called a hook or a grabber.
I don’t want to close my eyes; it makes me feel awkward and exposed to be in a group of people with my eyes closed. Because of that, I keep my eyes open. The problem is when I keep my eyes open, I feel like some sort of horrible nonconformist rebel. I feel awkward with my eyes closed and I feel guilty if they are open. Either way, I just feel bad. Besides, half of the time when speakers tell audience members to close their eyes, they forget to tell us when we can open them. If you are wanting me to imagine a story, just tell me to imagine it, don’t make me close my eyes (rant over).
You should plan your opening to be intentional and with power. “Can everybody hear me” is a weak and uncertain statement and this is not the first impression you want to leave. Do a microphone check before the audience members arrive and have someone stand in different corners of the room to make sure you can be heard. Don’t waste your valuable speech time with questions that you should already know the answer to.
You should know that before you begin. Even if the presentations for the day are running over and you are the last speaker, you should ask the MC before you begin. Always plan your first words with power.
You should make your slides big, really big. Test out your slides in advance of your speech, walk all around the room and make sure you can read them. Have a friend check them out as well. You should know they are big enough because you planned for it and tested it.
People really hate having things taken away, not to mention that your audience may want to take notes on their devices. Chances are you are speaking to adults, let them determine if it is appropriate to have out their technology.
Stop apologizing! Stop making excuses! While these lines may be true, they just come of as excuses and can make the audience either feel like you don’t want to be there, or they just feel sorry for you.
Talking about your nervousness will make you more nervous and will make them look for signs of your nervousness. Just start your speech.
Do not start with hesitation. Plan the first words, memorize the first words, practice the first words. Do not start with “Ok, so um, now I’d like…” Plan strong and start strong.
Do Not Discuss Your Business with People Watching…Really! I Mean It! Many of us are giving and listening to presentations in an online format. I have attended numerous presentations this year through Zoom where I have to sit and watch while the organizers engage in personal small talk or deal with the details of the presentation. This is how the speech I recently attended began. “Donna, you are going to share your screen, right?” “Yes. I have my PowerPoint ready to go. Will you push “record” when I give the signal?” “Sure. Where did you say that button is again? Do you think we should wait five more minutes, I think we had more who were coming? Dave, what was the total we were expecting?” “Yeah, we had 116 sign up, but the reminders went out late so this may be all we have. We can give them a few more minutes to log on.” “Donna, How is your dog? Is she still struggling with her cone since her spay surgery? My dog never would wear the cone –she tore her stitches out and broke her wound open. It was terrible. Well, it looks like it is about time to begin, thank you everyone for coming.” If you are organizing an event online, hosting a speech online, giving a presentation online–please keep it professional. Most platforms will allow you to keep the audience in a waiting room until it is time to start. If you have a business to deal with, keep the audience out until you have everything ready to go. Once the audience is in the meeting, you should engage the audience in group-type small talk or you should just start the presentation. In professional settings, you should start the meeting on time. Why punish those who showed up on time to wait for those who aren’t there yet?
I asked my long-time friend, Bill Rogers, to write an excerpt to add to the book. I met Bill when he was the Chief Development Officer for a hospital in Northwest Arkansas and I met him again when he was reinventing himself as a college student getting a Master’s Degree in the theater. He would love to share a symbolic cup of coffee with you and give you advice about public speaking.
Perfect morning for a walk, isn’t it? Join me for a cup of coffee? Wonderful. Find us a table and I’ll get our coffee.
There you go; just like you like it. There’s nothing like a great cup of coffee on the patio of your neighborhood coffee shop, is there?
Now that you’re settled in your favorite chair, take a sip, and let that glorious caffeine kick in and do its stuff. Okay, let’s talk.
So, you were asking me about public speaking.
Well, let’s see. Where do we begin?
One of the first pieces of advice I ever received was to imagine that every member of your audience is sitting there in their underwear! Yeah, right. That never worked for me. I tried it once with a local civic group of community leaders both male and female. If the intent of that tidbit is to make you relax, it certainly didn’t work for me. It just made me more self-conscious…and more nervous. I not only got distracted, but I also lost my train of thought, I started sweating, and, of course, imagined myself standing there without clothes. Needless to say, that speech was a disaster and I’ve never used it again. I suggest you don’t either.
In the early days, I also relied very heavily on my typed-up speech. Now, there’s nothing wrong with that unless you find yourself reading it word for word as I did. Nothing is more boring nor puts an audience to sleep quicker than a speaker with their nose down reading a speech. There’s no connection and connection with your audience is key.
As you know, I love theatre and I’ve done a bit of acting over the years. Early on, I learned that the quicker I learned my lines, the more I could play, experiment, and shape my character. It relaxed me and gave me enormous freedom. It led me to find a mantra for myself: “With discipline comes freedom.” This freedom will allow you to improvise as your audience or situation dictates while still conveying the core message of your presentation. That discipline and its resulting freedom apply to public speaking of any kind and, I think, will serve you well.
Another old adage we’ve all heard is Aristotle’s advice. You know the one. No? Well, roughly, it’s to tell your audience what you’re going to say, say it, and then tell them what you just said. That’s the basic formula for public speaking. And it works as a good place to start.
However, effective speaking is much more and, to me, it starts with a story or even a simple sentence.
You know the feeling you get when you read the first sentence of a good book and it just reaches out and grabs you? That should be your goal with every presentation. One sentence to capture your audience’s attention. Something that causes them to lean forward. Something that sparks their imagination.
It doesn’t have to be all that profound either. It can be something very simple. A personal story that relates to your topic. A relevant fact or statistic that defines or illustrates the issue or subject matter at hand.
A couple of classics come to mind. The first is Alice Walker’s, “The Color of Purple.”
“You better not tell nobody but God.”
And the second one is from my favorite novel, “To Kill A Mockingbird,” by Harper Lee.
“When he was nearly thirteen, my brother Jem got his arm broken at the elbow.”
Both sentences hook you immediately. A few simple words speak volumes. After reading or hearing those words, you naturally lean in. You want to learn more. You want to find out what happens next. Every effective speech or presentation does the same thing.
Of course, make sure that the first and last thing you say to your audience is both relevant and appropriate. I share this out of an abundance of caution. I once worked for an internationally recognized and well-respected children’s research hospital and I was given the privilege to speak at a national educational convention. The room was filled wall to wall with teachers. I thought I’d be cute and add a little levity. I opened my presentation with this line, “You know, I’ve had nightmares like this…” Instead of the roars of laughter, I was expecting, a wave of silence ensued. Not only was the line not funny, but it was also wholly inappropriate and I immediately lost my audience. Not my best day. Learn from my mistakes.
Finally, let’s touch on the importance of approaching a speech as a conversation. You and I are sitting here enjoying our coffee and having a friendly, relaxed conversation. Strive for that every chance you get. You may not always have that luxury. Some speeches and presentations simply demand formality. But even in those cases, you can usually make it somewhat conversational. I always try to write my speeches in a conversational style. Like I’m talking to a friend…or trying to make a new one.
So, to recap: tell a story, learn your lines, hook your audience with a simple sentence, close with a question or call to action, use repetition, keep it conversational, treat your audience as a friend, and give yourself permission to relax.
Above all, be yourself. Allow yourself to be as relaxed as you are with those closest to you. If you’re relaxed, if you try to think of your audience as a friend, then, in most cases, they too will relax and they will root for you. Even if they disagree with what you are telling them, they will respect you and they will listen.
How about another cup?
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Advanced Public Speaking Copyright © 2021 by Lynn Meade is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
A speech, as we all know, is a vocal opinion of a speaker’s stand. Speeches are usually used as an effective tool for rallying support, conveying opinion, as well as influencing the thoughts of others (usually the audience) to accept or agree with the thoughts of the Speaker.
For a speech to achieve its goal, the words used in a speech are usually chosen carefully. This is so because, through a speech, the audience can perceive the interest or personal motives of the Speaker.
However, in most cases, there is usually a need to consider what was not said in a speech, or what the motive of the Speaker was. For this reason, speech analysis comes in handy in order to have a full understanding of a speech.
In its simplest form, speech analysis or speech interpretation can be said to be the process of extracting important pieces of information that are contained in a speech. When carrying out speech analysis, there is usually a need to take note of some essential and necessary components of the Speech . These include;
For instance, a speech may be written to entertain the audience with some humorous lines, persuade the audience into thinking or agreeing with the opinion of the Speaker, or to inform the audience about something which the Speaker is skilled in.
Also of paramount importance during speech analysis is taking note of who the target audience is, and how the Speech relates to the audience .
For instance, when analyzing a speech that was delivered to support the need for a pay rise in an organization, in that case, it will be expected that the audience listening to such a speech will be members of staff of the organization who are clamoring for a rise in their pay.
Still using the same above example about a speech about a pay rise in an organization, the Speaker may have to include facts such as the agreed terms for a pay rise in the organization.
The I Have A Dream Speech by Martin Luther King Jr (with Video+Audio+Full Transcript and Historical Context)
What is the First Step in Rhetoric Analysis?
The introduction of a speech is one of the most important elements of a speech since it is usually designed to grab the attention of the audience, either with a hook, a preview of what the Speech is all about, a joke, a controversial statement, a startling statistics, why the Speech is important, or a powerful visual.
Introducing a speech with such powerful elements is an excellent way to give the audience reasons why they should listen to the Speaker, instead of starting with a dry “hello everyone, it’s a great privilege to talk to you today.”
In the body of a speech, the Speaker should make necessary effort to ensure that all the facts and pieces of evidence presented in the Speech aligns with the primary objective of the Speech. As mentioned earlier, these facts and proofs should all be presented in a simple and clear language for the understanding of the audience.
The concluding part of a speech also packs as much power as the other two parts mentioned earlier.
Also, in the conclusion of a speech, the Speaker should be concise about what he expects from the audience, whether it is for a petition to be signed, requesting their support, for a product to be bought, or for some other specific actions from the audience as contained in the Speech.
However, when analyzing a speech, don’t feel satisfied by merely outline these nine important questions in the Speech and answering them. Instead, there should be a complementary explanation or example of how these nine key questions work using a speech as an example. So, in analyzing a speech, here are the 9 key questions you must give appropriate answers to for effective speech analysis .
In analyzing a speech, you have to consider who is the Speaker, and how does the Speaker’s rank, position, personal views, motives, or experience affect the Speech.
3. what is the type of speech.
In this regard, the Speech delivered might be one that is intended to inform or educate the audience, entertain, or even persuade the audience to take certain steps of action.
5. what is the purpose of the speech.
Like I mentioned earlier, every Speech is usually aimed at achieving a purpose. For some, the purpose might be to persuade the audience, entertain, or even to open the eyes of the audience about a piece of information they are yet to know.
In evaluating the content and circumstances of a speech, you consider the events that have created the need for the Speech. In doing this, you may have to pay closer attention to specific elements such as;
Techniques employed by the Speaker are usually the various modes of persuasion, in which the Speaker adopts. These techniques are also known as rhetorical appeals , and they are ways of persuading the audience to believe the Speaker’s point of view.
By analyzing a speech to see whether or not it has achieved its purpose, you may have to carry out some evaluations to ascertain if the Speech was successful.
I would like to announce that you can get more insightful tips and how-to’s from our launched eBook, now available at Barnes & Noble , at $4.99. We tried to pack it with valuable information and price it below $5 to be as inclusive as possible with our pricing. Click below and Get a Copy!
The next point of discussion is a practical example of how to make a speech analysis by using the nine-step approach shared. Before digging into that, let me add below some of the top related and interesting articles that can add to what you’re learning from this one. If any of the titles picks your interest, please click and open in a new tab, so you can check them out later. Enjoy!
The 7 basic elements of public speaking.
Remember that time you had to present a topic in front of a crowd? Probably it was a proposal at work or an oral report in grade school. You took the time to prepare and gather materials, after which you climbed the podium and started talking. There are seven basic elements of public speaking that…
Analyzing the i have a dream speech by martin luther king jr.
In a bid to have a full understanding of how the various questions that should be considered when carrying out speech analysis work, we shall be considering the heroic Speech delivered by a civil rights leader – Martin Luther King Jr, on August 28, 1963, in front of the Lincoln Memorial Mall.
Before we go straight into the analysis of the “ I Have A Dream ” Speech, let’s take a quick look at the context of the Speech.
Related Article: The I Have A Dream Speech by Martin Luther King Jr (with Video+Audio+Full Transcript and Historical Context)
Alternatively, you can just watch the 17 minutes full Speech through the link below;
The Speaker, in this case, is Martin Luther King Jr, who is a prominent negro civil rights activist fighting to secure freedom and emancipation for his fellow negroes.
However, it is evident that members of media were present to cover the event, and so it is obvious that the Speech was open to everyone who could have access to a live stream of the Speech
“And so, we’ve come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice.”
He started by reminding his fellow negroes about the history of the emancipation proclamation by Abraham Lincoln.
“Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation. This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice. It came as a joyous daybreak to end the long night of their captivity.”
“But one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free. One hundred years later, the life of the Negro is still sadly crippled by the manacles of segregation and the chains of discrimination. One hundred years later, the Negro lives on a lonely island of poverty in the midst of a vast ocean of material prosperity. One hundred years later, the Negro is still languished in the corners of American society and finds himself an exile in his own land.”
“And so let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania. Let freedom ring from the snow-capped Rockies of Colorado. Let freedom ring from the curvaceous slopes of California. But not only that: Let freedom ring from Stone Mountain of Georgia. Let freedom ring from Lookout Mountain of Tennessee. Let freedom ring from every hill and molehill of Mississippi. From every mountainside, let freedom ring.”
From the content of Dr. King’s Speech, it is very obvious that the purpose of the Speech was to persuade the American government in 1963 to sign and enact the civil rights law that will bring absolute freedom and emancipation to the African American amongst them.
“We have also come to this hallowed spot to remind America of the fierce urgency of Now. This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquillizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice. Now is the time to lift our nation from the quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood. Now is the time to make justice a reality for all of God’s children.”
“There are those who are asking the devotees of civil rights, “When will you be satisfied?” We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as a Negro in Mississippi cannot vote, and a Negro in New York believes he has nothing for which to vote. No, no, we are not satisfied, and we will not be satisfied until “justice rolls down like waters, and righteousness like a mighty stream.”
Also worthy of note and analysis is the geographical location where the Speech was delivered and the choice of such location.
In this case, Martin Luther’s Speech was delivered at the Lincoln National Mall, just in front of the statue of Abraham Lincoln. And the choice of this place was to bring to mind the fact that about 100 years ago, Abraham Lincoln, whose statue is right behind the Speaker, signed the Emancipation Proclamation of the negroes in America.
“I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.”
“I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. Some of you have come fresh from narrow jail cells. And some of you have come from areas where your quest — quest for freedom left you battered by the storms of persecution and staggered by the winds of police brutality. You have been the veterans of creative suffering.”
Dr. King also employed logos to give data and figures that will support his call for the emancipation of the African Americans.
“Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.”
I also noted the use of irony to express the supposed reasons why the negroes are undergoing injustice and segregation in America.
“But we refuse to believe that the bank of justice is bankrupt. We refuse to believe that there are insufficient funds in the great vaults of opportunity of this nation. And so, we’ve come to cash this check, a check that will give us upon demand the riches of freedom and the security of justice.”
Although the Speech wasn’t intended to convince or persuade the audience to accept or agree to the need for the emancipation of the negro, since the majority of the audience who present during the Speech were all civil rights activists protesting for the passage of the civil rights law.
In summary, I think that the “I Have A Dream” speech by Martin Luther King Jr was a timely call for the freedom of the negroes in America after the successful completion of 100 years after the emancipation proclamation by Abraham Lincoln.
The choice of the geographical location for the Speech was apt, and it was the perfect place to call to mind the emancipation proclamation for the negroes.
10 awesome tips on how to start a speech with a bang, satire & hope: a rhetorical analysis of the great dictator speech, boring speech fix these 7 mistakes on your presentations, 7 oratory secrets: how to give an effective oratorical speech, 10 best tips for successful business presentations, how to draft the best persuasive speech outline.
The Speech Analysis Series is a series of articles examining different aspects of presentation analysis. You will learn how to study a speech and how to deliver an effective speech evaluation. Later articles will examine Toastmasters evaluation contests and speech evaluation forms and resources.
The first in the series, this article outlines questions to ask yourself when assessing a presentation . Ask these questions whether you attend the presentation, or whether you view a video or read the speech text. These questions also apply when you conduct a self evaluation of your own speeches .
Knowing the speaker’s objective is critical to analyzing the speech, and should certainly influence how you study it.
A speaker will need to use different techniques to connect with an audience of 1500 than they would with an audience of 15. Similarly, different techniques will be applied when communicating with teenagers as opposed to communicating with corporate leaders.
The content of the speech should be selected and organized to achieve the primary speech objective. Focus is important — extraneous information can weaken an otherwise effective argument.
Due to the primacy effect , words, body language, and visuals in the speech opening are all critical to speaking success.
Like the opening, the words, body language, and visuals in the speech conclusion are all critical to speaking success. This is due to the recency effect .
Delivery skills are like a gigantic toolbox — the best speakers know precisely when to use every tool and for what purpose.
Sometimes, a technically sound speech can still miss the mark. Likewise, technical deficiencies can sometimes be overcome to produce a must-see presentation. The intangibles are impossible to list, but here are a few questions to consider:
The next article in this series – The Art of Delivering Evaluations – examines how best to utilize speech evaluation skills as a teaching tool.
This is one of many public speaking articles featured on Six Minutes . Subscribe to Six Minutes for free to receive future articles.
Image credit: Cate by James Duncan Davidson ( CC BY 2.0 )
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40 comments.
I absolutely loved this article. It gave me a major idea of what to write on my speech critique. Great information, organized, and detailed!
Great post. I have to say, it was when I started to do exactly what you say that my skills took off.
If anyone wants to go farther, just teach a class on public speaking. You do not need a degree to teach continuing ed. It will help you, as some of my students who went on to teach to improve even more. This is because not only are you observing your students for these points. You are actually teaching them how to attain some of these skills.
oh my god….thank you!! i had no idea where to even start my speech analysis!
Excellent article. Will refer members of my club to it.
Dear Eugenia You refer to “members of your club” and I wanted to know an online public speaking club. Does this exist. Regards Berty
Your article is very informative. Hope you post more tips on writing a speech and how to analyse it!! 😎
Thanks for providing this information. I am writing an essay critiquing my own speech in third person. A tough task, but these pointers made it easier. Thank you.
i loved this information very much.now i am preparing for my examination and i think this article will help me to get good mark. thanks
Great summary/overview on basic things to evaluate while listening to a speech. Will be very much helpful when i have to do evaluations for speech class!
Thank you sooooo much for this article!! This is helping me soooo much for my speech analysis!
Thank you so so much! You are awesome and very helpful plus amazing too!
Great job once again! I liked the clarity with which these concepts were explained. Self explanatory and useful for both novice and advanced speakers. Keep it up!
Such a great article, thank you! It truly helped
I have to look at this for a class project and really learned some new tips from this.
This helped immensely; thank you so much!
thank you, you helped me a lot
Best article I found for speech critique and analysis. Definitely a place to come back for speech resource.
Thank you Andrew, great articles and valuable information. I recently joined a Toastmaster’s group and this will really help. Once I figure out how to “tweet” I will be “tweeting” this site to Kwantlen University Students and Alumni.
I absolutely loved this article it gave me a major idea of what to write on my speech critique great information, organized, and detailed!
Fantastic article. For someone that is new to Taostmasters this gives me at least an idea of how I should approach giving an evaluation…frigthening me more than giving a speech!! Thanks!
hi Andrew, this is a great article for someone who is a beginner to evaluate a speech. thanks a lot. -Venkat
very informative article will certainly help me to develop my speech technique.
Thus really helpful…we always read text resurfacely I gained alot from this article. now I know where to start when I want to present information through speech to the public
thank you this helped me vey much.
thanks a lot this just help me with my paper. you explain it better than my teacher
I am a toastmaster who loves to compete. I believe these articles will help me help other to deliver their speeches and both of us can grow.
Hi Andrew Dlugan, i am really happy to come across your site as new trainee in the public speaking and writing profession. i am programmer but i have passion for writing especially poems.Do you have any advice or resources to help me survive in the world of speaking and writing.
Thank You, Best Regards, Lawal Abdulateef Olawle
I came here looking for a speech review but reading this article helped me a lot in my opening speech. I hope many people who are having trouble in analysing there speech they should really open this website. Thank you
This is a helpful source to me. Thanks a lot
Great article. I am preparing to critique a public speaking competition this weekend and I found this article quite helpful Thanks a lot
Hi Andrew, May I use your article in our club newsletter? It is particularly timely as we approach the contest season in Toastmasters. I will source it to your web site and also include a link under the Articles about speaking of our club website.
John Sleigh Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia
Amazing breakdown of how to not only analysis a speech but to also push yourself that inch further to get more scope for marks. I really recommend this webpage. Thank you
Thank you for this amazing information, your 6 minutes guide is great and I am learning so much with it.
Really GREAT JOB! thanks so much! Best! Rasha
I really love this and would want more of this
This information was very informative and knowledgeable.Thank you.
Your articles are very thorough. I really enjoyed reading the first one.
Can you give me some examples of relevant puns used in speeches?
One more treasure trove on the internet. Thanks for sharing DLugan.
How to Study and Critique a Speech -A quick How to for #College Students: https://t.co/z9z7ODho2n by @6minutes — @cdbond Oct 28th, 2015
You can improve your own public speaking skills by learning to study & critique a speech https://t.co/zttJVKM5Oj @6minutes #presentation — Alison Gray (@skillfluence) Jan 17th, 2016
A Good Read | Speech Analysis #1: How to Study and Critique a #Speech https://t.co/gBUPcE70ao — Prezentt (@Prezentt) Jan 27th, 2016
Speech Analysis: How to Critique a Speech https://t.co/p1wogOQb1k by @6minutes — @DivaFrazier Jan 28th, 2016
#TuesdayTips @6minutes explains how to study and critique a speech. Self-evaluation is important for improvement. https://t.co/GAUAKSm10e — PitchVantage (@pitchvantage) Feb 9th, 2016
Speech Analysis #1: How to Study and Critique a Speech https://t.co/yOHzQQvuqt by @6minutes — @SleimanSkaf Apr 20th, 2016
Speech Analysis: How to Critique a Speech https://t.co/Bn8xUiE3zw — @Dayra_Beltre May 23rd, 2016
Ένα άρθρο που περιλαμβάνει το σύνολο των δεξιοτήτων επιγραμματικά που θα πρέπει να διαθέτει ένας ομιλητής https://t.co/qakNApWWkS — @toastmasters_el Dec 17th, 2016
Speech Analysis: How to Critique a Speech https://t.co/guUHFM6PrP by @6minutes — @timleaman_sun Apr 5th, 2017
Preparing for the Educational Moment for Totem #41 Toastmasters. Speech evaluations are a critical part of a meetin… https://t.co/U62bkMGbzc — @_MewsNews Nov 3rd, 2018
Evaluation Contest Resources | World Champion Evaluator — Mar 3rd, 2010
Evaluation Contest Resources | World Champion Evaluator « Brinker Toastmasters — Mar 3rd, 2010
ToastMASTERY » Evaluation Contest Resources | World Champion Evaluator — Mar 3rd, 2010
The 25 Essential Presentation Skills for Public Speaking | David Edgerton Jr — May 6th, 2010
State of the Union 2012 « E-126 — Jan 31st, 2012
Speech Evaluations | Plantation Toastmasters — May 27th, 2012
Fall 2012 Club Contest | — Aug 6th, 2012
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Whether you’re a student or a seasoned professional, the ability to critically analyze a speech is an essential skill for speakers. Understanding the components of a speech and what makes those components successful can help you deliver a speech that your audience finds engaging and enlightening.
When critiquing a speech, you first need to understand the objective of the speech. There are three primary types of speeches: to inform, to persuade or to entertain. Informative speeches are typically rooted in facts and statistics or focus on “how-to” topics. For instance, many TED Talks are informative speeches.
Persuasive speeches also use facts and statistics but use that information to convince an audience to change their behavior or take a certain action. Finally, speeches that are meant to entertain are often those delivered at weddings or social gatherings. They’re often funny or self-deprecating and are populated with anecdotes.
Another critical aspect of speech analysis is understanding the audience. Is this a formal setting where your audience expects a serious, informative tone? Is the audience a group of people who are impassioned about a particular subject and could be hostile if you’re trying to change their minds? Is your audience an informal gathering of people who expect a light-hearted or amusing delivery?
You wouldn’t have a person with no sense of humor host a convention for comedians. Likewise, you wouldn’t have a comedian lead a convention for physicians who are discussing breakthroughs in cancer research. Knowing your audience can mean the difference between a successful speech and one that fails.
Once you know the objective of the speech, you’ll need to know what to analyze. In "Rhetoric," ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that all great speeches share three pillars of rhetoric: logos, pathos and ethos.
While typically applied to persuasive speeches, these three elements are critical for any speech. Logos is the meaning, the reasoning and the logical evidence the speaker uses. Pathos is the words, phrases and personal stories a speaker uses to elicit emotion, and ethos is the credibility and trustworthiness of the speaker. In other words, does the speaker have expertise in this particular subject?
Critical speech analysis should revolve around the three pillars. As you analyze, you’ll need to determine whether the speech maker is using enough facts and logical evidence to establish credibility.
For instance, if a speaker is delivering information on protecting the environment, is he using credibly sourced facts to support his statements, or is he speaking in generalities? Is he using words, phrases and personal anecdotes that elicit emotion from the audience, or is he using vague words that have no emotional impact?
Finally, through education or background, is the speaker qualified to be speaking on this particular subject? Is she passionate about the subject, or is she coming across as a boring, monotone speaker? Is she using appropriate gestures and body language? Is her voice clear and loud enough to be heard? Finally, is her tone appropriate for the audience?
A rubric can be an effective tool to help you analyze a speech, as it can help you assign a numeric value to each specific component of a speech. If you’re analyzing a speech for a classroom assignment, you’ll likely be given a rubric from which to work. If not, you can easily find one online by searching for “critical speech analysis rubric.”
Many readily available rubrics focus on aspects of Aristotle’s rhetoric by addressing a speech’s structure, format, research, delivery and style and will help you determine whether the speech was appropriate for its particular audience and met its overarching goals.
If you’re working on the critical analysis of a speech for a class assignment, you’ll likely need to complete a written assignment to accompany your assessment. As with any other essay, a written analysis of a speech should include a strong introduction and clear thesis statement, several body paragraphs with topic sentences and strong transitions that clearly support your analysis and an effective conclusion that summarizes your critique.
Be sure that the essay is free of grammar and spelling mistakes and typos. As with any piece of writing, it’s always helpful to have another person review it before you publish it or submit it for a grade.
Jennifer Brozak earned her state teaching certificate in Secondary English and Communications from St. Vincent College in Latrobe, Pa., and her bachelor's degree in journalism from the University of Pittsburgh. A former high school English teacher, Jennifer enjoys writing articles about parenting and education and has contributed to Reader's Digest, Mamapedia, Shmoop and more.
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Amy Fara Edwards, Ed.D, Oxnard College
Adapted by Jamie C. Votraw, Professor of Communication Studies, Florida SouthWestern State College
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Figure 9.1: Zipper 1
Introduction
Have you ever started a movie and turned it off after the first few minutes? Why do you think that happened? Alternatively, have you ever binged watched a show because the first episode grabbed your attention and you needed to see how the show ended? If you watched until the end of the episode (or even the end of the series), it was probably because it effectively grabbed your attention. In this case, the show’s introduction grabbed your attention and hooked you so well that you felt compelled to see what happens! If you turned the television off, was it because that first scene was lackluster? Off-putting? Offensive? What made you change the channel? Speechwriting functions in a similar way. The introduction is the speaker’s first and only chance to make a good impression, so, if done correctly, your speech will start strong and encourage the audience to listen to the rest.
The introduction for a speech is generally only 10 to 15 percent of the entire time the speaker will spend speaking. This means that if your speech is supposed to be five minutes long, your introduction should be approximately forty-five seconds. One of your authors usually says one minute should be the maximum intro length in a five-minute speech. If your speech is supposed to be ten minutes long, then your introduction should be approximately a minute and a half.
Although this is a very short amount of time, this is your window to either get your audience interested in what you have to say or cause them to tune you out before you’ve even gotten started. Let’s make sure you know how to capture your audience’s attention and learn the basic elements of a speech introduction.
Five basic and essential elements will serve you well in any writing assignment and are especially important when writing a speech introduction. Although the order of the five elements may vary based on your professor, the assignment, or the occasion, the required content will generally be the same. For your class speeches, the following items and ordering are suggested.
Attention Getter
Your very first task is to gain your audience’s attention. This is the first major purpose of an introduction – get them interested in what you have to say; you need to “hook” them in immediately. By definition, an attention-getter is a specific strategy in order to grab an audience’s attention. The attention getter should be the first component of the speech introduction. One of the biggest mistakes that novice speakers make is to assume that people will naturally listen because the speaker is speaking. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen to what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Let’s face it – we’ve all tuned someone out at some point because we weren’t interested in what they had to say (never your professor, of course!). Whether it’s their cell phones, noise outside of the room, worries on their minds or hungry stomachs, audiences are easily distracted. If you don’t get the audience’s attention at the onset, it will only become more difficult as you continue speaking.
There are many different approaches to gaining the attention of your audience. Which type of attention-grabbing strategy is best will depend on the type of audience and how it explicitly (directly) connects to your topic. Do not rely on a gimmick! Here are some strategies for grabbing an audience’s attention:
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“I’d like you all to shout out the names of famous astronauts [be prepared for the audience to shout names like Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, Al Shephard, John Glenn, but also be prepared for silence!]. The names of some of these people are names that every schoolchild knows – as well as their quotes. Can you finish this line: “One small step for a man…”? What about, “Houston, we have a…”? These men, and the words they said, are famous because they were involved in a program that brought humans to the moon. They made history. But what names will we remember after we go back to the moon?” |
Another major function of an introduction is motivating the audience to listen. We cannot expect that once we take our place in front of the room all eyes will turn to us and they will immediately want to listen. Even if we have successfully grabbed their attention, we still must make the topic relevant to the audience. In a way, we must prove that our topic is worthy of their attention because the subject matter impacts them directly. Direct and meaningful is the name of the game! Think about what might motivate you to listen. Do you always walk into class motivated to listen to your professor? Hopefully! When a professor works hard to motivate you, you are more likely to want to listen and will tend to be more successful in that class.
Think of your favorite professor from a subject you don’t like very much. Is it easy to be motivated to listen? Probably not, so rather than the professor giving up and saying, “oh well, no one likes my subject,” they work hard to capture your attention and make the subject relevant to your life (even if you tend to dislike the subject). Have you ever taken a class that you thought you’d hate, but the professor made it so compelling and relevant that you completely changed your mind, or even your major? Connecting the audience and the topic can completely change the audience’s perception of the topic.
Motivating your audience to listen in the introduction is also critical to help establish a connection between the speaker and the audience. One of the most effective means of establishing a connection with your audience is to provide them with a brief list of reasons why they should listen to your speech. This audience-speaker relationship starts the moment you step to the front of the room to start speaking. What can you say that makes the audience truly know how they are impacted by what you are about to say? For example, it might be easy for an audience of car mechanics to be motivated to listen to a speech about lowering the costs of fixing cars, but would they also be interested in the subject of space travel or home design as therapeutic work? What can we say to the audience of car mechanics about home design that will motivate them to listen? Go ahead, give it a try! But remember that these considerations should take place during the topic selection phase of speech writing. Typically, we are speaking to general audiences, which makes speech writing challenging. It may be easier to write for a group of aficionados on a subject.
Overall, you must remember that humans are complex. Car mechanics are not only interested in cars, just like students aren’t only interested in school. When we are drafting a speech with the audience in mind, we must find a way to get to know the audience and craft our writing to motivate them to listen. Remember, this is critical in the process of audience analysis. Don’t simply assume the audience will make their own connections to the material, you must explicitly state how your information might be useful to your audience. Tell them directly how they might use your information themselves. One mistake students often make is assuming their attention-getter is a sufficient way to connect the audience and the topic. For instance, if the speech topic is car mechanics, it is not enough to just ask the audience “Who in here owns a car?”. Rather, tell them how proper car maintenance is necessary for their safety and the safety of their loved ones. It is not enough for you alone to know the topic is relevant to them – explain to them why and how the topic is important for them personally. You need to build a bridge to the audience by explicitly connecting your topic to their possible needs.
One of the most researched areas within the field of communication has been Aristotle’s concept of ethos or credibility . The concept of credibility must be understood as a perception of receivers. How are you perceived by the audience? Why? Give some thought to how others see you and what that means for writing a speech. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter.
James C. McCroskey and Jason J. Teven (1999) have conducted extensive research on credibility and have determined that an individual’s credibility is composed of three factors: competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill. These factors make up a speaker’s perceived knowledge or expertise in a given subject by an audience member. Some individuals are given expert status because of the positions they hold in society. Can you think of a person you label as credible in our society? Maybe Oprah Winfrey or former President Barack Obama? Have you ever considered that you have never met (most likely) either of these individuals in person, but rely on their communication and speechmaking to know them and understand them? This means that they have both established their ethos, their credibility, by showcasing who they are, what they do, and what it means for you as an audience member.
Figure 9.2: Oprah Winfrey 2
As public speakers, we need to make sure that we explain to our audiences why we are credible speakers on our topic. People in the audience most likely do not know you, so it is your job as the speaker to establish what the audience needs to know in order for them to believe you are the right person to be speaking on the given topic. Credibility is domain-specific; it does not automatically transfer. Is President Obama the best person to teach us how to make an award-winning dessert, or should we learn this from Martha Stewart? Share with your audience what makes you competent on the topic and reveal your quality character by showing them that you have their best interest in mind.
A study by Baker (1965) found that individuals who were unorganized while speaking were perceived as less credible than individuals who were organized. Having a solid central idea within your speech will help your audience keep track of where you are in the speech. The thesis statement , or central idea, acts as the part of the introduction that tells the audience exactly what you want them to know when the speech is complete. Recall from Chapter 5, your thesis statement is a concise statement that identifies the speech goal and clearly outlines what the audience can expect to hear in your speech.
The last element you should include in your introduction is a preview of your main points. This preview establishes the direction your speech will take. In a basic speech format, speakers generally use two to five main points for the body of the speech, but your professor will guide you for your specific assignment. The number of main points will depend on the speech topic and the time parameters of the speaking occasions.
During the preview of main points, a speaker outlines what these points will be, and in doing so, also demonstrates to the audience that the speaker is organized. Think of the preview as the “GPS” given to the audience; when you introduce the topic with a clear thesis and preview of the main points, it will keep the audience following the “GPS” on your figurative map.
Have you ever noticed that many public speakers reach the end of their speech and say “that’s it”? Usually, it is because speakers want to make sure the audience knows they are finished. This is important, but there are better ways to conclude one’s speech. Of course, a simple “thank you” indicates the end of the speech, but we can enhance our speech by making the ending more organized and memorable. A complete conclusion will accomplish four tasks: signal the speech is coming to a close, restate the thesis, review the main points covered in the speech and leave the audience with a memorable thought. An effective conclusion should take no more than five to ten percent of the total speaking time, so you have to end quickly and strongly!
Figure 9.3: End of Path 3
Organizing the conclusion helps ensure your audience understands what you have said, helps them remember all points, and provides closure. It is recommended that your conclusion signals the speech is ending, reviews the main points, restates the thesis, and incorporates a final memorable thought.
The ultimate goal of the conclusion is to signal that the end of a speech is near. Some might think this is a “no brainer,” but many beginner speakers don’t usually prepare their audience for the end well enough. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience can be left confused and disappointed. Instead, we want to make sure that the audience is left knowledgeable and satisfied with our speech. We like to think of the conclusion as a highway off-ramp. We slow down, we signal, and we figure out what is next (turn or go forward), and we make it to our final destination. Your planning can help do the same for a speech.
To avoid ending abruptly, craft a few concluding statements that will guarantee the audience knows you’re wrapping up. When the credits roll on a television show, we know it is the end, but the scene right before the credits buttons up the entire show. Audiences like it when things are tied up at the end, and it can also help audiences retain the information if the speech comes to an organized conclusion.
Recall that the thesis is the primary goal of your speech. In the introduction, you told the audience the purpose of your speech and the specific points they would learn throughout your speech. During the speech delivery, you shared a lot of information to help accomplish your primary speech goal. But, since some time has passed from when you stated the thesis in the introduction of your speech, it is critical to remind the audience again. This part of the conclusion is your chance to remind the audience of the purpose of your speech and make sure they know exactly what they need to know.
In the conclusion, you should also remind the audience “what you told them” by restating the main ideas from the body of your speech. This is necessary to make sure they remember the key points that you covered. In reviewing the main points, you should provide a short summary of the main ideas without going into too much detail (because you already covered the sub-points in the body). It is very important that you do not introduce new ideas or main points in the conclusion. The conclusion is meant to bring the speech to logical ending and new ideas will just confuse the audience, leaving them to ponder, maybe the speech is not ending, or is this new point as important as the others?
This section isn’t as clear-cut as the others, but it is important. It is the last detail you’ll share with the audience and the most recent thing for them to recall. Your goal is to make it memorable. Let’s say you delivered a speech on how-to make the best salsa in Fort Myers, but you never told the audience the secret location of the best locally grown tomatoes. At the end, you could reveal the location of your favorite local farm. Or, maybe you delivered a speech on the importance of voting in the next election. For your ending, you might help the audience members by showing them how to locate the closest polling place. The ending is your opportunity to make the speech complete. Imagine your speech as a circle – now is when the circle comes to a close.
For persuasive speeches, your final task is a call to action which is when you state the specific actions for your audience to take. Depending on the persuasive organizational pattern used, you may have given the audience specific steps to take action, but here in the conclusion, you will remind them of the best way to act. For example, you might say something like, “Don’t forget to send a letter to your congressperson today!” This step in the conclusion is your final chance to make the information relevant to the audience and accomplish what you planned to accomplish when you started drafting your speech.
An excellent public speaking strategy is a “tie-back” or “ circling back” , which involves referring your attention-getter or a detail from the introduction. If you like stand-up comedy, you probably have seen this technique before. Referring to the attention-getter or introduction helps tie up the entire speech and connect the very beginning to the very end.
When you end your speech by connecting it directly to your attention-getter/introduction, you allow the audience to come “full circle.” For example, if you start with a story about a girl named Maria, you should refer back to the story about Maria and give some final comments in the conclusion. Or, if your speech was about euthanasia, and you started with the story of Jorge and his family, in the end, you might tell us how Jorge’s family is doing now. Or, maybe your speech was about the importance of going to graduate school, and you started with a personal story about your mother going to graduate school. In the conclusion, you might tell us how your mom is doing now, share a picture, and discuss the impact that a graduate degree can have on one’s family.
Do you remember how we started this chapter? Test yourself now to see if you remember. Do you? Now, what kind of conclusion to this chapter would it be if we didn’t circle back? Let’s do it!
This chapter focused on the basic elements for writing the introduction and the conclusion. (here I signaled the end is coming)
The goal of this chapter was to prepare you to be successful and identify the specific components needed to be organized at the beginning and the end of your speech. (here I restated the thesis)
I want you to remember some key “takeaways.” Introductions and conclusions are only approximately ten percent of one’s speech, so speakers need to make sure they think through these critical parts of the speech. A strong introduction is important because that is your chance to get the audience to follow you. It consists of five elements: an attention-getter, relating to the audience, establishing credibility, stating the thesis, and previewing the main points. A strong conclusion is very important because it’s a speaker’s final chance to explain the importance of their message. An effective conclusion signals the end of the speech, restates the thesis, reviews the main points, and ends on a memorable note. As such, speakers need to thoroughly examine how they will start and how they will finish with power. (Here I reviewed the main points)
Audiences tend to remember ideas stated at the beginning and the end. Think about that television show we discussed at the very start of this chapter. How often do you watch something on television you didn’t plan to watch? If you continued to watch, was it because the show captured your attention? Today, we are inundated with videos. If the videos start strong, we keep watching. If they end strong, we may become fans, become a follower, subscribe to a channel, etc. You also need to harness the power of the introduction and the conclusion. You are the one who will grab and keep the audience’s attention and generate credibility and goodwill along the way. (here I end memorably by circling back)
Call to Action
Circling-Back
Credibility (Ethos)
Baker, E. E. (1965). The immediate effects of perceived speaker disorganization on speaker credibility and audience attitude change in persuasive speaking. Western Speech , 29, 148–161.
McCroskey, J. C., & Teven, J. J. (1999). Goodwill: A reexamination of the construct and its measurement. Communication Monographs, 66 , 90–103.
Introduction to Public Speaking Copyright © by Jamie C. Votraw, M.A.; Katharine O'Connor, Ph.D.; and William F. Kelvin, Ph.D. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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Learning objectives.
Introductions and conclusions can be challenging. One of the most common complaints novice public speakers have is that they simply don’t know how to start or end a speech. It may feel natural to start crafting a speech at the beginning, but it can be difficult to craft an introduction for something which doesn’t yet exist. Many times, creative and effective ideas for how to begin a speech will come to speakers as they go through the process of researching and organizing ideas. Similarly, a conclusion needs to be well considered and leave audience members with a sense of satisfaction.
In this chapter, we will explore why introductions and conclusions are important, and we will identify various ways speakers can create impactful beginnings and endings. There is not a “right” way to start or end a speech, but we can provide some helpful guidelines that will make your introductions and conclusions much easier for you as a speaker and more effective for your audience.
The introduction of a speech is incredibly important because it needs to establish the topic and purpose, set up the reason your audience should listen to you and set a precedent for the rest of the speech. Imagine the first day of a semester long class. You will have a different perception of the course if the teacher is excited, creative and clear about what is to come then if the teacher recites to you what the class is about and is confused or disorganized about the rest of the semester. The same thing goes for a speech. The introduction is an important opportunity for the speaker to gain the interest and trust of the audience.
Overall, an effective introduction serves five functions. Let’s examine each of these.
The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and get them interested in what you have to say. While your audience may know you, this is your speeches’ first impression! One common incorrect assumption beginning speakers make that people will naturally listen because the speaker is speaking. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen and care about what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Think to a time when you’ve tuned out a speaker because you were not interested in what they had to say or how they were saying it. However, I’m sure you can also think of a time someone engaged you in a topic you wouldn’t have thought was interesting, but because of how they presented it or their energy about the subject, you were fascinated. As the speaker, you have the ability to engage the audience right away.
The second major function of an introduction is to reveal the purpose of your speech to your audience. Have you ever sat through a speech wondering what the basic point was? Have you ever come away after a speech and had no idea what the speaker was talking about? An introduction is critical for explaining the topic to the audience and justifying why they should care about it. The speaker needs to have an in-depth understanding of the specific focus of their topic and the goals they have for their speech. Robert Cavett, the founder of the National Speaker’s Association, used the analogy of a preacher giving a sermon when he noted, “When it’s foggy in the pulpit, it’s cloudy in the pews.” The specific purpose is the one idea you want your audience to remember when you are finished with your speech. Your specific purpose is the rudder that guides your research, organization, and development of main points. The more clearly focused your purpose is, the easier it will be both for you to develop your speech and your audience to understand your core point. To make sure you are developing a specific purpose, you should be able to complete the sentence: “I want my audience to understand…” Notice that your specific speech purpose is phrased in terms of expected audience responses, not in terms of your own perspective.
One of the most researched areas within the field of communication has been Aristotle’s concept of ethos or credibility. First, and foremost, the idea of credibility relates directly to audience perception. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter to them. As public speakers, we need to communicate to our audiences why we are credible speakers on a given topic. James C. McCroskey and Jason J. Teven have conducted extensive research on credibility and have determined that an individual’s credibility is composed of three factors: competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill (McCroskey & Teven, 1999). Competence is the degree to which a speaker is perceived to be knowledgeable or expert in a given subject by an audience member.
The second factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven is trustworthiness or the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as honest. Nothing will turn an audience against a speaker faster than if the audience believes the speaker is lying. When the audience does not perceive a speaker as trustworthy, the information coming out of the speaker’s mouth is automatically perceived as deceitful.
Finally, caring/goodwill is the last factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven. Caring/goodwill refers to the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as caring about the audience member. As indicated by Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond, “If a receiver does not believe that a source has the best intentions in mind for the receiver, the receiver will not see the source as credible. Simply put, we are going to listen to people who we think truly care for us and are looking out for our welfare” (Wrench, McCroskey & Richmond, 2008). As a speaker, then, you need to establish that your information is being presented because you care about your audience and are not just trying to manipulate them. We should note that research has indicated that caring/goodwill is the most important factor of credibility. This understanding means that if an audience believes that a speaker truly cares about the audience’s best interests, the audience may overlook some competence and trust issues.
Credibility relates directly to audience perception. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter to them.
Trustworthiness is the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as honest.
Caring/goodwill is the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as caring about the audience member.
The fourth major function of an introduction is to establish a connection between the speaker and the audience, and one of the most effective means of establishing a connection with your audience is to provide them with reasons why they should listen to your speech. The idea of establishing a connection is an extension of the notion of caring/goodwill. In the chapters on Language and Speech Delivery, we’ll spend a lot more time talking about how you can establish a good relationship with your audience. This relationship starts the moment you step to the front of the room to start speaking.
Instead of assuming the audience will make their own connections to your material, you should explicitly state how your information might be useful to your audience. Tell them directly how they might use your information themselves. It is not enough for you alone to be interested in your topic. You need to build a bridge to the audience by explicitly connecting your topic to their possible needs.
The last major function of an introduction is to preview the main ideas that your speech will discuss. A preview establishes the direction your speech will take. We sometimes call this process signposting because you’re establishing signs for audience members to look for while you’re speaking. In the most basic speech format, speakers generally have three to five major points they plan on making. During the preview, a speaker outlines what these points will be, which demonstrates to the audience that the speaker is organized.
A study by Baker found that individuals who were unorganized while speaking were perceived as less credible than those individuals who were organized (Baker, 1965). Having a solid preview of the information contained within one’s speech and then following that preview will help a speaker’s credibility. It also helps your audience keep track of where you are if they momentarily daydream or get distracted.
Now that we have an understanding of the functions of an introduction, let’s explore the details of putting one together. As with all aspects of a speech, these may change based on your audience, circumstance, and topic. But this will give you a basic understanding of the important parts of an intro, what they do, and how they work together.
An attention-getter is the device a speaker uses at the beginning of a speech to capture an audience’s interest and make them interested in the speech’s topic. Typically, there are four things to consider in choosing a specific attention-getting device:
First, when selecting an attention-getting device is considering your speech topic and purpose. Ideally, your attention-getting device should have a relevant connection to your speech. Imagine if a speaker pulled condoms out of his pocket, yelled “Free sex!” and threw the condoms at the audience. This act might gain everyone’s attention, but would probably not be a great way to begin a speech about the economy. Thinking about your topic because the interest you want to create needs to be specific to your subject. More specifically, you want to consider the basic purpose of your speech. When selecting an attention getter, you want to make sure that you select one that corresponds with your basic purpose. If your goal is to entertain an audience, starting a speech with a quotation about how many people are dying in Africa each day from malnutrition may not be the best way to get your audience’s attention. Remember, one of the goals of an introduction is to prepare your audience for your speech . If your attention-getter differs drastically in tone from the rest of your speech the disjointedness may cause your audience to become confused or tune you out completely.
These will help you start brainstorming ideas for how to begin your speech. While not a complete list, these are some of the most common forms of attention-getters:
Second, when selecting an attention-getting device, you want to make sure you are being appropriate and relevant to your specific audience. Different audiences will have different backgrounds and knowledge, so you should keep your audience in mind when determining how to get their attention. For example, if you’re giving a speech on family units to a group of individuals over the age of sixty-five, starting your speech with a reference to the television show Gossip Girl may not be the best idea because the television show may not be relevant to that audience.
Finally, the last consideration involves the speech occasion. Different occasions will necessitate different tones or particular styles or manners of speaking. For example, giving a eulogy at a funeral will have a very different feel than a business presentation. This understanding doesn’t mean certain situations are always the same, but rather taking into account the details of your circumstances will help you craft an effective beginning to your speech. When selecting an attention-getter, you want to make sure that the attention-getter sets the tone for the speech and situation.
Tones are particular styles or manners of speaking determined by the speech’s occasion.
The link to the topic occurs when a speaker demonstrates how an attention-getting device relates to the topic of a speech. This presentation of the relationship works to transition your audience from the attention getter to the larger issue you are discussing. Often the attention-getter and the link to the topic are very clear. But other times, there may need to be a more obvious connection between how you began your attention-getting device and the specific subject you are discussing. You may have an amazing attention-getter, but if you can’t connect it to the main topic and purpose of your speech, it will not be as effective.
Once you have linked an attention-getter to the topic of your speech, you need to explain to your audience why your topic is important and why they should care about what you have to say. Sometimes you can include the significance of your topic in the same sentence as your link to the topic, but other times you may need to spell out in one or two sentences why your specific topic is important to this audience.
A thesis statement is a short, declarative sentence that states the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech. A strong, clear thesis statement is very valuable within an introduction because it lays out the basic goal of the entire speech. We strongly believe that it is worthwhile to invest some time in framing and writing a good thesis statement. You may even want to write a version of your thesis statement before you even begin conducting research for your speech in order to guide you. While you may end up rewriting your thesis statement later, having a clear idea of your purpose, intent, or main idea before you start searching for research will help you focus on the most appropriate material.
The final part of an introduction contains a preview of the major points to be covered by your speech. I’m sure we’ve all seen signs that have three cities listed on them with the mileage to reach each city. This mileage sign is an indication of what is to come. A preview works the same way. A preview foreshadows what the main body points will be in the speech. For example, to preview a speech on bullying in the workplace, one could say, “To understand the nature of bullying in the modern workplace, I will first define what workplace bullying is and the types of bullying, I will then discuss the common characteristics of both workplace bullies and their targets, and lastly, I will explore some possible solutions to workplace bullying.” In this case, each of the phrases mentioned in the preview would be a single distinct point made in the speech itself. In other words, the first major body point in this speech would examine what workplace bullying is and the types of bullying; the second major body point in this speech would discuss the characteristics of both workplace bullies and their targets; and lastly, the third body point in this speech would explore some possible solutions to workplace bullying.
The importance of introductions often leads speakers to work on them first, attending to every detail. While it is good to have some ideas and notes about the intro, specifically the thesis statement, it is often best to wait until the majority of the speech is crafted before really digging into the crafting of the introduction. This timeline may not seem intuitive, but remember, the intro is meant to introduce your speech and set up what is to come. It is difficult to introduce something that you haven’t made yet. This is why working on your main points first can help lead to an even stronger introduction.
Willi Heidelbach – Puzzle2 – CC BY 2.0.
As public speaking professors and authors, we have seen many students give otherwise good speeches that seem to fall apart at the end. We’ve seen students end their three main points by saying things such as “OK, I’m done”; “Thank God that’s over!”; or “Thanks. Now what? Do I just sit down?” It’s understandable to feel relief at the end of a speech, but remember that as a speaker, your conclusion is the last chance you have to drive home your ideas. When a speaker opts to end the speech with an ineffective conclusion, or no conclusion at all, the speech loses the energy that’s been created, and the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead of falling prey to emotional exhaustion, remind yourself to keep your energy up as you approach the end of your speech, and plan ahead so that your conclusion will be an effective one.
Of course, a good conclusion will not rescue a poorly prepared speech. Thinking again of the chapters in a novel, if one bypasses all the content in the middle, the ending often isn’t very meaningful or helpful. So to take advantage of the advice in this chapter, you need to keep in mind the importance of developing a speech with an effective introduction and an effective body. If you have these elements, you will have the foundation you need to be able to conclude effectively. Just as a good introduction helps bring an audience member into the world of your speech, and a good speech body holds the audience in that world, a good conclusion helps bring that audience member back to the reality outside of your speech.
In this section, we’re going to examine the functions fulfilled by the conclusion of a speech. A strong conclusion serves to signal the end of the speech and helps your listeners remember your speech.
The first thing a good conclusion can do is to signal the end of a speech. You may be thinking that showing an audience that you’re about to stop speaking is a “no brainer,” but many speakers don’t prepare their audience for the end. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead, we want to make sure that audiences are left knowledgeable and satisfied with our speeches. In the next section, we’ll explain in great detail about how to ensure that you signal the end of your speech in a manner that is both effective and powerful.
The second reason for a good conclusion stems out of some research reported by the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus back in 1885 in his book Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology (Ebbinghaus, 1885). Ebbinghaus proposed that humans remember information in a linear fashion, which he called the serial position effect. He found an individual’s ability to remember information in a list (e.g. a grocery list, a chores list, or a to-do list) depends on the location of an item on the list. Specifically, he found that items toward the top of the list and items toward the bottom of the list tended to have the highest recall rates. The serial position effect finds that information at the beginning of a list (primacy) and information at the end of the list (recency) are easier to recall than information in the middle of the list.
So what does this have to do with conclusions? A lot! Ray Ehrensberger wanted to test Ebbinghaus’ serial position effect in public speaking. Ehrensberger created an experiment that rearranged the ordering of a speech to determine the recall of information (Ehrensberger, 1945). Ehrensberger’s study reaffirmed the importance of primacy and recency when listening to speeches. In fact, Ehrensberger found that the information delivered during the conclusion (recency) had the highest level of recall overall.
Matthew Culnane – Steps – CC BY-SA 2.0.
In the previous sections, we discussed the importance a conclusion has on a speech. In this section, we’re going to examine the three steps to building an effective conclusion.
Restating a thesis statement is the first step to a powerful conclusion. As we explained earlier, a thesis statement is a short, declarative sentence that states the purpose, intent, or main idea of a speech. When we restate the thesis statement at the conclusion of our speech, we’re attempting to reemphasize what the overarching main idea of the speech has been. Suppose your thesis statement was, “I will analyze Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” You could restate the thesis in this fashion at the conclusion of your speech: “In the past few minutes, I have analyzed Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” Notice the shift in tense. The statement has gone from the future tense (this is what I will speak about) to the past tense (this is what I have spoken about). Restating the thesis in your conclusion reminds the audience of the main purpose or goal of your speech, helping them remember it better.
After restating the speech’s thesis, the second step in a powerful conclusion is to review the main points from your speech. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication. When we preview our main points in the introduction, effectively discuss and make transitions to our main points during the body of the speech, and review the main points in the conclusion, we increase the likelihood that the audience will retain our main points after the speech is over.
In the introduction of a speech, we deliver a preview of our main body points, and in the conclusion, we deliver a review . Let’s look at a sample preview:
In order to understand the field of gender and communication, I will first differentiate between the terms biological sex and gender. I will then explain the history of gender research in communication. Lastly, I will examine a series of important findings related to gender and communication.
In this preview, we have three clear main points. Let’s see how we can review them at the conclusion of our speech:
Today, we have differentiated between the terms biological sex and gender, examined the history of gender research in communication, and analyzed a series of research findings on the topic.
In the past few minutes, I have explained the difference between the terms “biological sex” and “gender,” discussed the rise of gender research in the field of communication, and examined a series of groundbreaking studies in the field.
Notice that both of these conclusions review the main points initially set forth. Both variations are equally effective reviews of the main points, but you might like the linguistic turn of one over the other. Remember, while there is a lot of science to help us understand public speaking, there’s also a lot of art as well. You are always encouraged to choose the wording that you think will be most effective for your audience.
The final part of a powerful conclusion is the concluding device. A concluding device is a final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking. It also provides a definitive sense of closure to your speech. One of the authors of this text often makes an analogy between a gymnastics dismount and the concluding device in a speech. Just as a gymnast dismounting the parallel bars or balance beam wants to stick the landing and avoid taking two or three steps, a speaker wants to “stick” the ending of the presentation by ending with a concluding device instead of with, “Well, umm, I guess I’m done.” Miller observed that speakers tend to use one of ten concluding devices when ending a speech (Miller, 1946). The rest of this section is going to examine these ten concluding devices and one additional device that we have added.
The first way that Miller found that some speakers end their speeches is with a challenge. A challenge is a call to engage in some activity that requires a special effort. In a speech on the necessity of fund-raising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both of these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.
A second way you can conclude a speech is by reciting a quotation relevant to the speech topic. When using a quotation, you need to think about whether your goal is to end on a persuasive note or an informative note. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason, no regime has ever loved great writers” (Solzhenitsyn, 1964). Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth the effort to engage in any specific thought process or behavior. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to participate in a very risky political demonstration, you might use this quotation from Martin Luther King Jr.: “If a man hasn’t discovered something that he will die for, he isn’t fit to live” (King, 1963). In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that great risks are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right thing to do is to go ahead and take that great risk.
When a speaker ends with a summary, they are simply elongating the review of the main points. While this may not be the most exciting concluding device, it can be useful for information that was highly technical or complex or for speeches lasting longer than thirty minutes. Typically, for short speeches (like those in your class), this summary device should be avoided.
The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools and how those tools could be utilized. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society would be, or how individual listeners’ lives would be different if the speaker’s persuasive attempt worked. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask her or his audience to imagine a world without illiteracy. In this use of visualization, the goal is to persuade people to adopt the speaker’s point of view. By showing that the speaker’s vision of the future is a positive one, the conclusion should help to persuade the audience to help create this future.
Probably the most common persuasive concluding device is the appeal for action or the call to action. In essence, the appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks their audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking. When a speaker concludes by asking the audience “to do” or “to think” in a specific manner, the speaker wants to see an actual change. Whether the speaker appeals for people to eat more fruit, buy a car, vote for a candidate, oppose the death penalty, or sing more in the shower, the speaker is asking the audience to engage in action.
One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action. Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behavior in the future, an immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, he or she may conclude by asking all the audience members to sign a digital petition right then and there, using a computer the speaker has made available ( http://www.petitiononline.com ). Here are some more examples of immediate calls to action:
These are just a handful of different examples we’ve seen students use in our classrooms to elicit an immediate change in behavior. These immediate calls to action may not lead to long-term change, but they can be very effective at increasing the likelihood that an audience will change behavior in the short term.
By definition, the word inspire means to affect or connect with someone emotionally. Both affect and arouse have strong emotional connotations. The ultimate goal of an inspiration concluding device is similar to an “appeal for action,” but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous. The goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. Maybe a speaker is giving an informative speech about the prevalence of domestic violence in our society today. That speaker could end the speech by reading Paulette Kelly’s powerful poem “I Got Flowers Today.” “I Got Flowers Today” is a poem that evokes strong emotions because it’s about an abuse victim who received flowers from her abuser every time she was victimized. The poem ends by saying, “I got flowers today… Today was a special day. It was the day of my funeral. Last night he killed me” (Kelly, 1994).
The next concluding device is one that should be used primarily by speakers who are recognized as expert authorities on a given subject. Advice is a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done. The problem with opinions is that everyone has one, and one person’s opinion is not necessarily any more correct than another’s. There needs to be a really good reason for your opinion. Your advice should matter to your audience. If, for example, you are an expert in nuclear physics, you might conclude a speech on energy by giving advice about the benefits of nuclear energy.
Another way a speaker can conclude a speech powerfully is to offer a solution to the problem discussed within a speech. For example, perhaps a speaker has been discussing the problems associated with the disappearance of art education in the United States. The speaker could then propose a solution for creating more community-based art experiences for school children as a way to fill this gap. Although this can be a compelling conclusion, a speaker must ask themselves whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.
Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question. The goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.
The last concluding device discussed by Miller (1946) was a reference to one’s audience. This concluding device is when a speaker attempts to answer the audience question, “What’s in it for me?” The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could conclude by listing all the physical health benefits stress reduction offers (e.g. improved reflexes, improved immune system, improved hearing, reduction in blood pressure). In this case, the speaker is spelling out why audience members should care. They’re telling the audience what’s in it for them!
Finally, one tactic a speaker often uses is to link the introduction of the speech to the conclusion. For example, if you began your speech with a quotation, your conclusion may refer back to that person’s words in respect to what your audience has learned throughout your speech. While not always necessary, linking back to your introduction can provide a feeling of coming full circle for your audience. The repetitive nature can also help aid in remembering your speech and topic. However, you don’t want to just repeat. Instead, you want to utilize similar aspects of your attention getter to illustrate growth or movement from the beginning of your speech to the end.
A concluding device is a final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking.
A challenge is a call to engage in some activity that requires special effort.
An appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks their audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking.
An immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now.
Inspire means to affect or connect with someone emotionally.
Advice is a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done.
As you read through the ten possible ways to conclude a speech, hopefully, you noticed that some of the methods are more appropriate for persuasive speeches and others are more appropriate for informative speeches. To help you choose appropriate conclusions for informative, persuasive, or entertaining speeches, we’ve created a table to help you quickly identify suitable concluding devices.
Your Speech Purpose and Concluding Devices
Types of Concluding Devices | General Purposes of Speeches | ||
---|---|---|---|
Challenge | x | ||
Quotation | x | x | |
Summary | x | x | |
Visualizing the Future | x | x | |
Appeal | x | ||
Inspirational | x | x | |
Advice | x | ||
Proposal of Solution | x | ||
Question | x | x | |
Reference to Audience | x |
Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology [Online version]. Retrieved from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/index.htm .
Ehrensberger, R. (1945). An experimental study of the relative effectiveness of certain forms of emphasis in public speaking. Speech Monographs, 12 , 94–111. doi: 10.1080/03637754509390108.
Kelly, P. (1994). I got flowers today. In C. J. Palmer & J. Palmer, Fire from within . Painted Post, NY: Creative Arts & Science Enterprises.
King, M. L. (1963, June 23). Speech in Detroit. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.), Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 760.
Miller, E. (1946). Speech introductions and conclusions. Quarterly Journal of Speech, 32 , 181–183.
Solzhenitsyn, A. (1964). The first circle. New York: Harper & Row. Cited in Bartlett, J., & Kaplan, J. (Eds.), Bartlett’s familiar quotations (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Co., p. 746.
Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2017 by Josh Miller; Marnie Lawler-Mcdonough; Megan Orcholski; Kristin Woodward; Lisa Roth; and Emily Mueller is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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9.1 – general guidelines for introductions and conclusions.
Can you imagine how strange a speech would sound without an introduction? Or how jarring it would be if, after making a point, a speaker just walked away from the lectern and sat down? You would most likely be pretty confused, and the takeaway from that speech—even if the content was really good—would likely be, “I was confused” or “That was a weird speech.”
Introductions and conclusions fulfill numerous roles and, when done correctly, can make your speech stronger. However, the introduction and conclusion are not the main parts of the speech; that is the body section where the bulk of your research and information will be housed. To that end, the introduction and conclusion need to be relatively short and to the point.
The general rule is that the introduction and conclusion should each be about 10% of your total speech, leaving 80% for the body section. You can extend the introduction to 15% if there is good reason to, so 10-15% of the speech time is a good guideline for the introduction Let’s say that your speech has a time limit of 5-7 minutes; if we average that out to 6 minutes, that gives us 360 seconds. Based on the 10-15% guideline, that is 36-54 seconds for your full introduction.
Consequently, there are some common errors to avoid in introductions:
Write your introduction after you have a clear sense of the body of your presentation. The challenge to introductions is that there is a lot you need to get done in that 10%-15% and establishing yourself as a knowledgeable and credible speaker is vital.
In terms of the conclusions, be careful NOT to:
A common concern many students have as their first major speech approaches is “I don’t know how I should start my speech.” What they are really saying is they aren’t sure what words will be memorable, attention-capturing, and clever enough to get their audience interested or, on a more basic level, sound good. This is a problem most speakers have, since the first words you say, in many ways, set the tone for the rest of your speech. There may not be any one “best” way to start a speech, but we can provide some helpful guidelines that will make starting a speech much easier.
With that in mind, there are five basic elements that you will want to incorporate into your introduction. And while you can structure your introduction to best fit your speech and you wouldn’t necessarily always do all of these in the order below, the following order of these five elements is fairly standard. Unless you have a specific reason to do otherwise, following the order below is advisable.
The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen to what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Let’s face it—we’ve all tuned someone out at some point because we weren’t interested in what they had to say. If you do not get the audience’s attention at the outset, doing so will only become more difficult as you continue speaking.
That’s why every speech should start with an attention getter or some sort of statement or question that piques the audience’s interest in what you have to say. Sometimes, these are called “grabbers.” The first words out of your mouth should be something that will perk up the audience’s ears. Starting a speech with “Hey everybody. I’m going to talk to you today about soccer” already sounds boring and has not tried to engage the individuals in the audience who don’t care about soccer. Once your audience has deemed your speech to be boring, trying to persuade or entertain them becomes exponentially more difficult. So, let’s briefly discuss what you can do to capture your audience’s attention from the onset.
First, when selecting an attention-getting device, you want to make sure that the option you choose is actually appropriate and relevant to your specific audience. Different audiences will have different backgrounds and knowledge, so you should use your audience analysis to determine whether specific information you plan on using would be appropriate for a specific audience.
You will also want to choose an attention-getting device appropriate for your speech topic. Ideally, your attention-getting device should have a relevant connection to your speech. Imagine if a speaker pulled condoms out of his pocket, yelled “Free sex!” and threw the condoms at the audience in the beginning of a speech about the economy. While this may clearly get the audience’s attention, this isn’t really a good way to prepare an audience for a speech about the stock market or really much else.
An anecdote is a brief account or story of an interesting or humorous event. Notice the emphasis here is on the word “brief.” A common mistake speakers make when telling an anecdote is to make the anecdote too long.
You want your audience to feel a sense of connection to your speech, so this technique can be helpful when your audience may be less familiar with the topic. One of the best and easiest ways to do this is to begin with a story that your audience is likely to have heard before. These types of stories come in a number of forms, but the most common ones include fables, tall tales, ghost stories, allegories, fairy tales, myths, and legends.
Two primary issues that you should be aware of often arise with using stories as attention getters. First, you shouldn’t let your story go on for too long. If you are going to use a story to begin your speech, you need to think of it more in terms of summarizing the story rather than actually reciting an epic saga. Even a relatively simple story such as “The Tortoise and the Hare” can take a couple of minutes to get through in its entirety, so you’ll need to cut it down to the main points or highlights. The second issue with using stories as attention getters is that the story must in some way relate to your speech. If you begin your speech by recounting the events in “Goldilocks and the Three Bears,” your speech will in some way need to address such topics as finding balance or coming to a compromise. If your story doesn’t relate to your topic, you will likely confuse your audience and they may spend the remainder of your speech trying to figure out the connection rather than listening to what you have to say.
A personal story is another option here. You may consider starting your speech with a story about yourself that is relevant to your topic. Some of the best speeches are ones that come from personal knowledge and experience. If you are an expert or have firsthand experience related to your topic, sharing this information with the audience is a great way to show that you are credible during your attention getter.
If you use a personal example, don’t get carried away with the focus on yourself and your own life. Your speech topic is the purpose of the attention getter, not the other way around. Another pitfall in using a personal example is that it may be too personal for you to maintain your composure. When speakers have an emotional breakdown during their speech, audience members stop listening to the message and become very uncomfortable. They may empathize with the distraught speaker, but the effectiveness has been diminished in other ways.
Another way to start your speech is to surprise your audience with startling information about your topic. Often, startling statements come in the form of statistics and strange facts. The goal of a good startling statistic is that it surprises the audience and gets them engaged in your topic.
A strange fact, on the other hand, is a statement that does not involve numbers, but is equally surprising to most audiences. For example, you could start a speech on the gambling industry by saying, “There are no clocks in any casinos in Las Vegas.” You could start a speech on the Harlem Globetrotters by saying, “In 2000, Pope John Paul II became the most famous honorary member of the Harlem Globetrotters.” Both of these examples came from a great website for strange facts ( http://www.strangefacts.com ).
Although startling statements are fun, you need to use them ethically. First, make sure that your startling statement is factual. The Internet is full of startling statements and claims that are simply not factual, so when you find a statement you’d like to use, you have an ethical duty to ascertain its truth before you use it and to provide a reliable citation. Second, make sure that your startling statement is relevant to your speech and not just thrown in for shock value. We’ve all heard startling claims made in the media that are clearly made for purposes of shock or fear mongering, such as “Do you know what common household appliance could kill you? Film at 11:00.” As speakers, we have an ethical obligation to avoid playing on people’s emotions in this way.
A rhetorical question is a question to which no actual reply is expected. For example, a speaker talking about the history of Mother’s Day could start by asking the audience, “Do you remember the last time you told your mom you loved her?” In this case, the speaker does not expect the audience to shout out an answer, but rather to think about the question as the speech goes on.
As we have tried to emphasize throughout this book, your audience is the single most important factor in crafting your speech, so making a direct reference to the audience could make sense. In this case, the speaker has a clear understanding of the audience and points out that there is something unique about the audience that should make them interested in the speech’s content.
Another way to capture your listeners’ attention is to use the words of another person that relate directly to your topic. Maybe you’ve found a really great quotation in one of the articles or books you read while researching your speech. If not, you can also use a number of Internet or library sources that compile useful quotations from noted individuals.
If you use a quotation as your attention getter, be sure to give the source first so that it isn’t mistaken as your own wording.
Referring to a current news event that relates to your topic is often an effective way to capture attention, as it immediately makes the audience aware of the topic’s relevance.
You may also capture your listeners’ attention by referring to a historical event related to your topic. Obviously, this strategy is closely related to the previous one, except that instead of a recent news event, you are reaching further back in history to find a relevant reference. For example, if you are giving a speech on the perception of modern music as crass or having no redeeming values, you could refer back to Elvis Presley and his musical breakout in the 1950s as a way of making a comparison, evoking the audience’s knowledge of Elvis to raise awareness of similarities to current artists that may be viewed today as he was in the 1950s (which was nothing short of the devil’s musician).
Humour is another effective method for gaining an audience’s attention; it’s an amazing tool when used properly. We cannot begin to explain all the facets of humour, but we can say that humour is a great way of focusing an audience on what you are saying. However, humour is a double-edged sword. If you do not wield the sword carefully, you can turn your audience against you very quickly.
When using humour, you really need to know your audience and understand what they will find humorous. One of the biggest mistakes a speaker can make is to use some form of humour that the audience either doesn’t find funny or, worse, finds offensive. Think about how incompetent the character of Michael Scott seems on the television program The Office , in large part because of his ineffective use of humour. We always recommend that you test out humour of any kind on a sample of potential audience members prior to actually using it during a speech. If you do use a typical narrative “joke,” don’t say it happened to you. Anyone who heard the joke before will think you are less than truthful!
Now that we’ve warned you about the perils of using humour, let’s talk about how to use humour as an attention getter. Humour can be incorporated into several of the attention-getting devices mentioned. You could use a humourous anecdote, quotation, or current event. As with other attention-getting devices, you need to make sure your humour is relevant to your topic, as one of the biggest mistakes some novices make when using humour is to add humour that really doesn’t support the overall goal of the speech. So when looking for humourous attention getters, you want to make sure that the humour is going to be relevant to your speech, but not offensive to the audience.
For example, here’s a humourous quotation from Nicolas Chamfort, a French author during the 16th century: “The only thing that stops God from sending another flood is that the first one was useless.” While this quotation could be effective for some audiences, other audiences may find this humourous quotation offensive. The Chamfort quotation could be appropriate for a speech on the ills of modern society, but probably not for a speech on the state of modern religious conflict. It also would not be appropriate in an area that had just experienced damaging floods. You want to make sure that the leap from your attention getter to your topic isn’t too complicated for your audience or the attention getter will backfire.
This list of attention-getting devices represents a thorough, but not necessarily exhaustive, range of ways that you can begin your speech. Certainly these would be the more common attention getters that most people employ. Again, as mentioned earlier, your selection of attention getter is not only dependent on your audience, your topic, and the occasion, but also on your preferences and skills as a speaker. If you know that you are a bad storyteller, you might elect not to start your speech with a story. If you tend to tell jokes that no one laughs at, avoid starting your speech off with humour.
The best attention getters can be described as follows:
Other factors like suspense (introducing a story and finishing it at the end) or conflict (telling a story with strong opposing forces and tension) can also be used.
Whatever your topic and purpose, your audience will be expecting you to know what you are talking about. So, the second element of an introduction is to let your audience know that you are a knowledgeable and credible source for this information. To do this, you will need to explain how you know what you know about your topic.
For some people, this will be simple. If you are informing your audience how a baseball is thrown and you have played baseball since you were eight years old, that makes you a fairly credible source. You probably know what you are talking about.
However, you may be speaking on a subject with which you have no history of credibility. If you are just curious about when streetlights were installed at intersections and why they are red, yellow, and green, you can give an interesting speech on that, but you will still need to give your audience some sort of reason to trust your knowledge. Since you were required to do research, you are at least more knowledgeable on the subject that anyone else in the class. In this case, you might say, “After doing some research and consulting several books on the subject, I want to share what I’ve learned about the evolution of traffic lights in contemporary cities.”
Rapport is basically a relationship or connection you make with your audience. In everyday life, we say that two people have a rapport when they get along really well and are good friends. In your introduction, you will want to build a connection with them as a speaker and to build a connection between the audience and the content (answering the “what’s in it for me” question). You will be making a connection through this shared information and explaining to them how it will benefit them.
An important point to note here is that there is not necessarily a “right” or “wrong” way to establish rapport with your audience. You as the speaker must determine what you think will work best and make a connection.
The fourth major function of an introduction after getting the audience’s attention is to reveal the purpose of your speech to your audience. An introduction should make the topic, purpose, and central idea clear. For most speeches, the central idea and preview (Element 5) should come at the end of the introduction.
While not a hard and fast rule, you will probably also want to avoid having the audience “guess” what your topic is through clues. However, at no point in your introduction do you ever want to read your specific purpose statement as a way of revealing your topic. Your specific purpose is included on your outline for your sake, to keep you on track during preparation. The language used in the specific purpose (“To persuade my audience…”) is too awkward, blunt, and boring to be read aloud.
Just like previewing your topic, previewing your main points helps your audience know what to expect throughout the course of your speech and prepares them to listen. Your preview of main points should be clear, brief, and easy to follow, so there is no question in your audience’s minds what they are. Long, complicated, or verbose main points can get confusing.
These five elements prepare your audience for the bulk of the speech (i.e., the body section) by letting them know what they can expect, why they should listen, and why they can trust you as a speaker. Having all five elements starts your speech on solid ground.
Similar to the introduction, the conclusion has three specific elements that you will want to incorporate in order to make it as strong as possible. Given the nature of these elements and what they do, these should generally be incorporated into your conclusion in the order they are presented below.
You may be thinking that telling an audience that you’re about to stop speaking is a “no brainer,” but many speakers really don’t prepare their audience for the end. When a speaker just suddenly stops speaking, the audience is left confused and disappointed. Instead, you want to make sure that audiences are left knowledgeable and satisfied with your speech. In a way, it gives them time to begin mentally organizing and cataloguing all the points you have made for further consideration later.
However, do not begin with the blunt essay-style wrap up cues you see in high-school level work, such as “in conclusion,” “in summary,” or “to conclude.” These are very blunt and will prevent your speech from standing out when compared to others. Look to employ more elegant, interesting, or creative language here, but make sure the audience catches on to the fact that your speech is ending.
Some of the techniques used in the introduction could help you signal the conclusion, too. For example, if you began an anecdote in the introduction, but didn’t finish, telling the audience the end of the anecdote will signal that you are now concluding, as the parallel of the anecdote should now be seen with the other content of the speech. As another example, asking a rhetorical question, could work well, too, such as “okay, so what’s significant about what I’ve just said?” That would cue the audience to understand that you’re going to tell them the significance of your message, which is content usually included at the end of a speech.
In the introduction of a speech you delivered a preview of your main points; now in the conclusion you will deliver a review. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication (the issue of “planned redundancy”). Remember, your English instructors can re-read your essays as many times as they want, but your audience only has one opportunity to catch and remember the points you are trying to get across in your speech. Because you are trying to remind the audience of your main points, you want to be sure not to bring up any new material or ideas.
This is a good place to remind you that the introduction, preview, transitions, and conclusion are for helping the audience be interested and prepared to listen, to retain, and to follow your speech. The conclusion is too late for that. The hard core facts and content are in the body. If you are tempted to cram lots of material into the conclusion, stop yourself; that is not the place for it, nor is it the place to provide the important steps to a solution.
As you progress as a public speaker, you will want to work on rephrasing your summary statement so that it does not sound like an exact repeat of the preview. In fact, nothing in your conclusion should precisely repeat any other part of your speech (at least, not more than a few consecutive words).
The third element of your conclusion is the clincher , or something memorable with which to conclude your speech. The clincher is sometimes referred to as a “closer” or “concluding device.” These are the very last words you will say in your speech, so you need to make them count. This is the last idea your audience will hear, so you want to make it good. A good clincher prevents your audience from feeling let down and, in fact, can even make an audience remember a speech more favourably. After a strong speech, the audience will usually reflect on that speech later in the day, perhaps even several times; a good clincher helps frame their thinking about those reflections.
A challenge is a call to engage in some kind of activity that requires special effort. The challenge should be something they can strive for, but not see as something impossible.
In the same category as a challenge, probably the most common persuasive concluding device is a call to action. In essence, the call to action occurs when a speaker asks their audience to engage in a specific behaviour.
One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action. Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behaviour in the future, the immediate call to action asks people to engage in behaviour right now.
If you are giving a persuasive speech about a solution to a problem, you should not relegate the call to action to the very end of the speech. It should probably be a main point where you can deal with the steps and specifics of the solution in more detail. Although this can be an effective conclusion, speakers should ask themselves whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.
Another way you can conclude a speech is by providing a quotation relevant to the speech topic. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason no regime has ever loved great writers.”
Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth effort to engage in any specific thought process or behaviour. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to sponsor a child in a developing country for $40 per month, you might use this quotation by Forest Witcraft:
“A hundred years from now it will not matter what my bank account was, the sort of house I lived in, or the kind of car I drove. But the world may be different, because I was important in the life of a child.”
In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that monetary sacrifices are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right choice is to make that sacrifice.
Here, you help your audience imagine the future you believe is possible. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society or how individual listeners’ lives would be different if the audience accepts and acts on the speaker’s main idea. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask their audience to imagine a world without illiteracy.
By definition, the word inspire means to affect or arouse someone. The ultimate goal of an inspirational concluding device is similar to a call to action, but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous; the goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. This is done by sharing a story, poem, or quotation that appeals to the audience’s basic values and, therefore, appeals to emotions. Stories or allusions to “underdogs” who overcame obstacles to achieve something worthwhile or those who make sacrifices for the good of others can help inspire. You probably know of such stories that would be of value, as long as they are relevant to your topic and purpose. Poetry and Shakespeare is sometimes used to inspire, but you want to use a short passage (four lines or fewer) that is clear to the audience.
Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech about the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t actually asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question; the goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.
A brief story makes a strong conclusion. However, it must be relevant (and brief). Combining this method and the previous, you might finish telling a story that you started in the introduction as your clincher.
The last concluding device involves a direct reference to your audience. This concluding device is used when a speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, “What’s in it for me?” (the WIIFM question). The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behaviour or thought change has for audience members.
This chapter was adapted from Exploring Public Speaking , 4th Edition by Barbara Tucker and Matthew LeHew, which is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Public Speaking for Today's Audiences Copyright © 2023 by Sam Schechter is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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The importance of an introduction.
While not a hard science, it’s generally recognized that the introduction for a speech should only encompass about 10 to 20 percent of the entire time the speaker will spend speaking. This means that if your speech is meant to be five minutes long, your introduction should be no more than about forty-five seconds. If your speech is to be ten minutes long, then your introduction should be no more than about a minute and a half. Keep in mind, that 10 to 20 percent of your speech can either make your audience interested in what you have to say or cause them to tune out before you’ve really gotten started. Overall, a good introduction should serve five functions. Let’s examine each of these.
The first major purpose of an introduction is to gain your audience’s attention and make them interested in what you have to say. This is oftentimes called the hook. One of the biggest mistakes that novice speakers make is to assume that people will naturally listen because the speaker is speaking. While many audiences may be polite and not talk while you’re speaking, actually getting them to listen to what you are saying is a completely different challenge. Let’s face it—we’ve all tuned someone out at some point because we weren’t interested in what they had to say. If you do not get the audience’s attention at the outset, it will only become more difficult to do so as you continue speaking. We’ll talk about some strategies for grabbing an audience’s attention later on in this chapter.
The second major function of an introduction is to reveal the purpose of your speech to your audience. Have you ever sat through a speech wondering what the basic point was? Have you ever come away after a speech and had no idea what the speaker was talking about? An introduction is important because it forces the speaker to be mindfully aware of explaining the topic of the speech to the audience. If the speaker doesn’t know their topic and cannot convey that topic to the audience, then we’ve got really big problems! Robert Cavett, the founder of the National Speaker’s Association, used the analogy of a preacher giving a sermon when he noted, “ When it’s foggy in the pulpit, it’s cloudy in the pews .”
As you previously learned, the specific purpose is the one idea you want your audience to remember when you are finished with your speech. Your specific purpose is the rudder that guides your research, organization, and development of main points. The more clearly focused your purpose is, the easier your task will be in developing your speech. In addition, a clear purpose provides the audience with a single, simple idea to remember even if they daydream during the body of your speech. To develop a specific purpose, you should complete the following sentence: “I want my audience to understand that…” Notice that your specific speech purpose is phrased in terms of expected audience responses, not in terms of your own perspective.
One of the most researched areas within the field of communication has been Aristotle’s concept of ethos or credibility. First, and foremost, the concept of credibility must be understood as the perception of your listeners. You may be the most competent, caring, and trustworthy speaker in the world on a given topic, but if your audience does not perceive you as credible, then your expertise and passion will not matter. As public speakers, we need to make sure that we explain to our audiences why we are credible speakers on a given topic.
James C. McCroskey and Jason J. Teven have conducted extensive research on credibility and have determined that an individual’s credibility is composed of three factors: competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill [1] . Competence is the degree to which a speaker is perceived to be knowledgeable or expert in a given subject by an audience member. Some individuals are given expert status because of positions they hold in society. For example, Dr. Regina Benjamin, the US Surgeon General, is expected to be competent in matters related to health and wellness as a result of being the United States’ top physician.
Regina Benjamin. Photo by Lawrence Jackson.
But what if you do not possess a fancy title that lends itself to established competence? You need to explain to the audience why you are competent to speak on your topic. Keep in mind that even well-known speakers are not perceived as universally credible. US Surgeon General Regina Benjamin may be seen as competent on health and wellness issues but may not be seen as a competent speaker on trends in Latin American music or different ways to cook summer squash. Like well-known speakers, you will need to establish your credibility on each topic you address. For example, if you are an undergraduate student and are delivering a speech about the importance of string theory in physics, unless you are a prodigy of some kind, you are probably not a recognized expert on the subject. Conversely, if your number one hobby in life is collecting memorabilia about the Three Stooges, then you may be an expert about the Three Stooges. However, you would need to explain to your audience your passion for collecting Three Stooges memorabilia and how this has made you an expert on the topic.
If, on the other hand, you are not actually a recognized expert on a topic, you need to demonstrate that you have done your homework to become more knowledgeable than your audience about your topic. The easiest way to demonstrate your competence is through the use of appropriate references from leading thinkers and researchers on your topic. When you demonstrate to your audience that you have done your homework, they are more likely to view you as competent.
The second characteristic of credibility, trustworthiness , is a little more complicated than competence, for it ultimately relies on audience perceptions. This factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven, is the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as honest. One way to increase the likelihood that a speaker will be perceived as trustworthy is to use reputable sources. If you’re quoting Dr. John Smith, you need to explain who Dr. John Smith is so your audience will see the quotation as being more trustworthy. As speakers we can easily manipulate our sources into appearing more credible than they actually are, which would be unethical. When you are honest about your sources with your audience, they will trust you and your information more so than when you are ambiguous. Many speakers have attempted to lie to an audience because it will serve their own purposes or even because they believe their message is in their audience’s best interest, but lying is one of the fastest ways to turn off an audience and get them to distrust both the speaker and the message. Not only is lying highly unethical, but if you are caught lying, your audience will deem you untrustworthy and perceive everything you are saying as untrustworthy. For example, in the summer of 2009, many Democratic members of Congress attempted to hold public town-hall meetings about health care. For a range of reasons, many of the people who attended these town-hall meetings refused to let their elected officials actually speak because the audiences were convinced that the Congressmen and Congresswomen were lying.
In these situations, where a speaker is in front of a very hostile audience, there is little a speaker can do to reestablish that sense of trustworthiness. These public town-hall meetings became screaming matches between the riled-up audiences and the congressional representatives. Some police departments actually ended up having to escort the representatives from the buildings because they feared for their safety. Check out this video from CNN.com to see what some of these events actually looked like: Hostile Town Hall Meeting . We hope that you will not be in physical danger when you speak to your classmates or in other settings, but these incidents serve to underscore how important speaker trustworthiness is across speaking contexts.
Goodwill is the final factor of credibility noted by McCroskey and Teven. Goodwill refers to the degree to which an audience member perceives a speaker as caring about the audience member. As noted by Wrench, McCroskey, and Richmond, “If a receiver does not believe that a source has the best intentions in mind for the receiver, the receiver will not see the source as credible. Simply put, we are going to listen to people who we think truly care for us and are looking out for our welfare” [3] . As a speaker, then, you need to establish that your information is being presented because you care about your audience and are not just trying to manipulate them. We should note that research has indicated that goodwill is the most important factor of credibility. This means that if an audience believes that a speaker truly cares about the audience’s best interests, the audience may overlook some competence and trust issues. One way to show that you have your audience’s best interests in mind is to acknowledge disagreement from the start:
Today I’m going to talk about why I believe we should enforce stricter immigration laws in the United States. I realize that many of you will disagree with me on this topic. I used to believe that open immigration was necessary for the United States to survive and thrive, but after researching this topic, I’ve changed my mind. While I may not change all of your minds today, I do ask that you listen with an open mind, set your personal feelings on this topic aside, and judge my arguments on their merits.
While clearly not all audience members will be open or receptive to opening their minds and listening to your arguments, by establishing that there is known disagreement, you are telling the audience that you understand their possible views and are not trying to attack their intellect or their opinions.
The fourth major function of an introduction is to establish a connection between the speaker and the audience, often described as relating to your audience. We call this the “why should I care?” part of your speech because it tells your audience why the topic is directly important to them. One of the most effective means of establishing a connection with your audience is to provide them with reasons why they should listen to your speech. The idea of establishing a connection is an extension of the notion of caring/goodwill. In the chapter on Speech Delivery, we’ll spend a lot more time talking about how you can establish a good relationship with your audience. However, this relationship starts the moment you step to the front of the room to start speaking.
People in today’s world are very busy, and they do not like their time wasted. Nothing is worse than having to sit through a speech that has nothing to do with you. Imagine sitting through a speech about a new software package you don’t own and you will never hear of again. How would you react to the speaker? Most of us would be pretty annoyed at having had our time wasted in this way. Obviously, this particular speaker didn’t do a great job of analyzing her or his audience if the audience isn’t going to use the software package—but even when speaking on a topic that is highly relevant to the audience, speakers often totally forget to explain how and why it is important.
Instead of assuming the audience will make their own connections to your material, you should explicitly state how your information might be useful to your audience. Tell them directly how they might use your information themselves. It is not enough for you alone to be interested in your topic! You need to build a bridge to the audience by explicitly connecting your topic to their possible needs.
The last major function of an introduction is to preview the main ideas that your speech will discuss. A preview establishes the direction your speech will take. In the most basic speech format, speakers generally have three to five major points they plan on making. During the preview, a speaker outlines what these points will be, which demonstrates to the audience that the speaker is organized.
Having a solid preview of the information contained within one’s speech and then following that preview will definitely help a speaker’s credibility. It also helps your audience keep track of where you are if they momentarily daydream or get distracted.
The preview may also be called your thesis statement, that is, a summary of your main points. The preview or thesis statement explicitly states and summarizes your main points, to ensure your audience knows what to expect. A strong, clear thesis statement is valuable within an introduction because it lays out the basic goal of the entire speech. We strongly believe that it is worthwhile to invest some time in framing and writing a good thesis statement because it helps your audience by letting them know “in a nutshell” what you are going to talk about.
Now that we have discussed the five basic functions of the introduction, let’s discuss potential attention-getting strategies. This is not an exhaustive list, and many of these attention getters can be combined or adapted to fit the needs of the speaker, the occasion and the audience. Regardless of the specific strategy used for the introduction, all introductions still need to meet the basic functions of an introduction.
You will get good attention and people will be more inclined to listen to you if you can make a statement whereby their response is… “No kidding!” – Gael Boardman
Humans love stories. In all cultures, stories are used to communicate and share values, traditions and knowledge. Rhetorician Walter Fisher [4] argues that human beings are best understood as homo narrans , as people who tell stories. As an introductory device, stories (and anecdotes and illustrations) are very effective attention getters.
First, stories have a built-in structure that everyone recognizes and expects. Stories have a beginning, middle and end, and this built-in structure allows the audience and the speaker to immediately share this experience.
Secondly, because this built-in structure, stories as attention getters lend themselves readily to a well- structured speech. You as speaker can start the story, get right to the climax, and then stop. You have the attention of the audience; you have shared experiences with them; and now you also have the conclusion of the speech all set to go—the end of the story.
Speakers who talk about what life has taught them never fail to keep the attention of their listeners. – Dale Carnegie
You are presenting this speech for a reason. The audience is present at this speech for a reason. These reasons can provide you with an effective attention getter. Referring to the occasion is often used as an introduction to tribute speeches, toasts, dedication ceremonies and historical events. Speech scholar Lloyd Bitzer [5] argues that all speeches are made at least in part in response to specific occasions, so referring to the occasion seems a good idea.
Bono, lead singer of the rock group U2 and an activist for a number of humanitarian issues, addressed the 54th annual National Prayer Breakfast, and started his speech with these words:
Well, thank you. Thank you, Mr. President, First Lady, King Abdullah of Jordan, Norm [Coleman], distinguished guests. Please join me in praying that I don’t say something we’ll all regret. [6]
“National Prayer Breakfast” by Paul Morse. Public domain.
In addition to referring to the occasion, another effective attention- getting device is to refer to current events or to historical events. This style of reference again helps to create a shared experience for the speaker and the audience, as the speaker reminds all present that they have these events in common. Additionally, referring to current or historical events can also help establish goodwill and personal credibility by demonstrating that the speaker is aware of the relationship between this particular speech and what is going on in the world at that time, or what has occurred in the past.
Abraham Lincoln (1863), in one of the most well-known speeches in American history, refers both to historical events and current events in the beginning of the Gettysburg Address :
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure.
“Abraham Lincoln” by Alexander Gardner. Public domain.
Most of you reading this material are doing so because you are in a public speaking or introductory communication class of some kind. And that means that most of you will be presenting your speeches right after someone else has presented. Even if you are not in a classroom situation, many other speaking situations (such as presenting at a city council or other government meeting or taking part in a forum or lecture series) result in speakers presenting right after another person has spoken.
In these situations, speakers before you may have already addressed some of the information you were planning to discuss, or perhaps have given a speech on the same topic you are now planning to address. By referring to the previous speeches, you enhance your credibility by showing your knowledge of the previous speech, and you have the opportunity to either compare or contrast your speech to the previous speeches (you could also demonstrate your listening skills).
Edward (Ted) Kennedy, at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, began his speech with a short tribute and acknowledgement to the previous speaker, member of Congress Barbara Mikulski:
Thanks very much, Barbara Mikulski, for your very eloquent, your eloquent introduction. Distinguished legislator, great spokeswoman for economic democracy and social justice in this country, I thank you for your eloquent introduction.
“Ted Kennedy, Senator from Massachusetts” by United States Senate. Public domain.
One of the key considerations in choosing an appropriate topic for your speech is that you have a personal interest in that topic. An effective attention getter then, can be your description of that personal interest. By noting your personal interest, you will demonstrate your credibility by showing your knowledge and experience with this topic, and because you have a personal interest, you are more likely to present this information in a lively and clear manner—again, enhancing your credibility. Referring to your personal interest in this topic in the introduction also helps you set the stage for additional anecdotes or examples from your personal experience later in the speech.
In speaking at the 1992 Democratic National Convention, Elizabeth Glaser began her speech by acknowledging her very personal interest in the topic:
I’m Elizabeth Glaser. Eleven years ago, while giving birth to my first child, I hemorrhaged and was transfused with seven pints of blood. Four years later, I found out that I had been infected with the AIDS virus and had unknowingly passed it to my daughter, Ariel, through my breast milk, and my son, Jake, in utero. [7]
Startling statistics startle an audience and catch its attention and encourage that audience to listen further as you present the context of the surprising statistic. Long-time radio announcer Paul Harvey is well known for the catch phrase “And now, the rest of the story.” The same function should be at work here. When you startle the audience, you set them up to want to hear the “rest of the story.”
Be careful, though. Use of startling statistics requires that you do a number of things. First, make sure the statistic is accurate. Second, make sure the statistic is relevant to the topic of the speech. Startling an audience with an irrelevant statistic diminishes the speech and decreases your credibility. Third, make sure you then present “the rest of the story.” You need to place this startling statistic in the context of your speech so that everything fits together.
One speaker used an effective startling statistic to help introduce a speech on the dangers of heart disease:
According to the Center for Disease Control, in the United States 26.6 million adults have heart disease. This would be about 12% of adults, or three people in this room.
Analogies compare something that your audience knows and understands with something new and different. For your speech, then, you can use an analogy to show a connection between your speech topic (something new and different for the audience) and something that is known by your audience.
“Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes” by National Photo Company. Public domain.
One very common (and often misquoted) analogy comes from the 1919 Supreme Court case of Schenck v United States . Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes used this analogy to support his reasoning that some forms of expression can be suppressed because they present a “clear and present danger.” Holmes noted that “[t]he most stringent protection of free speech would not protect a man falsely shouting fire in a theater and causing a panic.” [8]
Using a quotation from a well-known figure or using a quotation from a lesser-known figure if the quotation is particularly suitable for your speech topic, is a common attention-getting technique. When you quote that well-known figure, you are in a sense, borrowing some of that person’s credibility for your speech, enhancing your credibility with the audience. Even when you use a less than well-known figure, the quotation can be effective if it nicely sets up your speech topic and is something to which your audience can relate.
Be careful with quotations, however. First, just using the quotation is not sufficient. You need to place the quotation in the context of your speech (as well as meet the other required functions of an introduction, of course). Second, it is easy to fall into a bad (and somewhat lazy) habit of simply finding a quotation and using it to start every speech. Third, simply using a quotation is no guarantee that your audience will find that quotation interesting or apt for the speech and may also find the author of the quotation to be lacking in credibility—or your audience may simply not like the author of the quotation. Finally, beware of overly- long quotations (three or more sentences): Remember, this is just part of the introduction, not a main point of the speech.
“Reagan farewell salute” by White House Photographic Office. Public domain.
In his farewell address, former President Ronald Reagan (1989) utilized a very short quotation to emphasize his feelings upon leaving office.
People ask how I feel about leaving. And the fact is, “parting is such sweet sorrow.” The sweet part is California and the ranch and freedom. The sorrow — the goodbyes, of course, and leaving this beautiful place.
Using rhetorical questions in speeches is a great way to keep the audience involved. Don’t you think those kinds of questions would keep your attention? – Bo Bennett
The use of questions can be a very effective way to get attention, whether those questions are rhetorical in nature, and are only meant to be considered and pondered by the audience or are meant to be answered by the audience (generally a good technique to get audience involvement and interest).
Rhetorical questions are designed to allow you as speaker to get the audience to think about your topic without actually speaking the answer to the question. Rhetorical questions allow you as speaker to maintain the most control over a speech situation and allow you to guard against an inappropriate or even offensive response.
Using questions that ask for real responses, however, has additional benefits, if a speaker feels comfortable with the audience, and is able to handle some impromptu situations. Getting the audience to physically and verbally involve themselves in your topic guarantees that they’re paying attention. Using questions that lead to positive answers can also enhance your connection to and credibility with the audience.
Starting a speech with a question whether rhetorical or actual does require thought and practice on your part. You need to carefully consider the question and possible answers. Remember—even if you think the question is rhetorical, your audience may not know this and may answer the question. You also need to carefully deliver the question. Too often, speakers will use a question as an introduction—but then give the audience no time to either think about the answer or answer the question. You need to use timing and pause when starting with a question. You also need to be careful to use eye contact in asking questions, since you are above all asking for audience involvement, and your eye contact requests that involvement.
It is not enough for me to ask questions; I want to know how to answer the one question that seems to encompass everything I face: What am I here for? – Abraham Joshua Heschel
In 1992, Ross Perot selected a little-known retired military figure, Admiral James Stockdale, as his Vice-Presidential running mate. In the fall debates, Stockdale began his opening statement with two questions: “Who am I? Why am I here?” (Stockdale, 1992). The questions received applause and also laughter, though the later reaction to these questions was mixed at best. Some saw this as confusion on the part of Stockdale. [9] Stockdale considered these two questions to illustrate his difference from the other two “mainstream” candidates, Al Gore and then Vice President Dan Quayle. Traditional politicians, Gore and Quayle were readily recognized as compared to Stockdale.
“Audience enjoy Stallman’s jokes” by Wikimania2009 and Damiu00e1n Buonamico. CC-BY .
The use of humor in an introduction can be one of the most effective types of introductions—if done well. Humor can create a connection between the speaker and audience, can get an audience relaxed and in a receptive frame of mind, and can allow an audience to perceive the speaker (and the topic) in a positive light.
Humor done badly can destroy the speech and ruin a speaker’s credibility.
So first, a word of warning: None of us (those reading this, those teaching this class, and those writing this) are as funny as we think we are. If we were that funny, we would be making our living that way. Humor is hard. Humor can backfire. Humor is to a large extent situation bound. Most likely, there will be a number of members of your audience who do not use English as a first language (there are plenty of people reading this who are English as a Second Language learners). Much humor requires a native understanding of English. Most likely, there will be a number of people in your audience who do not share your cultural upbringing—and humor is often culture-bound. Be careful with humor.
In general, there is basically only one safe and suitable style of humor: light and subtle self-deprecation. In other words, you as speaker are the only really safe subject for humor.
“Ann Richards” by Kenneth C. Zirkel. CC-BY-SA .
Using humor to tell stories about other people, other groups, and even other situations, may work—but it is just as likely to offend those people, members of those groups, and people in that situation. Using self-deprecating humor will not offend others, but unless you can do this with a light and subtle touch, you may be harming your credibility rather than creating a connection between yourself and the audience.
Now, with all these warnings, you may want to stay far away from humor as an introduction. Humor can work, however.
Ann Richards, at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, used humor in the introduction to her Keynote Address. Knowing the audience, Richards was able to use partisan humor to establish a connection to the audience and score points against the political opposition.
I’m delighted to be here with you this evening, because after listening to George Bush all these years, I figured you needed to know what a real Texas accent sounds like.
Matthew Culnane – Steps – CC BY-SA 2.0.
Letting your audience know that the conclusion is coming is the first step in a powerful conclusion. When we show the audience we have come to the end, we ensure that our speech end is intentional, and not abrupt. Suppose your purpose was, “I will analyze Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” You could start your conclusion with “In the past few minutes, I have analyzed Barack Obama’s use of lyricism in his July 2008 speech, ‘A World That Stands as One.’” Notice the shift in tense: the statement has gone from the future tense (this is what I will speak about) to the past tense (this is what I have spoken about). Not only does this remind them of the major purpose or goal of your speech, but it ushers in a memorable conclusion.
You may have used the line “In Conclusion” as a signal when writing an essay for your English class. While certainly a signal, this is a cliché phrase that you may want to avoid, using more creative means to signal the end.
Once you have stated the main idea of your speech, the second step in a powerful conclusion is to review the main points from your speech. One of the biggest differences between written and oral communication is the necessity of repetition in oral communication. When we preview our main points in the introduction, effectively discuss and make transitions to our main points during the body of the speech, and finally, review the main points in the conclusion, we increase the likelihood that the audience will retain our main points after the speech is over.
In the introduction of a speech, we deliver a preview of our main body points, and in the conclusion, we deliver a review . Let’s look at a sample preview:
In order to understand the field of gender and communication, I will first differentiate between the terms biological sex and gender. I will then explain the history of gender research in communication. Lastly, I will examine a series of important findings related to gender and communication.
In this preview, we have three clear main points. Let’s see how we can review them at the conclusion of our speech:
Today, we have differentiated between the terms biological sex and gender, examined the history of gender research in communication, and analyzed a series of research findings on the topic.
In the past few minutes, I have explained the difference between the terms “biological sex” and “gender,” discussed the rise of gender research in the field of communication, and examined a series of groundbreaking studies in the field.
Notice that both of these conclusions review the main points originally set forth. Both variations are equally effective reviews of the main points, but you might like the linguistic turn of one over the other. Remember, while there is a lot of science to help us understand public speaking, there’s also a lot of art as well, so you are always encouraged to choose the wording that you think will be most effective for your audience.
The final part of a powerful conclusion is the concluding device. A concluding device is essentially the final thought you want your audience members to have when you stop speaking. It also provides a definitive sense of closure to your speech. Imagine the summer Olympics and you’re watching your favorite gymnast. You could make the analogy between a gymnast’s dismount and the concluding device in a speech. Just as a gymnast dismounting the parallel bars or balance beam wants to stick the landing and avoid taking two or three steps, a speaker wants to “stick” the ending of the presentation by ending with a concluding device instead of with, “Well, umm, I guess I’m done.” Miller observed that speakers tend to use one of ten concluding devices when ending a speech (Miller, 1946). The rest of this section will examine these ten concluding devices.
The first way that Miller found that some speakers end their speeches is with a challenge. A challenge is a call to engage in some kind of activity that requires a contest or special effort. In a speech on the necessity of fund-raising, a speaker could conclude by challenging the audience to raise 10 percent more than their original projections. In a speech on eating more vegetables, you could challenge your audience to increase their current intake of vegetables by two portions daily. In both of these challenges, audience members are being asked to go out of their way to do something different that involves effort on their part.
A second way you can conclude a speech is by reciting a quotation relevant to the speech topic. When using a quotation, you need to think about whether your goal is to end on a persuasive note or an informative note. Some quotations will have a clear call to action, while other quotations summarize or provoke thought. For example, let’s say you are delivering an informative speech about dissident writers in the former Soviet Union. You could end by citing this quotation from Alexander Solzhenitsyn: “ A great writer is, so to speak, a second government in his country. And for that reason, no regime has ever loved great writers ” (Solzhenitsyn, 1964). Notice that this quotation underscores the idea of writers as dissidents, but it doesn’t ask listeners to put forth effort to engage in any specific thought process or behavior. If, on the other hand, you were delivering a persuasive speech urging your audience to participate in a very risky political demonstration, you might use this quotation from Martin Luther King Jr.: “ If a man hasn’t discovered something that he will die for, he isn’t fit to live” (King, 1963). In this case, the quotation leaves the audience with the message that great risks are worth taking, that they make our lives worthwhile, and that the right thing to do is to go ahead and take that great risk.
When speakers end with a summary, they are simply elongating the review of the main points. While this may not be the most exciting concluding device, it can be useful for information that was highly technical or complex or for speeches lasting longer than thirty minutes. Typically, for short speeches (like those in your class), this summary device should be avoided.
The purpose of a conclusion that refers to the future is to help your audience imagine the future you believe can occur. If you are giving a speech on the development of video games for learning, you could conclude by depicting the classroom of the future where video games are perceived as true learning tools and how those tools could be utilized. More often, speakers use visualization of the future to depict how society would be, or how individual listeners’ lives would be different, if the speaker’s persuasive attempt worked. For example, if a speaker proposes that a solution to illiteracy is hiring more reading specialists in public schools, the speaker could ask the audience to imagine a world without illiteracy. In this use of visualization, the goal is to persuade people to adopt the speaker’s point of view. By showing that the speaker’s vision of the future is a positive one, the conclusion should help to persuade the audience to help create this future.
Probably the most common persuasive concluding device is the appeal for action or the call to action. In essence, the appeal for action occurs when a speaker asks the audience to engage in a specific behavior or change in thinking. When a speaker concludes by asking the audience “to do” or “to think” in a specific manner, the speaker wants to see an actual change. Whether the speaker appeals for people to eat more fruit, buy a car, vote for a candidate, oppose the death penalty, or sing more in the shower, the speaker is asking the audience to engage in action.
One specific type of appeal for action is the immediate call to action. Whereas some appeals ask for people to engage in behavior in the future, the immediate call to action asks people to engage in behavior right now. If a speaker wants to see a new traffic light placed at a dangerous intersection, they may conclude by asking all the audience members to sign a digital petition right then and there, using a computer the speaker has made available ( http://www.petitiononline.com ). Here are some more examples of immediate calls to action:
These are just a handful of different examples we’ve actually seen students use in our classrooms to elicit an immediate change in behavior. These immediate calls to action may not lead to long-term change, but they can be very effective at increasing the likelihood that an audience will change behavior in the short term.
By definition, the word inspire means to affect or arouse someone. Both affect and arouse have strong emotional connotations. The ultimate goal of an inspiration concluding device is similar to an “appeal for action” but the ultimate goal is more lofty or ambiguous; the goal is to stir someone’s emotions in a specific manner. Maybe a speaker is giving an informative speech on the prevalence of domestic violence in our society today. That speaker could end the speech by reading Paulette Kelly’s powerful poem “I Got Flowers Today.” “I Got Flowers Today” is a poem that evokes strong emotions because it’s about an abuse victim who received flowers from her abuser every time she was victimized. The poem ends by saying, “I got flowers today… / Today was a special day—it was the day of my funeral / Last night he killed me” (Kelly, 1994).
The next concluding device is one that should be used primarily by speakers who are recognized as expert authorities on a given subject. Advice is essentially a speaker’s opinion about what should or should not be done. The problem with opinions is that everyone has one-, and one-person’s opinion is not necessarily any more correct than another’s. There needs to be a really good reason your opinion—and therefore your advice—should matter to your audience. If, for example, you are an expert in nuclear physics, you might conclude a speech on energy by giving advice about the benefits of nuclear energy.
Another way a speaker can conclude a speech powerfully is to offer a solution to the problem discussed within a speech. For example, perhaps a speaker has been discussing the problems associated with the disappearance of art education in the United States. The speaker could then propose a solution of creating more community-based art experiences for school children as a way to fill this gap. Although this can be an effective conclusion, a speaker must reflect upon whether the solution should be discussed in more depth as a stand-alone main point within the body of the speech, so that audience concerns about the proposed solution may be addressed.
Another way you can end a speech is to ask a rhetorical question that forces the audience to ponder an idea. Maybe you are giving a speech on the importance of the environment, so you end the speech by saying, “Think about your children’s future. What kind of world do you want them raised in? A world that is clean, vibrant, and beautiful—or one that is filled with smog, pollution, filth, and disease?” Notice that you aren’t actually asking the audience to verbally or nonverbally answer the question; the goal of this question is to force the audience into thinking about what kind of world they want for their children.
The last concluding device discussed by Miller (1946) was a reference to one’s audience. This concluding device is when a speaker attempts to answer the basic audience question, “What’s in it for me?” The goal of this concluding device is to spell out the direct benefits a behavior or thought change has for audience members. For example, a speaker talking about stress reduction techniques could conclude by clearly listing all the physical health benefits stress reduction offers (e.g., improved reflexes, improved immune system, improved hearing, reduction in blood pressure). In this case, the speaker is clearly spelling out why audience members should care—what’s in it for them!
As you read through the possible ways to conclude a speech, hopefully you noticed that some of the methods are more appropriate for persuasive speeches and others are more appropriate for informative speeches. To help you choose appropriate conclusions for informative, persuasive, or entertaining speeches, we’ve created a table — Table 11.1 — to help you quickly identify appropriate concluding devices. Additionally, you may have noticed the concluding devices were similar to the introductory devices. This is not a mistake! Ending your speech in the same way you began can bring uniformity to your speech, making it feel “full circle.”
Table 10.1 Your Speech Purpose and Concluding Devices
Types of Concluding Devices | General Purposes of Speeches | ||
---|---|---|---|
Challenge | x | ||
Quotation | x | x | |
Summary | x | x | |
Visualizing the Future | x | x | |
Appeal | x | ||
Inspirational | x | x | |
Advice | x | ||
Proposal of Solution | x | ||
Question | x | x | |
Reference to Audience | x |
Principles of Public Speaking Copyright © 2022 by Katie Gruber is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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March 2, 2021 - Sophie Thompson
This article will teach you how to perform audience analysis for your speech or presentation and the different types of audience you might encounter. The type of audience affects the choice of language, humour, opening sentences, length and many more.
Here is a great overview from the University of Pittsburgh :
Audience analysis involves identifying the audience and adapting a speech to their interests, level of understanding, attitudes, and beliefs. Taking an audience-cantered approach is important because a speaker’s effectiveness will be improved if the presentation is created and delivered in an appropriate manner. Identifying the audience through extensive research is often difficult, so audience adaptation often relies on the healthy use of imagination.
This audience does not want to be listening to you. This could be for many reasons, from not liking the organisation you are representing, to wanting to get home and watch their favourite TV show.
They can be openly hostile and disagree with you. If audience analysis shows that you’ll be faced with this audience (e.g. you have the last slot of a busy day of presentation), consider the following:
Speaking to a hostile audience? Make sure you understand the type of audience you will be up against and build you speech accordingly.
Often at technical conferences, you get critical people who believe they are extremely intelligent and relish the thought of proving part of your presentation incorrect. Use the following techniques:
This is the most common type of audience you will encounter. They might know a little about your presentation topic but certainly not in great detail.
This audience is willing to listen and wants to be there. They can be interested in your topic, excited to see you talk (you might be a well-known figure in your speaking field), have an emotional attachment – these people are the easiest to persuade.
People checking their watches? Make sure you understand the situation your audience is in. If your presentation is the last of the day, you’ll most likely have a hostile audience. Take this into account and structure your speech accordingly.
The following section discusses the four types of audience personalities and an audience analysis on them.
Analytical – 100% accurate, chronology, don’t rush, focus on facts, internally focussed, distant from others, systematic, critical
Driver – 100% task, headlines, don’t waste time, focus on action, future focused, leading others, quick to decide, impatient
Amiable – 100% social, relationships, don’t intimidate, focus on feelings, present focused, asks questions, dislike conflict, support, kind
Expressive – 100% impulsive, vision & ideas, don’t limit, focus on themes, externally focused, makes statements, competitive & chaotic, unpredictable, energetic
Greet people before your speech.
This is a great way to perform early audience analysis. If possible, stand near the entrance and greet people as they come in. Ask them questions to gauge their level of knowledge and expectations. Example questions can be “what industry are working in?” and “how long they have been working at…”
Ask carefully prepared questions at the beginning of you speech to understand the mood and experience of the audience. You could ask “Raise your hand if you have used a virtual reality headset before” for example.
Read up about the conference you are attending. Find out what the other presentations are about and how they might relate to your speech to give you a head start on audience analysis. This gives you an idea of how technical and prepared your audience might be.
For additional information on understanding your audience and audience analysis, read:
Audience expectations.
Different audiences can have completely different expectations about the topics and speaker. Ignoring these differences can have a negative effect on your speech. Imagine that you’re asked to speak at the memorial service for a close friend.
The audience will expect your speech to praise the life of the deceased. If you start talking about the flaws of the person, the audience is likely to react badly to it.
You need to find out how much your audience already knows about your topic as an audiences knowledge can vary widely. Two ways to achieve this could be:
Never overestimate the audience’s knowledge of a topic. If you start speaking about complex algorithms for robotics, but the listeners are not familiar with basic genetics, they’ll quickly lose interest and find something to distract themselves with.
On the other hand, drastically underestimating the audience’s knowledge may result in a speech that sounds condescending.
Presentation setting, such as what time you are presenting and style of the conference room, will influence audience’s ability and desire to listen.
Finding out ahead of time the different environment and situational factors. This will give you plenty of time to prepare for an audience of 1000 when you were expecting 50. You want to understand whether there will be a stage, where your slides will be shown, what technology is available to you, who is presenting before you and other factors.
Take into account the way that the setting will affect audience attention and participation. If you’re scheduled to speak at the end of the day, you’ll have to make the speech more entertaining and appear more enthusiasm to keep their attention.
Read more about how to speak to an unruly crowd if you’re stuck with an end of day presentation slot.
Your speech will change depending on the size of the audience. In general, the larger the audience the more formal the presentation should be. Using everyday language when speaking to a group of 5 people is often appropriate.
However, you’ll need a well throughout structure and literary techniques when talking to 500 people. Large audiences often require that you use a microphone and speak from an elevated platform.
Being able to understand the audiences attitudes about a topic will help you connect with them. Imagine you’re trying to convince people at a town hall to build a new college. You’ll be inclined to spend the majority of the speech giving reasons why a college would benefit the town.
If you find that the major worry was how much this would cost students, you can talk more about funding available to the students. The persuasive power of the speech is therefore directed at the most important obstacle to the building the college.
The demographic factors of an audience include:
These categories often underpin the individuals experiences and beliefs, so you should tailor your speech accordingly. Presenting at a conference in London will be a very different experience to presenting in Shanghai. The structure of your speech and words you use will probably be very different.
Using demographic factors to guide speech-making does not mean changing the goal of the speech for every different audience; rather, consider what pieces of information will be most important for members of different demographic groups.
Audiences are either hostile, critical, uninformed or sympathetic. Knowing the difference will assist in establishing the content of your speech. It’s very hard to generate and maintain interest with a hostile audience. You’ll definitely want to know if you’re up against this so you can plan ahead for it.
Most audience members are interested in things that directly affect them or their company. An effective speaker must be able to show their audience why the topic they are speaking on should be important to them.
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Education is not the filling of a pot but the lighting of a fire
A speech analysis essay is a type of writing where you analyze a speech and discuss its effectiveness. In order to write a good speech analysis essay, you’ll need to understand the four key elements of a speech: purpose, message, medium, and audience.
Purpose is the reason the speaker is giving the speech. Message is what the speaker wants the audience to remember. Medium is how the speaker delivers the speech. And audience is who the speech is aimed at.
Once you understand these four elements, you can start analyzing the speech. You’ll want to discuss how well the speaker achieved their purpose, how well the message was delivered, and how well the speech resonated with the audience.
Speech analysis essays can be challenging to write, but they’re a great way to learn more about public speaking and the art of persuasion.
A speech analysis essay is a paper that breaks a speech down into parts and explains how each part functions. It is important to understand the purpose of a speech analysis essay before writing one, as the purpose will dictate the structure and content of the essay.
The main purpose of a speech analysis essay is to help the reader understand the speech better. This can be done by explaining the purpose of each part of the speech and how it contributes to the overall message. Another purpose of a speech analysis essay is to identify the rhetorical devices used by the speaker and explain how they are used to convey the message.
The structure of a speech analysis essay will vary depending on the purpose of the essay. However, most essays will follow a basic structure. The introduction will introduce the speech and provide some context for it. The body of the essay will explain the purpose of each part of the speech and how it contributes to the overall message. The conclusion will summarize the main points of the essay and provide some final thoughts.
The introduction, provided by a “ write my book report ” service, will set the stage by introducing the speech in question and providing essential context for understanding it.
When writing a speech analysis essay, it is important to be aware of the rhetorical devices used by the speaker. Some of the most common rhetorical devices include:
-Anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses -Apostrophe: Addressing a person or thing that is not present -Irony: Saying the opposite of what is meant -Metaphor: Comparing two things without using like or as -Simile: Comparing two things using like or as
These devices can be used to convey the speaker’s message in a powerful and memorable way. It is important to understand how these devices are used and what they mean in order to get the most out of a speech analysis essay.
When writing a speech analysis essay, it is important to select an appropriate speech to analyze. A good speech to analyze is one that is well-organized, well-delivered, and has a clear message.
To begin, read the speech carefully, and make note of the main points the speaker is making. Next, analyze the speech’s structure. How well is the speech organized? Is it easy to follow? Are the main points clearly stated?
Next, analyze the speech’s delivery. How effective is the speaker’s delivery? Does the speaker sound confident and convincing? Are there any noticeable pauses or hesitations?
Finally, analyze the speech’s message. What is the main message the speaker is trying to communicate? Is the message clear and concise? Is it easy to understand?
When writing a speech analysis essay, it is important to be objective and critical. Be sure to present both the positive and negative aspects of the speech.
When writing a speech analysis essay, it is important to first read and understand the speech fully. After that, you can begin to analyze the rhetorical strategies that the speaker used.
In his speech, “The Price of Freedom is Eternal Vigilance,” George W. Bush used a variety of rhetorical strategies to make his point. He began by talking about the importance of freedom, and how the United States is fighting for freedom around the world. He then talked about the terrorist attacks on September 11, and how the United States is fighting a war against terrorism.
Bush then talked about the importance of staying vigilant, and how the United States will never let the terrorists win. He ended his speech by talking about the importance of the American people staying united, and how the United States will overcome this challenge.
Bush’s use of rhetorical strategies was very effective. He spoke about the importance of freedom, and how the United States is fighting for freedom around the world. He also talked about the terrorist attacks on September 11, and how the United States is fighting a war against terrorism.
A thesis statement is a sentence or two that states the main idea of your essay and helps to keep your argument organized. It is the “road map” of your essay, telling your reader what to expect from your writing.
In order to write a strong thesis statement, you must be able to reflect on your essay topic from multiple perspectives. Ask yourself the following questions:
What am I trying to say about this topic? What are the key points I want to make? What is the main argument I am trying to make?
Once you have answered these questions, you can begin to craft a thesis statement that reflects your main argument. Be sure to stay focused and concise, and make sure your thesis statement is clear and easy to understand.
Here is an example of a thesis statement for a speech analysis essay:
In his speech, “The Power of Words,” Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. argues that words have the power to change the world.
This thesis statement clearly states the main argument of the essay, and it is easy to understand.
When you are given an assignment to write a speech analysis essay, it is important to understand the structure of the essay. This will help you to organize your thoughts and present them in a cohesive manner.
The typical structure of a speech analysis essay is as follows:
1. Introduce the speech you are analyzing.
2. Discuss the main points of the speech.
3. Analyze the speech in terms of its purpose, audience, and delivery.
4. Summarize your thoughts on the speech.
5. Conclude your essay.
A good speech analysis essay incorporates evidence and quotations from the speech, illustrating how the speaker has developed their argument. In order to write a strong analysis, it is important to first read and understand the speech completely. After that, you can begin to look for the main points the speaker is making and how they are making them.
When writing your essay, be sure to include the following:
-An introduction that introduces the speech and provides some background information on the speaker -The body of the essay, which should discuss the main points of the speech and how they are developed -A conclusion that summarizes the main points of the essay and reflects on what the speech means for the audience
Additionally, you may want to use your own words to explain the main points of the speech, rather than simply quoting from the speech itself. This will help to ensure that your essay is clear and easy to read.
When analyzing a speech, it is important to consider the following factors:
-The context in which the speech was given -The audience for whom the speech was intended -The purpose of the speech -The tone of the speech -The main points the speaker is trying to make
By considering these factors, you can get a better understanding of the overall message the speaker is trying to convey.
Riley Wilson is a 31-year-old teacher and blogger who lives in the Midwest. Riley is a self-proclaimed bookworm and lover of all things geeky. He started her teaching career in 2007 and has been blogging since 2009.
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Click below to play an audio file of this section of the chapter sponsored by the Women for OSU Partnering to Impact grant.
One of the consequences of the First Amendment to the Constitution, which protects our right to speak freely, is that we focus so much on what we want to say that we often overlook the question of who our audience is. Does your audience care what you as a speaker think? Can they see how your speech applies to their lives and interests? The act of public speaking is a shared activity that involves interaction between speaker and audience. In order for your speech to get a fair hearing, you need to create a relationship with your listeners. Scholars Sprague, Stuart, and Bodary explain, “Speakers do not give speeches to audiences; they jointly create meaning with audiences” (Sprague, et al., 2010). The success of your speech rests in large part on how your audience receives and understands it.
Think of a time when you heard a speech that sounded “canned” or that fell flat because the audience didn’t “get it.” Chances are that this happened because the speaker neglected to consider that public speaking is an audience-centered activity. Worse, lack of consideration for one’s audience can result in the embarrassment of alienating listeners by telling a joke they don’t appreciate, or using language they find offensive. The best way to reduce the risk of such situations is to conduct an audience analysis as you prepare your speech.
Audience analysis is the process of gathering information about the people in your audience so that you can understand their needs, expectations, beliefs, values, attitudes, and likely opinions. In this chapter, we will first examine some reasons why audience analysis is important. We will then describe three different types of audience analysis and some techniques to use in conducting audience analysis. Finally, we will explain how you can use your audience analysis not only during the creation of your speech but also while you are delivering it.
As Pistol Pete, the spirited mascot of Oklahoma State University, I understand the vital importance of connecting with my audience and tailoring my message to resonate with them. To effectively analyze my audience, I utilize various strategies that allow me to understand their needs, values, and interests.
First and foremost, I observe the diverse composition of the Oklahoma State University community. From students to faculty, alumni to visitors, each group brings unique perspectives and experiences to the table. By recognizing this diversity, I can adapt my communication style to ensure inclusivity and relevance for all.
Additionally, I pay close attention to the context and setting in which I engage with my audience. Whether it’s a sporting event, a pep rally, or a community outreach program, each environment offers distinct opportunities to connect. By considering the expectations and atmosphere of the specific event, I can tailor my message and delivery accordingly, ensuring maximum impact and resonance.
Furthermore, I engage in active listening and dialogue with the Oklahoma State community. I seek feedback, whether through formal channels or informal conversations, to gain insights into their needs, concerns, and aspirations. This two-way communication allows me to understand their perspectives, build trust, and ensure that my messages align with their values and aspirations.
Lastly, I remain attuned to current events, cultural shifts, and emerging trends that shape the collective mindset of the Oklahoma State community. By staying informed, I can address relevant topics, spark conversations, and adapt my message to reflect the ever-evolving interests and sensitivities of my audience.
By employing these strategies, I can effectively analyze my audience at Oklahoma State University, understanding their diversity, needs, and aspirations. Armed with this knowledge, I can engage with authenticity, relevance, and the unwavering spirit that defines the Orange Cowboy community. Together, we can forge meaningful connections, foster unity, and inspire each other to reach greater heights. Go Pokes! How can you go about learning who will be in your audience?
Sprague, J., Stuart, D., & Bodary, D. (2010). The speaker’s handbook (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage.
the process of gathering information about the people in your audience so that you can understand their needs, expectations, beliefs, values, attitudes, and likely opinions
Introduction to Speech Communication Copyright © 2021 by Individual authors retain copyright of their work. is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
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Learning objective.
Sean MacEntee – presentation outline – CC BY 2.0.
Thus far this chapter has focused on how you go about creating main points and organizing the body of your speech. In this section we’re going to examine the three main points of an actual speech. Before we start analyzing the introduction, please read the paragraphs that follow.
Smart Dust Speech Body To help us understand smart dust, we will begin by first examining what smart dust is. Dr. Kris Pister, a professor in the robotics lab at the University of California at Berkeley, originally conceived the idea of smart dust in 1998 as part of a project funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). According to a 2001 article written by Bret Warneke, Matt Last, Brian Liebowitz, and Kris Pister titled “Smart Dust: Communicating with a Cubic-Millimeter Computer” published in Computer , Pister’s goal was to build a device that contained a built-in sensor, communication device, and a small computer that could be integrated into a cubic millimeter package. For comparison purposes, Doug Steel, in a 2005 white paper titled “Smart Dust” written for C. T. Bauer College of Business at the University of Houston, noted that a single grain of rice has a volume of five cubic millimeters. Each individual piece of dust, called a mote, would then have the ability to interact with other motes and supercomputers. As Steve Lohr wrote in the January 30, 2010, edition of the New York Times in an article titled “Smart Dust? Not Quite, but We’re Getting There,” smart dust could eventually consist of “tiny digital sensors, strewn around the globe, gathering all sorts of information and communicating with powerful computer networks to monitor, measure, and understand the physical world in new ways.” Now that we’ve examined what smart dust is, let’s switch gears and talk about some of the military applications for smart dust. Because smart dust was originally conceptualized under a grant from DARPA, military uses of smart dust have been widely theorized and examined. According to the Smart Dust website, smart dust could eventually be used for “battlefield surveillance, treaty monitoring, transportation monitoring, scud hunting” and other clear military applications. Probably the number one benefit of smart dust in the military environment is its surveillance abilities. Major Scott Dickson in a Blue Horizons Paper written for the Center for Strategy and Technology for the United States Air Force Air War College, sees smart dust as helping the military in battlespace awareness, homeland security, and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) identification. Furthermore, Major Dickson also believes it may be possible to create smart dust that has the ability to defeat communications jamming equipment created by foreign governments, which could help the US military to not only communicate among itself, but could also increase communications with civilians in military combat zones. On a much larger scale, smart dust could even help the US military and NASA protect the earth. According to a 2010 article written by Jessica Griggs in New Scientist , one of the first benefits of smart dust could be an early defense warning for space storms and other debris that could be catastrophic. Now that we’ve explored some of the military benefits of smart dust, let’s switch gears and see how smart dust may be able to have an impact on our daily lives. According to the smart dust project website, smart dust could quickly become a part of our daily lives. Everything from pasting smart dust particles to our finger tips to create a virtual computer keyboard to inventory control to product quality control have been discussed as possible applications for smart dust. Steve Lohr in his 2010 New York Times article wrote, “The applications for sensor-based computing, experts say, include buildings that manage their own energy use, bridges that sense motion and metal fatigue to tell engineers they need repairs, cars that track traffic patterns and report potholes, and fruit and vegetable shipments that tell grocers when they ripen and begin to spoil.” Medically, according to the smart dust project website, smart dust could help disabled individuals interface with computers. Theoretically, we could all be injected with smart dust, which relays information to our physicians and detects adverse changes to our body instantly. Smart dust could detect the microscopic formations of cancer cells or alert us when we’ve been infected by a bacteria or virus, which could speed up treatment and prolong all of our lives.
Now that you’ve had a chance to read the body of the speech on smart dust, take a second and attempt to conduct your own analysis of the speech’s body. What are the main points? Do you think the main points make sense? What organizational pattern is used? Are there clear transitions? What other techniques are used to keep the speech moving? Is evidence used to support the speech? Once you’re done analyzing the speech body, look at Table 10.2 “Smart Dust Speech Body Analysis” , which presents our basic analysis of the speech’s body.
Table 10.2 Smart Dust Speech Body Analysis
To help us understand smart dust, we will begin by first examining what smart dust is. Dr. Kris Pister, a professor in the robotics lab at the University of California at Berkeley, originally conceived the idea of smart dust in 1998 as part of a project funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). According to a 2001 article written by Bret Warneke, Matt Last, Brian Liebowitz, and Kris Pister titled “Smart Dust: Communicating with a Cubic-Millimeter Computer” published in , Pister’s goal was to build a device that contained a built-in sensor, communication device, and a small computer that could be integrated into a cubic millimeter package. For comparison purposes, Doug Steel, in a 2005 white paper titled “Smart Dust” written for C. T. Bauer College of Business at the University of Houston, noted that a single grain of rice has a volume of five cubic millimeters. Each individual piece of dust, called a mote, would then have the ability to interact with other motes and supercomputers. As Steve Lohr wrote in the January 30, 2010, edition of the in an article titled “Smart Dust? Not Quite, but We’re Getting There,” smart dust could eventually consist of “tiny digital sensors, strewn around the globe, gathering all sorts of information and communicating with powerful computer networks to monitor, measure, and understand the physical world in new ways.” | Notice this transition from the introduction to the first main point. |
Now that we’ve examined what smart dust is, let’s switch gears and talk about some of the military applications for smart dust. Because smart dust was originally conceptualized under a grant from DARPA, military uses of smart dust have been widely theorized and examined. According to the Smart Dust website, smart dust could eventually be used for “battlefield surveillance, treaty monitoring, transportation monitoring, scud hunting” and other clear military applications. Probably the number one benefit of smart dust in the military environment is its surveillance abilities. Major Scott Dickson in a Blue Horizons Paper written for the Center for Strategy and Technology for the United States Air Force Air War College, sees smart dust as helping the military in battlespace awareness, homeland security, and weapons of mass destruction (WMD) identification. Furthermore, Major Dickson also believes it may be possible to create smart dust that has the ability to defeat communications jamming equipment created by foreign governments, which could help the US military not only communicate among itself, but could also increase communications with civilians in military combat zones. On a much larger scale, smart dust could even help the US military and NASA protect the earth. According to a 2010 article written by Jessica Griggs in , one of the first benefits of smart dust could be an early defense warning for space storms and other debris that could be catastrophic. | This transition is designed to move from the first main point to the second main point. Also notice that this speech is designed with a categorical/topic speech pattern. |
Now that we’ve explored some of the military benefits of smart dust, let’s switch gears and see how smart dust may be able to have an impact on our daily lives. According to the smart dust project website, smart dust could quickly become a part of our daily lives. Everything from pasting smart dust particles to our finger tips to create a virtual computer keyboard to inventory control to product quality control have been discussed as possible applications for smart dust. Steve Lohr in his 2010 article wrote, “The applications for sensor-based computing, experts say, include buildings that manage their own energy use, bridges that sense motion and metal fatigue to tell engineers they need repairs, cars that track traffic patterns and report potholes, and fruit and vegetable shipments that tell grocers when they ripen and begin to spoil.” Medically, according to the smart dust project website, smart dust could help disabled individuals interface with computers. Theoretically, we could all be injected with smart dust, which relays information to our physicians and detects adverse changes to our body instantly. Smart dust could detect the microscopic formations of cancer cells or alert us when we’ve been infected by a bacteria or virus, which could speed up treatment and prolong all of our lives. | This is a third transition sentence. |
Stand up, Speak out Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.
Introduction speech generator.
Discover the art of crafting compelling introduction speeches through our comprehensive guide. Whether you’re a beginner or a seasoned speaker, our step-by-step approach simplifies the process. Explore a rich collection of speech examples , tailored to inspire and improve your public speaking skills. Master the nuances of delivering impactful introductions that captivate your audience, using our expertly curated speech examples as your roadmap to success.
An introduction speech , also known as an introductory speech or an icebreaker speech, is a short address given to introduce oneself or someone else to an audience. The purpose of an introduction speech is to provide relevant information about the person being introduced, set the tone for the event or presentation, and establish a connection with the audience. This type of speech is commonly used in various settings, such as conferences, meetings, seminars, social events, and classrooms.
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A speech can be of any form and used for various functions. It can be a thank-you speech to show one’s gratitude or even an introduction speech to introduce a person (even oneself), product, company, or the like. In these examples, let’s look at different speech examples that seek to introduce.
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Start with a warm and friendly greeting to the audience.
State your name and your role or position.
Example : “My name is [Your Name], and I am [your position, e.g., ‘the new marketing manager’].”
Explain why you are speaking and the context of the event.
Example : “I’m here today to introduce our guest speaker, [Speaker’s Name].”
Provide relevant details about the person being introduced, such as their qualifications and achievements.
Example : “[Speaker’s Name] is a renowned expert in [field], with over [number] years of experience.”
Highlight why the person is important and their qualifications to speak on the topic.
Example : “[Speaker’s Name] has received numerous awards, including [specific award].”
Add a personal anecdote or a light-hearted comment to make the introduction engaging.
Example : “When [Speaker’s Name] is not busy revolutionizing the industry, they enjoy hiking and cooking gourmet meals.”
Wrap up the introduction by reiterating the importance of the person or the event.
Example : “Please join me in welcoming [Speaker’s Name].”
Smoothly transition to the next part of the event or hand over to the person being introduced.
Example : “Without further ado, here is [Speaker’s Name].”
Start with a Greeting:
Introduce Yourself:
State the Purpose:
Highlight Key Details:
Add a Personal Touch:
Summarize Significance:
Conclude and Transition:
What should an introduction speech include.
Include the speaker’s name, credentials, achievements, and relevance to the topic or event.
An introduction speech should typically last between 1 to 3 minutes, keeping it concise and engaging.
Research the speaker thoroughly, practice your speech, and time yourself to ensure it’s concise and engaging.
Address the audience formally, using appropriate greetings such as “Ladies and Gentlemen” or “Distinguished Guests.”
Only mention personal details if they are relevant and appropriate for the context and audience.
Share interesting and relevant facts, anecdotes, or achievements about the speaker that connect with the audience.
Use a respectful, enthusiastic, and welcoming tone to create a positive atmosphere.
Begin with a compelling opening, such as a quote, anecdote, or interesting fact about the speaker.
It sets the tone for the speaker, builds credibility, and engages the audience, preparing them for the main presentation.
Avoid overly long speeches, irrelevant details, mispronouncing names, and using a monotone voice.
Text prompt
Write an Introduction Speech for a guest speaker at a conference.
Create an Introduction Speech for a new teacher at school.
Introduction
I would like to thank the Brookings Center on Regulation and Markets for hosting today’s program and giving me the opportunity to share some thoughts on the prudential regulation of crypto–assets. I would particularly like to thank my friend, Aaron Klein, for the invitation.
Let me begin with a comment on banking and innovation, since that is so much at the center of the discussion around crypto–assets.
Banking, Innovation, and Crypto–Assets
There is no doubt that innovation has played a central role in the evolution of banking and finance as we know it today.
Credit cards, mobile payments, remote check deposit, online bill pay, direct deposit, and automated teller machines have transformed the financial landscape. They have generally been a benefit to both banks and consumers.
Each of these innovations share an important element: each began with a social, financial, or economic need to be addressed. Technology was then developed for the express purpose of addressing the specific need. These innovations have served to foster accessibility to the banking system, increase the convenience of consumer engagement in banking transactions, and enhance the operational efficiencies of banks and the banking industry.
At the same time, these innovations were designed to operate in a manner that is safe and sound for banks and that provides important consumer protections. These five elements—accessibility, convenience, efficiency, safety and soundness, and consumer protection—among others, have made these innovations so transformative for the banking system. It is these five elements that banks and other stakeholders should consider when assessing new innovations.
It is worth keeping this in mind because, as we know, innovation can be a double–edged sword. Subprime mortgages, subprime mortgage–backed securities, collateralized debt obligations, and credit default swaps were all considered financial innovations that would serve the interests of both consumers and banks in the early 2000s. Yet they ended up being at the center of the Global Financial Crisis of 2008.
One of the main reasons that these innovations resulted in such a catastrophic failure was that their risks were too often poorly understood by consumers and industry participants, frequently downplayed, and even intentionally ignored, in the market’s eagerness to participate in these products. The risks associated with these products are clear today, and would have been clearer then, had we stepped back and taken the time to thoroughly analyze them. Indeed, history and hindsight show that the better approach is often caution when confronted with conditions such as these.
This brings me to the subject of today’s program – crypto–assets. For purposes of this discussion, I will rely on the definition used in the recently published digital asset report by the Financial Stability Oversight Council (FSOC). Crypto–assets are private sector digital assets that depend primarily on the use of cryptography and distributed ledger or similar technologies. 1
Advocates of crypto–assets, and the distributed ledger technology on which they rely, have represented that these assets and technologies will increase financial accessibility and convenience for consumers, and operational efficiencies for banks. At the same time, they bring with them novel and complex risks that, like the risks associated with the innovative products in the early 2000s, are difficult to fully assess, especially with the market’s eagerness to move quickly into these products.
The recent Treasury Department report on crypto–assets should give us pause as it articulates the risks and implications for consumers, investors and businesses. The report states that for crypto–assets “both the existing use cases, and potential opportunities, come with risks, including conduct and market integrity risks, operational risks, and intermediation risks (i.e., traditional financial risks that have the potential to manifest in particular ways in the crypto–asset markets). Some risks are unique to the crypto–asset ecosystem, while others are versions of those experienced in traditional financial markets that may be heightened when experienced in the crypto–asset ecosystem.” 2
Part of the difficulty in assessing these risks arises from the dynamic nature of crypto–assets, the crypto marketplace, and the rapid pace of innovation. As soon as the risks of some crypto–assets come into sharper focus, either the underlying technology shifts or the use case or business model of the crypto–asset changes. New crypto–assets are regularly coming on the market with differentiated risk profiles such that superficially similar crypto–assets may pose significantly different risks. For example, one popular price–tracking website for crypto–assets reports 21,398 unique crypto–assets, trading across 526 crypto–exchanges. 3 Understanding the risks of such a large number of unique crypto–assets and the integrity of so many crypto–exchanges is a challenging task.
Similarly, consumers are often finding that they have no party to turn to when a problem arises, particularly in decentralized blockchain ledgers. 4 And finally, many crypto–assets operate on open, permissionless networks that allow anyone, anywhere to trade on the network, which – by design – makes it difficult to track individual actors. This design feature also makes it nearly impossible to ensure compliance with anti–money laundering and counter terrorism financing requirements.
With that context, my remarks today will focus on two topics. First, I’ll provide a brief overview of the FDIC’s approach to engaging with banks as they consider crypto–asset related activities. Second, I’ll discuss the potential benefits, risks, and policy questions related to the possibility that a stablecoin could be developed that would allow for reliable, real–time consumer and business payments.
FDIC’s Approach to Engaging with Banks on Crypto–Asset Related Activities
It is important to recognize that almost all crypto–asset activity today involves investing and trading in crypto–assets. That activity, and the platforms through which the activity occurs, fall in the first instance under the authority of the U.S. market regulators – the Securities Exchange Commission and the Commodity Futures Trading Commission.
However, the recent growth in the crypto–asset industry has triggered increasing interest on the part of some banks to engage in crypto–asset activities. 5
From the perspective of a banking regulator, before banks engage in crypto–asset related activities, it is important to ensure that: (a) the specific activity is permissible under applicable law and regulation; (b) the activity can be engaged in a safe and sound manner; (c) the bank has put in place appropriate measures and controls to identify and manage the novel risks associated with those activities; and (d) the bank can ensure compliance with all relevant laws, including those related to anti–money laundering/countering the financing of terrorism, and consumer protection.
The FDIC had been generally aware of the interest in crypto–asset related activities through its normal supervision process, but as interest has accelerated, we recognized that we lacked sufficient information on the risks associated with these activities as well as on which banks have been engaging in, or are interested in engaging in, crypto–asset related activities.
To address that gap, in April of this year, the FDIC issued a financial institution letter, 6 asking the banks the FDIC supervises to notify us if they are engaging in, or planning to engage in, crypto–asset related activities. If so, we asked banks to provide us enough details to allow us to work with them to assess the risks associated with the activities and the appropriateness of their proposed governance and risk management processes associated with the activity. The other federal banking agencies have issued similar requests to their supervised institutions. 7
Once the FDIC develops a better understanding of activities planned or already active, we provide the institution with case–specific supervisory feedback. 8 As the FDIC and the other Federal banking agencies develop a better collective understanding of the risks associated with these activities, we expect to provide broader industry guidance on an interagency basis.
This clearly reflects a cautious and deliberate approach by the agencies to bank participation in crypto–asset related activity. We are doing this for several reasons: (a) the risk of these activities to safety and soundness, consumer protection, and financial stability; (b) the lack of history and familiarity with these assets both in the marketplace and within regulated financial institutions; and (c) the dynamic nature of these assets.
You need only read the news to know that these risks are very real. After the bankruptcies of crypto–asset platforms earlier this year, there have been numerous stories of consumers who have been unable to access their funds or savings. 9
In addition, false and misleading statements, either direct or implied, by crypto–asset entities concerning the availability of federal deposit insurance for a given crypto–asset product violate the law. 10 We have seen several instances where crypto–asset companies have given customers the impression that they are protected by the government safety net when, in fact, they are not. Further, misrepresentations by crypto–asset firms about how they are regulated have also confused consumers and investors regarding whether a given crypto–asset product is regulated to the same extent as other financial products.
In other cases, customers may have fundamentally misunderstood the risks associated with investment in various types of crypto–assets, calling into question whether consumer disclosures and other important consumer safeguards are appropriately implemented within the crypto–asset marketplace.
Insured institutions need to be aware of how FDIC insurance operates and need to assess, manage, and control risks arising from third–party relationships, including those with crypto companies. In addition to potential consumer harm, customer confusion can lead to risks for banks if a third party with whom they are dealing, makes misrepresentations about the nature and scope of deposit insurance. The FDIC issued an Advisory in July reminding insured banks of the risks that could arise related to misrepresentations of deposit insurance by crypto–asset companies. 11
Stablecoins
Crypto–Assets and the Current Role of Stablecoins
Bitcoin was the first widely known crypto–asset. It was designed to operate on a public distributed ledger system employing blockchain technology. 12
The purported purpose of Bitcoin was the development of an alternative currency system free of central control and free of the need for banks and governments. The validation transactions on the blockchain system operated by a decentralized public consensus process. Since the advent of Bitcoin, many other purported crypto–assets have come online, for example, Ether.
Neither Bitcoin nor Ether are backed by physical assets, but rather they purport to establish value by their scarcity or utility. As such, the value of these crypto–assets at any point is driven in large part by market sentiment. This has resulted in a highly volatile marketplace where fortunes have been made – and lost – overnight. 13
As investors traded in and out of various crypto–assets, a desire arose for a crypto–asset with a stable value that would allow investors to transfer value from one crypto–asset into another without the need for converting into and out of fiat currencies. This gave rise to the development of various so–called stablecoins.
Unlike Bitcoin, Ether, and similar crypto–assets, most stablecoins are represented as backed by a pool of assets or utilize other methods to help maintain a stable value. Currently, the most prominent stablecoins are purported to be backed by financial assets such as currencies, U.S. Treasury securities, or commercial paper. Like the concept of money market mutual funds, many types of stablecoins seek to maintain a stable value of one dollar (or other unit of fiat currency) per coin either through the backing by a pool of assets, which could include other digital assets, or through the use of an algorithmic mechanism as a value stabilization mechanism. Of course, what is represented and what is true may be two different things. 14
Thus far, as I previously stated, stablecoins have predominantly been used as a vehicle to buy and sell crypto–assets for investment and trading purposes– there has been no demonstration so far of their value in terms of the broader payments system. 15
Payment Stablecoins
Even if crypto–assets and stablecoins have not yet proven to be a meaningful or reliable source of payments in the real economy, the distributed ledger technology upon which they are built may prove to have meaningful applications and public utility within the payments system.
We are at a pivotal policy point with this new technology and asset class, much as we were during the free banking era of the late 1800s and early 1900s, as the financial system we know today came into being. As pointed out in the FSOC digital asset report, “currency during the free banking era consisted of bank notes, that is, liabilities of individual banks payable in gold or silver if presented at the issuing bank. As many as 1,500 currencies circulated at any one time.” 16
This decentralized form of monetary exchange led to numerous bank runs and cycles of bank failures. 17 While our financial system has advanced significantly over the past century, we would do well to keep our history in mind. It offers a valuable lesson about the risks of private money, both digital and physical, for the U.S. financial system when we consider the more–than 21,000 crypto–assets currently in existence.
There has been considerable discussion and public debate regarding the benefits and risks associated with the development of a payment stablecoin for both domestic and international cross–border payment purposes that is subject to prudential regulation.
The main benefit given for the development of a payment stablecoin is the ability to offer cost–effective, real–time, around–the–clock retail and business payments. On the domestic level, this is similar to the benefits proposed by the Federal Reserve’s FedNow system that is scheduled to come online in the coming year. 18 The extent to which a payment stablecoin would provide additive or complementary benefits to the FedNow system remains to be seen.
Nonetheless, there may be merit in continuing to examine the potential benefits associated with payment stablecoins. To be clear, I see the notion of payment stablecoins as conceptually distinct and separate from the existing broader universe of stablecoins and designed specifically as an instrument to satisfy the consumer and business need for safe, efficient, cost–effective, real–time payments.
Policy Considerations for Payment Stablecoins
There are three important features that could make payment stablecoins significantly safer than the stablecoins currently in the marketplace.
First, payment stablecoins would be safer if they were subject to prudential regulation. One vehicle for ensuring prudential regulation and separation from deposit taking would be the issuance of a payment stablecoin through a bank subsidiary.
Second, payment stablecoins would be safer if they were required to be backed dollar–for–dollar by high–quality, short–dated U.S. Treasury assets. Backing with such high–quality assets would help ensure that payment stablecoins could be quickly and efficiently redeemed for fiat currency on a dollar–for–dollar basis limiting the potential for risks associated with these instruments to spillover to the traditional financial system.
Third, payment stablecoins would be safer if they were transacted on permissioned ledger systems with a robust governance and compliance mechanisms. The ability to know all the parties – including nodes and validators – that are engaging in payment stablecoin activities is critical to ensuring compliance with anti–money laundering and countering the financing of terrorism regulations, and deterring sanction evasion. 19 The U.S. Department of the Treasury action plan to address illicit financing risks of digital assets is a helpful step in addressing those risks. 20
While these three features would make payment stablecoins safer, there remain several important policy considerations that should be taken into account when examining the benefits and risks associated with payment stablecoins.
The development of a payment stablecoin could fundamentally alter the landscape of banking. Economies of scale associated with payment stablecoins could lead to further consolidation in the banking system or disintermediation of traditional banks. And the network effects associated with payment stablecoins could alter the manner in which credit is extended within the banking system – for example by facilitating greater use of FinTech and non–bank lending – and possibly leading to forms of credit disintermediation that could harm the viability of many U.S. banks and potentially create a foundation for a new type of shadow banking.
This raises very important policy questions. For example, should nonbanks be allowed to offer stablecoins, or should the issuance of payment stablecoins be limited to banks and prudentially–regulated bank subsidiaries? It is important to have this debate, not only in the context of regulating crypto–related risks, but in the context of the future of banking—especially community banking.
When we consider where payment stablecoins should fit into the regulatory landscape, we must also consider the manner and extent to which states should charter stablecoin issuers or license them as money transmitters. Many states have invested considerable time and effort into understanding the risks associated with crypto–assets and stablecoins. All payment stablecoin issuers should – just like banks, whether Federal or state chartered, be subject to prudential regulation and oversight. As I mentioned, the potential for non–bank stablecoins to disintermediate community banks from their local communities is an issue that should also be carefully explored and considered.
Payment stablecoins by their very design could exhibit many of the features, and potential vulnerabilities, associated with money market mutual funds. As we have seen previously, in stressed market conditions, large investors could quickly exit their holdings, leading to the fire–sale pricing of underlying securities and panic selling by other investors. This could result in contagion across other payment stablecoins and similar pooled asset holdings, resulting in a systemic event.
Careful attention should also be paid to disclosure and consumer protection issues. While the fundamental premise of payment stablecoins is that they may be safer and easier to understand than more complex crypto–assets, the interface with retail businesses will pose new questions and challenges, as both consumers and businesses adjust to a new form of payments and its associated rights and obligations. Unfortunately some fraud–related experiences with certain peer–to–peer payment systems have highlighted risks associated with novel retail payment systems. 21
The disclosure and consumer protection issues will also need to be carefully considered, especially if custodial wallets are allowed outside of the banking system as a means for holding and conducting transactions with payment stablecoins. It is uncertain whether and to what extent such wallets would or should be subject to prudential supervision.
Consideration must be given to the ability of a payment stablecoin to foster a more inclusive and accessible banking system. A payment stablecoin and any associated hosted or custodial wallets should be designed in a manner that eliminates – not creates – barriers for low– and moderate–income households to benefit from a real–time payment system. Further, additional studies should be undertaken to see if there are design features that could provide incentives for greater participation by unbanked and under–banked households. At the same time, it also raises the questions about those lacking appropriate technological resources, including internet connectivity, and risks of financial exclusion if the financial system moves primarily to a digital format.
As I previously indicated, another important policy consideration should be how a payment system that is based on the use of payment stablecoins would appropriately interact with the Federal Reserve’s upcoming FedNow service, as well as the potential development of a U.S. central bank digital currency.
Finally, we are left with one of the most pressing policy questions: Is legislation needed, and, if so, for what issues are legislation most needed?
The Federal banking agencies have a significant breadth of authority when it comes to addressing the safety and soundness and financial stability risks associated with crypto–asset–related activities, including perhaps payment stablecoin issuance, by our regulated entities. However, there are clear limits to our authority, especially in certain areas of consumer protection as well as the provision of wallets and other related services by non–bank entities. We must consider the extent to which legislation would be necessary to provide a cohesive framework to prudentially regulate a payment stablecoin system from “end–to–end” and to ensure that consumers are appropriately protected in the process.
Conclusion
While I have sounded several notes of caution, it is important for the FDIC and the other Federal banking agencies to approach crypto–assets and crypto–asset–related activities thoughtfully.
We must understand and assess the risks associated with these activities the same way that we would assess the risks related to any other new activity. However, the risks associated with crypto–assets are novel and complex, so the assessment of these risks will take time and a significant amount of dialogue with multiple stakeholders.
We will continue to work with our supervised banks to ensure that any crypto–asset–related activities that they engage in are permissible banking activities that can be conducted in a safe and sound manner and in compliance with existing laws and regulations. If so, we will work with banks to ensure that they have put in place appropriate measures and controls to identify and manage risks and can ensure compliance with all relevant laws, including those related to anti–money laundering and consumer protection. And we will do this in collaboration with our fellow banking agencies.
There may be benefits associated with a payment stablecoin, especially to the extent that it fosters an inclusive, real–time payment system. However, there are important risks and policy concerns that will need to be taken into consideration before a payment stablecoin system is developed. To the extent that a payment stablecoin system is developed, it should be designed in a manner that complements the Federal Reserve’s FedNow system and the potential future development of a U.S. central bank digital currency.
Those are my thoughts for today. I very much appreciate your attention.
Financial Stability Oversight Council Report on Digital Asset Financial Stability Risks and Regulation 2022, available at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/261/FSOC-Digital-Assets-Report-2022.pdf
U.S. Department of the Treasury report Crypto–Assets: Implications for Consumers, Investors, and Businesses, available at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/CryptoAsset_EO5.pdf .
See https://coinmarketcap.com/ as of October 18, 2022.
See Emma Fletcher, Reports show scammers cashing in on crypto craze , The Federal Trade Commission (June 3, 2022) available at https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/data-visualizations/data-spotlight/2022/06/reports-show-scammers-cashing-crypto-craze ; Chainanalysis Team, The Biggest Threat to Trust in Cryptocurrency: Rug Pulls Put 2021 Cryptocurrency Scam Revenue Close to All-time Highs , Chainanalysis (December 16, 2021) available at https://blog.chainalysis.com/reports/2021-crypto-scam-revenues/ ;Khristopher J. Brooks, Cryptocurrency heists are getting more ambitious — and costlier to investors , CBS News (April 26, 2022) available at https://www.cbsnews.com/news/cryptocurrency-theft-hack-defi-beanstalk-blockchain/ ; E. Napoletano and Benjamin Curry, What Is DeFi? Understanding Decentralized Finance , Forbes (April 8, 2022) available at https://www.forbes.com/advisor/investing/cryptocurrency/defi-decentralized-finance/ ; Sam Becker, DeFi Is the Wild West of Banking and Investing. Here’s What Crypto Investors Should Know , NextAdvisor, in Partnership with Time (June 30, 2022) available at https://time.com/nextadvisor/investing/cryptocurrency/what-is-defi/ ; David Yaffe–Bellany, The Crypto World Is on Edge After a String of Hacks , The New York Times (September 28, 2022) available at https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/28/technology/crypto-hacks-defi.html
The impact of COVID–19 on cryptocurrency markets: A network analysis based on mutual information, available at https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0259869 .
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Financial Institution Letter 16–2022: Notification of Engaging in Crypto–Related Activities , FDIC (April 7, 2022) available at https://www.fdic.gov/news/financial-institution-letters/2022/fil22016.html
OCC, Interpretive Letter 1179 (November 18, 2021); Federal Reserve SR 22–6 / CA 22–6: Engagement in Crypto–Asset–Related Activities by Federal Reserve–Supervised Banking Organizations (August 16, 2022).
Notifications under the FIL and knowledge of engagement or potential engagement that we learn through the supervisory process is confidential supervisory information, but we are aware of approximately 80 FDIC–supervised institutions that are engaging in or are interested in engaging in crypto–asset activities, and approximately two dozen that appear to be actively engaged in activities described in the FIL. The FDIC is providing various types of supervisory feedback, depending upon the activity involved, the status of the activity (active or planned), and the institution’s risk management framework, among other things.
See https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/07/06/voyager-bankruptcy-three-arrows/ , https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2022/07/13/crypto-bankruptcy-celsius-depositors/
https://www.fdic.gov/news/press-releases/2022/pr22060.html
See Advisory to FDIC–Insured Institutions Regarding Deposit Insurance and Dealings with Crypto Companies , FIL–35–2022 (July 29, 2022) available at https://www.fdic.gov/news/financial-institution-letters/2022/fil22035.html
See Satoshi Nakamoto, Bitcoin: A Peer–to–Peer Electronic Cash System , Nakamoto Institute (October 31, 2008) available at https://nakamotoinstitute.org/bitcoin/
See Mackenzie Sigalos, Voyager customer lost $1 million saved over 24 years and is one of many now desperate to recoup funds , CNBC (August 15, 2022) available at https://www.cnbc.com/2022/08/15/voyager-customers-beg-new-york-judge-for-money-back-after-bankruptcy.html#:~:text=Investing%20Club-,Voyager%20customer%20lost%20%241%20million%20saved%20over%2024%20years%20and,now%20desperate%20to%20recoup%20funds&text=Many%20of%20Voyager%20Digital's%203.5,court%20judge%20overseeing%20the%20case
President’s Working Group on Financial Markets, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency Repot on Stablecoins, available at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/StableCoinReport_Nov1_508.pdf .
See footnote 14.
See Franklin D. Roosevelt, Transcript of Speech by President Franklin D. Roosevelt Regarding the Banking Crisis , FDIC (March 12, 1933) available at https://www.fdic.gov/about/history/3-12-33transcript.html
Brainard, Lael, “Progress on Fast Payments for All: An Update on FedNow,” August 29, 2022 at https://www.federalreserve.gov/newsevents/speech/brainard20220829a.htm
DARPA–Funded Study Provides Insights into Blockchain Vulnerabilities, available at https://www.darpa.mil/news-events/2022-06-21 .
U.S. Department of the Treasury Action Plan to Address Illicit Financing Risks of Digital Assets, available at https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/136/Digital-Asset-Action-Plan.pdf
See Stacy Cowley and Lananh Nguyen, Fraud Is Flourishing on Zelle. The Banks Say It’s Not Their Problem , The New York Times (March 6, 2022) available at https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/06/business/payments-fraud-zelle-banks.html
Last Updated: October 20, 2022
IMAGES
COMMENTS
As in all papers, the analysis must include an introduction, body, and conclusion. Start your introduction paragraph with an attention-getter or hook. Make sure your introduction includes a thesis sentence or purpose and previews the main points covered in the body. State the type of speech being analyzed and where it took place.
Introduction of the Speech Analysis. First thing's first, add an introduction. It usually begins with a hook, something to entice the reader. Then it mentions the time and place of the speech, followed by an overview of the address. Next, you need to mention the speaker, the topic, and the key points of the speech.
A speech analysis is an evaluation of a speech. Whether the speech is meant to inform, persuade, or entertain, it can be analyzed for its rhetorical intent. When giving a speech analysis, it is ...
Rhetorical analysis introduction. Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech is widely regarded as one of the most important pieces of oratory in American history. Delivered in 1963 to thousands of civil rights activists outside the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., the speech has come to symbolize the spirit of the civil ...
9. It's in the news. Take headlines from what's trending in media you know the audience will be familiar with and see. Using those that relate to your speech topic as the opening of your speech is a good way to grab the attention of the audience. It shows how relevant and up-to-the-minute the topic is. For example:
Establishing how your speech topic is relevant and important shows the audience why they should listen to your speech. To be an effective speaker, you should convey all three components of credibility, competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill, by the content and delivery of your introduction.
Typical Patterns for Speech Openings. Get the audience's attention-called a hook or a grabber. Establish rapport and tell the audience why you care about the topic of why you are credible to speak on the topic. Introduce the speech thesis/preview/good idea. Tell the audience why they should care about this topic.
The Introduction of a Speech; The introduction of a speech is one of the most important elements of a speech since it is usually designed to grab the attention of the audience, either with a hook, a preview of what the Speech is all about, a joke, a controversial statement, a startling statistics, why the Speech is important, or a powerful visual.
Studying other speakers is a critical skill, one of the 25 essential skills for a public speaker. The ability to analyze a speech will accelerate the growth of any speaker. The Speech Analysis Series is a series of articles examining different aspects of presentation analysis. You will learn how to study a speech and how to deliver an effective ...
As with any other essay, a written analysis of a speech should include a strong introduction and clear thesis statement, several body paragraphs with topic sentences and strong transitions that clearly support your analysis and an effective conclusion that summarizes your critique. Be sure that the essay is free of grammar and spelling mistakes ...
The introduction is the speaker's first and only chance to make a good impression, so, if done correctly, your speech will start strong and encourage the audience to listen to the rest. Speech Introductions. The introduction for a speech is generally only 10 to 15 percent of the entire time the speaker will spend speaking.
In the introduction of a speech, we deliver a preview of our main body points, and in the conclusion, we deliver a review. Let's look at a sample preview: In order to understand the field of gender and communication, I will first differentiate between the terms biological sex and gender. I will then explain the history of gender research in ...
Now that you've had a chance to read the introduction to the speech on smart dust, read it over a second time and look for the six parts of the speech introduction as discussed earlier in this chapter. Once you're done analyzing this introduction, Table 9.2 "Smart Dust Introduction" shows you how the speech was broken down into the ...
To that end, the introduction and conclusion need to be relatively short and to the point. The general rule is that the introduction and conclusion should each be about 10% of your total speech, leaving 80% for the body section. You can extend the introduction to 15% if there is good reason to, so 10-15% of the speech time is a good guideline ...
The Importance of an Introduction. While not a hard science, it's generally recognized that the introduction for a speech should only encompass about 10 to 20 percent of the entire time the speaker will spend speaking. This means that if your speech is meant to be five minutes long, your introduction should be no more than about forty-five ...
- Most elements in a speech have at least one of these four functions: 1. To establish contact with the audience. 2. To place emphasis on certain ideas. 3. To present ideas understandably or memorably (illustration, memory aid). 4. To convey a certain image of the speaker (self-presentation). Writing a speech analysis
Use lots of evidence with strong references. Argue both sides of the case, clearly stating pros and cons of each. Try not to exaggerate, keep to the facts. 3. Uninformed. This is the most common type of audience you will encounter. They might know a little about your presentation topic but certainly not in great detail.
A speech analysis essay is a type of writing where you analyze a speech and discuss its effectiveness. In order to write a good speech analysis essay, you'll need to understand the four key elements of a speech: purpose, message, medium, and audience. ... The introduction will introduce the speech and provide some context for it. The body of ...
5.5 Using Your Audience Analysis. Click below to play an audio file of this section of the chapter sponsored by the Women for OSU Partnering to Impact grant. A good audience analysis takes time, thought, preparation, implementation, and processing. If done well, it will yield information that will help you interact effectively with your audience.
Audience analysis is the process of gathering information about the people in your audience so that you can understand their needs, expectations, beliefs, values, attitudes, and likely opinions. In this chapter, we will first examine some reasons why audience analysis is important. We will then describe three different types of audience ...
Thus far this chapter has focused on how you go about creating main points and organizing the body of your speech. In this section we're going to examine the three main points of an actual speech. Before we start analyzing the introduction, please read the paragraphs that follow. Smart Dust Speech Body. To help us understand smart dust, we ...
Examples of speech analysis. To fully understand how to apply the methods and terms outlined in this analysis guide, it may be helpful to take a look at a couple of examples where specific speeches are analyzed using the principles we describe, including quotations and examples that point out various stylistic and rhetorical devices 'in action'.
Example: "Good afternoon, everyone.". 2. Self-Introduction (if introducing yourself) State your name and your role or position. Example: "My name is [Your Name], and I am [your position, e.g., 'the new marketing manager'].". 3. Purpose of the Speech. Explain why you are speaking and the context of the event.
Introduction I would like to thank the Brookings Center on Regulation and Markets for hosting today's program and giving me the opportunity to share some thoughts on the prudential regulation of crypto-assets. I would particularly like to thank my friend, Aaron Klein, for the invitation.Let me begin with a comment on banking and innovation, since that is so much at the center of the ...