNESCO-IBE. 2016. Training tools for curriculum development: Reaching out to all learners: A resource pack for supporting inclusive education. Paris: UNESCO.

Blanden, J.; McNally, S. 2014. Reducing inequality in education and skills: implications for economic growth . EENEE Analytical Report No. 21. European Expert Network on Economics of Education.

Brueckner, M.; Dabla-Norris, E.; Gradstein, M. 2014.  ‘ National income and its distribution ’ , IMF Working Paper WP/14/101.

Duru-Bellat, M. 2004. Social inequality at school and educational policies . Paris: UNESCO-IIEP.

Eccles, J.S. 2005. ‘Influences of parents' education on their children's educational attainments: The role of parent and child perceptions’. In: London Review of Education, 3(3) , 191-204.

GEM (Global Education Monitoring) Report. 2016. Gender review: Creating sustainable futures for all . Paris: UNESCO.

––––.  2018a. ‘Everyone benefits from diversity on campus – why the problem with affirmative action?’

––––. 2018b. Global education monitoring report, 2019: Migration, displacement, and education: building bridges, not walls . Paris: UNESCO.

Grantham-McGregor, S.; Cheung, Y.B.; Cueto, S.; Glewwe, P.; Richter, L.; Strupp, B. 2007. ‘Developmental potential in the first 5 years for children in developing countries’. In: The Lancet , 369(9555), 60–70.

Hindle, D. 2006. ‘The funding and financing of schools in South Africa’. In: Commonwealth Secretariat, Commonwealth Education Partnerships 2006/2007 (pp. 148-150). Cambridge: Nexus Strategic Partnerships.

IIEP-UNESCO. 2011. Integrating conflict and disaster risk reduction into education sector planning: guidance notes for educational planners . Paris: IIEP.

Pinnock, H. 2009. Steps towards learning: a guide to overcoming language barriers in children's education. London: Save the Children UK.

Rihani, M. 2006. Keeping the promise: five benefits of girls’ secondary education. Washington DC: Academy for Educational Development.

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Related information

• Education Equity Research Initiative
• Spatial Education Inequalities website
• Inter-Agency Group on Education Inequality Indicators (IAG-EII)
• World Inequality Database on Education