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How to format APA page numbers

In an APA style paper, page numbers generally appear in three places:

• On every page in the upper right corner (pagination for the paper)
• APA in-text citations
• The reference list

Let’s review all three.

1. Pagination for the paper

Every page written in APA style needs to have the page number listed at the top right corner of the paper . It also needs to appear on every page. It should also appear on the title page of the paper, as well as every page of the appendices, footnotes, and other supplemental sections.

The page number should be in the same font and size as the rest of your paper. APA provides different font point sizes depending on the font. For example, 12-point for Times New Roman or 11-point for Arial.

To summarize, your APA page number needs to be:

• At the top of every page (including the title page, body, appendices, etc.)
• Placed in the header
• Flush against the right margin
• In the same font and size as the rest of your paper

It’s recommended that you use autogenerated page numbers in the “header” section of your paper. These features are available in most popular word processors.

2. In-text citations

APA style, page number are recommended (but optional) for paraphrasing, and required for direct quotations from sources with page numbers. When citing a website in APA , or other sources without page numbers, you can use paragraph numbers to mark the quote’s location instead.

In-text citation structure and example for one page:

Text (Author Last Name, Year Published, p. #)

“And in our heart—strange are the ways of evil!—in our heart there is the first peace we have known in twenty years.” (Rand, 2019, p. 32)

In-text citation structure and example for a page range:

Text (Author Last Name, Year Published, pp. #-#)

“It is not good to be different from our brothers, but it is evil to be superior to them” (Rand, 2019, pp. 12-13)

Reference list entry for both examples:

Rand, A. (2019). Anthem . Project Gutenberg. https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1250 (Original work published in 1938)

Notice that unlike the in-text citations, the example reference list entry does NOT include page numbers. Whether a reference includes page numbers is not dependent on the in-text citation; it depends on the source type.

3. Reference list

Page numbers are only included in reference list entries when the following happens:

• The source has page numbers.
• The cited source is a smaller, complete work within a bigger work.

Common example sources:

• A journal article (smaller work) from a journal (bigger work)
• A newspaper article (smaller work) that was printed in a newspaper (bigger work)
• A magazine article (smaller work) in a printed magazine (bigger work)
• A chapter (smaller work) in an edited book (bigger work) where each chapter has a different author

Periodical/Article page numbers

Articles in periodicals (e.g., journals, newspapers, magazines, etc.) include page numbers in their references. The page number or page number range are formatted as the following:

Template and examples:

Notice that unlike in-text citations, there is no “p.” or “pp.” preceding the page numbers.

Example reference (journal article):

Gunn, R., Whear, R., & Douglas, L. (2012, June). A second recent canine burial from the Arnhem Land Plateau. Australian Archaeology , (74), 103-105. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23621527

Chapter in an edited book page numbers

Similar to in-text citations, page numbers are indicated by “p. #” or “pp. #-#” in the reference.

Example reference (chapter in an edited book):

Lisi, G. (2012). Uncalculated risk. In J. Brockman (Ed.), This will make you smarter (pp. 68-73). Harper Perennial.

Published October 28, 2020.

APA Formatting Guide

APA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Multiple Authors
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Parenthetical Citations
• Reference Page
• Sample Paper
• APA 7 Updates
• View APA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all APA Examples

You need not include page numbers in in-text citations unless you want to cite a particular page or page ranges of the source being cited. In such cases, you need to include the page information after the publication year.

If you want to cite a direct quotation, you do need to include the page information. To indicate you are quoting directly from a single page, use the abbreviation “p.” To indicate you are quoting from a continuous page range, use the abbreviation “pp.” and use an en dash between the page range (e.g., pp. 1-2). If the pages are discontinuous, use “pp.” but separate the page numbers with a comma, not an en dash (e.g., pp. 1, 3).

Below are examples of how to include page numbers in in-text citations when using direct quotations:

Narrative:        

Jones (1999) states, “It is important to study all children” (p. 47).

Neer et al. (2014) agree with his argument that “the behavior of working women changes drastically” (pp. 47, 49).

Blake and Garger (2002) assert “Humans fight for rights” (pp. 32–34).

Parenthetical:

The study performed in Alaska showed that “it is important to study all children” (Jones, 1999, p. 47).

According to the study, “The behavior of working women changes drastically” (Neer et al., 2014, pp. 47, 49).

“Humans fight for rights,” says the study (Blake & Garger, 2002, pp. 32–34).

The abbreviation “p.” refers to a single page, and “pp.” denotes multiple pages. When you want to cite a single page, use “p.” You can use “pp.” if you want to include a page range (e.g., pp. 45–57) or multiple pages that are not in a range (e.g., pp. 37, 39).

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To insert page numbers in Microsoft Word:

          1.  Click the "Insert" tab in the top menu. 

          3 . Select Page Number,   then choose Plain Number 3  from the options. 

          4.  On the second page, Select Page Number , choose Plain Number 3 from the

               options. The page number will show up with a consecutive number in every page in the header.

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How to insert page numbers: apa 7th edition guidelines, published by steve tippins on january 17, 2022 january 17, 2022.

Last Updated on: 2nd February 2024, 02:56 am

There are straightforward guidelines for inserting page numbers according to APA 7th edition guidelines. To start with, here are the basics:

• The numbers should be put in a header at the top right of the page.
• They should be the same font and size as the rest of your paper.
• Number the first page, with a 1. Thereafter, each of the subsequent pages will be numbered automatically.
• Do not write “page” or “p.” or “pp.”

Here are step-by-step instructions for inserting APA page numbers, with screenshots to guide your way.

Inserting Numeral Page Numbers

Step 1: Open the “Header & Footer” tab in the header, click on Insert and select “Page Number.”

Step 2: If you want to have a different first page and do not want number 1 to appear on this page, then click on “Different First Page.”

Step 3: From the drop-down list, choose “Top of Page.” Next, choose “Plain Number 3.”

Step 4: Click on “Close Header and Footer” in the ribbon.

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Inserting Roman Numeral Page Numbers

If you need to paginate front matter material, such as an abstract, acknowledgments, or table of contents, the process is a little different.

Step 1: Insert a section break between the front material and Chapter 1.

Step 2: In the “Layout” tab, click on the drop-down arrow beside “Breaks.”

Step 3: Click on “Next Page” in “Section Breaks.”

Step 4: Repeats steps 1 or 2 above. In the drop-down list, open “Format Page Numbers.”

Step 5: Select “Roman” in the “Page Number Format” part of the drop-down list.

Step 6: On the first page of Chapter 1, repeat the above process. This is when you begin to start numbering the pages of your Chapter 1 using numerals 1, 2, 3, etc. To paginate Chapter 1 as page 1, choose “Start at,” and then put in the number 1.

Note : For more information, refer to Section 2.18 of the APA Publication Manual , Seventh Edition.

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How to Add Page Numbers in APA Style

by Karen Crosby | Feb 25, 2020 | APA 101 , Technical Help | 0 comments

Are you curious to learn how to add page numbers in APA Style? Whether you are writing to meet APA 6 or APA 7, we’ve got you covered!

Page numbering in APA 6 and APA 7

In APA Style, page numbering is (usually) straightforward:

• The first page is numbered page 1.
• Each page is numbered sequentially thereafter.
• Numbers are positioned in the header at the top right of each page.

However, many graduate programs complicate matters by specifying different pagination requirements for thesis and dissertation submissions. The following deviations from the above guidelines are common:

1. No page number on the title page; the abstract is numbered as page 2.

2. The front matter, which includes the abstract, table of contents, and acknowledgements, is paginated in Roman numerals (ii, iii, iv, etc.). Beginning with the first page of Chapter 1, pagination resets to Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) and continues that way for the remainder of the paper.

3. A combination of both of the above, such that no page number appears on the title page and the abstract is numbered as page ii.

Adding page numbers in MS Word

Word has several ways to add pagination. Here are two easy options.

1. On the ribbon, click on the Insert tab and select Page Number.

2. Or, double click in the header of your document. This action opens the Header & Footer Tools Tab. From here, select Page Number. You can also select Different First Page, if you haven’t already, which you’ll need to  format the running head .

Note : This tab disappears from the ribbon when you are not working in a header or footer. If you want to see it, just double click in a header or footer on any page.

3. Either way, from the drop-down list that opens, choose Top of Page and then the third option, Plain Number 3:

Word will automatically add the page numbers and your cursor will appear next to the page number of the page you’re on, in the header.

• You can exit the header either by double clicking on the page anywhere outside of it or by clicking Close Header and Footer in the ribbon.
• While you’re in the header, you can add the running head.
• You can format the numbering to Roman, if needed, which we cover next.

Formatting page numbers in Roman numerals

If your program calls for you to paginate front matter (abstract, acknowledgements, table of contents, etc.) using Roman numerals, and for Chapter 1 to start on page 1, never fear. We’ve got you covered!

First, you need to insert a section break between the front matter and Chapter 1. Without this break, Word won’t know when to stop one type of pagination and begin another.

1. Go to the Layout Tab on the ribbon and click the drop-down arrow next to Breaks to open the breaks dialogue box. Under Section Breaks, click Next Page.

2. Now that you have a break, let’s start in the first section (the front matter). Follow Steps 1 or 2 above to open the Page Number drop-down list. This time, choose Format Page Numbers:

3. The Page Number Format dialogue box opens. Using the arrow next to Number format, choose the format from the drop-down list. You’ll want to select Roman (i, ii, iii…).

4. Repeat this process on the first page of Chapter 1. Here, you’ll want to select your number format to be 1, 2, 3. At the bottom of the dialogue box, you can choose for numbering to continue or restart. If you need to paginate Chapter 1 as page 1, you would choose Start at: and put 1 in the field.

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General APA Style Guidelines

WRITING STYLE

Verb tense. APA style papers should be written in past or present perfect tense:

Avoid: Mojit and Novian's (2013) experiment shows that...

Allowed: Mojit and Novian's (2013) experiment showed  that...

Allowed: Mojit and Novian's (2013) experiment has shown that...

Be concise and clear

• Avoid vague statements
• Present information clearly
• Eliminate unnecessary words

Style matters

• Write objectively
• Avoid poetic or flowery language

AVOIDING BIAS

Be sensitive to labels

• Avoid identifying groups by a disorder Avoid: schizophrenics Allowed: people diagnosed with schizophrenia
• Avoid outdated or inappropriate labels
• When you must label a group, try to use a term that group prefers

Gender pronouns

• Gender refers to a social role
• Sex refers to biological characteristics

What is the APA 7th Edition Publication Manual?

The 7th edition of Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association was created by the American Psychological Assocation (APA), and contains the complete guidelines on how to format material for publication and cite your research .  It is a set of style rules that codifies the components of scientific writing in order to deliver concise and bias free information to the reader. 

This guide provides some of the basics to keep in mind, but it doesn't replace owning or borrowing the actual Publication Manual itself. It should be on your desk by your side throughout your writing process.

APA style, 7th edition requires specific heading formatting.

For Levels 1-3, the paragraph text begins on a new line. For Levels 4-5, the paragraph text begins on the same line and continues as a paragraph.

In Section 4.2 of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.), APA (2020) states that you should use verb tenses consistently throughout your work. See a chart of when and how to use past tense (Rodriguez found) and present perfect tense (Researchers have shown) at the APA Style website .

In-Text Citation Basics

Author/Date Citation Method

APA publications use the author/date in text citation system to briefly identify sources to readers.  Each in-text citation is listed alphabetically in the reference list.  All in-text citations referenced in the body of work musr appear in the reference list and vice versa.

• The author-date method includes the author's surname and the the publication year.  Do not include suffixes such as Jr., Esq., etc. Example : (Jones, 2009)
• The author/date method is also used with direct quotes.  Another component is added in this format: (Jones, 2009, p.19)
• When multiple pages are referenced, use pp. (Jones, 2009, pp.19-21)

Variations of author/date within a sentence Here are some examples of how the author/date citation method are formatted within different parts of a sentence. Please note the author, publication date, and study are entirely fictional.

• Beginning of a sentence: Jones (2009) completed a study on the effects of dark chocolate on heart disease.
• Middle of a sentence: In 2009, Jones's study on the effects of dark chocolate and heart disease revealed...
• End of a sentence: The study revealed that participants who ate dark chocolate bars every day did not develop heart disease (Jones, 2009).

Citing works with more than one author

• One author: Jones (2009) // (Jones, 2009)
• Two authors: Ahmed and Jones (2010) // (Ahmed & Jones, 2010)
• Three or more authors: Tsai et al. (2011) // (Tsai et al., 2011)
• Group/organization author that can be abbreviated: 1st mention: National Institutes of Health (NIH, 2012) // subsequent mentions: NIH (2012)

Sample References

Journal articles

Sharifian, N., & Grühn, D. (2019). The differential impact of social participation and social support on psychological well-being: Evidence from  the Wisconsin longitudinal study. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development , 88 (2), 107-126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415018757213

Shiraev, E. (2017). Personality theories: A global view. SAGE.

Chapter from a book

Ochs, E., & Schieffelin , B. B. (1984). Language acquisition and socialization: Three developmental stories and their implications. In R. A. Shweder & R. A. LeVine (Eds.), Culture theory: Essays on mind, self, and emotion (pp. 276 320). Cambridge University Press.

Webpage from a website

World Health Organization. (2020, June 15) . Elder abuse . https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/elder-abuse

View many more examples in the APA Style Manual or on the APA Style website .

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Q. What are the APA Style rules regarding page numbers?

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Answered By: Jonathan Faerber (he/him/his) Last Updated: Nov 04, 2021     Views: 195342

APA Style (7th ed.)

Use Arabic numerals (e.g., 1, 2, 3) throughout the document, and continue the page numbers sequentially to the end of the report, including all appendices (APA, 2020, p. 30). Page numbers should be right-aligned in the header (American Psychological Association, 2020, p. 44); see the page numbers in the Annotated Student Sample Paper for examples of this formatting. The APA Style manual asks that both journal article manuscripts and student papers display a page number on the title page, but students should follow the guidelines of their course instructor to determine the appropriate title page format. If you are uncertain whether to provide a page number on the title page of your work, please check with your instructor or advisor. 

American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.).  https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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Q. How do I number pages differently in the various sections of my thesis or dissertation?

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Answered By: Jeff Beuck Last Updated: Apr 03, 2020     Views: 1468090

See Also:  How do I add page numbers in Microsoft Word?

To use different page numbering schemes in different sections of your Word document, there are two tricks: 1) you must include a "Section Break - Next page" between each section of your document where the numbering will change, and 2) you must "unlink" each section's footer from the one before it.

To start, temporarily turn on the viewing of hidden formatting symbols by clicking the "Show/Hide" symbol on the "Home" tab in the "Paragraph" box -- this will enable you to see the Section Breaks between sections of your document.

One of the required page numbering changes for your thesis or dissertation is that you need to use Roman numerals (e.g., "i, ii, iii") for your introductory sections (Abstract, Table of Contents), and then switch to Arabic numerals (e.g., "1, 2, 3") and begin the page numbering at "1" at the start of Chapter I of your main text.

If you do not already have a "Section Break" between these two sections of your document, you will need to add one.  Place your cursor at the very end of the text in the first section (after your Table of Contents and any Lists of Tables and Figures), being careful NOT to place it in the footer where the page number is (if the text above becomes grayed out, you are in the footer – try clicking higher).

Add a "Section Break – Next Page" by selecting the "Page Layout" tab on the menu, clicking the arrow next to "Breaks", and selecting "Next Page" under Section Breaks.

After doing this, you should see a "Section Break (Next Page)" code inserted into your document.  This tells Word that the next page begins a new section which may have a different header or footer.

Go down to the next page below the section break (in this example, the first page of Chapter I), and click on the page number in the Footer.  If your cursor is in the Footer, you should see "Footer -Section [#]-" to the left, and "Same as Previous" on the right.

You should also see a new tab appear on the menu, labeled "Header & Footer Tools: Design".  Select this.  (Be careful not to confuse this with another tab labeled "Design" between the "Insert" and "Page Layout" tabs.)  In the "Navigation" section of this tab, you will see a highlighted button labeled "Link to Previous" which tells Word to link the footer in this section to the previous section and to continue its page numbering scheme.  Click the "Link to Previous" button to UNSELECT it.

After clicking this, the "Link to Previous" button should no longer be highlighted.  The "Same as Previous" box to the right of your footer should also disappear.

Confirm your cursor is still next to the page number in the Footer, then go back to the Header & Footer Tools – Design tab on the menu, and in the "Header & Footer" section, select Page Number > Format Page Numbers.

The "Page Number Format" window will appear.  Select the appropriate "Number format" for this section ("1, 2, 3," or "i, ii, iii", etc.), and tell Word whether to continue the page numbering from the previous section or to start at "1" or another number.  In this example, we want Section 2 (which begins at Chapter I and contains the main text of our thesis or dissertation) to use Arabic numerals and to start numbering this section from page 1.  Click "OK" to finish.

You will notice that the page numbering for the current section has now been corrected, and if you unlinked it properly from the previous sections, the numbering in those sections should remain as it was before.

Next, you will need to change the page number format to lower-case Roman numerals (i.e., "i, ii, iii, ...") for the section with your Abstract and Table of Contents.  Click your cursor on the footer of your Abstract or Table of Contents page.

Open the "Format Page Numbers" window by going to the Header & Footer Tools – Design tab on the menu, and in the "Header & Footer" section, select Page Number > Format Page Numbers.

Next to "Number format", select the "i, ii, iii, ..." option for lower-case Roman numerals, then click "OK".

The page numbering for the section with your Abstract and Table of Contents should change to lower-case Roman numerals.  As long as you correctly unlinked the following section from this one, the page numbering in the following section, the main body of your text, should remain Arabic numerals starting with 1.

You will also need to remove page numbers completely from the title page and other preliminary pages of your thesis or dissertation.  To do this, you will use the same method as above, but delete the page numbers from the first section of your document.

Place your cursor at the very end of the last page which will not be numbered (probably your approval page, dedication, or acknowledgment), being careful NOT to place it in the footer where the page number is (if the text above becomes grayed out, you are in the footer – try clicking higher).

After doing this, you should see a "Section Break (Next Page)" code inserted into your document on the page before your Abstract.

Go down to the next page below the section break (in this example, the Abstract), and click on the page number in the Footer.  If your cursor is in the Footer, you should see "Footer -Section [#]-" to the left, and "Same as Previous" on the right. Be sure you are not in Section 1 of your document.

On the main menu, select the "Header & Footer Tools: Design" tab, then in the "Navigation" section of this tab, click the "Link to Previous" button if it is highlighted to UNSELECT it and unlink this section from the section above.  This will allow you to modify the page number in the first section without affecting this or subsequent sections.

Return to your Title Page (or any page in Section 1 which will not be numbered) and click on the page number in the footer.  Click-and-drag your cursor over the page number to select it.

Click the "Delete" key on your keyboard to delete the page number from this section.  As long as you removed the "Link to Previous" connection from the next section, you should the page number disappear from the first section, but remain in the following sections.

If your paper includes additional sections (for example, if your Approval Page was added as a separate section from your Title page), you may have to experiment with linking and unlinking sections from each other -- unlink a section if its page numbering will be different from the one before it, but link together any sections where the page numbering will continue from the one before it.  It is generally a good idea to start with the last section of your document and work your way backwards.

When you are finished, don't forget that you can hide the formatting symbols to make it easier to view your text by turning off the "Show/Hide" symbol on the "Home" tab in the "Paragraph" box.

Footer Sections and page numbering can be very complex, especially if your document has multiple sections.  If you need additional assistance getting your page numbering correct, contact Jeff Beuck at 216-523-7486 to set up an appointment.

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• Can we also change the total number of pages? I tried using this and it does restart the page number but the total number of pages do not change. by Mayur on Jul 13, 2022
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Related Topics

Frequently asked questions

Should i include page numbers on every page.

Yes, page numbers are included on all pages, including the title page , table of contents , and reference page . Page numbers should be right-aligned in the page header.

To insert page numbers in Microsoft Word or Google Docs, click ‘Insert’ and then ‘Page number’.

Frequently asked questions: APA Style

APA footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in numerical order. You can place footnotes at the bottom of the relevant pages, or on a separate footnotes page at the end:

• For footnotes at the bottom of the page, you can use your word processor to automatically insert footnotes .
• For footnotes at the end of the text in APA, place them on a separate page entitled “Footnotes,” after the r eference page . Indent the first line of each footnote, and double-space them.

For both approaches, place a space between the superscript number and the footnote text.

APA Style requires you to use APA in-text citations , not footnotes, to cite sources .

However, you can use APA footnotes sparingly for two purposes:

• Giving additional information
• Providing copyright attribution

Yes, APA language guidelines state that you should always use the serial comma (aka Oxford comma ) in your writing.

This means including a comma before the word “and” at the end of a list of three or more items: “spelling, grammar, and punctuation.” Doing this consistently tends to make your lists less ambiguous.

Yes, it’s perfectly valid to write sentences in the passive voice . The APA language guidelines do caution against overusing the passive voice, because it can obscure your meaning or be needlessly long-winded. For this reason, default to the active voice in most cases.

The passive voice is most useful when the point of the sentence is just to state what was done, not to emphasize who did it. For example, “The projector was mounted on the wall” is better than “James and I mounted the projector on the wall” if it’s not particularly important who mounted the projector.

Yes, APA language guidelines encourage you to use the first-person pronouns “I” or “we” when referring to yourself or a group including yourself in your writing.

In APA Style, you should not refer to yourself in the third person. For example, do not refer to yourself as “the researcher” or “the author” but simply as “I” or “me.” Referring to yourself in the third person is still common practice in some academic fields, but APA Style rejects this convention.

If you cite several sources by the same author or group of authors, you’ll distinguish between them in your APA in-text citations using the year of publication.

If you cite multiple sources by the same author(s) at the same point , you can just write the author name(s) once and separate the different years with commas, e.g., (Smith, 2020, 2021).

To distinguish between sources with the same author(s) and  the same publication year, add a different lowercase letter after the year for each source, e.g., (Smith, 2020, 2021a, 2021b). Add the same letters to the corresponding reference entries .

According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses.

Report the following for each hypothesis test:

• the test statistic value
• the degrees of freedom
• the exact p value (unless it is less than 0.001)
• the magnitude and direction of the effect

You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant.

The number of decimal places to report depends on what you’re reporting. Generally, you should aim to round numbers while retaining precision. It’s best to present fewer decimal digits to aid easy understanding.

Use one decimal place for:

• Standard deviations
• Descriptive statistics based on discrete data

Use two decimal places for:

• Correlation coefficients
• Proportions
• Inferential test statistics such as t values, F values, and chi-squares.

No, including a URL is optional in APA Style reference entries for legal sources (e.g. court cases , laws ). It can be useful to do so to aid the reader in retrieving the source, but it’s not required, since the other information included should be enough to locate it.

Generally, you should identify a law in an APA reference entry by its location in the United States Code (U.S.C.).

But if the law is either spread across various sections of the code or not featured in the code at all, include the public law number in addition to information on the source you accessed the law in, e.g.:

You should report methods using the past tense , even if you haven’t completed your study at the time of writing. That’s because the methods section is intended to describe completed actions or research.

In your APA methods section , you should report detailed information on the participants, materials, and procedures used.

• Describe all relevant participant or subject characteristics, the sampling procedures used and the sample size and power .
• Define all primary and secondary measures and discuss the quality of measurements.
• Specify the data collection methods, the research design and data analysis strategy, including any steps taken to transform the data and statistical analyses.

With APA legal citations, it’s recommended to cite all the reporters (publications reporting cases) in which a court case appears. To cite multiple reporters, just separate them with commas in your reference entry . This is called parallel citation .

Don’t repeat the name of the case, court, or year; just list the volume, reporter, and page number for each citation. For example:

In APA Style , when you’re citing a recent court case that has not yet been reported in print and thus doesn’t have a specific page number, include a series of three underscores (___) where the page number would usually appear:

In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures . To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure.

Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers.

In an APA results section , you should generally report the following:

• Participant flow and recruitment period.
• Missing data and any adverse events.
• Descriptive statistics about your samples.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes.
• Results of any subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable.

When citing a podcast episode in APA Style , the podcast’s host is listed as author , accompanied by a label identifying their role, e.g. Glass, I. (Host).

When citing a whole podcast series, if different episodes have different hosts, list the executive producer(s) instead. Again, include a label identifying their role, e.g. Lechtenberg, S. (Producer).

Like most style guides , APA recommends listing the book of the Bible you’re citing in your APA in-text citation , in combination with chapter and verse numbers. For example:

Books of the Bible may be abbreviated to save space; a list of standard abbreviations can be found here . Page numbers are not used in Bible citations.

Yes, in the 7th edition of APA Style , versions of the Bible are treated much like other books ; you should include the edition you used in your reference list .

Previously, in the 6th edition of the APA manual, it was recommended to just use APA 6 in-text citations to refer to the Bible, and omit it from the reference list.

To make it easy for the reader to find the YouTube video , list the person or organization who uploaded the video as the author in your reference entry and APA in-text citation .

If this isn’t the same person responsible for the content of the video, you might want to make this clear in the text. For example:

When you need to highlight a specific moment in a video or audio source, use a timestamp in your APA in-text citation . Just include the timestamp from the start of the part you’re citing. For example:

To include a direct quote in APA , follow these rules:

• Quotes under 40 words are placed in double quotation marks .
• Quotes of 40 words or more are formatted as block quote .
• The author, year, and page number are included in an APA in-text citation .

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures .

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents, and are presented in a similar way.

Copyright information can usually be found wherever the table or figure was published. For example, for a diagram in a journal article , look on the journal’s website or the database where you found the article. Images found on sites like Flickr are listed with clear copyright information.

If you find that permission is required to reproduce the material, be sure to contact the author or publisher and ask for it.

If you adapt or reproduce a table or figure from another source, you should include that source in your APA reference list . You should also include copyright information in the note for the table or figure, and include an APA in-text citation when you refer to it.

Tables and figures you created yourself, based on your own data, are not included in the reference list.

An APA in-text citation is placed before the final punctuation mark in a sentence.

• The company invested over 40,000 hours in optimizing its algorithm (Davis, 2011) .
• A recent poll suggests that EU membership “would be backed by 55 percent of Danish voters” in a referendum (Levring, 2018) .

In an APA in-text citation , you use the phrase “ as cited in ” if you want to cite a source indirectly (i.e., if you cannot find the original source).

Parenthetical citation: (Brown, 1829, as cited in Mahone, 2018) Narrative citation: Brown (1829, as cited in Mahone, 2018) states that…

On the reference page , you only include the secondary source (Mahone, 2018).

Popular word processors like Microsoft Word and Google Docs can order lists in alphabetical order, but they don’t follow the APA Style alphabetization guidelines .

If you use Scribbr’s APA Citation Generator to create citations, references are ordered automatically based on the APA guidelines, taking into account all the exceptions.

Order numerals as though they were spelled out:

• “20 tips to relax” is ordered on the “T” of “Twenty”.
• “100 cities you should visit” is ordered on the “O” of “One hundred”.

Read more about alphabetizing the APA reference page .

If the author of a work is unknown, order the reference by its title. Disregard the words “A”, “An”, and “The” at the beginning of the title.

• The privacy concerns around social media
• Teens, social media, and privacy

Yes, if relevant you can and should include APA in-text citations in your appendices . Use author-date citations as you do in the main text.

Any sources cited in your appendices should appear in your reference list . Do not create a separate reference list for your appendices.

When you include more than one appendix in an APA Style paper , they should be labeled “Appendix A,” “Appendix B,” and so on.

When you only include a single appendix, it is simply called “Appendix” and referred to as such in the main text.

Appendices in an APA Style paper appear right at the end, after the reference list and after your tables and figures if you’ve also included these at the end.

An appendix contains information that supplements the reader’s understanding of your research but is not essential to it. For example:

• Interview transcripts
• Questionnaires
• Detailed descriptions of equipment

Something is only worth including as an appendix if you refer to information from it at some point in the text (e.g. quoting from an interview transcript). If you don’t, it should probably be removed.

If you adapt or reproduce a table or figure from another source, you should include that source in your APA reference list . You should also acknowledge the original source in the note or caption for the table or figure.

APA doesn’t require you to include a list of tables or a list of figures . However, it is advisable to do so if your text is long enough to feature a table of contents and it includes a lot of tables and/or figures.

A list of tables and list of figures appear (in that order) after your table of contents , and are presented in a similar way.

In an APA Style paper , use a table or figure when it’s a clearer way to present important data than describing it in your main text. This is often the case when you need to communicate a large amount of information.

Before including a table or figure in your text, always reflect on whether it’s useful to your readers’ understanding:

• Could this information be quickly summarized in the text instead?
• Is it important to your arguments?
• Does the table or figure require too much explanation to be efficient?

If the data you need to present only contains a few relevant numbers, try summarizing it in the text (potentially including full data in an appendix ). If describing the data makes your text overly long and difficult to read, a table or figure may be the best option.

In an APA Style paper , the abstract is placed on a separate page after the title page (page 2).

An APA abstract is around 150–250 words long. However, always check your target journal’s guidelines and don’t exceed the specified word count.

In APA Style , all sources that are not retrievable for the reader are cited as personal communications . In other words, if your source is private or inaccessible to the audience of your paper , it’s a personal communication.

Common examples include conversations, emails, messages, letters, and unrecorded interviews or performances.

Interviews you conducted yourself are not included in your reference list , but instead cited in the text as personal communications .

Published or recorded interviews are included in the reference list. Cite them in the usual format of the source type (for example, a newspaper article , website or YouTube video ).

To cite a public post from social media , use the first 20 words of the post as a title, include the date it was posted and a URL, and mention the author’s username if they have one:

Dorsey, J. [@jack]. (2018, March 1). We’re committing Twitter to help increase the collective health, openness, and civility of public conversation, and to hold ourselves publicly [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/jack/status/969234275420655616

To cite content from social media that is not publicly accessible (e.g. direct messages, posts from private groups or user profiles), cite it as a personal communication in the text, but do not include it in the reference list :

When contacted online, the minister stated that the project was proceeding “according to plan” (R. James, Twitter direct message, March 25, 2017).

When you quote or paraphrase a specific passage from a source, you need to indicate the location of the passage in your APA in-text citation . If there are no page numbers (e.g. when citing a website ) but the text is long, you can instead use section headings, paragraph numbers, or a combination of the two:

(Caulfield, 2019, Linking section, para. 1).

Section headings can be shortened if necessary. Kindle location numbers should not be used in ebook citations , as they are unreliable.

If you are referring to the source as a whole, it’s not necessary to include a page number or other marker.

When no individual author name is listed, but the source can clearly be attributed to a specific organization—e.g., a press release by a charity, a report by an agency, or a page from a company’s website—use the organization’s name as the author in the reference entry and APA in-text citations .

When no author at all can be determined—e.g. a collaboratively edited wiki or an online article published anonymously—use the title in place of the author. In the in-text citation, put the title in quotation marks if it appears in plain text in the reference list, and in italics if it appears in italics in the reference list. Shorten it if necessary.

APA Style usually does not require an access date. You never need to include one when citing journal articles , e-books , or other stable online sources.

However, if you are citing a website or online article that’s designed to change over time, it’s a good idea to include an access date. In this case, write it in the following format at the end of the reference: Retrieved October 19, 2020, from https://www.uva.nl/en/about-the-uva/about-the-university/about-the-university.html

The 7th edition APA Manual , published in October 2019, is the most current edition. However, the 6th edition, published in 2009, is still used by many universities and journals.

The APA Manual 7th edition can be purchased at Amazon as a hardcover, paperback or spiral-bound version. You can also buy an ebook version at RedShelf .

The American Psychological Association anticipates that most people will start using the 7th edition in the spring of 2020 or thereafter.

It’s best to ask your supervisor or check the website of the journal you want to publish in to see which APA guidelines you should follow.

If you’re citing from an edition other than the first (e.g. a 2nd edition or revised edition), the edition appears in the reference, abbreviated in parentheses after the book’s title (e.g. 2nd ed. or Rev. ed.).

In the 7th edition of the APA manual, no location information is required for publishers. The 6th edition previously required you to include the city and state where the publisher was located, but this is no longer the case.

In an APA reference list , journal article citations include only the year of publication, not the exact date, month, or season.

The inclusion of volume and issue numbers makes a more specific date unnecessary.

In an APA journal citation , if a DOI (digital object identifier) is available for an article, always include it.

If an article has no DOI, and you accessed it through a database or in print, just omit the DOI.

If an article has no DOI, and you accessed it through a website other than a database (for example, the journal’s own website), include a URL linking to the article.

You may include up to 20 authors in a reference list entry .

When an article has more than 20 authors, replace the names prior to the final listed author with an ellipsis, but do not omit the final author:

Davis, Y., Smith, J., Caulfield, F., Pullman, H., Carlisle, J., Donahue, S. D., James, F., O’Donnell, K., Singh, J., Johnson, L., Streefkerk, R., McCombes, S., Corrieri, L., Valck, X., Baldwin, F. M., Lorde, J., Wardell, K., Lao, W., Yang, P., . . . O’Brien, T. (2012).

Include the DOI at the very end of the APA reference entry . If you’re using the 6th edition APA guidelines, the DOI is preceded by the label “doi:”. In the 7th edition , the DOI is preceded by ‘https://doi.org/’.

• 6th edition: doi: 10.1177/0894439316660340
• 7th edition: https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0894439316660340

APA citation example (7th edition)

Hawi, N. S., & Samaha, M. (2016). The relations among social media addiction, self-esteem, and life satisfaction in university students. Social Science Computer Review , 35 (5), 576–586. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439316660340

When citing a webpage or online article , the APA in-text citation consists of the author’s last name and year of publication. For example: (Worland & Williams, 2015). Note that the author can also be an organization. For example: (American Psychological Association, 2019).

If you’re quoting you should also include a locator. Since web pages don’t have page numbers, you can use one of the following options:

• Paragraph number: (Smith, 2018, para. 15).
• Heading or section name: ( CDC, 2020, Flu Season section)
• Abbreviated heading:  ( CDC, 2020, “Key Facts” section)

Always include page numbers in the APA in-text citation when quoting a source . Don’t include page numbers when referring to a work as a whole – for example, an entire book or journal article.

If your source does not have page numbers, you can use an alternative locator such as a timestamp, chapter heading or paragraph number.

Instead of the author’s name, include the first few words of the work’s title in the in-text citation. Enclose the title in double quotation marks when citing an article, web page or book chapter. Italicize the title of periodicals, books, and reports.

No publication date

If the publication date is unknown , use “n.d.” (no date) instead. For example: (Johnson, n.d.).

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (meaning “and others”) is used to shorten APA in-text citations with three or more authors . Here’s how it works:

Only include the first author’s last name, followed by “et al.”, a comma and the year of publication, for example (Taylor et al., 2018).

APA Style papers should be written in a font that is legible and widely accessible. For example:

• Times New Roman (12pt.)
• Arial (11pt.)
• Calibri (11pt.)
• Georgia (11pt.)

The same font and font size is used throughout the document, including the running head , page numbers, headings , and the reference page . Text in footnotes and figure images may be smaller and use single line spacing.

The easiest way to set up APA format in Word is to download Scribbr’s free APA format template for student papers or professional papers.

Alternatively, you can watch Scribbr’s 5-minute step-by-step tutorial or check out our APA format guide with examples.

You need an APA in-text citation and reference entry . Each source type has its own format; for example, a webpage citation is different from a book citation .

Use Scribbr’s free APA Citation Generator to generate flawless citations in seconds or take a look at our APA citation examples .

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

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Dissertation Printing and Binding | Types & Comparison 

Table of Contents

Once you have the final copy of your dissertation in your hands, all thoroughly proofread and reviewed intensely, the next step is to have it printed and bound. The dissertation printing and binding process is to be taken seriously since no one would want their years of hard work and toil to be seen as a shabby and poorly produced product. So before you rush out to get it printed, always ensure the institutional guidelines on how the dissertation is to be printed and bound are strictly followed.  

In this article, we will look at the dissertation printing and binding process, the final box that is to be ticked in the research journey. The critical aspect of this final step is for you to make the appropriate choice in terms of the type of binding and printing options you will use.  

Types of Dissertation Binding  

Spending some time reviewing the binding options available is a great way to begin. Align your choice with the university requirements first, then start exploring binding possibilities. Remember to keep in mind factors like binding quality, durability, how professional it will appear, and the costs involved. Below are some of the common types of dissertation binding that one can consider. 

• Spiral binding : This type of dissertation binding is perfect for undergraduate or graduate students working on tight budgets as it is relatively inexpensive. Plastic or metal coils are used here to bind pages together (choices of color may be available), and the final output is straightforward to handle and read, given the flat opening that makes browsing through hassle-free.  
• Hardback binding : Students can choose this kind of binding for their final dissertation submission. It gives your dissertation a professional look. With hardcovers on the front and back, one can also try various kinds of lettering to make it more impactful. 
• Paperback binding : This option can be considered for informal submissions. Though it costs less than hardback binding, good quality, and flexible light covers can create a clean and professional appearance.  
• Thermal binding : Here, the binding is done with a transparent cover that highlights the dissertation’s title page. It has a professional look, is solid and reliable, and has color options. 
• Comb binding : This kind of binding is recommended for draft versions and costs less than a spiral binding option. It allows pages to be removed or added and comes with a transparent front and back cover.  

Dissertation Printing Options   

• Color or black and white: Before deciding on the colour option, check if your department or institution has laid out any guidelines in this regard. If it’s not specified, weigh in which one colour or a combination will make your dissertation visually appealing. Color printing tends to be expensive, and an overuse of colors can be overwhelming and distracting. So, use colour wisely and only where required – for graphs or figures, for example. 
• Single or double-sided: University guidelines should be the foremost factor in deciding to opt for single-sided or double-sided printing. The latter is obviously cheaper. However, take care to ensure that the title page, acknowledgments, table of contents, abstract, and bibliography start on fresh pages. Similarly, new chapters should also begin on the front side of the paper. You also need to consider the difficulty in comparing images and graphs referred to in the text if these appear on either side of a page. 
• Layout: Check departmental guidelines on the layout and margin requirements. Usually, a 2.5 cm margin on the side is required to make allowance for binding. 
• Paper weight: The paper should not be so thin that the print is visible on the other side, nor should it be too thick. For better quality output, consider using a paper weight of 100gsm. 
• Number of copies: Depending on your department guidelines, you may have to submit one to three copies of your dissertation. Hence, three to five copies are usually printed. 

Things to check before printing dissertations

Before printing your dissertation, make sure to do some final checks, as listed below. 

• Ensure that your document is saved in PDF file format: PDF files are usually accepted by thesis printing services. Hence, by keeping your dissertation in pdf file format beforehand, you can check for any discrepancies or errors that may arise during conversion.
• Proofread your dissertation: This is crucial to eliminate any grammatical or language errors, misspelled words, or incomplete sentences that may have been overlooked.
• Review the tables, graphs, and any other visual elements: Formatting can affect the layout of tables and graphs. So, cross-check visuals, ensure correct labeling, and check if they correspond to the information in the text. Also, ensure that the images are of high quality.
• Check with the printing services beforehand: It is always helpful to check ahead with printing service providers on the time and cost of printing and binding. Also, check with your department for any formalities to be completed while submitting the printed dissertation. This allows you to plan things well in advance. 

There are many types and options for students to choose from when it comes to printing and binding dissertations. However, as highlighted above, it is essential to be aware of the institution’s requirements and guidelines before it proceeds. 

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Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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How to choose a dissertation topic.

• Dangling Modifiers and How to Avoid Them in Your Writing 
• Webinar: How to Use Generative AI Tools Ethically in Your Academic Writing
• How to Avoid Plagiarism? Tips and Advice for Academics

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Where Questions Come From

A lot of emphasis in education is placed on showing what you know. But for at least a decade now, as I’ve thought about the twin challenges of engaging students and defending the place of philosophy in a college education, I’ve stopped emphasizing the mastery of content for its own sake. Instead, I’ve emphasized using content as a starting point for critical thinking. In doing so, I realized that critical thinking is at least as much about asking questions as answering them: questions are part of a critical stance.  

I teach at a pair of small, Catholic Benedictine liberal arts colleges—one for men, one for women—that share a single academic program. Most of the students in my classes are there for one general education requirement or another, even in upper-division courses. So I think broadly about what it means to have a liberal arts education and the skills students can take with them beyond college. Among these, one of the most valuable is also one of our departmental learning goals: resisting the urge for quick and easy answers . Asking questions is one way of learning to do this. 

So for the past few years, I’ve been trying to teach my students to articulate where questions come from: their context and motivation, the mystery that drives them, and the hook that engages us in inquiry. I have three motivations for this specific approach.  

First, and most practically, I want them to write better introductions to papers. A lot of my students know that an introduction needs to contain a thesis, and they know there’s supposed to be some kind of hook to engage their audience. But they frequently need help crafting a narrow and interesting thesis, and they rarely know how to craft a relevant and engaging hook. I realized that we can solve both of these issues if they can articulate a question the thesis is answering. “People have been talking about X since the dawn of time”—maybe—but why? If we know what’s bugging our proverbial/mythical ancestors, then we can see what kind of answer is interesting. And we also have our hook, because questions are engaging. They alert us to something interesting: a gap in knowledge, something unusual that needs explanation, a puzzle, a mystery. 

Second, we are told that philosophy begins in wonder. That means (among other things) asking questions. If I want my students to really do philosophy and not just learn about it (and I do), they need questions.  

Third, and relatedly, there are lots of kinds of wondering, so wonder alone doesn’t define philosophy. What makes philosophical wondering different from scientific or historical or economic wondering? I find it handy to define the field of philosophy in terms of its questions. But just listing the big philosophical questions, as we often do, is defining by example and doesn’t get to the heart of the issue. It doesn’t really explain what makes philosophy different from, say, science, and how to know a philosophical question when you meet one. It’s a good start to say that philosophical questions are not settled empirically (though facts might be needed to answer them); they’re open-ended and difficult to settle in any definitive way; and they’re about “fundamental” issues like concepts, knowledge, and values (though this is defining by example again). Still, this is pretty vague and high-level for students. I want to see if we can define philosophical questions more accessibly, so that students have a way in. 

These three motivations led me to try teaching students to think about where questions come from. We talk about what makes us ask questions. Sometimes we want information or clarification. Sometimes we’re surprised or confused or puzzled or curious. (Sometimes we’re just trying to show off or be a pain in the butt, too, but I’ll assume this isn’t serious questioning and set it aside.) We ask questions when we get stopped, stuck on something that’s in the way of our understanding whatever it is we’re trying to understand—when we’ve run into a mystery. (By this standard, test questions aren’t really questions, they’re instructions: show me what you know about X; demonstrate your Y skills.) 

This mystery quality is what the questions in my three motivations have in common. Thus, I started asking students to introduce questions by identifying what stops someone’s understanding of something and articulating the mystery that leads to the question. A well-stated question will provide some background and then end with “So, ?” I provide templates to help them get started. 

One template is the “clashing intuitions” approach. A lot of (philosophical) questions arise when we notice that we have two intuitions about something that isn’t compatible, at least on the face of it. The template for this kind of question is: On the one hand, it looks like X. On the other hand, it looks like not-X. So how should we make sense of this? 

Free will provides a nice example of this one. On the one hand, it certainly feels like you’re deciding what to eat for lunch, and that nothing is compelling you in any particular direction. On the other hand, any physical event has a physical cause—and your reaching out to grab the sandwich is a physical event. Those two things can’t be true at the same time, because if my reaching for the sandwich is the result of other physical events, my apparent choice had nothing to do with it. Still, the feeling of choice is strong. So do we have free will?  

A second template is the “wait, I don’t actually know what that is” approach. In a discussion, it often happens that we’re using some term pretty freely, and at some point, we realize that not everybody understands it the same way, so we need to spend some time defining what we mean. The template I give students for this one is: We all think we understand X; after all, we use the concept in regular life and people seem to (more or less) understand each other. But do we? There are cases (Y, Z) that make us realize that we don’t really understand X. So, what is X? 

Just about any big concept provides an example for this one. Take beauty. We can all name some definitely beautiful things, and some definitely not-beautiful things. But when you meet an edge case—say when you disagree with someone and try to argue about whether that person, painting, landscape, building, etc. is beautiful—you realize you only have fuzzy working knowledge of beauty, not well-defined knowledge. So, what is beauty? 

A third template is the “What’s the meaning of this?” approach. It’s based on the fact that we sometimes worry about the consequences of different ideas, and that motivates us to wonder why, or what’s at stake. The template goes like this: X is (or might be) the case. But if that’s true, then it has consequences that don’t fit with our usual understanding of things, or that we haven’t thought (enough) about yet, such as Y. So what does X mean for us? 

For example: We know that humans are animals. But we have a long history of thinking we’re special or separate or superior to other animals. So what should we make of this—the fact that we’re animals, and/or the fact that we think we’re special? In other words: What does it mean for us that we’re animals? 

On a very general level, then, and for pedagogical purposes, a useful formula for getting students to introduce a question usually involves an initial statement, followed by a “but” that introduces some contrast or problem with the statement, and ends with “so,” the question. Obviously, this won’t cover every case, but it gives students a path into territory they’ve never entered before, or have been in but often haphazardly, without orientation.  

This formula works well for setting up a thesis as an answer to the question. And it provides grounds for more detailed and richer theses, because the setup already shows where there will be difficulties in taking one side of the issue. This way, they’re more likely to argue for something focused and narrow: “I will argue that A, because B and C outweigh D.” It’s not foolproof, and they still need practice crafting theses, but I find it helps get beyond a simple report about what they’ll argue for. 

I start by having students practice introducing questions I’ve given them, and from there we can move to them writing their own questions, noticing where they get stopped when thinking about a topic. Asking students to introduce questions also has the advantage of tending to make paper assignments more authentic because students are investigating questions that they can at least see the logic of, if not actually own for themselves. They especially come to see the value of this in the “ Philosophy in the Wild ” assignment I have them do, in which they go “undercover” and hold a philosophical conversation with someone who doesn’t know they’re doing an assignment. They can’t just spring a question on their partner out of the blue; they need to set it up so that it seems natural.  

Practice with introducing questions also helps students get more of a feel for the difference between philosophical questions and other kinds. “Are we alone in the universe?” comes up when I have them read the short story “ They’re Made out of Meat ” by Terry Bisson. The question can be introduced using the “clashing intuitions” template: On the one hand, we don’t have solid evidence that there are aliens; on the other hand, given the vastness of the universe, the probability that life has also evolved elsewhere is pretty good. So, are we alone in the universe? Now we see what arrested our attention. But it’s also clearer that this isn’t a philosophical question, because it’s asking for information. In theory, it could be answered by science.  

Maybe we can get from this to a philosophical question, though. In a case like this, the “What’s the meaning of this?” template comes in handy. I ask students to think about the interests that might have motivated us to ask whether there are aliens, because maybe we can find philosophical questions in the neighborhood. It seems to matter to us whether there is life elsewhere. But why? Because that will mean we need to adjust our understanding of our place in the universe. Or because we’ll need to figure out how to treat them. “What will it mean for us if there are aliens?” or “If we ever meet aliens, how should we treat them?”—those are invitations to philosophy. 

So I’ve found a lot of pedagogical value in teaching students to think through the motivations for questions. But wait, there’s more! I think it comes in handy not only in motivating students, but also when philosophers are asked to justify our ongoing existence as a department (and, more broadly, a field). When asked by a student, administrator, politician, or average person, Why should we care about this? , it’s hard (though not impossible!) to say things that will convince a skeptic when philosophy is framed as a matter of knowledge. What is the use of knowing Plato’s theory of the Forms?  

But when philosophy is framed as a matter of thinking—including asking questions—it’s much easier to make a case. What’s the use of getting surprised or confused or puzzled or curious— wondering about— Plato’s theory of the Forms? A number of answers open up. For one thing, the questions are interesting and important. Plato’s theory arises from, and leads to, important questions about knowledge, reality, and even ethics—questions that still matter today, even if we don’t accept Plato’s view.  

Furthermore, I don’t have systematic evidence for this, but I’ll bet that practice with articulating questions’ background makes it more likely that we’ll notice questions in the first place. When we start to frame questions as mysteries, we might start to see more things as surprising, puzzling, confusing, or curious. Or, at least, we might realize that more things are mysterious than we would otherwise notice. This is itself an important critical thinking skill: the readiness to suspend belief in the status quo. 

But also, the ability to articulate where questions come from is part of the very valuable skill of getting to the heart of an issue. When we understand the motivations for our questions, we’re better able to understand what will count as answers and why those answers matter. (Once or twice a year, a major publication comes out with an article that tells us that employers really want this skill, and like philosophy/humanities/liberal arts majors because they have it.) 

In short: questioning is thinking, and to the extent that we want to teach thinking, we should be teaching students to frame questions as well as answer them. 

The Question-Focused Pedagogy series of the APA Blog is focused on how we can, ought to, fail to, and might teach question-skills and pass on the values and importance of questions and questioning to students. If you would like to publish in the Question-Focused Pedagogy series, please reach out to its editor, Stephen Bloch-Schulman at sschulman@elon.edu.

Erica Stonestreet

Erica Lucast Stonestreet is an Associate Professor and Chair of the Philosophy department at the College of St. Benedict and St. John’s University in central Minnesota. She is most interested in the ethical dimensions of love and caring, and the relationships, projects and things that make us who we are. She is currently working on a popular-audience book tentatively called Who We Are and How to Live, which aims to show how conceptions of human nature influence theories of ethics, and argue for a more relational conception of human beings. She is the 2023 recipient of her institutions’ Sister Mary Grell / Robert Spaeth Teacher of Distinction award. 

• Author: Erica Stonestreet
• Editor: Smrutipriya Pattnaik
• Stephen Bloch-Schulman
• teaching questions

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