reference in creative writing

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CREATIVE WRITING: How to Cite Your Sources

• Introduction
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This page will help you...

• Understand why you need to cite your sources
• Find online and physical library citation style guides
• Access a free, open source citation management tool

Citing Sources

• It's Required. But Why?

• Fairfield University MLA Guide
• MLA Style Center
• How do I cite generative AI in MLA style?

What Citations Reveal & How They Impact Us

"When you cite a source, you show how your voice enters into an intellectual conversation and you demonstrate your link to the community within which you work. Working with sources can inspire your own ideas and enrich them, and your citation of these sources is the visible trace of that debt." ( Yale College Writing Center )

When you cite a source you also reveal whose voices and thoughts are included in these intellectual conversations. Thus, who you read and what you cite can help strengthen diversity and equity in scholarship.

We are a collective of Black women of first-generation, queer, working class and poor, immigrant, and disabled experience and we formed out of the necessity to cite, (re)claim, and honor Black women's work. #CiteBlackWomen — Cite Black Women. (@citeblackwomen) September 9, 2020

To Connect  Ideas   |   To Acknowledge  a Community of Contributors   |   To Read & Cite Inclusively

Featured style guide

Additional online citation guides.

When citing scores, images, recordings and other less-traditional sources, start with the style recommended by your professor. Determine what rules pertain to your situation and adapt them as necessary. If the information provider has specified how they want their source cited, try to follow those instructions. These online guides to citing specific information formats may help:

• Citing American FactFinder Tables and Maps
• Citing Audio from the University of Cincinnati
• Citing Data and Statistics from Michigan State

Recommended citation helper

Zotero is a free, open source citation management program maintained by the nonprofit Corporation for Digital Scholarship .

Designed for students and scholars, Zotero makes collecting, managing and citing sources easier.

The software consists of three parts:

• A browser plugin that you click to collect citations from a library catalog, database or website
• A database to store and manage your citations
• Icons in your word processor that you click to insert a citation or works cited list.

Like any citation management program, Zotero is not perfect. It knows enough about citation styles to give you a good first draft of your citatoin sand works cited list. However, it relies on information found in databases and websites which are not always accurate.

I recommend that you double-check citations and works cited lists created with Zotero against the official style guide. Make sure you know the type of source you are trying to cite and check the capitalization and punctuation carefully.

Armacost Library has created this guide to help you learn to use Zotero:

• Zotero: A Guide on Getting Started by Emily Croft Last Updated Sep 18, 2020 102 views this year
• Citing sources lets you indicate whose ideas your own work draws upon, and give those individuals credit for their contributions.
• The MLA style guide is only available in the physical library. If you're not able to access it, try an online guide to MLA style.
• Zotero is a free, open source tool you can use to manage your citations.

See the "Using information ethically" chapter in the Introduction to Library Research in the Arts to learn more about ethical research practices, including inclusive citing practices and bibliodiversity.

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Creative Writing: Referencing

• Referencing
• Web Resources
• Literary magazines

Why reference?

It is important to learn the scholarly practice of citing other people’s research, and referencing the material you have used. 

Referencing: 

Enables your reader to find the material you have referred to  

Demonstrates your breadth of reading about the subject 

Supports and/or develops your argument

Avoids plagiarism: using somebody else’s work without acknowledging the fact is plagiarism. It is important to always reference when quoting or paraphrasing another person’s work 

What is Referencing?

Referencing is the academic practice of acknowledging the sources you have used in your work. Sources may be other people's words and ideas.

Plagiarism is the use of another person's work without proper acknowledgment. Most plagiarism is unintentional and the result of poor academic practice. It's is important to reference when directly quoting or paraphrasing another person's work. 

Referencing styles are sets of rules governing referencing practice. They prescribe the type, order and format of information in a reference. There are 3 main types of referencing style: in-text, footnote and endnote. Always check what referencing style is required by your department or assessment, as there may be local interpretations.

Referencing ebooks

Cite Them Right 

The complete guide to referencing and avoiding plagiarism

Your Department Style : MLA

Mla referencing style.

The Warwick Writing Programme requires most students to use the MLA referencing style (currently in its 9th edition). The following resources will help you:

OWL Purdue MLA Formatting and Style Guide

A clear, easy to follow web guide to the MLA style, covering all main reference types.

MLA Style Center

Guidance and resources for the MLA style and a good place to look for answers to more obscure referencing questions!

MLA H andbook

The definitive guide to the MLA style, available in print through the Library.

Your Department Style : MHRA

Mhra referencing style.

Many joint degree students will use the MHRA referencing style in your home departments and this style is also acceptable to the English department. (You may just want to mention to your tutors that you are using this style). The following resources will help you:

The MHRA have a comprehensive PDF guide, covering all main reference types (referencing is in chapter 11).

MHRA Style Guide PDF

MHRA style guide : a handbook for authors, editors, and writers of theses (available in print in the Library)

Referencing Moodle

Introduction to referencing..

Learn what referencing is, why it is important and when you need to use it.

Note that this course uses examples in the Harvard referencing style, not your departmental style.

Avoiding Plagiarism

This course will help you understand how plagiarism is defined, identified and its potential consequences. It will also provide you with clear tips on how to avoid plagiarism and build good academic practice.

Referencing Software

Referencing software allows you to manage references, insert citations and create a bibliography, in your referencing style. It is particularly useful for students writing  dissertations and theses.

EndNote is referencing software from Clarivate. EndNote Desktop supports the OSCOLA legal referencing style. EndNote is available  from Warwick IT Services, and is supported by Warwick Library. Please see the EndNote LibGuide for further information. 

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• Referencing

A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

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Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 16 July 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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Other students also liked, harvard in-text citation | a complete guide & examples, harvard style bibliography | format & examples, referencing books in harvard style | templates & examples, scribbr apa citation checker.

An innovative new tool that checks your APA citations with AI software. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations!

Encyclopedia

Writing with artificial intelligence, citation guide – learn how to cite sources in academic and professional writing.

• © 2024 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

Citation isn't just about adhering to prescribed rules or ensuring each dot and comma is in its rightful place. It's a rhetorical , fluid, intuitive process where writers must balance the authoritative voices of external sources with their own unique voice . Learn actionable strategies to weave sources into your writing .

For writers, learning how to cite sources in academic and professional writing is twofold: one aspect is rule-bound and procedural, while the other is open-ended and creative:

• Communities of practice — such as The APA – American Psychological Association or the MLA – The Modern Language Association — develop unique textual practices — including conventions for acknowledging, quoting , paraphrasing , and summarizing sources
• research the status of the scholarly conversation on any particular topic among domain experts (e.g., scholars, researchers and practitioners)
• engage in rhetorical analysis (especially audience analysis ) to determine the reader’s expectations regarding citation , media , genre , voice –and related matters
• realize, through drafting , what it is they want to say — and, consequently, whom they need to cite.

Key Concepts: Academic Dishonesty ; Attribution; Evidence ; Information, Data ; Archive ; Epistemology ; Plagiarism ; Textual Research ; Symbol Analyst ; The CRAAP Test

Introduction

Citation — the act of informing your audience when you integrate material into your work that originates from another source — is both (1) a procedural, rule-bound process and (2) a creative act.

Citation as a Procedural, Rule-bound Process

First and foremost, citation functions as a methodical, rule-driven process, where adhering to the conventions of specific citation styles is paramount. For instance, if you are a scientist attempting to publish an article in The New England Journal of Medicine , you would need to follow the ICMJE Recommendations or the Vancouver system to ensure your references are correctly formatted and accepted by the journal’s editors.

This procedural aspect of citation can be broken down into four main steps:

• Determine the Citation Style: Understand the specific citation style your assignment or publication demands, be it APA, MLA, Chicago, or others.
• Choose Your Citation Strategy or Tool: Opt for a strategy or citation tool to systematically track and organize your citations.
• Compose Citations: Ensure accurate representation for all material borrowed from other sources, be it summarized , paraphrased , or quoted .
• Review and Revise: As your work develops, rigorously verify that your citations — in-text (parenthetical, numbered, or note citations, and in the reference list — conform to the requirements of the required citation style.

For a deeper understanding of these basic steps, consult the following:

• Citation – When & Why You Must Cite Sources in Academic & Professional Writing
• Paraphrase – Definition & Examples – How to Paraphrase with Clarity & Concision
• Quotation – When & How to Use Quotes in Your Writing
• Summary – How to Summarize Sources in Academic & Professional Writing

Citation as a Creative Act

Beyond the specific conventions dictated by formats like APA or MLA , citation is fundamentally about joining an ongoing dialogue with fellow scholars, past and present. Thus, beyond being rule-bound, citation is also a rhetorical, creative act.

When writers summarize , paraphrase , or quote others, they’re not just borrowing words or thoughts. Instead, they’re actively positioning themselves within a broader, dynamic conversation that encompasses centuries of human thought and inquiry. Take, for instance, the act of referencing Michelle Alexander’s “The New Jim Crow” . Citing Alexander’s work is akin to stepping into an expansive auditorium, catching Alexander’s eye, and confidently contributing to a resounding, layered discussion. Happily, in attendance at the auditorium are all of the writers that Alexander quoted — and all of the authors those writers cited. And, streaming in the door are new authors who are eager to add their two cents to the conversation .

Here’s the bottom line: human nature instinctively pushes us toward collaboration and the sharing of knowledge . Across history, great thinkers have acknowledged and celebrated this collective instinct.

The Association of College and Research Libraries reinforces this through their “Scholarship as a Conversation ” framework. They posit that knowledge isn’t just a treasure waiting to be discovered but an ongoing dialogue to be engaged with. Within this context, citation isn’t just a formality; it’s an essential tether, anchoring our ideas to the vast mosaic of scholarly exchange.

Historical reflections affirm this communal approach to knowledge. Bernard of Chartres, in 1159, coined the metaphor of “dwarves perched on the shoulders of giants,” emphasizing our continuous build on the foundational work of predecessors. Similarly, Isaac Newton, in 1675, noted that his groundbreaking discoveries were possible due to the insights of those before him. In turn, Kenneth Burke’s ‘parlor metaphor’ offers a vivid portrayal of this timeless academic exchange. He likens it to a conversation that’s been underway long before we join in and will continue long after we’ve departed, with new voices continually enriching the discourse.

Today, platforms like Google Scholar echo this enduring philosophy, with its motto, “Stand on the shoulders of Giants.” It serves as a reminder that as we wade through the extensive realm of human understanding, citation acts as our guiding star – enabling us to both find our way and add our unique insights to humanity’s unending scholarly conversation.

How Can I Determine Which Citation Style to Use?

Each community of practice adopts its own discourse conventions for citation. For instance, a paper written for an English course might expect citations to follow the Modern Language Association (MLA) style, while a psychology research article would typically utilize the American Psychological Association (APA) format. Similarly, a historian might lean towards the Chicago Manual of Style. Thus, there isn’t a one-size-fits-all approach to incorporating sources into your writing.

Thus, your first step when endeavoring to weave the ideas and words of others into your writing is to engage in rhetorical analysis :

• What citation format does your audience anticipate? This often hinges on the academic discipline, publication venue, or even a specific instructor’s preference.
• Do your readers prefer direct quotations , paraphrases , or a mix of both?
• How frequently do they expect sources to be cited?
• Are primary sources prioritized over secondary ones?

Is Using a Citation Tool a Good Idea?

Yes! Utilizing a citation tool scugh as Zotero can greatly benefit students and professionals alike for several reasons:

• Efficiency and Consistency: These tools automate the creation of citations and ensure consistency across all references, which is especially beneficial when handling multiple sources.
• Accuracy: Many citation tools extract data directly from journals, databases, or websites, which minimizes potential human errors in capturing details such as authors, publication dates, or titles.
• Adaptability: One of the notable benefits of citation tools is their ability to quickly switch between various citation styles. This is invaluable if you’re writing assignments for different courses or if you’re publishing in diverse venues with distinct citation requirements.
• Archival and Organizational Benefits: Citation tools store and organize references, providing a valuable archive of your reading history. This not only helps you keep track of sources you’ve read but also leverages your reading history to aid in future research or writing projects. The ability to categorize, tag, and annotate references can be a game-changer for extensive research projects.
• Cross-Platform Synchronization: Many citation tools synchronize across devices and platforms. This means you can access, add to, or edit your library from any device, ensuring seamless integration into your workflow.

When Should I Directly Quote a Source Versus Paraphrasing or Summarizing It?

Use a Direct Quote :

• When Original Phrasing is Important : Some authors have a unique way of expressing thoughts that can’t be recreated without losing its essence. If a particular turn of phrase or specific words are crucial, retain them.
• When It Supports Your Point Strongly : If a quote directly aligns with your argument and bolsters it more than a paraphrase or summary would, opt for a direct quote .
• For Credibility : Quoting renowned experts or primary sources can lend your work credibility . Direct quotes serve as evidence that your claims are rooted in established research or authoritative opinions.

Paraphrase :

• To Personalize Information : Paraphrasing allows you to present information in your voice . This not only showcases your understanding but ensures the information seamlessly blends with your narrative.
• To Simplify Complex Content : Some original texts may be laden with jargon or complex structures. Paraphrasing can distill these intricate concepts into more accessible language. It’s an opportunity to break down and explain content, making it easier for your audience to grasp.

Summarize :

• Providing an Overview : When you need to touch upon the general themes or major points of a large body of work without diving deep into specifics, summarizing is your go-to tool.
• Condensing Information : Summarizing is especially useful when dealing with lengthy sources. It allows you to present the core ideas succinctly, giving readers a snapshot of the content without overwhelming them with details.

How Can I Distinguish My Ideas from Those of My Sources?

It’s essential that writers neither claim others’ ideas as their own (which is plagiarism ) nor allow their original thoughts to be overshadowed by external sources. To ensure clarity for your readers, you must differentiate between your ideas and those of your sources.

Readers, moving from left to right, shouldn’t have to double back to figure out the origin of the information in a paragraph or section. Take Theresa Lovins’s essay, “Objectionable Rock Lyrics”, as an instance:

“Many Americans fear government intervention when it comes to human rights. They fear that government censorship of rock lyrics might lead to other restrictions. Then too, what would the guidelines be, who would make these decisions, and how might it affect our cherished constitutional rights? Questions like these should always be approached with serious consideration. We have obligations as parents to protect our children and as Americans to uphold and protect our rights. Therefore, it’s important to ask what effects proposals like Tipper Gore’s, president of PMRC, might have on our freedoms in the future. She recommends that the record companies utilize a rating system: X would stand for profane or sexually explicit lyrics, V for violence, O for occultism, and D/A for drugs/alcohol. The PMRC also suggest that the lyrics be displayed on the outside cover along with a general warning sticker which perhaps might read “Parental Guidance: Explicit Lyrics.” To date, record companies have not agreed to all these demands but some have decided to put warning labels on certain questionable albums (Morthland).”

While Lovins provides complete documentation for her source (i.e., Morthland), she doesn’t clearly delineate what precisely she’s borrowing from him. This ambiguity could be effortlessly addressed with a transitional phrase, such as, “In a recent examination of this controversy, John Morthland’s essay in High Fidelity notes that Tipper Gore has proposed…”. By doing so, Lovins ensures her audience knows exactly where her own thoughts conclude and Morthland’s begin.

First-time Introductions:

• MLA Style Example : “Before exploring the intricacies of cultural hybridity, it’s valuable to understand Homi Bhabha’s viewpoint. In The Location of Culture , he notes that mimicry often renders “the colonial subject… as a ‘partial’ presence” (Bhabha 123).”
• APA Style Example : “When assessing cultural hybridity, Bhabha (1994) in his seminal work, The Location of Culture , suggests that mimicry can make “the colonial subject… a ‘partial’ presence” (p. 123).”

Subsequent References:

• After the initial introduction, you can frequently refer just to the author’s last name. Only revert to the full reference if there’s ambiguity or if you’re switching to another work by the same author.
• Example : “As the discussion progresses, Bhabha (1994) further unpacks the intricate dynamics of post-colonial identities, emphasizing the transformative potential of hybrid cultures.”

Key Points to Remember:

• Clarity is Essential : Your audience should always be aware of whose perspective is being presented: yours or a cited source. Proper introductions and references prevent any mix-ups.
• Signposting is Beneficial : Using verbs like “claims,” “asserts,” or “proposes” acts as indicators that the ensuing information is from a cited work.
• Your Voice is Vital : Although external sources bolster your content’s credibility , your personal interpretations , analysis, and synthesis are what set your work apart. Make sure to regularly interject with your perspectives or evaluations of the cited material.

Why Should I End a Paragraph in My Own Voice Instead of a Quote or Paraphrase?

Your paper’s primary voice should be yours, highlighting your unique perspective and contributions. While it’s essential to support your claims with reliable evidence, the primary voice guiding the conversation should be yours. Each paragraph should start and conclude with your insights, ensuring your narrative remains central.

So, how can you, as a writer, effectively conclude a paragraph in your own voice?

• Echo key terms from the quotation or paraphrase in your concluding sentences.
• Identify connections between your viewpoint and the cited content.
• Align the quotation or paraphrase with the overarching aim of the paragraph or your main thesis.
• Draw from the source to craft a smooth transition to the subsequent paragraph.

Illustrative Example :

Main Point : The presence of plastics is ubiquitous in America, yet only a fraction are recycled.

Quotation : “In 2023, merely 8% of the entire plastic waste was redirected for recycling” (“Plastics”).

Initial Paragraph :

Every day, recyclable plastic items surround us. Found in shopping malls, restaurants, offices, schools, or homes, these plastics come as shopping bags, packaging, containers, and more. The choice arises: trash or recycle? The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) underscores, “only 8% of the total plastic waste generated in 2023 was recovered for recycling” (“Plastics”).

Drawback : The paragraph halts suddenly with the EPA’s statement.

Improved Conclusion :

This figure indicates that most of the plastic waste in 2023 remained unrecycled in America. Addressing this sizable non-recycling demographic with targeted campaigns might be the next strategic step.

Citations :

MLA: “Plastics.” EPA. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 16 Apr. 2023. Web. 26 Apr. 2023.

APA: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2023). Plastics. www.epa.gov/plastics.

What’s the Difference Between a Primary and a Secondary Source, and How Might I Approach Integrating Each Into My Writing?

Understanding the distinction between primary and secondary sources is foundational for both academic and professional writing . These sources form the underpinning of our arguments and narratives . For instance, while a comprehensive report may state thousands are affected by an issue, often it’s the personal account of an individual that resonates profoundly with readers.

1. Definitions:

• Examples : Original documents (e.g., diaries, letters), raw data, artworks, and interviews.
• Examples : Articles, books, or documentaries that critique or comment on primary sources; literature reviews.

2. Strengths of Each Source:

Primary Sources:

• They offer firsthand, unvarnished insights.
• Allow readers to engage directly with raw evidence.
• Provide an authentic voice to a narrative.

Secondary Sources:

• They are part of the written archive, allowing other researchers to validate and engage with the information.
• Provide synthesized views, amalgamating various primary sources.
• Offer expert interpretations, shedding light on complexities and nuances.

3. Approaching Integration:

• Contextualize : Describe the broader setting or circumstances of the primary source. For a diary entry, detail the societal backdrop and key events of that time to anchor readers.
• Analyze : Examine the material’s themes, biases, and underlying messages, and explain its relevance to your argument.
• Reference Correctly : Given their place in the written archive, ensure bibliographic information is accurate so others can trace back to the original source.
• Discuss Specific Interpretations : When using a secondary source, highlight its unique perspective or analytical approach. For instance, if referencing a book review that offers a novel interpretation of a classic work, explain this viewpoint and its significance.

4. Balancing the Two:

The manner in which you integrate primary and secondary sources is influenced by the genre of your writing and the rhetorical strategies you’re employing:

• Purpose and Genre : If you’re writing a case study or ethnography , the genre itself dictates a heavier reliance on primary data, giving voice to firsthand experiences. Contrastingly, a literature review or meta-analysis would lean more on secondary sources to map out existing scholarship on a topic.
• Rhetorical Impact : Primary sources, with their raw and unmediated essence, can be powerful tools for ethos and pathos , grounding your narrative in authenticity and evoking emotional responses. Secondary sources, on the other hand, can bolster logos , providing scholarly depth, breadth, and validation to your claims .
• Crafting a Cohesive Narrative : Seamlessly weaving in primary and secondary sources isn’t just about juxtaposing raw data with textual research . It’s about crafting a narrative where each type of source complements the other. A quote from an individual might be the heart of your argument , but the scholarly discussions surrounding that quote give it context and broader significance.

How Can I Effectively Connect My Claims with Sourced Evidence?

Connecting your claims with sourced evidence is pivotal in academic and professional writing . It not only fortifies your arguments but also ensures that your readers understand the relevance of the evidence you’re providing.

1. Avoid Assumptions: Many writers think the relationship between their claim and the evidence is obvious. However, readers might not see the link as clearly. Hence, after presenting sourced material, always explain its significance to your point, purpose, and thesis.

2. Make Direct Connections: Consider the reader as someone who isn’t familiar with your topic. This means after introducing a quote or data, bridge it to your argument.

• Example: Palin suggests most of our oil is sourced from unstable regions. While this concern is valid, we believe offshore drilling poses a bigger economic risk.
• Example: Although Palin’s viewpoint underscores the significance of domestic oil production, it doesn’t consider the environmental risks associated with offshore drilling.
• Example: Despite arguments favoring offshore drilling, our stance is that its potential hazards far outweigh the benefits.

3. Engage with the Source:

• Explain the importance: Clarify why the sourced material is vital to your argument. Don’t assume the reader grasps its significance.
• Talk back to the source: Showcase your understanding and use it to bolster your stance.
• Discuss the implications: Dive into the consequences of your argument in light of the sourced material.

Ultimately, the goal is to ensure the reader comprehends how the evidence supports, complicates, or even challenges your claims. Remember, you’re not just citing sources; you’re weaving them into your narrative, making your arguments robust and nuanced.

APA Example: Flower and Hayes (1981) argue that many writers view writing as a “serendipitous experience, an act of discovery” (p. 286). This notion underscores the unpredictable nature of the writing process and suggests that exploring various writing methods can be a journey of discovery in itself.

MLA Example: According to Flower and Hayes, many authors perceive writing as “a serendipitous experience, an act of discovery” (286). This perspective highlights the evolving nature of writing, emphasizing the need to embrace diverse writing techniques.

How Can I Show the Relevance or Credibility of a Source to My Readers?

When you’re crafting an argument or presenting information , the strength and credibility of your sources are paramount. Especially in an academic or professional setting, readers seek evidence that’s not only compelling but also credible . Here’s how you can underscore the relevance and credibility of your sources:

• Highlight the Author’s Expertise: When referring to a notable author, highlight their qualifications and achievements in the relevant field. If you’re discussing the topic of grit and perseverance in writing and citing Angela Duckworth , an esteemed psychologist and author known for her work on this topic, leverage her credentials. Example: “Angela Duckworth, a celebrated psychologist and the author of Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance , argues that grit is a more significant predictor of success than talent.”
• Publication Type: University presses, often associated with established academic institutions, are generally held in higher regard compared to trade presses or self-publishing platforms like Amazon. This is because university presses often undergo rigorous peer- review processes .
• Journal Credibility: Is the journal you’re citing from peer-reviewed? Peer-reviewed journals maintain a stringent evaluation process where experts in the field review articles before publication. Journals published by professional societies, like the American Psychological Association, often carry weight due to their association with established experts in the field.
• Journal Rankings: In many professions, journals are ranked based on factors like citation rates and impact factor. Quoting from a top-tier journal can add gravitas to your argument. Example: “A recent study published in The Journal of Positive Psychology , a peer-reviewed journal ranked among the top 10 in the field, supports Duckworth’s theory…”
• Prioritize Recent Sources (When Applicable): In rapidly evolving subjects like technology or health, the currency of your source can attest to its relevance. Example: “In her 2023 Ted Talk, Duckworth updated her theory on grit by introducing…”
• Demonstrate How the Source Augments Your Argument: Seamlessly connect your source’s assertions to the point you’re underscoring. Example: “Duckworth’s emphasis on sustained effort aligns with studies on successful writers who, despite initial setbacks, persisted and improved over time.”
• Address Potential Bias: By identifying any inherent bias in your source, you enhance your credibility as a discerning researcher. Example: “Although the research was funded by the National Writers’ Association , its findings resonate with independent studies conducted at institutions like Yale and Cambridge.”
• Cross-reference with Other Credible Sources: Support from multiple authoritative sources reinforces the credibility of a point. Example: “This perspective on grit isn’t limited to Duckworth. Both The Journal of Educational Psychology and articles from the British Psychological Society have echoed similar findings.”
• Recognize Limitations: Accepting and indicating the limitations of a source showcases a balanced approach. Example: “Duckworth’s research, while pioneering, focuses mainly on students and educators. It’s essential to consider its applicability to writers from diverse backgrounds and experiences.”

Can I Ever Integrate a Source Without Directly Citing It in the Text? If So, How?

It’s essential to give credit to sources to maintain the integrity of your work and avoid plagiarism. While in-text citations are a direct way to do this, there are other methods to reference sources more discreetly:

• Endnotes or Footnotes: Some documentation styles permit the use of endnotes or footnotes instead of in-text citations. This method prevents the main body of your text from being disrupted by citations. Instead, you’d insert a superscript number that leads to a note at the end of your paper (endnote) or the bottom of the page (footnote) with the source’s full details. Example : You might write, “Grit, a combination of passion and perseverance, plays a significant role in achieving long-term goals[^1].” The corresponding note would provide the full citation for Angela Duckworth’s work on grit.
• General Bibliography/Works Cited: If you’ve integrated overarching ideas from a source, like Duckworth’s foundational theories on grit, but haven’t quoted or paraphrased a specific section, you might not need an in-text citation. Instead, Duckworth’s work would appear in a general bibliography or works cited page, signaling its influence on your understanding.
• Indirect Citations: There may be times when you encounter a perspective on Duckworth’s work cited in another author’s study. If you can’t access Duckworth’s original material, you can reference the intermediary source. Your citation method will vary depending on the documentation style. Example (in APA style): A recent interpretation of Duckworth’s theory, as discussed by Thompson (2022), suggests…
• Paraphrasing Broad Ideas: If you’re referring to widespread knowledge, like the basic definition of grit, you might not need an in-text citation. However, if you’re diving into detailed theories or unique interpretations specific to Duckworth, a citation is essential.

What about Newspapers & Magazines?

Mainstream publications, such as The New York Times or renowned magazines, adopt a different approach to referencing than scholarly or professional works. In these outlets, formal citation methods typical of academic journals aren’t always employed. Instead, there’s a general assumption that these publications have undergone a comprehensive editorial process, ensuring the information’s credibility. A key component of this process is the understanding that if readers or other stakeholders have questions regarding the sources of specific information, they can reach out to the author or publication directly to request these details. Thus, when you use information from such outlets in your writing, it’s essential to maintain this practice: always be prepared to direct readers to your primary source if questioned.

If I’m Reviewing Someone’s Research, How Much Detail Should I Provide about Their Research Methods?

If I’m Reviewing Someone’s Research, How Much Detail Should I Provide About Their Research Methods?

When reviewing another’s research, especially in academic or professional settings, it’s essential to strike a balance. You want to provide enough detail so readers can assess the study’s validity and relevance without overwhelming them with minutiae. The amount of detail needed can depend on your audience, the nature of the study, and the context in which you’re discussing it.

Consider the Purpose of Your Review :

• For Broad Overviews : When discussing the general findings of a study for a more general audience, a brief mention of the methods might suffice. E.g., “In her research on grit, Angela Duckworth conducted extensive surveys across diverse groups, finding a significant correlation between grit and long-term success.”
• For In-depth Analyses or Critiques : If you’re critiquing the study’s methodology or comparing methodologies across studies, you’ll need to delve deeper. E.g., “Duckworth’s study used a five-point Likert scale to measure respondents’ perseverance and passion for long-term goals, a decision that some researchers have debated due to potential response biases.”
• For Replication or Further Studies : If the aim is to allow others to replicate the study or to build upon it, every detail becomes vital, from the sample size to the statistical tests used.

Tips for Detailing Research Methods :

• Highlight Key Components : Describe the research design (e.g., longitudinal, experimental), the participants (sample size, demographics), the tools used (e.g., surveys, interviews), and the analysis methods (e.g., statistical tests, coding procedures).
• Address Potential Biases : For more critical reviews, discuss any potential sources of bias or limitations in the study. Was the sample representative? Were there any confounding variables?
• Compare with Other Studies : If relevant, compare the methods used in the research you’re reviewing with those of other similar studies. This can help readers gauge the study’s uniqueness or reliability.
• Use Visual Aids : Charts, tables, or diagrams can be beneficial in summarizing complex methods or when comparing methods across multiple studies.

For most college-level papers or articles, it’s advisable to include a clear and concise description of the research methods, allowing readers to gauge the study’s reliability and relevance to your discussion or argument. As you become more familiar with your audience and their expectations, you’ll develop a sense for the right level of detail to include.

How Do I Handle Sources From Non-Traditional Mediums, Like Podcasts, Tweets, or YouTube Videos?

In the digital age, research isn’t limited to books, journals, or articles. Multimedia platforms offer rich content that can be invaluable for your work. However, citing these non-traditional mediums can feel a bit daunting. Here’s a guide on how to navigate this terrain:

1. Podcasts:

• Host(s) of the episode.
• “Title of the episode.”
• Name of the podcast ,
• Production company or publisher,
• Date of publication.
• Platform (if applicable).

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela, host. “The Power of Grit.” Character Lab , Character Lab, 6 June 2021, characterlab.org/podcast/.

• Host(s) of the episode (Year, Month Day of publication).
• Title of the episode (No. episode number) [Audio podcast episode].
• In Name of the podcast .
• Production company or publisher.

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. (Host). (2021, June 6). The Power of Grit (No. 23) [Audio podcast episode]. In Character Lab . Character Lab.

• Author (individual or organization).
• Full text of the tweet.
• Twitter, Date of the tweet.

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela [@angeladuckw]. “Delving deeper into the nuances of grit and determination…” Twitter, 15 February 2022, twitter.com/angeladuckw/status/xxxxxx.

• Author (Year, Month Day of tweet).
• Full text of the tweet (up to the first 20 words) [Tweet].

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. [@angeladuckw]. (2022, February 15). Delving deeper into the nuances of grit and determination… [Tweet]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/angeladuckw/status/xxxxxx

3. YouTube Videos:

• Author(s) or creator(s) (individual, group, or organization).
• “Title of the video.”

Example (in MLA style): Duckworth, Angela. “Exploring Grit in Education.” YouTube , 1 September 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxxxx .

• Author (Year, Month Day of publication).
• Title of the video [Video].

Example (in APA style): Duckworth, A. (2021, September 1). Exploring Grit in Education [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxxxxx

• Citation formats might slightly change based on specific style guide versions or nuances. Always consult the relevant style guide.
• While MLA traditionally doesn’t include URLs, modern editions have adapted to the digital age by including them. Check with your instructor or publication’s preference.

How Do I Cite a Source That Was Quoted by Another Author I’m Reading?

When you come across a situation where you want to cite a quotation or idea that your primary source (the source you’re reading) has taken from another source (the original source), this is known as a secondary or indirect citation. It’s always preferable to locate the original source and cite from it directly; however, there are instances where this may not be feasible. In such cases, you’ll need to provide a citation that acknowledges both the primary and the original sources.

Here’s how you can handle secondary or indirect citations in both APA and MLA styles:

APA : When citing a source you found in another source, name the original author within your sentence, but follow it with “as cited in” and then immediately use the author, publication date, and page number (if available) of the secondary source in your parenthetical citation.

Example : Let’s say you’re reading a book by Thompson (2022) in which he quotes Duckworth (2007). You want to use Duckworth’s quote, but you can’t access her original work. Your in-text citation would look something like this:

Duckworth (2007, as cited in Thompson, 2022, p. 56) asserts that “grit is a combination of passion and perseverance.”

In your reference list, you would only include the secondary source, Thompson’s book, since that’s the source you actually read.

MLA : In MLA style, you’ll indicate the quote’s indirect nature in the in-text citation by using the phrase “qtd. in” (short for “quoted in”).

Example : Using the same scenario, your in-text citation would look like this:

Duckworth asserts that “grit is a combination of passion and perseverance” (qtd. in Thompson 56).

On your Works Cited page, you would only include a full citation for Thompson’s book, the secondary source you consulted.

Remember, using secondary citations should be an exception rather than the rule. Whenever possible, always try to consult and cite the original source directly to ensure the accuracy and context of the information.

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Citation Conventions - When Are Citations Required in Academic & Professional Writing?

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Summary - Learn How To Summarize Sources in Academic & Professional Writing

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• Knowledge Base
• Citing sources

How to Cite Sources | Citation Generator & Quick Guide

Citing your sources is essential in  academic writing . Whenever you quote or paraphrase a source (such as a book, article, or webpage), you have to include a  citation crediting the original author.

Failing to properly cite your sources counts as plagiarism , since you’re presenting someone else’s ideas as if they were your own.

The most commonly used citation styles are APA and MLA. The free Scribbr Citation Generator is the quickest way to cite sources in these styles. Simply enter the URL, DOI, or title, and we’ll generate an accurate, correctly formatted citation.

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Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text.

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Table of contents

When do you need to cite sources, which citation style should you use, in-text citations, reference lists and bibliographies.

Scribbr Citation Generator

Other useful citation tools

Citation examples and full guides, frequently asked questions about citing sources.

Citations are required in all types of academic texts. They are needed for several reasons:

• To avoid plagiarism by indicating when you’re taking information from another source
• To give proper credit to the author of that source
• To allow the reader to consult your sources for themselves

A citation is needed whenever you integrate a source into your writing. This usually means quoting or paraphrasing:

• To quote a source , copy a short piece of text word for word and put it inside quotation marks .
• To paraphrase a source , put the text into your own words. It’s important that the paraphrase is not too close to the original wording. You can use the paraphrasing tool if you don’t want to do this manually.

Citations are needed whether you quote or paraphrase, and whatever type of source you use. As well as citing scholarly sources like books and journal articles, don’t forget to include citations for any other sources you use for ideas, examples, or evidence. That includes websites, YouTube videos , and lectures .

Scribbr Citation Checker New

The AI-powered Citation Checker helps you avoid common mistakes such as:

• Missing commas and periods
• Incorrect usage of “et al.”
• Ampersands (&) in narrative citations
• Missing reference entries

Usually, your institution (or the journal you’re submitting to) will require you to follow a specific citation style, so check your guidelines or ask your instructor.

In some cases, you may have to choose a citation style for yourself. Make sure to pick one style and use it consistently:

• APA Style is widely used in the social sciences and beyond.
• MLA style is common in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography , common in the humanities
• Chicago author-date , used in the (social) sciences
• There are many other citation styles for different disciplines.

If in doubt, check with your instructor or read other papers from your field of study to see what style they follow.

In most styles, your citations consist of:

• Brief in-text citations at the relevant points in the text
• A reference list or bibliography containing full information on all the sources you’ve cited

In-text citations most commonly take the form of parenthetical citations featuring the last name of the source’s author and its year of publication (aka author-date citations).

An alternative to this type of in-text citation is the system used in numerical citation styles , where a number is inserted into the text, corresponding to an entry in a numbered reference list.

There are also note citation styles , where you place your citations in either footnotes or endnotes . Since they’re not embedded in the text itself, these citations can provide more detail and sometimes aren’t accompanied by a full reference list or bibliography.

A reference list (aka “Bibliography” or “Works Cited,” depending on the style) is where you provide full information on each of the sources you’ve cited in the text. It appears at the end of your paper, usually with a hanging indent applied to each entry.

The information included in reference entries is broadly similar, whatever citation style you’re using. For each source, you’ll typically include the:

• Author name
• Publication date
• Container (e.g., the book an essay was published in, the journal an article appeared in)
• Location (e.g., a URL or DOI , or sometimes a physical location)

The exact information included varies depending on the source type and the citation style. The order in which the information appears, and how you format it (e.g., capitalization, use of italics) also varies.

Most commonly, the entries in your reference list are alphabetized by author name. This allows the reader to easily find the relevant entry based on the author name in your in-text citation.

In numerical citation styles, the entries in your reference list are numbered, usually based on the order in which you cite them. The reader finds the right entry based on the number that appears in the text.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Because each style has many small differences regarding things like italicization, capitalization , and punctuation , it can be difficult to get every detail right. Using a citation generator can save you a lot of time and effort.

Scribbr offers citation generators for both APA and MLA style. Both are quick, easy to use, and 100% free, with no ads and no registration required.

Just input a URL or DOI or add the source details manually, and the generator will automatically produce an in-text citation and reference entry in the correct format. You can save your reference list as you go and download it when you’re done, and even add annotations for an annotated bibliography .

Once you’ve prepared your citations, you might still be unsure if they’re correct and if you’ve used them appropriately in your text. This is where Scribbr’s other citation tools and services may come in handy:

Plagiarism Checker

Citation Checker

Citation Editing

Plagiarism means passing off someone else’s words or ideas as your own. It’s a serious offense in academia. Universities use plagiarism checking software to scan your paper and identify any similarities to other texts.

When you’re dealing with a lot of sources, it’s easy to make mistakes that could constitute accidental plagiarism. For example, you might forget to add a citation after a quote, or paraphrase a source in a way that’s too close to the original text.

Using a plagiarism checker yourself before you submit your work can help you spot these mistakes before they get you in trouble. Based on the results, you can add any missing citations and rephrase your text where necessary.

Try out the Scribbr Plagiarism Checker for free, or check out our detailed comparison of the best plagiarism checkers available online.

Scribbr Plagiarism Checker

Scribbr’s Citation Checker is a unique AI-powered tool that automatically detects stylistic errors and inconsistencies in your in-text citations. It also suggests a correction for every mistake.

Currently available for APA Style, this is the fastest and easiest way to make sure you’ve formatted your citations correctly. You can try out the tool for free below.

If you need extra help with your reference list, we also offer a more in-depth Citation Editing Service.

Our experts cross-check your in-text citations and reference entries, make sure you’ve included the correct information for each source, and improve the formatting of your reference page.

If you want to handle your citations yourself, Scribbr’s free Knowledge Base provides clear, accurate guidance on every aspect of citation. You can see citation examples for a variety of common source types below:

And you can check out our comprehensive guides to the most popular citation styles:

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The abbreviation “ et al. ” (Latin for “and others”) is used to shorten citations of sources with multiple authors.

“Et al.” is used in APA in-text citations of sources with 3+ authors, e.g. (Smith et al., 2019). It is not used in APA reference entries .

Use “et al.” for 3+ authors in MLA in-text citations and Works Cited entries.

Use “et al.” for 4+ authors in a Chicago in-text citation , and for 10+ authors in a Chicago bibliography entry.

The Scribbr Citation Generator is developed using the open-source Citation Style Language (CSL) project and Frank Bennett’s citeproc-js . It’s the same technology used by dozens of other popular citation tools, including Mendeley and Zotero.

You can find all the citation styles and locales used in the Scribbr Citation Generator in our publicly accessible repository on Github .

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

MLA Style  is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.

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What is your plagiarism score?

Creative Writing

Introduction, reference sources, databases and journals, referencing and citing.

This subject guide highlights some key discipline resources to get you started with study and research. 

• Refer to the  New Students Library Guide for everything you need to know about Library services and resources.
• Build your researching, reading and writing skills with the Research Essentials Library Guide .
• Streamline your access to online resources with the Library's quick access tools.

Dictionaries and encyclopedias

If you are having trouble getting started, sometimes a reference work can help you.  By looking up a person or concept, you may learn more on your topic.  This can help you to think of more keywords or synonyms for your catalogue or database search.

• Oxford Reference Oxford Reference is the home of Oxford’s quality reference publishing. The collection provides quality, up-to-date reference content at the click of a button. The University of Melbourne subscribes to selected titles from this large collection of materials.
• Oxford English Dictionary The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is widely regarded as the accepted authority on the English language. It is an unsurpassed guide to the meaning, history, and pronunciation of 600,000 words— past and present—from across the English-speaking world.

Directories

Use databases to search across many academic resources (including peer-reviewed journals) at the same time. 

Refer to the A-Z Ejournals and Databases page for a comprehensive list of available resources. 

Core Arts and Humanities databases:

The selection of multidisciplinary databases below will retrieve results from different subject areas. 

• Discovery (EBSCO) Use Discovery to look for books, ebooks, journal articles and more. It's a great place to start your search but does not give you everything the Library has.
• Google Scholar Google Scholar is one of the most popular ways to find academic sources for study and research. Did you know you can use it to search for journal articles that the University of Melbourne has access to? You can do this through the link above or set up your Google Scholar preferences to include Library content.
• JSTOR JSTOR is one of the largest databases the Library has access to. It is a multidisciplinary database so it looks in thousands of journals in over a hundred subjects - many of them related to arts and humanities. Highly recommended as your first or second place to search.
• ProQuest Central Covering more than 160 subjects areas, ProQuest Central is the largest aggregated database of periodical content. This award-winning online reference resource features a highly-respected, diversified mix of content including scholarly journals, trade publications, magazines, books, newspapers, reports and videos.
• Scopus (Elsevier) Scopus is another large, multidisciplinary database. It looks through journals, books, and conference papers. It has some advanced tools that can help you discover new research quickly - the 'times cited' and 'related articles' links are great time-savers. While it doesn't always have full-text PDFs it is still an excellent place to look for your research.
• Web of Science Web of Science is a massive, multidisciplinary database which includes a large amount of humanities and social sciences material from as far back as 1900. Like Scopus it has some advanced features that allows you to quickly link to related research.

Databases relevant to Creative Writing

For more focused results, try searching in one of these subject-specific databases..

• MLA International Bibliography (EBSCOhost) Produced by the Modern Language Association the International Bibliography is the definitive index for the study of language, literature, linguistics, rhetoric and composition, folklore and film, covering scholarly publications from the early 20th century to the present. It includes citations to content published in journals, books, series, translations, scholarly editions, websites and dissertations. The database also includes the Directory of Periodicals and the Thesaurus.
• Literature Online (LION) (ProQuest) Leading online resource for the study and teaching of literature in English. The collection contains more than 350,000 works of poetry, drama and prose, over 350 full-text literature journals, and key bibliographies, biographies, reference works and student guides. Also contains the bibliographic database ABELL, with records covering monographs, periodical articles, critical editions of literary works, book reviews, collections of essays and doctoral dissertations published anywhere in the world.
• Communication & Mass Media Complete (EBSCO) Incorporates the content of CommSearch and Mass Media Articles Index along with numerous other journals in communication, mass media, and other closely-related fields of study to create a research and reference resource of unprecedented scope and depth encompassing the breadth of the communication discipline. Offers cover-to-cover indexing and abstracts for more than 570 journals, and selected coverage of nearly 200 more, as well as full text for over 450 journals.
• Project Muse Journal Collection Project MUSE offers full-text current and archival articles from 500+ scholarly journals from major university presses covering literature and criticism, history, performing arts, cultural studies, education, philosophy, political science, gender studies, and more. Updated continually.

Select list of Australian journals for Creative Writing

• Overland Overland – Australia’s only radical literary magazine – has been showcasing brilliant and progressive fiction, poetry, nonfiction and art since 1954. The magazine has published some of Australia’s most iconic voices, and continues to give space to underrepresented voices and brand-new literary talent every single day. Also available in print from 1954.
• Southerly : the magazine of the Australian English Association
• Going down swinging
• Cordite Poetry Review
• Text Journal
• Kill your darlings: new fiction, essays, commentary and reviews

You can access print and eBooks via the  Library Catalogue . To find books on a particular subject, try a keyword search:

To improve your searching skills, see the Research Essentials Library Guide . Note that you can search the catalogue in non-Latin scripts (including Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Japanese and Korean). 

For information on access and loans, including material from other libraries, see the borrowing from the library page. The eBook Guide provides information on eBook access.

Visit the Finding Theses guide

You can find relevant information and resources for your research on the websites of professional organisations and bodies, institutes, NGOs, government departments, etc.

This guide gives a few suggestions to get you started and to give you an idea what to look for. It is by no means comprehensive.  If you are a coursework student, check your LMS to see if your lecturer has provided website recommendations.

Tip : if you want to limit your Google search results to organisational, governmental, or educational websites, use Google's advanced search option to limit the site or domains to . org, .gov, .edu . 

Selected websites

• Australian Poetry A not-for-profit association established to promote reading, writing and publishing activities associated with Australian poetry in all of its forms.
• Australian Society of Authors The professional association for Australia's literary creators. Includes useful information on recommended rates of pay, Copyright Agency Limited, Public Lending Rights, and resources for authors. Authorlink for editors, agents, writers and readers This site provides resources to help writers become published and to make the job of finding good writers easier for editors and agents.
• NewPages.com
• Wheeler Centre for Books, Writing and Ideas The centrepiece of Melbourne's City of Literature.
• Writers Victoria Includes what's on in Victoria, and links to resources, organisations, funding bodies, online magazines and the publishing industry.

Copyright websites

• Australian Copyright Council An independent non-profit organisation which aims to assist creators and other copyright holders with their rights. A wide range of information sheets on various aspects of copyright is available from the website.
• University of Melbourne Copyright Office

Visit the Re:cite guide to referencing

Email the Baillieu Library Liaison Team

Ask a question on Library Chat

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• Last Updated: Apr 16, 2024 11:27 AM
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English and creative writing: referencing.

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This section explains the importance of citations and why you need to use them in your essays. Please use the documentation below to improve your understanding of citations. The College has policies on plagiarism and your own department might provide advice on citations and bibliographies, so please check these as well.

Why do I need to cite?

You should provide references when you are:

• directly quoting from the text of another work
• paraphrasing someone else's work, theories or ideas
• using someone else's work when developing your own ideas and arguments
• indirectly referring to the text of other works
• using illustrations, diagrams, tables or figures from other sources

If a fact is regarded as  common knowledge , e.g. dates, events, (The Battle of Hastings was in 1066), you would not be expected to provide a reference. If in doubt, provide a reference.

Citation styles

There are various citation styles, but they normally fall into two categories:

• name and date, e.g. Harvard - use the author's name and date in your parentheses in your in-text citation (Smith, 1989), then provide a separate list of the sources cited  alphabetically by author at the end of your work
• numeric, e.g. Chicago - your in-text citation will comprise a number that links to your footnotes/endnotes, like this [1]. You will also need to provide a full bibliography.

The most important thing to remember when referencing is to be  consistent

There is no standard definition of the Harvard referencing system and many variations have evolved. For a simple guide we recommend:

Pears, R. and Shields, G. (2013) Cite them right: the essential referencing guide. 9th edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan

Print copies are available in the library, and we also have access to the online edition .

Online bibliographic software

Whilst you can keep notes of the sources you use by hand, there is software available that can make managing your references simpler. This is particularly time saving if you're dealing with large numbers of references. We recommend all postgraduate students use online referencing software.

Zotero   is free open source software and once you download the plugin for your Internet browser, you'll be able to directly capture references from catalogues, databases and websites. There is also a plugin for Word that allows you to create in-text citations and bibliographies. If you would like help using Zotero, please contact your subject librarian.

See also ZoteroBib   for their Zotero citation generator.

Other software includes EndNote Web and Mendeley, which are similar to Zotero and perform the same functions. We do not provide training for these software, but there are many screencast tutorials and videos on Youtube that are available.

The videos below will guide you though installing Zotero, collecting references, and adding these references to your word document.

Zotero Tutorials

• Video 1: Getting Started with Zotero
• Video 2: Adding References
• Video 3: Citations and bibliographies

Plagiarism is cheating and can be defined as "to copy (ideas, passages of text, etc) from someone else’s work and use them as if they were one’s own” (Chambers 21 st  Century Dictionary, 1999)

It is a serious offence whether accidental and unintentional e.g. careless use of copying and pasting or intentional e.g. using essay writing services. Goldsmiths has clear guidelines about plagiarism.  At the very least, a student found guilty of plagiarism can expect to receive a fail for the piece of work, but other, more serious punishments may be given, including dismissal from College in extreme cases.

Avoiding plagiarism

Plagiarism can initially be difficult to understand and many students might not realise what constitutes plagiarism and what doesn’t.

For your assignment you will have done plenty of background reading to help you formulate your own ideas.  When writing, you will discuss what you have learned from your background reading to show how this has influenced your views and arguments. 

To avoid plagiarism the sources you use and refer to must be correctly  cited and referenced .  Although plagiarism is  not just words  (it includes ideas, images, etc), paraphrasing/summarising is an important area to consider. Substituting words in a quotation with synonyms, rearranging the words in a quotation and changing the order of sentences are all examples of plagiarism if references are not provided.

More help on avoiding plagiarism is available from the University of Leicester . 

Copyright is an Intellectual Property Right along with Trade Marks, Patents and Designs.  For detailed information, see the IPO's website . UK copyright law is mainly set out in the  Copyright, Design and Patents Act (1988) , though this has been substantially amended by more recent Acts and European Copyright Directives that aim to harmonise copyright across the EU. 

Copyright gives economic  and  moral rights to the creators of works, and provides a legal framework for such works to be used fairly by others.

Copyright is infringed where a whole or ‘substantial part’ of a work has been used without permission and no exceptions to copyright apply.  A ‘substantial part’ of a work is not defined in law and may be quite small. 

Copyright for student work

Students at Goldsmiths own copyright in their own work.  Some colleges and universities do make a claim to copyright in student work and ask students to agree to this when they enrol.

PhD theses are made available to both students and members of the public in both print and electronic format, held in the library and on the repositories,  Goldsmiths Research Online (GRO)  and  EThOS . For information on the use of copyright material in PhD theses and the copyright itself of a PhD thesis, see here . 

Further advice on copyright

Advice can be requested from any organisations that represent copyright holders (many also collect royalties on behalf of members). For example, in the following areas:

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References provide the information necessary for readers to identify and retrieve each work cited in the text .

Check each reference carefully against the original publication to ensure information is accurate and complete. Accurately prepared references help establish your credibility as a careful researcher and writer.

Consistency in reference formatting allows readers to focus on the content of your reference list, discerning both the types of works you consulted and the important reference elements (who, when, what, and where) with ease. When you present each reference in a consistent fashion, readers do not need to spend time determining how you organized the information. And when searching the literature yourself, you also save time and effort when reading reference lists in the works of others that are written in APA Style.

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Elements of Creative Writing

(2 reviews)

J.D. Schraffenberger, University of Northern Iowa

Rachel Morgan, University of Northern Iowa

Grant Tracey, University of Northern Iowa

Copyright Year: 2023

ISBN 13: 9780915996179

Publisher: University of Northern Iowa

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jeanne Cosmos, Adjunct Faculty, Massachusetts Bay Community College on 7/7/24

Direct language and concrete examples & Case Studies. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

Direct language and concrete examples & Case Studies.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

References to literature and writers- on track.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

On point for support to assist writers and creative process.

Clarity rating: 5

Direct language and easy to read.

Consistency rating: 4

First person to third person. Too informal in many areas of the text.

Modularity rating: 5

Units are readily accessible.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

Process of creative writing and prompts- scaffold areas of learning for students.

Interface rating: 5

No issues found.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

The book is accurate in this regard.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

Always could be revised and better.

Yes. Textbook font is not academic and spacing - also not academic. A bit too primary. Suggest- Times New Roman 12- point font & a space plus - Some of the language and examples too informal and the tone of lst person would be more effective if - direct and not so 'chummy' as author references his personal recollections. Not effective.

Reviewed by Robert Moreira, Lecturer III, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 3/21/24

Unlike Starkey's CREATIVE WRITING: FOUR GENRES IN BRIEF, this textbook does not include a section on drama. read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Unlike Starkey's CREATIVE WRITING: FOUR GENRES IN BRIEF, this textbook does not include a section on drama.

As far as I can tell, content is accurate, error free and unbiased.

The book is relevant and up-to-date.

The text is clear and easy to understand.

Consistency rating: 5

I would agree that the text is consistent in terms of terminology and framework.

Text is modular, yes, but I would like to see the addition of a section on dramatic writing.

Topics are presented in logical, clear fashion.

Navigation is good.

No grammatical issues that I could see.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

I'd like to see more diverse creative writing examples.

As I stated above, textbook is good except that it does not include a section on dramatic writing.

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• Chapter One: One Great Way to Write a Short Story
• Chapter Two: Plotting
• Chapter Three: Counterpointed Plotting
• Chapter Four: Show and Tell
• Chapter Five: Characterization and Method Writing
• Chapter Six: Character and Dialouge
• Chapter Seven: Setting, Stillness, and Voice
• Chapter Eight: Point of View
• Chapter Nine: Learning the Unwritten Rules
• Chapter One: A Poetry State of Mind
• Chapter Two: The Architecture of a Poem
• Chapter Three: Sound
• Chapter Four: Inspiration and Risk
• Chapter Five: Endings and Beginnings
• Chapter Six: Figurative Language
• Chapter Seven: Forms, Forms, Forms
• Chapter Eight: Go to the Image
• Chapter Nine: The Difficult Simplicity of Short Poems and Killing Darlings

Creative Nonfiction

• Chapter One: Creative Nonfiction and the Essay
• Chapter Two: Truth and Memory, Truth in Memory
• Chapter Three: Research and History
• Chapter Four: Writing Environments
• Chapter Five: Notes on Style
• Chapter Seven: Imagery and the Senses
• Chapter Eight: Writing the Body
• Chapter Nine: Forms

Back Matter

• Contributors
• North American Review Staff

Ancillary Material

• University of Northern Iowa

About the Book

This free and open access textbook introduces new writers to some basic elements of the craft of creative writing in the genres of fiction, poetry, and creative nonfiction. The authors—Rachel Morgan, Jeremy Schraffenberger, and Grant Tracey—are editors of the North American Review, the oldest and one of the most well-regarded literary magazines in the United States. They’ve selected nearly all of the readings and examples (more than 60) from writing that has appeared in NAR pages over the years. Because they had a hand in publishing these pieces originally, their perspective as editors permeates this book. As such, they hope that even seasoned writers might gain insight into the aesthetics of the magazine as they analyze and discuss some reasons this work is so remarkable—and therefore teachable. This project was supported by NAR staff and funded via the UNI Textbook Equity Mini-Grant Program.

About the Contributors

J.D. Schraffenberger  is a professor of English at the University of Northern Iowa. He is the author of two books of poems,  Saint Joe's Passion  and  The Waxen Poor , and co-author with Martín Espada and Lauren Schmidt of  The Necessary Poetics of Atheism . His other work has appeared in  Best of Brevity ,  Best Creative Nonfiction ,  Notre Dame Review ,  Poetry East ,  Prairie Schooner , and elsewhere.

Rachel Morgan   is an instructor of English at the University of Northern Iowa. She is the author of the chapbook  Honey & Blood , Blood & Honey . Her work is included in the anthology  Fracture: Essays, Poems, and Stories on Fracking in American  and has appeared in the  Journal of American Medical Association ,  Boulevard ,  Prairie Schooner , and elsewhere.

Grant Tracey   author of three novels in the Hayden Fuller Mysteries ; the chapbook  Winsome  featuring cab driver Eddie Sands; and the story collection  Final Stanzas , is fiction editor of the  North American Review  and an English professor at the University of Northern Iowa, where he teaches film, modern drama, and creative writing. Nominated four times for a Pushcart Prize, he has published nearly fifty short stories and three previous collections. He has acted in over forty community theater productions and has published critical work on Samuel Fuller and James Cagney. He lives in Cedar Falls, Iowa.

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• Mastering the Art of Reference Writing: A Comprehensive Guide

Introduction

Reference writing, often called citation or bibliographic essay, is crucial to scholarly communication. It serves as the backbone of research, allowing readers to trace the origins of ideas, verify claims, and build upon existing knowledge. In this comprehensive guide, we will delve into the intricacies of reference writing, covering everything from the fundamentals to advanced techniques.

Understanding the Purpose of References

References play a multifaceted role in academic writing. Here are some essential purposes they serve:

• Credibility : References lend credibility to your work by demonstrating that you have consulted relevant sources and incorporated them into your research.
• Acknowledgment : References acknowledge the intellectual contributions of others, showing respect for their ideas and research.
• Verification : They allow readers to verify the information and claims you make in your writing, promoting transparency and trust.
• Building on Existing Knowledge : References provide a foundation for further research, allowing future scholars to explore the same sources and expand upon your work.
• Avoiding Plagiarism : Proper referencing helps you avoid plagiarism, a serious academic ethical violation.

Components of a Reference

A reference typically comprises several components, including:

• Author(s) : The name(s) of the author(s) responsible for the work. For multiple authors, follow the prescribed citation style guidelines for formatting.
• Title : The title of the source material, whether it’s a book, article, website, or other format.
• Publication Date : The year the source was published, which can be found on the title page or the copyright page.
• Source Information : Details such as the name of the journal, publisher, volume/issue number, page numbers, and URL (if applicable), depending on the type of source.
• DOI (Digital Object Identifier) : A unique alphanumeric string assigned to many scholarly articles and books, providing a permanent link to the source.

Common Citation Styles

Various citation styles are used in academic writing, each with its rules and guidelines. Some of the most common citation styles include:

• APA (American Psychological Association) : Often used in psychology, education, and the social sciences.
• MLA (Modern Language Association) : Commonly used in humanities disciplines like literature and languages.
• Chicago/Turabian : Used in history, arts, and some social sciences.
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) : Primarily used in engineering and technology.
• AMA (American Medical Association) : Standard in the medical and biological sciences.
• Harvard : Commonly used in the natural and social sciences.

It’s essential to follow the specific style guidelines required by your institution or publication to ensure consistency and accuracy in your references.

Tips for Effective Reference Writing

• Organize as You Go : Keep a well-organized record of your sources from the beginning of your research. This will save you time and prevent omissions later on.
• Use Citation Management Tools : Software like Zotero, Mendeley, and EndNote can help you correctly manage and format your references.
• Double-Check Formatting : Pay close attention to the formatting rules of your chosen citation style, including punctuation, italics, and capitalization.
• Be Consistent : Maintain consistency throughout your document. If you choose a particular citation style, stick to it.
• Check Primary Sources : Consult the source material whenever possible rather than relying on secondary sources.
• Use DOI When Available : Include the DOI for digital sources, as it provides a stable and easily accessible link.
• Review and Revise : Proofread your references to ensure accuracy. Mistakes can undermine the credibility of your work.

Advanced Techniques

For seasoned researchers and writers, mastering reference writing involves more than basic formatting. Here are some advanced techniques:

• Secondary Citations : Use secondary citations sparingly. Always try to locate and cite the source of a piece of information.
• Cite While Writing : Incorporate references into your text as you write, making tracking and maintaining accuracy easier.
• Cross-Referencing : Ensure that your in-text citations correspond accurately with the entries in your reference list.
• Annotate Your References : Provide brief annotations summarizing the key points of the source, which can be especially helpful in literature reviews.
• Use Footnotes or Endnotes : For additional explanatory notes or citations that might disrupt the flow of your main text.

Reference writing, citing sources, and creating bibliographic references are widely used in various fields and professions.

Here are some of the critical groups and contexts where reference writing is essential:

• Academics and Researchers : Scholars and researchers in all academic disciplines use reference writing to acknowledge and cite the sources they consult when conducting research writing academic papers, theses, dissertations, and scholarly articles. Proper referencing is a fundamental aspect of academic integrity and scholarly communication.
• Students : Students at all levels of education, from high school to graduate and postgraduate programs, must use reference writing to support their assignments, essays, and research projects. Learning how to cite sources correctly is an essential academic skill.
• Authors and Writers : Authors and writers in various genres, including non-fiction, fiction, journalism, and creative writing, use reference writing when incorporating research, quotes, and references to other works. It helps them provide evidence, give credit, and add credibility to their work.
• Journalists use reference writing to attribute information and quotes to their sources when reporting news and investigative stories. Accuracy and proper sourcing are crucial in journalism.
• Scientists and Researchers : Professionals in the scientific community use reference writing in research articles, papers, and reports to provide evidence, support their findings, and acknowledge the work of other scientists in their field.
• Librarians and Information Specialists : Librarians and professionals working in information and knowledge management use reference writing to organize and catalog resources in libraries, databases, and digital repositories, making it easier for users to locate materials.
• Editors and Publishers : Editors and publishers use reference writing to ensure that citations and references in books, journals, and other publications adhere to the specific citation styles required by their publishing guidelines.
• Legal Professionals : Lawyers and legal scholars use reference writing in legal documents, court briefs, and legal research to cite relevant case law, statutes, regulations, and legal precedents.
• Medical and Healthcare Professionals : Healthcare professionals use reference writing in medical research papers, case reports, and clinical studies to cite medical literature and evidence-based practices.
• Government and Policy Analysts : Professionals working in government agencies and policy analysis use reference writing to support policy recommendations and reports with evidence from research and authoritative sources.
• Business and Marketing Professionals : In the business world, reference writing is used in market research reports, business plans, and marketing strategies to cite industry reports, market data, and academic research.
• Historians and Archaeologists : Historians and archaeologists use reference writing to document their sources and provide historical context in research papers, books, and documentary projects.
• Technical and Engineering Professionals : Engineers and technical writers use reference writing to cite technical manuals, standards, and patents in technical documents, user manuals, and engineering reports.

Reference writing is a universal practice across various professions, disciplines, and educational levels. It serves as a fundamental tool for acknowledging sources, providing evidence, and ensuring the integrity and transparency of communication in a wide range of contexts.

Here are examples of reference entries in two commonly used citation styles, APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA (Modern Language Association):

APA Style :

• Book with One Author :

Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of Book . Publisher.

Example: Smith, J. D. (2020). The Art of Writing . Academic Press.

• Journal Article :

Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of Article. Title of Journal , volume number(issue number), page range. DOI

Example: Johnson, P. L. (2019). The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity. Environmental Science Quarterly , 45(2), 123-145. https://doi.org/10.1234/esq.2019.45.2.123

Author, A. A. (Year, Month, Day of Publication). Title of Webpage. Website Name. URL

Example: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. (2021, June 15). Mars Exploration Program. NASA. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/

MLA Style :

Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Book . Publisher, Year of Publication.

Example: Smith, John D. The Art of Writing . Academic Press, 2020.

Author’s Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal , volume number, issue number, year of publication, page range.

Example: Johnson, Paul L. “The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity.” Environmental Science Quarterly , vol. 45, no. 2, 2019, pp. 123-145.

Author’s Last Name, First Name (if available). “Title of Webpage.” Website Name, publication date (if available), URL.

Example: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Mars Exploration Program.” NASA, 15 June 2021, https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/

Remember that the formatting and specific elements included in a reference entry may vary depending on your source type and citation style. Always consult the official style guide or your institution’s guidelines for the most accurate reference formatting.

Improving your reference writing skills is essential for academic success. Several websites and resources can help you enhance your reference writing abilities.

Here are some of the best ones:

• Website: https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html
• Purdue OWL offers comprehensive guides on various citation styles, including APA, MLA, and Chicago. It covers in-text citations, reference lists, and general writing tips.
• Website: https://www.citationmachine.net/
• Citation Machine provides citation generators for multiple citation styles. You can input the necessary information, and it will generate a correctly formatted reference for you.
• Website: https://www.zotero.org/
• Zotero is a free reference management tool that helps you collect, organize, cite, and share your research materials. It integrates with your web browser and word processor.
• Website: https://www.mendeley.com/
• Mendeley is another reference management tool that allows you to organize your references, annotate PDFs, and generate citations and bibliographies. It’s beneficial for collaborative research.
• Website: https://apastyle.apa.org/
• If you need to follow APA style, the official website of the American Psychological Association offers detailed guidance, tutorials, and resources for correct APA citation.
• Website: https://style.mla.org/
• The Modern Language Association provides the MLA Style Center, which offers guidelines, examples, and answers to frequently asked questions about MLA style.
• Website: https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html
• For those using the Chicago style, the official website of the Chicago Manual of Style provides access to the complete manual, which includes detailed reference formatting guidelines.
• Website: http://www.citeulike.org/
• CiteULike is a free online service that helps discover and manage scholarly references. It can automatically format your references in various citation styles.
• Website: https://scholar.google.com/
• Google Scholar helps you find academic sources and provides citation information for articles and books, which can be helpful for reference writing.
• Many university libraries offer guides and tutorials on reference writing, including specific guidelines for their institution’s preferred citation style. Check your library’s website for resources.

Remember that while these websites can be valuable tools, it’s crucial to understand the principles of reference writing and citation styles. Familiarize yourself with the guidelines and rules of your specific type, and use these resources as aids to ensure accuracy and consistency in your references.

Reference writing is a fundamental skill for researchers and scholars, enabling them to contribute to the ongoing conversation within their field. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced writer, mastering the art of reference writing is a continuous process that demands attention to detail and adherence to established citation styles. By following the guidelines and techniques outlined in this comprehensive guide, you can enhance the credibility and impact of your academic work.

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Citation guides

All you need to know about citations

How to cite “Creative Writing” by Casey Clabough

Apa citation.

Formatted according to the APA Publication Manual 7 th edition. Simply copy it to the References page as is.

If you need more information on APA citations check out our APA citation guide or start citing with the BibguruAPA citation generator .

Clabough, C. (2014). Creative Writing . Alpha.

Chicago style citation

Formatted according to the Chicago Manual of Style 17 th edition. Simply copy it to the References page as is.

If you need more information on Chicago style citations check out our Chicago style citation guide or start citing with the BibGuru Chicago style citation generator .

Clabough, Casey. 2014. Creative Writing . London, England: Alpha.

MLA citation

Formatted according to the MLA handbook 9 th edition. Simply copy it to the Works Cited page as is.

If you need more information on MLA citations check out our MLA citation guide or start citing with the BibGuru MLA citation generator .

Clabough, Casey. Creative Writing . Alpha, 2014.

Other citation styles (Harvard, Turabian, Vancouver, ...)

BibGuru offers more than 8,000 citation styles including popular styles such as AMA, ASA, APSA, CSE, IEEE, Harvard, Turabian, and Vancouver, as well as journal and university specific styles. Give it a try now: Cite Creative Writing now!

Publication details

This is not the edition you are looking for? Check out our BibGuru citation generator for additional editions.

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How to Cite Sources in Your Manuscript

Posted by Stephanie Chandler | Nov 3, 2016 | Blog , Writing Nonfiction | 2

Scholarly writers, or those in the academic realm, follow specific style guides (APA or MLA are two examples), and while you could certainly pick up an APA or MLA handbook to make sure you’re following citation guidelines as closely as possible, you can also follow some guidelines that are common to pretty much every style guide out there.

If you’re self-publishing, you need to follow your own guidelines, or find a reputable source to use. We recommend Chicago Manual of Style ( http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html ).

Some Basics to Follow:

• Titles of books and reports are typically italicized in in-text citations.
• Put titles of articles in quotation marks.
• Be sure to include the author’s (or authors’) first/last name(s), source title, and publication year.
• If your work is more scholarly in nature, include the page number(s) on which your quoted text appears.

Following are several formatting options. Whichever style you choose, be sure to use it consistently throughout your manuscript.

Option 1: Simple In-Text Citation

With this format, simply state the author and date, or author, publication name and publication date, in parentheses directly after the quote. There are no endnotes for these citations, but we still recommend including a complete list of cited works at the end of your book.

“If you are not afraid of the voices inside you, you will not fear the critics outside you” ( Natalie Goldberg , Writing Down the Bones: Freeing the Writer Within , 2nd edition, Shambhala 2005).

This can get rather cumbersome, so if your text includes a lot of citations, we recommend option 2:

Option 2: Endnotes

Endnotes, which are sources cited at the end of the chapter or book, are a more efficient way to cite your sources. To utilize this option, place superscripted numbers (in chronological order) after a quote, followed by a Notes page that you’ll put at the end of the book. Here’s an example of how it would appear in the text:

“If you are not afraid of the voices inside you, you will not fear the critics outside you.” 1                  

Then, for each of your sources, insert an entry that will appear in your “Notes” section at the end of the chapter or book. Entries would look similar to those in the in-text version, and at a minimum should include the author, publication name, and publication date.

Make sure the order of the sources on the Notes page follows the order the sources appear in the book.

Here’s a link to some info on creating endnotes: http://www.ehow.com/how_5180669_format-endnotes-properly.html

For a more in-depth look at how to cite specific types of publications, visit http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html Citation Machine: Website where you can plug in the book details and it will come up with a citation for you: http://www.citationmachine.net/

Amberly Finarelli has worked in the publishing and writing world for the past 10+ years as a literary agent, manuscript evaluator, copy editor, proofreader, and writer. She currently produces content for the Nonfiction Authors Association’s blog in addition to running her own editorial business. You can reach her at [email protected].

If you like this blog post, you’ll love the recordings from our previous Nonfiction Writers Conference events . Check it out!

About The Author

Stephanie Chandler

Stephanie Chandler is the founder of the Nonfiction Authors Association and Nonfiction Writers Conference , and author of several books including The Nonfiction Book Publishing Plan . A frequent speaker at business events and on the radio, she has been featured in Entrepreneur, BusinessWeek, and Wired magazine. Visit StephanieChandler.com to learn more.

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Creative Writing: Poetry: Analysis, Criticism & Reference

• Introduction
• Lineation & Syntax
• Rhetoric & Mode
• Meter & Prosody
• Stanza & Rhyme
• Analysis, Criticism & Reference

Criticism & Analysis

[A practice] concerned with literary theory and the evaluation of literary works. It effectively began with PLATO's comments on the role of poets in his Republic; ARISTOTLE's response to this, the Poetics, represents the first systematic attempt to establish principles of literary procedure. Notable later contributions to the debate include Sir Philip SIDNEY's The Defence of Poesie (1595); DRYDEN's Of Dramatick Poesie (1668); WORDSWORTH's preface to Lyrical Ballads (1798); SHELLEY's A Defence of Poetry (1820); and the critical works of Matthew ARNOLD, in particular, Culture and Anarchy (1869). The 20th century witnessed an explosion of literary criticism, such as the writings of T. S ELIOT, I. A. Richards, William Empson and F. R. LEAVIS; also important are the writings of STRUCTURALISM and post-structuralism, notably Roland BARTHES, Michel FOUCAULT, and Jacques DERRIDA. The late 20th century saw the beginning of new critical approaches such as DECONSTRUCTION and FEMINISM (World Encyclopedia, 2008).

Criticism and Analysis Databases

Analysis, criticism & reference dictionaries.

• A definitive collection of classic statements in criticism and new theoretical work from the past few decades
• All the major schools and methods that make up the dynamic field of literary theory are represented, from Formalism to Postcolonialism
• Enables students to familiarise themselves with the most recent developments in literary theory and with the traditions from which these new theories derive

Analysis, Criticism & Reference Encyclopedias

The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics is a comprehensive reference work dealing with all aspects of its subject: history, types, movements, prosody, and critical terminology. Prepared by recognized authorities, its articles treat their topics in sufficient depth and with enough lucidity to satisfy the scholar and the general reader alike. Entries vary in length from relatively brief notices to substantial articles of about 20,000 words.

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10 Referencing Skills

Reference any and all materials you have used within your written work that are from a published text, video, or recording.

A referencing style is a set of rules on how to acknowledge the thoughts, ideas and works of others in a particular way. Referencing is a crucial part of successful academic writing, avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity in your assignments and research [1] .

You will need the author’s name (all authors); the year of publication; the chapter or journal article title; the book or journal name; editors names if it is an edited text; in a journal you will need the volume number and issue number; page ranges are needed for book chapters and journal articles; the publisher is needed for a book; if it is an online book, a DOI in needed. See the link in the “HOW?” section below for specific details of how to reference different types of texts.

Primarily to avoid plagiarism , plus you should also give credit where credit is due. It demonstrates evidence of your research and reading of academic sources for your assessments and adds the weight of expert knowledge to your own arguments/points/claims. It is good academic practice and demonstrates academic integrity. It also allows readers of your work to seek information from your sources or complete further reading.

Whenever you are searching for academic articles or books for your assessment, always take notes of the required referencing information. An in-text citation must be included in your written work each time you use materials ( sources ) that are not your own. You must also provide an end-of-text reference list that corresponds with all citations used in-text. Only sources cited in-text should appear in the reference list and no other sources you may have examined though not included in the finished assessment.

The University of Queensland provides all relevant style guides. UQ College Academic English uses APA (7th edition). Each edition of a style has variances, so ensure you have asked your lecturers/tutors which specific style and edition you are required to use for your particular courses.

APA 7th style guide – library link

https://guides.library.uq.edu.au/referencing/apa7 

What is a reference list?

All works that include the ideas, words and images of other authors need to include citations . The full reference for each brief citation must be listed on a new page at the end of the written work, with the heading – References  (centered on the page).

The following information is included in the UQ Library style guide for APA (7th ed.) . Visit the style guide and access the full information via the “reference List” tab on the left-hand side of the screen.

• No specific font type or size required. Recommendations include Calibri size 11, Arial size 11, Lucida size 10, Times New Roman size 12, Georgia size 11 or Computer Modern size 10 (LaTeX). NOTE: It should align with the rest of the assignment.
• The reference list is  double line-spaced .
• A reference list is  arranged alphabetically by author last name .
• Each reference appears on a new line.
• Each item in the reference list is required to have a  hanging indent from the second line onward .

Zarate, K., Maggin, D. M., & Passmore, A. (2019). Meta‐analysis of mindfulness training on teacher well‐being. Psychology in the Schools , 56(10), 1700–1715. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22308

• References should not be numbered.
• If a reference has no author, it is cited by title, and included in the alphabetical list using the first significant word of the title ( not A, An, or The).
• If you have more than one item with the same author, list the items chronologically, starting with the earliest publication date.
• If there is no date, the abbreviation  n.d. may be used. It is extremely rare to not find a publication date; if it is a website, use the date the page was last updated, found at the very bottom of the page or home page.
• Use the  full journal name , not the abbreviated name, and type it as it appears in the journal – use appropriate capitalization.
• Web addresses or DOI s can either be live links (blue and underlined) or as normal black text with no underline. If the work containing the reference list is to be made available online, use the live link format.

What is the difference between a reference list and a bibliography?

• A  reference list only includes the sources (books, articles, and web pages, etc.) that are cited in the text of the document (essay, report).
• A  bibliography includes all sources consulted, even if they are not cited in the document. This is more frequently used for research and PhD students.

Example Reference List (An extended list is available via the UQ Library style guide)

American Psychological Association. (2020). Journal article references. https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples/journal-article-references

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association : the official guide to APA style (7th ed.).

McAdoo, T. (2020, March 16). How to create an APA style reference for a canceled conference presentation . American Psychological Association. https://apastyle.apa.org/blog/canceled-conferences

Melbourne University Law Review Association & Melbourne Journal of International Law. (2010). Australian guide to legal citation . (3rd ed.). https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1586203/FinalOnlinePDF-2012Reprint.pdf

Also see Chapter 14 – Integrating Sources and Academic Integrity

• https://guides.library.uq.edu.au/referencing ↵

the practice of taking someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as one's own

Digital Object Identifier

source material is where you use the information and ideas of others in your own academic writing - they can be text, speech, images, websites, videos.

The brief form of the reference that you include in the body of your work (essay, report). Follow the referencing style guide for exact details.

Contains details of all the sources cited in a text, usually presented in alphabetical order and found at the end of a work.

A brief reference to a source, embedded within a text. Refer to the referencing style guide for instructions.

Academic Writing Skills Copyright © 2021 by Patricia Williamson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write an Academic Essay with References and Citations

#scribendiinc

Written by  Scribendi

If you're wondering how to write an academic essay with references, look no further. In this article, we'll discuss how to use in-text citations and references, including how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a Tweet, according to various style guides.

You might need to cite sources when writing a paper that references other sources. For example, when writing an essay, you may use information from other works, such as books, articles, or websites. You must then inform readers where this information came from. Failure to do so, even accidentally, is plagiarism—passing off another person's work as your own.

You can avoid plagiarism and show readers where to find information by using citations and references. 

Citations tell readers where a piece of information came from. They take the form of footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical elements, depending on your style guide. In-text citations are usually placed at the end of a sentence containing the relevant information. 

A reference list , bibliography, or works cited list at the end of a text provides additional details about these cited sources. This list includes enough publication information allowing readers to look up these sources themselves.

Referencing is important for more than simply avoiding plagiarism. Referring to a trustworthy source shows that the information is reliable. Referring to reliable information can also support your major points and back up your argument. 

Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations will allow you to cite authors who have made similar arguments. This helps show that your argument is objective and not entirely based on personal biases.

How Do You Determine Which Style Guide to Use?

Often, a professor will assign a style guide. The purpose of a style guide is to provide writers with formatting instructions. If your professor has not assigned a style guide, they should still be able to recommend one. 

If you are entirely free to choose, pick one that aligns with your field (for example, APA is frequently used for scientific writing). 

Some of the most common style guides are as follows:

AP style for journalism

Chicago style for publishing

APA style for scholarly writing (commonly used in scientific fields)

MLA style for scholarly citations (commonly used in English literature fields)

Some journals have their own style guides, so if you plan to publish, check which guide your target journal uses. You can do this by locating your target journal's website and searching for author guidelines.

How Do You Pick Your Sources?

When learning how to write an academic essay with references, you must identify reliable sources that support your argument. 

As you read, think critically and evaluate sources for:

Objectivity

Keep detailed notes on the sources so that you can easily find them again, if needed.

Tip: Record these notes in the format of your style guide—your reference list will then be ready to go.

How to Use In-Text Citations in MLA

An in-text citation in MLA includes the author's last name and the relevant page number: 

(Author 123)

How to Cite a Website in MLA

Here's how to cite a website in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. "Title of page."

Website. Website Publisher, date. Web. Date

retrieved. <URL>

With information from a real website, this looks like:

Morris, Nancy. "How to Cite a Tweet in APA,

Chicago, and MLA." Scribendi. Scribendi

Inc., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2021.

<https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html>

How Do You Cite a Tweet in MLA ?

MLA uses the full text of a short Tweet (under 140 characters) as its title. Longer Tweets can be shortened using ellipses. 

MLA Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

@twitterhandle (Author Name). "Text of Tweet." Twitter, Date Month, Year, time of

publication, URL.

With information from an actual Tweet, this looks like:

@neiltyson (Neil deGrasse Tyson). "You can't use reason to convince anyone out of an

argument that they didn't use reason to get into." Twitter, 29 Sept. 2020, 10:15 p.m.,

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449 .

How to Cite a Book in MLA

Here's how to cite a book in MLA:

Author's last name, First name. Book Title. Publisher, Year.

With publication information from a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L.M. Rainbow Valley. Frederick A. Stokes Company, 1919.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in MLA

Author's last name, First name. "Title of Chapter." Book Title , edited by Editor Name,

Publisher, Year, pp. page range.

With publication information from an actual book, this looks like:

Ezell, Margaret J.M. "The Social Author: Manuscript Culture, Writers, and Readers." The

Broadview Reader in Book History , edited by Michelle Levy and Tom Mole, Broadview

Press, 2015,pp. 375–394.

How to  Cite a Paraphrase in MLA

You can cite a paraphrase in MLA exactly the same way as you would cite a direct quotation. 

Make sure to include the author's name (either in the text or in the parenthetical citation) and the relevant page number.

How to Use In-Text Citations in APA

In APA, in-text citations include the author's last name and the year of publication; a page number is included only if a direct quotation is used: 

(Author, 2021, p. 123)

How to Cite a Website in APA

Here's how to cite a website in APA:

Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Year, Month. date of publication). Title of page. https://URL

Morris, N. (n.d.). How to cite a Tweet in APA, Chicago, and MLA. 

https://www.scribendi.com/academy/articles/how_to_cite_a_website.en.html       

Tip: Learn more about how to write an academic essay with  references to websites .

How Do You  Cite a Tweet in APA ?

APA refers to Tweets using their first 20 words. 

Tweet references should be formatted as follows:

Author, A. A. [@twitterhandle). (Year, Month. date of publication). First 20 words of the

Tweet. [Tweet] Twitter. URL

When we input information from a real Tweet, this looks like:

deGrasse Tyson, N. [@neiltyson]. (2020, Sept. 29). You can't use reason to convince anyone

out of an argument that they didn't use reason to get into. [Tweet] Twitter.

https://twitter.com/neiltyson/status/1311127369785192449

How to Cite a Book in APA

Here's how to cite a book in APA:   

Author, A. A. (Year). Book title. Publisher.

For a real book, this looks like:

Montgomery, L. M. (1919). Rainbow valley.

Frederick A. Stokes Company.

How to Cite a Chapter in a Book in APA

Author, A. A. (Year). Chapter title. In Editor Name (Ed.), Book Title (pp. page range).

With information from a real book, this looks like:

Ezell, M. J. M. (2014). The social author: Manuscript culture, writers, and readers. In

Michelle Levy and Tom Mole (Eds.), The Broadview Reader in Book History (pp. 375–

394). Broadview Press.

Knowing how to cite a book and how to cite a chapter in a book correctly will take you a long way in creating an effective reference list.

How to Cite a Paraphrase in APA

You can cite a paraphrase in APA the same way as you would cite a direct quotation, including the author's name and year of publication. 

In APA, you may also choose to pinpoint the page from which the information is taken.

Referencing is an essential part of academic integrity. Learning how to write an academic essay with references and how to use in-text citations shows readers that you did your research and helps them locate your sources.

Learning how to cite a website, how to cite a book, and how to cite a paraphrase can also help you avoid plagiarism —an academic offense with serious consequences for your education or professional reputation.

Scribendi can help format your citations or review your whole paper with our Academic Editing services .

Take Your Essay from Good to Great

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, about the author.

Scribendi's in-house editors work with writers from all over the globe to perfect their writing. They know that no piece of writing is complete without a professional edit, and they love to see a good piece of writing transformed into a great one. Scribendi's in-house editors are unrivaled in both experience and education, having collectively edited millions of words and obtained numerous degrees. They love consuming caffeinated beverages, reading books of various genres, and relaxing in quiet, dimly lit spaces.

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Creative Writing

Research for writers.

• Finding Books
• Finding Articles
• Finding Primary Sources

Why research?

Whether you're browsing for information to spark your creativity or to check your facts, this guide provides links to resources that can help.

Photo by Janko Ferlič on Unsplash

Getting Started with Reference Books

Reference books are designed to help users find factual information or gain a broad overview of a topic. Typically, they also provide citations of sources for further investigation. The list below offers some suggested research topics for writers, but it is only a starting point. Any information that helps you see the world in new ways may contribute to your writing. NOTE: Although reference books are listed in DELCAT Discovery as non-circulating, they are eligible for Library Pickup Service during the fall 2020 semester.

• Flora and fauna
• Events and movements in history
• Biography and genealogy
• Scientific thought and discoveries
• Technological advances and inventions
• Daily life and customs in particular places or historical periods
• Geographical exploration and maps
• Religious beliefs and practices
• Food culture
• Historical or regional slang
• Metaphor and symbolism

Selected Digital Reference Sources

Articles from encyclopedias, dictionaries, and other reference books. Covers all major academic areas. An excellent place to start when learning the basics of any topic. Will help focus your topic, find keywords and people, and discover more in-depth books and articles. Images, audio and video files are included.

Biographical information on historically significant figures and present-day newsmakers from around the world and across all disciplines and subject areas.

NOTE:   Oxford University Press upgraded the OED in July 2023, causing unplanned access issues. Off-campus users may experience login problems until Oxford resolves the problem.

Data on media, business, finance, politics, and a wide variety of other areas of interest and markets.

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• Last Updated: Jul 17, 2024 8:34 AM
• URL: https://guides.lib.udel.edu/creativewriting

• Teesside University Student & Library Services
• Subject LibGuides

Creative Writing MA (Distance Learners)

• How to Reference
• Getting Started
• Finding Books
• Finding Journal Articles
• Finding Digital Media & Newspapers
• Off-Campus Access to E-Resources
• Using Other Libraries
• Writing Assignments
• Reading Lists Online

Why do I need to reference?

You need to reference to:.

• acknowledge the work of other writers.
• demonstrate the body of knowledge upon which your research is based.
• show you have widely researched the topic and on what authority you based your arguments and conclusions.
• enable all those who have read your work to locate your sources easily.
• avoid being accused of plagiarism - that is passing off someone else's work as your own.

There are two parts to referencing:

• Citation:  the acknowledgement in your text, giving brief details of the work. The reader should be able to identify or locate the work from these details in your reference list or bibliography.
• Reference list: the list of references at the end of your work. These should include the full information for your citations so that readers can easily identify and locate each piece of work that you have used. It is important that these are consistent, correct and complete.

RefWorks allows you to create and manage your own personal database of useful references. You can then use these to quickly compile a reference list or bibliography for your assignments. 

Click on the link below for more information and help on using RefWorks..

• Refworks LibGuide
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• Last Updated: Jul 15, 2024 3:22 PM
• URL: https://libguides.tees.ac.uk/creative_writing_ma

How to Write a Creative Essay: Useful Tips and Examples

Samuel Gorbold

Essay creative writing is not always seen as fun by most students, but the realm of creative essays can offer an enjoyable twist. The inherent freedom in choosing a topic and expressing your thoughts makes this type of paper a creative playground. Engaging in composing a creative essay provides an opportunity to flex your creative muscles. Yet, if you're new to crafting compositions, it can pose a challenge. This article guides you through the steps to write an impressive creative essay, helping you navigate the process seamlessly. In a hurry? Our writing service is there for you 24/7, with guidance and practical help.

What Is a Creative Essay

A creative essay is a form of writing that goes beyond traditional academic structures, allowing the author to express themselves more imaginatively and artistically. Unlike formal essays, creative ones emphasize storytelling, personal reflection, and the exploration of emotions. They often incorporate literary elements such as vivid descriptions, dialogue, and poetic language to engage readers on a more emotional and sensory level. Follow our creative essay tips to experiment with style and structure, offering a unique platform to convey ideas, experiences, or perspectives in a captivating and inventive way.

To answer the question what does creative writing mean, it’s necessary to point out that it departs from traditional academic writing, offering a canvas for artistic expression and storytelling. It diverges from the rigid structure of formal writings, providing a platform for writers to infuse their work with imagination and emotion. In this genre, literary elements such as vivid descriptions and poetic language take center stage, fostering a more engaging and personal connection with the reader.

Unlike a poem analysis essay , this form of writing prioritizes narrative and self-expression, allowing authors to delve into their experiences and perspectives uniquely. It's a departure from the conventional rules, encouraging experimentation with style and structure. Creative essays offer a distinct avenue for individuals to convey ideas and emotions, weaving a tapestry that captivates and resonates with readers on a deeper, more sensory level.

Creative Writing Essay Outline Explained From A to Z

Moving on, let's delve into how to write a creative writing essay from s structural perspective. Despite the focus on creativity and imagination, a robust structure remains essential. Consider your favorite novel – does it not follow a well-defined beginning, middle, and end? So does your article. Before diving in, invest some time crafting a solid plan for your creative writing essay.

Creative Essay Introduction

In creative essay writing, the introduction demands setting the scene effectively. Begin with a concise portrayal of the surroundings, the time of day, and the historical context of the present scenario. This initial backdrop holds significant weight, shaping the atmosphere and trajectory of the entire storyline. Ensure a vivid depiction, employing explicit descriptions, poetic devices, analogies, and symbols to alter the text's tone promptly.

Creative Essay Body

The body sections serve as the engine to propel the storyline and convey the intended message. Yet, they can also be leveraged to introduce shifts in motion and emotion. For example, as creative writers, injecting conflict right away can be a powerful move if the plot unfolds slowly. This unexpected twist startles the reader, fundamentally altering the narrative's tone and pace. Additionally, orchestrating a fabricated conflict can keep the audience on edge, adding an extra layer of intrigue.

Creative Essay Conclusion

Typically, creative writers conclude the narrative towards the end. Introduce a conflict and then provide its resolution to tie up the discourse neatly. While the conclusion often doesn't lead to the story's climax, skilled writers frequently deploy cliffhangers. By employing these writing techniques suggested by our write my college essay experts, the reader is left in suspense, eagerly anticipating the fate of the characters without a premature revelation.

Creative Writing Tips

Every student possesses a distinct mindset, individual way of thinking, and unique ideas. However, considering the academic nature of creative writing essays, it is essential to incorporate characteristics commonly expected in such works, such as:

• Select a topic that sparks your interest or explores unique perspectives. A captivating subject sets the stage for an engaging paper.
• Begin with a vivid and attention-grabbing introduction. Use descriptive language, anecdotes, or thought-provoking questions to draw in your readers from the start.
• Clearly articulate the main idea or theme of your essay in a concise thesis statement. This provides a roadmap for your readers and keeps your writing focused.
• Use descriptive language to create a sensory experience for your readers. Appeal to sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell to enhance the imagery.
• Play with the structure of your content. Consider nonlinear narratives, flashbacks, or unconventional timelines to add an element of surprise and creativity.
• If applicable, develop well-rounded and relatable characters. Provide details that breathe life into your characters and make them memorable to the reader.
• Establish a vivid and immersive setting for your narrative. The environment should contribute to the overall mood and tone.
• Blend dialogue and narration effectively. Dialogue adds authenticity and allows characters to express themselves, while narration provides context and insight.
• Revisit your essay for revisions. Pay attention to the flow, coherence, and pacing. Edit for clarity and refine your language to ensure every word serves a purpose.
• Share your creative writing article with others and welcome constructive feedback. Fresh perspectives can help you identify areas for improvement and refine your storytelling.
• Maintain an authentic voice throughout your essay. Let your unique style and perspective shine through, creating a genuine connection with your audience.
• Craft a memorable conclusion that leaves a lasting impression. Summarize key points, evoke emotions, or pose thought-provoking questions to resonate with your readers.

Types of Creative Writing Essays

A creative writing essay may come in various forms, each offering a unique approach to storytelling and self-expression. Some common types include:

• Reflects the author's personal experiences, emotions, and insights, often weaving in anecdotes and reflections.

Descriptive 

• Focuses on creating a vivid and sensory-rich portrayal of a scene, person, or event through detailed descriptions.
• Tells a compelling story with a clear plot, characters, and often a central theme or message.

Reflective 

• Encourages introspection and thoughtful examination of personal experiences, revealing personal growth and lessons learned.

Expository 

• Explores and explains a particular topic, idea, or concept creatively and engagingly.

Persuasive 

• Utilizes creative elements to persuade the reader to adopt a particular viewpoint or take a specific action.

Imaginative 

• These creative writing papers allow for the free expression of imagination, often incorporating elements of fantasy, surrealism, or speculative fiction.

Literary Analysis

• Learning how to write a creative writing essay, analyze and interpret a piece of literature, and incorporate creativity to explore deeper meanings and connections.
• Blends personal experiences with travel narratives, offering insights into different cultures, places, and adventures.
• Focuses on creating a detailed and engaging portrait of a person, exploring their character, experiences, and impact on others.

Experimental 

• Pushes the boundaries of traditional essay structures, experimenting with form, style, and narrative techniques.
• Combines elements from different essay types, allowing for a flexible and creative approach to storytelling.

As you can see, there are many types of creative compositions, so we recommend that you study how to write an academic essay with the help of our extensive guide.

How to Start a Creative Writing Essay

Starting a creative writing essay involves capturing the reader's attention and setting the tone for the narrative. Here are some effective ways to begin:

• Pose a thought-provoking question that intrigues the reader and encourages them to contemplate the topic.
• Begin with a short anecdote or a brief storytelling snippet that introduces the central theme or idea of your essay.
• Paint a vivid picture of the setting using descriptive language, setting the stage for the events or emotions to unfold.
• Open with a compelling dialogue that sparks interest or introduces key characters, immediately engaging the reader in the conversation.
• Incorporate a relevant quotation or epigraph that sets the mood or provides insight into the essay's theme.
• Begin with a bold or intriguing statement that captivates the reader's attention, encouraging them to delve further into your essay.
• Present a contradiction or unexpected scenario that creates a sense of curiosity and compels the reader to explore the resolution.
• Employ a striking metaphor or simile that immediately draws connections and conveys the essence of your creative essay.
• Start by directly addressing the reader, creating a sense of intimacy and involvement right from the beginning.
• Establish the mood or atmosphere of your essay by describing the emotions, sounds, or surroundings relevant to the narrative.
• Present a dilemma or conflict that hints at the central tension of your essay, enticing the reader to discover the resolution.
• Start in the middle of the action, dropping the reader into a pivotal moment that sparks curiosity about what happened before and what will unfold.

Choose an approach to how to write a creative essay that aligns with your tone and theme, ensuring a captivating and memorable introduction.

Creative Essay Formats

Working on a creative writing essay offers a canvas for writers to express themselves in various formats, each contributing a unique flavor to the storytelling. One prevalent format is personal writing, where writers delve into their own experiences, emotions, and reflections, creating a deeply personal narrative that resonates with readers. Through anecdotes, insights, and introspection, personal essays provide a window into the author's inner world, fostering a connection through shared vulnerabilities and authentic storytelling.

Another captivating format is the narrative, which unfolds like a traditional story with characters, a plot, and a clear arc. Writers craft a compelling narrative, often with a central theme or message, engaging readers in a journey of discovery. Through vivid descriptions and well-developed characters, narrative articles allow for the exploration of universal truths within the context of a captivating storyline, leaving a lasting impression on the audience.

For those who seek to blend fact and fiction, the imaginative format opens the door to vivid exploration. This format allows writers to unleash their imagination, incorporating elements of fantasy, surrealism, or speculative fiction. By bending reality and weaving imaginative threads into the narrative, writers can transport readers to otherworldly realms or offer fresh perspectives on familiar themes. The imaginative essay format invites readers to embrace the unexpected, challenging conventional boundaries and stimulating creativity in both the writer and the audience. Check out our poetry analysis essay guide to learn more about the freedom of creativity learners can adopt while working on assignments. 

Creative Essay Topics and Ideas

As you become familiar with creative writing tips, we’d like to share several amazing topic examples that might help you get out of writer’s block:

• The enchanted garden tells a tale of blooms and whispers.
• Lost in time, a journey through historical echoes unfolds.
• Whispering winds unravel the secrets of nature.
• The silent symphony explores the soul of music.
• Portraits of the invisible capture the essence of emotions.
• Beyond the horizon is a cosmic adventure in stardust.
• Can dreams shape reality? An exploration of the power of imagination.
• The forgotten key unlocks doors to the past.
• Ripples in the void, an exploration of cosmic mysteries.
• Echoes of eternity are stories written in the stars.
• In the shadow of giants, unveils the unsung heroes.
• Can words paint pictures? An exploration of the artistry of literary expression.
• Whispers of the deep explore the ocean's hidden stories.
• Threads of time weave lives through generations.
• Do colors hold emotions? A journey of painting the canvas of feelings.
• The quantum quandary navigates the world of subatomic particles.
• Reflections in a mirror unmask the layers of identity.
• The art of silence crafts narratives without words.
• The ethereal dance explores movement beyond the visible.
• Can shadows speak? Unveiling stories cast in darkness.

Examples of Creative Writing Essays

We've added a couple of brief creative writing essays examples for your reference and inspiration.

Creative Writing Example 1: Admission Essay

Creative writing example 2: narrative essay.

What Are the Types of Creative Writing Essays?

What is a creative writing essay, how to start a creative writing essay, what are some creative writing tips.

Samuel Gorbold , a seasoned professor with over 30 years of experience, guides students across disciplines such as English, psychology, political science, and many more. Together with EssayHub, he is dedicated to enhancing student understanding and success through comprehensive academic support.

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• How to Write a Book Proposal, 3rd ed. by Michael Larsen Call Number: REF PN161 L37 2003 ISBN: 1582972516

• Literary Market Place 2015 Call Number: REF PN161 L712 ISBN: 00001155 Publication Date: 2014

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Slappydappy New Member

A question about using pop culture references in a book.

Discussion in ' Setting Development ' started by Slappydappy , Mar 4, 2012 .

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); I've reading Ulysses and I sorta had an idea I wanted to implement into a project I was already working on. However, this is a question I always wanted to know. If a character in a novel references pop culture, such as music, celebrities, books, movies, etc. How does this work? Can the book still be published? What are the laws on this? I know some people are going to say it's not necessary to ever do this, and if I am a good writer I won't need to do it. I don't care about that viewpoint, only the law and chances of getting the work published. Sorry if my question seems odd or doesn't make sense.  

gypsystarchild New Member

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); As far as copyright laws go, I really don't know the answer. I often use pop culture references in my writing, but I'm not a published writer What are you planning on referencing from Ulysses? Perhaps there's a way to do so indirectly. Often times it just depends on the work and how you're using it. Also, once something is out there, it's fair game. Granted, you can't just copy and paste three chapters, but ideas cannot be copyrighted. The specific way they are described, however, are. Does this help? And, if you are planning on publishing this project, your editor will know what can/cannot be reproduced.  

Mark_Archibald Active Member

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); It has been discussed here: https://www.writingforums.org/showthread.php?t=50609 lots of good insight there. Can the book be published? Yes, if you're referencing something as it is in real life you'll be fine. There's hundreds of examples in technicalities, but this is acceptable: 'Billy Bob was so angry that he squeezed his cup of Starbucks and didn't care as the coffee scalded his hand.' My advice is don't overdo it with the pop culture references.  

Elgaisma Contributor Contributor

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); A title, names etc are trademarked rather than copyrighted so as long as you are not using it in a derogatory fashion is fine to mention them. By all means enjoy a Pepsi, but don't use one to poison anyone. Take a trip to Disneyland but don't rape anyone whilst you are there etc Lyrics and actual content are copyrighted and need to have permission to be used  

Morwen Edhelwen New Member

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); Elgaisma said: ↑ A title, names etc are trademarked rather than copyrighted so as long as you are not using it in a derogatory fashion is fine to mention them. By all means enjoy a Pepsi, but don't use one to poison anyone. Take a trip to Disneyland but don't rape anyone whilst you are there etc Lyrics and actual content are copyrighted and need to have permission to be used Click to expand...

Pythonforger Carrier of Insanity

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); Have you read the CHERUB series of books? They're chock full of pop culture references, and since I doubt that their author took the time to get permission from Disney, Pepsi, Coke, Manchester United, Arsenel, 21st Century Fox and more, I think it should be okay to reference pop culture.  

Cogito Former Mod, Retired Supporter Contributor

googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('funpub_98e059711cb28930a7d842550185f4fa'); }); Feel free to have your character light up a Marlboro, take a slug of Jack Daniels, chase it down with a Bud Light, lunch on a Big Mac with a Coke, and then chew a couple of Tums to settle his stomach. But don't suggest he got food poisoning at the Golden Arches, and that he should've known better. Product names aren't copyrighted. They are trademarked. You can refer to trademarked names all you want in the context of fiction, except where that use in fiction is in competition with the named product. So don't stop and have a chat with Harry Potter, because tjhat could eb considered a trademark infringement. As for the food poisoning aspect, that could be considered defamation, implying that eating an Mickey Dee's is risking food poisoning. Trademark law is quite a bit more complicated than copyright law, but you are pretty safe mentioning products by name in their normal use. You could also mention the 1982 Tylenol poisoning incidents, even though it casts the product in a negative light, because it is factual public information.  

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Sparking creativity: Encouraging creative idea generation through automatically generated word recommendations

• Original Manuscript
• Open access
• Published: 16 July 2024

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• Talia A. Wise 1 , 2 &
• Yoed N. Kenett   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3872-7689 1  

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Creative block is a familiar foe to any who attempt to create and is especially related to “writers block”. While significant effort has been focused on developing methods to break such blocks, it remains an active challenge. Here, we focus on the role of semantic memory structure in driving creative block, by having people get “stuck” in a certain part of their semantic memory network. We directly examine whether we can “pull out” a participant from where they got “stuck” in their semantic memory, breaking their creative impasse. Our Associative Creativity Sparker (ACS) is a cognitive network science-based online tool that aims to spark creative ideas and break creative impasse: Once a participant runs out of ideas in a creative idea generation task, word recommendations are suggested to prime new ideas. These word recommendations are either towards or away from previous ideas, as well as close or far from the target object, based on a conceptual space extracted from the participants responses using online text analysis. In Study 1 , 121 participants use the ACS to generate creative alternative uses for five different objects and completed creativity and Gf tasks. In Study 2 , we repeat the design of Study 1 , but further examine the impact of writing experience on the ACS, by examining 120 novice and 120 experienced writers. Across both studies, our results indicate that the location of word recommendations affects the fluency and originality of one’s ideas, and that novice and experienced writers differently benefit from these word recommendations.

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Introduction

The concept of “writer’s block” was introduced by psychoanalyst Edmund Bergler (Bergler, 1950 ), but one must only look to the classic invocation to the muses in Greek and Latin poetry to know that writer’s block has been part of the writing process for much longer. Creative block is a common part of people's creative process, and is a source of negative emotion, distress and even loss of income (Ahmed & Güss, 2022 ). Creative block is nonetheless associated with creative achievement and might be caused by a positive desire for renewal – at the breakthrough to the creative impasse lies the ‘aha’ moment of inspiration and discovery (Crosson, 1982 ). Methods that unblock creativity may contribute positively to wellbeing and productivity, and to our understanding of the creative process. Developing cognitive theories of how creativity tools and methods may best support the human creative process is especially important now that an abundance of AI-based creativity and writing assistance tools are becoming widely available. The current research presents the Associative Creativity Sparker (ACS) method for unblocking creativity, based on recent advances in computational methods and research on the role of semantic memory in the creative process (Kenett, 2024 ).

Previous work on breaking a creative impasse has examined group brainstorming (Nijstad & Stroebe, 2006 ), crowdsourced suggestions (Chan et al., 2017 ; Siangliulue et al., 2015 ), sleeping and incubation periods (Sio et al., 2013 ; Sio & Rudowicz, 2007 ), subliminal messaging (Gonçalves et al., 2017 ), and hypnotically inducing dreams (Davé, 1979 ). Such methods – that aim to break creative impasse – are often based on techniques of successful writers, such as seeking inspiration through reading or discussion, which may be resource-demanding and are harder to study from a cognitive perspective. Current cognitive methods for breaking through creative blocks are aimed at the entire creative process, and regard impasse-break as a side-effect of improving creativity (Ahmed & Güss, 2022 ).

Given that creative block is related to “being stuck” and the effort to “get out” of such a block, semantic memory may play a critical role in such phenomena. Semantic memory is the cognitive system that stores facts and knowledge (Kumar, 2021 ) and plays a central role in creative ideation (Abraham & Bubic, 2015 ; Benedek et al., 2023 ; Kenett, 2024 ). The associative theory of creativity posits that creativity is related to the ability to form associations between distant or unrelated concepts in semantic memory (Beaty & Kenett, 2023 ; Mednick, 1962 ). This suggests that offering distant concepts to someone experiencing creative block might allow them to come up with new creative ideas. Following this theory, various creativity support methods incorporate idea suggestions to encourage creative associations (Chan et al., 2017 ; Siangliulue et al., 2015 ). Our study moves a step forward in this direction, by combining recent advances in computational modeling to represent semantic memory structure using online text analysis methods coupled with graph theory methodologies. This allows us to study why certain ideas might re-inspire creativity after impasse, while other ideas might help less. Our method specifically addresses the cognitive component of creative block – which includes fixation on a specific idea or rigid thinking (Ahmed & Güss, 2022 ; Chrysikou et al., 2016 ; Duncker & Lees, 1945 ; Schultz & Searleman, 2002 ).

Existing research on writer’s block focuses and sometimes even questions the existence of a “blocked writer,” who has prolonged and extremely severe instances of complete inability to write (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2009 ). This type of block has been associated more strongly with mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, or general life difficulties (e.g., Herz et al., 2020 ). In general, creative block is considered on a short-term and smaller-scale level of supporting creativity of individual ideas, or of small sections of text. Especially, this form of writer’s block has been found to occur in the vast majority of writers (Ahmed & Güss, 2022 ). In these cases, block due to cognitive causes such as perfectionism and rigid thinking is more associated with the idea generation phase of writing compared to writer’s block due to motivational causes which was found to occur more in the articulation phase of writing. Eminent authors have reported distinct writing phases aimed at facilitating idea generation and its translation to actual texts (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2009 ): a free-writing phase where everything that comes to mind is written down to promote improvisational creativity, and an analytical writing phase to organize, articulate and develop the aesthetic qualities of the text (Lubart, 2009 ).

There has been a recent influx of research in text-based creativity support systems (Calderwood et al., 2020 ; Huang et al., 2020 ; Lee et al., 2022 ). Many works examine the effects of conceptual distance of suggestions on the quality of generated ideas (Chan et al., 2017 ; Rhys Cox et al., 2021 ). In an idea generation task, semantically far inspirations were found to be harmful during the productive ideation phase, potentially even causing creative fixations, while they were not harmful during impasse (Chan et al., 2017 ). In a study on the effects of common examples on creative fixation in an alternative uses task, it was found that showing common uses to participants reduced their creativity, but when instructions to avoid the common uses were added, participants creativity increased (George & Wiley, 2020 ). Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of diversity of inspiration on creativity: diverse crowd-sourced examples were found to increase creativity in slogan writing (Rhys Cox et al., 2021 ), and diverse sources of inspiration aided in design ideation (Chan, 2014 ). Scientific creativity was found to increase after scientists read partially matched articles where a topic was used in an analogically similar but not identical manner to the scientist’s own work, as opposed to fully matched or unmatched articles (Kang et al., 2022 ).

This boom in research is accompanied by new technologies accessible to writers and creators such as GPT-3 and ChatGPT that are increasingly used by people as ad hoc creativity support tools (e.g., Shidiq, 2023 ; Stevenson et al., 2022 ). These new tools are accompanied by an influx of task oriented online products aimed at assisting people with specific writing tasks, such as Sudowrite ( www.sudowrite.com ) which assists creative writers, Wordtune ( www.wordtune.com ) which enhances writing clarity, and Jasper ( www.jasper.ai ) which is aimed at improving marketing copy. Academic work examining the impact of large language models on creative writing includes the work of Lee et al. ( 2022 ), which examines the impact of GPT-3-generated text suggestions on author’s story writing process, and finds that writers’ use of the language model varies between writers and use cases. Calderwood et al. ( 2020 ) find in an exploratory study that novelists may use language models as antagonists that can help the writer come up with their own ideas, by building off of but ultimately ignoring the model’s suggestions.

However, while many of these works draw on cognitive theories in examining the impact of computer-generated suggestions on creativity or writing, much work remains in developing a greater understanding of the cognitive aspects of human–machine co-creativity (Rafner et al., 2023 ; Vinchon et al., 2023 ). Cognitive theories of co-creativity can facilitate the development of new and effective creativity aids, while also contributing to a greater understanding of the human creative process.

Semantic memory networks and creativity

In this work, we draw on previous research in the cognitive domain and in human–computer interaction to develop a tool that allows investigating the effects of text suggestions on creative ideation in a divergent thinking task. While large language models undoubtedly produce more useful text recommendations, the inability to understand why certain phrases generated by these models are chosen over others makes such systems noisier and more difficult to study from a cognitive perspective. For example, if an LLM was queried to provide help for breaking a creative impasse in an AUT for the object ‘brick’ and it first provides the suggestion ‘use it for something related to gardening’ and then the suggestion ‘build a bookshelf’ there is no natural way to differentiate between the creativity of these two suggestions or to directly quantify their relationship to the participants previous ideas. Here, we draw on research in cognitive network science to develop a creativity support tool which allows us to directly relate the study of creativity support to research regarding the role of semantic memory in creative ideation. The network structure of the model of semantic memory we use allows us some control over the strength of creative associations that we aim to provoke in our tool, as well as allowing us to relate our findings to the existing literature in creativity and semantic memory.

Recent advances in cognitive network science allow applying a quantitative approach to represent the associations between concepts in semantic memory as a semantic memory network (Hills & Kenett, 2022 ; Siew et al., 2019 ). This instantiates the metaphor of memory as a cognitive map, on which some sort of mental vehicle travels (Hills & Kenett, 2022 ). Most theories of memory assume that it is easier to move from a concept to a nearby concept than to a distant one (Kenett et al., 2017 ; Kumar et al., 2020 ). The characterization of creativity through semantically distant associations suggests that an ability to navigate between distant concepts in semantic memory leads to greater creativity (Kenett, 2024 ). Thus, cognitive network science tools provide the possibility of stimulating this and studying it quantitatively. Importantly, the notion of semantic distance as operationalizing semantic similarity has been previously shown in textual corpus-based semantic models, such as WordNet (Ensor et al., 2021 ). However, such a network-based operationalization is more recent, has been shown to outperform such corpora-based models (Vankrunkelsven et al., 2018 ; Yang et al., 2023 ) and generalize across different cognitive domains (Merseal et al., 2023 ; Siew & Castro, 2023 ).

Recent work has found that the semantic memory network structure of higher-creative people (typically identified via higher performance on creative tasks, such as the alternative uses task, or self-report questionnaires [see below]) differs from those of less creative people. The semantic memory network of higher-creative individuals is more connected and flexible (Benedek et al., 2023 ; Kenett, 2024 ; Kenett & Faust, 2019 ): meaning that higher-creative individuals associate more distant concepts with each other, while lower-creative individuals tend to only consider semantically near concepts as closely related (Beaty et al., 2021 ; Gray et al., 2019 ). This allows higher creative individuals to make creative associations, as they can more easily draw connections between unexpected or distantly related ideas (Beaty & Kenett, 2023 ). The richer, more flexible semantic memory structure exhibited in higher creativity individuals has been shown to facilitate broader search processes (Kenett, 2024 ). This evidence – that the way we traverse through memory systems is related to creativity – suggests that semantic memory networks can be utilized to elicit creative ideation. Here, we examine how Divergent Thinking (DT) – the most commonly assessed component of creative thinking (Guilford, 1950 ), typically measured via the Alternative Uses Task (AUT; Acar & Runco, 2019 ; Torrance, 1966 ) – might be enhanced to overcome moments of impasse in the creative process, by sparking associative connections between seemingly distant concepts.

DT has been conceptualized as a semantic search process through memory (Hass, 2017a , 2017b ). In contrast to semantic fluency tasks such as naming animals (Ardila et al., 2006 ), in DT the search process is exploratory and drifts from the topic of interest (such as the cue word in an AUT). Those who can retrieve many concepts through DT are better positioned to associatively combine the concepts into many creative ideas (Silvia et al., 2013 ). This indicates that distant word recommendations might trigger memory retrieval and broaden one’s search during the AUT by stimulating a new untapped cluster of ideas in semantic memory.

Other theories of creativity such as the Search for Ideas in Associative Memory (SIAM) model, examine the context of a creative idea in relation to the ideas preceding it, or of group members, to explain creative ideation (Nijstad & Stroebe, 2006 ). The SIAM model suggests that idea generation is a search within associative memory consisting of two stages: knowledge activation, where a concept is retrieved from long-term memory; and idea production, where features of that concept are iterated upon to generate a series of ideas that are closely related. Either stage of the process can fail, leading to a state of impasse. Chan and colleagues have shown that offering participants semantically far stimuli during the knowledge activation phase, and semantically near stimuli during the idea production phase leads to more creative ideas than simply offering far stimuli, validating the SIAM model in practice (Chan et al., 2017 ; Siangliulue et al., 2015 ).

In both the associative and SIAM models of creativity, the notion of distance between concepts is central to creative ideation (Kenett, 2019 ). Research examining semantic distance between words found that words separated by a path length of up to four steps in a semantic memory network are most often rated as related, while words at a higher distance are rated as unrelated to each other. Generally, word-pairs up to three words apart show a stronger priming effect (Kenett et al., 2017 ; Kumar et al., 2020 ; Levy et al., 2021 ). Thus, a quantitative measure of distance between concepts conveys meaningful cognitive information.

The conceptualization of semantic memory as a network allows us to formalize models of search and traversal processes through this network. In this type of model, nodes represent concepts, and edges represent associations or connections between concepts. Once such a network is defined, it is then possible to formalize cognitive processes as network traversal algorithms (Abbott et al., 2012 , 2015 ; Benigni et al., 2021 ; Bourgin et al., 2014 ; Kenett & Austerweil, 2016 ; Marko & Riečanský, 2021 ; Siew, 2019 ). For example, creative associative thinking can be modeled as the outcome of a random walk over a semantic memory network with a flexible and highly interconnected structure (derived from higher-creative individuals), while random walks over the semantic memory network structure of lower-creative individuals reach less concepts over the same number of steps in the network (Kenett & Austerweil, 2016 ). Similarly, the spreadR package (Siew, 2019 ) which models the long-term result of a random walk on a network effectively models how spreading activation (Collins & Loftus, 1975 ) on a semantic memory network can account for semantic priming, and effects in false memory and word recognition. We draw on this conceptualization of a semantic memory network on which a random walk process activates different concepts in semantic memory as the basis for our word recommendation tool. By generating word recommendations at various locations in the semantic memory network based on this process, these concepts may be activated, simulating the endpoint of spreading activation through the semantic memory network and triggering new spreading activation processes in semantic areas that can inspire creative associations.

The present research

The Associative Creativity Sparker (ACS) presented here was developed based on the theory of associative search in memory (Raaijmakers & Shiffrin, 1981 ), and findings drawing on cognitive network science (Kenett, 2024 ) to test the associative theory of creativity (Beaty & Kenett, 2023 ; Mednick, 1962 ). We propose that when people reach an impasse, word recommendations can potentially pull them out of their fixation by triggering new and creative associations. As such, the aim of the ACS is to spark creative ideation in the impasse state of DT.

We draw on findings that use network science tools to model semantic memory networks, and findings showing that higher-creative individuals form more distant and random associations between concepts than lower-creative individuals. This suggests that the location of word recommendations in semantic memory relative to concepts already active in the participants’ mind may affect the fluency and creativity of subsequent ideas. The ACS allows us to test this hypothesis by generating word recommendations that represent different trajectories through semantic memory in a potential creative thought process. We develop a network traversal method to generate word recommendations that stimulate different associations between concepts and implement this method in an online system. Semantic memory networks can be estimated from empirical aggregated, group-based (De Deyne et al., 2019 ; Kenett et al., 2011 ) or individual-based (Benedek et al., 2017 ; Ovando-Tellez, Kenett et al., 2022b ) data (for more discussion, see Siew et al., 2019 ; Zemla & Austerweil, 2018 ). However, as individual-based semantic memory networks tend to be smaller and can be less reliable than a group-based semantic memory network (Wulff et al., 2022 ). Therefore, for our purposes we use a large-scale group-based semantic memory network in English, constructed for 12,000 cue words (De Deyne et al., 2019 ).

We conduct two studies that demonstrate the use of the ACS. In Study 1 , we conduct an initial proof of concept analysis to determine whether providing word recommendations based on different trajectories through a semantic memory network will affect the fluency and originality levels of participants’ responses in the AUT. We varied both the semantic distance of word recommendations from the AUT cue, and the semantic distance between the word recommendations and alternative uses provided by participants before they reach a creative impasse. We predict that word recommendations that are semantically distant from the responses already given by the participant, but sufficiently near the AUT cue, will result in higher fluency and originality. Furthermore, we predict that participants who are more creative will benefit more from distant word suggestions, since their semantic memory network is more diffuse, allowing them to make creative associations between distant concepts. In addition, we examine how participants’ fluid intelligence ( Gf ) and creativity might affect participant’s ability to associate near or far word recommendations into new creative ideas, based on the role of fluid intelligence in creativity (Beaty et al., 2023 ; Gerwig et al., 2021 ; Silvia, 2015 ). We predict that Gf and originality will interact with the Distance and Direction parameters: participants higher in Gf and creativity will be better able to associate distant and unrelated concepts into new and creative ideas.

In Study 2 , we aim to replicate the effects found in Study 1 . In addition, we examine how writing expertise might further affect the utility of co-creative writing support systems, similar to the ACS. We expect that participants with more writing experience will have greater experience generating and adjusting creative writing ideas, and thus will be better able to integrate writing prompts into their idea generation process.

In Study 1 , we examine whether the location of word recommendations in a semantic memory network relative to the pre-impasse responses in the AUT affects (1) the ability of these word recommendations to break participants out of creative fixations and (2) the originality of the responses they give after the word recommendations. This is achieved via the Associative Creativity Sparker (ACS), a novel tool we developed to break people from creative block. We also examine the effects of fluid intelligence ( Gf ), overall creativity and literary creativity on the participants’ ability to break out of fixations with the ACS.

Materials and methods

Participants.

One hundred and twenty-one participants were recruited through Prolific (mean age = 37.4 years, SD = 13.3 years, 74 female) to participate in this study. Sample size was based on previous studies which assessed AUT and Gf (Beaty et al., 2023 ; Beaty & Silvia, 2012 ; Gilhooly et al., 2007 ). Participants were from the UK (66), the US (20), Canada (11), and Ireland (10), and the median participant had a bachelors’ degree. One hundred and seven participants were included in the final analysis. Fourteen participants were excluded due to failed attention checks, technical issues, age above 70 or failure to complete the tasks as instructed. Participants were compensated 4.5 pounds, participated voluntarily and provided informed consent. The study took 35 min to complete on average and was approved by the Technion - Israel Institute of Technology Institutional Review Board.

The Alternative Uses Task (AUT)

The AUT is a DT task used to measure creative idea generation (Acar & Runco, 2019 ). The AUT is commonly used to measure the fluency and originality of ideas (Beaty et al., 2022 ). Participants were required to generate alternative uses to five objects (broom, knife, lamp, shoe, and towel), and had unlimited time to generate any creative alternative uses they could think of for each of these items. These items were selected from Beaty et al. ( 2022 ) because they were shown to produce similar numbers of AUT responses. The order of the AUT objects was randomized. Participants were instructed to respond creatively to the task, as this has been shown to influence the creativity level of responses (Said-Metwaly et al., 2020 ). The specific instructions given where:

You will be asked to produce as many creative uses as you can think of, which are different from the normal use, for five common objects. For example: the common use for a newspaper is reading, but it could also be used for "swatting flies", "to line drawers", "to make a paper hat" and so on. Please try to produce possible uses which are different from the normal one and different in kind from each other. The creative alternative uses should be short phrases. When you run out of ideas, you should click on get recommendation, which will show you a word that might help you find new ideas. You can then add and submit these new ideas. Once you run out of ideas again, click on ‘I am completely out of ideas.’

In addition, there was an interactive demo showing how to use the system before the first ACS trial.

The Associative Creativity Sparker (ACS)

We modified the AUT, such that when participants reached an impasse state and indicated they ran out of ideas, they were required to ask for a word recommendation and after its presentation, were asked to provide any new alternative uses they had. These word recommendations were automatically generated by the ACS. Participants were required to provide at least one response in the first part of each AUT trial but were not required to provide any response after the word recommendation. The ACS consists of the following components: (1) the website, (2) the free association-based semantic memory network, and (3) the word recommendation algorithm. The ACS is built modularly, so that it is easy to replace the existing word recommendation algorithm with any other desired method for word or phrase recommendations in the AUT. These can also be semantic network based, but it is equally easy to add in any other method for word or phrase recommendations such as those produced by generative AI. The ACS code can be found at https://github.com/TaliaWise/ACS/tree/main .

The website

We developed the ACS as a flask web app, which runs on Heroku servers using a Postgresql database. The app is developed to be modular, allowing for easy adjustment of experiment parameters, including the number of words recommended, the randomization of experiment conditions, and the number and names of AUT objects. In addition, the modular design of the ACS allows for relatively easy changes to the word recommendation algorithm, which could facilitate changes such as integrating AI models into the recommendation system. The ACS is accessible online anywhere. It is designed to allow participants to enter responses to a task and generate word recommendations in real time that are personalized to their previous responses (Fig.  1 ).

The Associative Creative Sparker Web-app. In this instance, the participant is instructed to type in creative alternative uses for a shoe. The participant can type in as many uses as they wish, and these uses appear on the right of the screen under ‘Submitted ideas.’ Once the participant reaches an impasse, they request and are shown a word recommendation. The participant can then add and submit any new creative ideas they have

Free association-based semantic memory network

We used the English “Small World of Words” free association dataset (De Deyne et al., 2019 ), to generate a semantic memory network. This dataset consists of word associations for over 12,000 cue words and participants were required to provide three responses for a subset of 14 cue words (De Deyne et al., 2019 ). This semantic memory network is used as the scaffolding of the ACS, which realizes a search process over it – loosely based on a random walk algorithm (Lawler & Limic, 2010 ) – to retrieve cue words from the network with varying distances to the originating AUT object.

The word recommendation algorithm described below crawls this network to generate word recommendations at different locations in semantic memory compared to the AUT cue and the participants’ previous responses. Our network consists of 11,512 nodes (English words) and 36,383 edges (free-association connections between the words). The nodes are derived from the list of cue words and participant generated word-associations from (De Deyne et al., 2019 ), and we create an edge in the network connecting two nodes if at least ten people freely associate this pair of words in the dataset. Our semantic memory network contains only the largest connected component of the dataset.

Word recommendation algorithm

We developed a word recommendation algorithm that generates words based on their distance to the AUT object in the semantic memory network (1 to 4 nodes away from the object in the network), and their direction towards or away from the previous responses to the AUT. For each AUT object a random distance and direction are chosen. The direction of word recommendations describes how close the word is to the participant’s pre-impasse ideas in the ACS trial. Towards recommendations have a low average path length in the semantic network to the pre-impasse responses, and Away recommendations have a high average path length in the semantic network to the pre-impasse responses.

Participants responses are processed through an online text analysis pipeline to compute the direction parameter. First, responses are made lower case, cleaned of punctuation, and cleaned of extra white space using the python string package. The response phrases are then separated into individual words, and only words which are not stop-words (words such as prepositions and conjunctions which are unimportant to the task) are included in the final list, according to a ‘bag of words’ set-up. The list of stop-words was derived from the NLTK natural language processing toolkit (Bird, 2006 ). This pre-processing pipeline loosely follows that used in the SemDis platform (Beaty & Johnson, 2021 ). The list of words is then assumed to represent the ‘idea space representation’ of participant’s previous responses in the trial. To compute the direction of word recommendations, only the words in the ‘idea space representation’ which exist in the semantic memory network are used, since words not in the network have undefined path length.

To select the word to be recommended all nodes at the chosen distance from the object node in the semantic memory network are sorted according to their average distance from the ‘idea space representation’ list of the participant’s pre-impasse responses to the trial. To get a word recommendation that is towards the previous responses, the word with the lowest average distance to the pre-impasse ‘idea space’ is selected, resulting in a closely related word recommendation to the ideas the participant already had. For an away recommendation, the average network distance to the pre-impasse ‘idea space’ is maximized, resulting in a novel word recommendation relative to the ideas the participant already had. If the selected word recommendation was already used in a response by the participant, the next best word is selected and shown to the participant instead (Examples of word recommendations are illustrated in Fig.  2 ).

The word recommendation algorithm. In this example, the participant is asked to generate creative alternative uses for a brick. The (hypothetical) participant produces the response ‘build a wall’ and reaches an impasse – fixating on the typical use of bricks. Two possible word recommendation scenarios are shown. Left : A word recommendation that is at a distance of two steps from brick in the semantic network and directed away from the words in the participants previous response, generating the word ‘flare.’ Right : A word recommendation at a distance of one step away from brick and directed towards the words in the participants previous response, generating the word ‘house’. One can imagine how if the word ‘flare’ successfully inspires a new use of a brick, this use would be more creative and unusual than a use sparked by the word recommendation ‘house’

ACS output measures

The ACS measures multiple variables related to participants’ performance in it:

Fluency of responses is measured through the number of responses participants provide. The ACS has two measures of fluency, fluency before impasse measures the number of responses the participant had before running out of ideas, corresponding to the typical fluency measure in an AUT. Fluency after impasse measures the number of ideas after the word recommendation is seen, this represents the added value to participant fluency provided by the word recommendation.

Likelihood of impasse break is a binary outcome variable which measures if a word recommendation successfully sparked new ideas after the participant reached impasse, by measuring if a trial has at least one response after impasse or none. This measure is 1 if the participant had at least one response after the word recommendation, and 0 if the participant had no responses after the word recommendation. In contrast to a typical AUT, in the ACS participants are already in a state of creative fixation, and thus often do not have any ideas at all, making this variable different from a typical fluency measure. The likelihood of impasse break represents whether the word recommendation succeeded at breaking the participant out of an impasse state in a given trial.

Originality of responses is measured through human subjective originality ratings (Kaufman, 2019 ; Silvia et al., 2008 ), and not quantitative originality measures (Beaty & Johnson, 2021 ; Dumas et al., 2021 ; Organisciak et al., 2023 ). This is because such quantitative measures are suited for aggregated responses, or latent factors, whereas in our study we focused on response level effects of the ACS. For our subjective scoring, we follow a common scoring scale ranging from 1 (not at all original) to 5 (very original) scale (Hass et al., 2018 ).

Two graduate students rated the ACS responses. In addition, the responses were subdivided into groups of 200–300 and rated by 3–7 crowd-workers recruited from Prolific. The ratings from the two graduate students and the crowd-workers were aggregated and an ICC(1,k) score was computed for each group of ratings (Shrout & Fleiss, 1979 ). Because several crowd-workers submitted arbitrary seeming responses (e.g., repeated patterns of ratings), the ratings from any crowd-workers who significantly reduced the ICC(1,k) score (and thus who seem to have provided arbitrary ratings) were removed, resulting in a final ICC(1,k) score of over 0.7 for each group of ratings. The ratings of the graduate students and remaining crowd-workers were then averaged to produce a final originality score for each response. We measure originality of the responses both before and after the word recommendations, resulting in pre-impasse originality and post-recommendation originality measures for each trial. This allows us to analyze the impact of word recommendations on response originality and consider whether post-recommendation responses are more or less original than pre-impasse responses, and whether response originality differs between word-recommendation conditions.

Response time (RT) is measured as the time between the beginning of each response (which can be the start of a trial, end of previous response, or the time the word recommendation is shown) until the participant begins typing each response. This represents the time spent thinking before writing each idea. This is an outcome variable that can validate that participants reached a state of creative fixation; we expect that as they approach an impasse state the time before each response will increase. For the responses after impasse, we expect that the time spent thinking will vary between word recommendation types, as ‘aha’- type creative associations could have a different thinking time than more deliberately derived ideas.

Additional measures

The ACS also includes other measures that were not used in the current studies. These include key-log timing, enabling researchers to identify the exact moment that a response or word was typed, or submitted to the system, and a measure of response adherence, showing how semantically close the response was to the word recommendation.

Creativity assessment

Participants’ creativity was assessed via the Inventory of Creative Achievement and Activity (ICAA) questionnaire (Diedrich et al., 2018 ), applied to assess individual differences in creativity. The ICAA measures creative activity and achievement in eight different domains: music, literature, sports, science, cooking, visual arts, performance arts and handicraft. For each domain participants are asked to note their personal and professional achievements, and the number of times in the last 10 years they have pursued activities in that domain. Because the activity and achievement scores are highly correlated, we used principal component analysis to compute a composite score for each participant. We computed PCA eigenvalues and factor loadings to determine that a unidimensional model fits the data (Forthmann et al., 2023 ; Gilmer & Feldt, 1983 ). The eigenvalue for this model was 0.829, and the factor loadings for the two variables were 0.70 and 0.70 respectively, showing that the final composite score had a strong correlation to each variable. The factor determinacy index (Ferrando & Lorenzo-Seva, 2018 ) on the final extracted factor was found to be 1.67.

Furthermore, activities and achievements in the domain of literature were analyzed individually in addition to the overall achievement and activity scores, as we expected creativity in this domain to be especially relevant to the task. A composite literature experience score is computed using principal component analysis on the literature activity and literature achievement scores. To determine that a unidimensional model fit this data we computed the factor loadings [0.71, 0.71] and eigenvalue (0.672), showing that the PCA factor captured a large proportion of each variable’s variance (Forthmann et al., 2023 ; Gilmer & Feldt, 1983 ). The factor determinacy index (Ferrando & Lorenzo-Seva, 2018 ) computed on the extracted factor was found to be 1.78.

Fluid intelligence assessment

Fluid intelligence ( Gf ) was measured based on Kenett, Beaty et al. ( 2016a ) via three tasks: (1) a series task from the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT), which involves choosing an image that completes a series of images (13 items, 3 min; Carroll, 1993 ); (2) A letter-sets task, which presents a series of four-letter combinations and requires people to determine which set does not follow a rule governing the other four (16 items, 4 min; Ekstrom et al., 1976 ); and (3) A number-series task, which presents a sequence of numbers and requires participants to discover a rule governing their change (15 items, 4.5 min; Thurstone, 1938 ). To compute a general composite Gf score, we use principal component analysis, by summing the multiplication of each independent Gf score by its weight of the first unrotated principal component (Kenett, Beaty, et al., 2016a ). To determine that a unidimensional model fit this data we computed the factor loadings [0.5051805, 0.59497742, 0.62513561] and eigenvalue (0.588), showing that the PCA factor captured a large proportion of each variable’s variance (Forthmann et al., 2023 ; Gilmer & Feldt, 1983 ). The factor determinacy index (Ferrando & Lorenzo-Seva, 2018 ) computed on the extracted factor was found to be 1.78.

Statistical analysis

Impasse break and originality outcome variables were analyzed using linear mixed-effects (LME) hierarchical regression models (Baayen et al., 2008 ), as implemented in the lme4 package (Bates et al., 2015 ) in R. Because each participant completes the ACS four times with a random distance and direction parameters for each trial, LME models were the most suitable method for analyzing the difference in outcomes between the various groups of distance and direction. This approach was selected for its ability to handle the substantial variation in individual responses to word recommendation conditions. It permits an in-depth examination of the primary variables of interest by incorporating a random intercept for each participant, thereby accounting for inter-individual differences. In this analysis, a random intercept for each participant removes some of the influence of the variability between individuals on the final fixed-effects comparison. The model also accounts for variability due to demographic factors; age, sex, country, education, circumstantial factors; experiment order, AUT object, idea order (the order of responses in the trial, normalized so that 1 is always the first response after impasse and all responses before impasse count back from 0, responses after impasse count forward from (1), and individual factors; Gf , and creative activities and achievements. These factors are assessed before including the effects of the word recommendations on the outcome variables. This ensures that any potential effect of the word recommendations on the outcome is above and beyond the effects of the individual and group variability. The final estimate is thus a more generalizable estimate of the true effect of the fixed effects of interest (distance, direction, Gf, and creativity scores) on the outcomes (impasse break and originality of responses).

To assess the impact of word recommendations on originality, the Distance and Direction word recommendation parameters are coded as before or after the word recommendation, thus allowing the LME model to compare each word recommendation condition to the pre-impasse responses. The pre-impasse responses thus serve as a control condition.

First, we analyzed ACS impasse break. For this analysis we aggregated responses by trial, where each trial has a binary outcome of whether the participant had ideas or not after seeing the word recommendation. We build a linear mixed effects model based on the response after impasse outcome variable, so that the model computes the likelihood of response for each category of word recommendation. We then analyze the originality of responses. This model is run on the disaggregated individual responses.

In both models we used a bottom-up process, where we start with a baseline model which only has the participants’ ID as a random effect, and iteratively add each variable of interest and test for statistical significance. The first variable is added to the baseline model and we test if the addition of this variable significantly improves model fit compared to the baseline. If the new variable improves model fit it is kept as the new ‘best’ model and the next variable is added to it and compared to it. If adding the variable did not improve model fit, the next variable is added to the baseline and compared to the baseline. This process is further illustrated in Tables 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 . For each analysis, we first tested the impact of demographic variables (age, sex, country, and years of education) but these did not significantly improve model fit for any of the outcomes, so we do not include them in the final analysis. We then tested the effects of Gf , creative activity and achievement and literature activity and achievement. For the aggregated fluency model, we then added the fluency before impasse measure, and found that it did not significantly improve model fit. For the originality model, which was not aggregated, we included idea order which significantly improved model fit. We then tested our hypothesized effects of distance, direction and distance x direction for both models.

Participants completed the ACS for five different objects. This included an initial instruction page describing the interface and explaining how to use the task, followed by an interactive instruction guide for using the ACS interface. The five trials were then given in sequence. For each trial, participants first provide unassisted creative uses for the object until they reach an impasse, then request word recommendations, and finally may input any new ideas they have. Following this, participants answered the ICAA, Gf , and demographic questionnaires, which were administered on Qualtrics. Each questionnaire had an instruction page followed by the question page. Participants had the option of taking short breaks between questionnaires. Attention checks were measured during the ICAA, randomly tested between the three Gf tasks, and in the demographics section.

We examined all responses generated by participants (see Table  1 for examples). We then evaluate the predictors of impasse break and originality.

Impasse break occurred in 33% of the ACS trials and the word recommendations were helpful in at least one trial for 78% of participants (Table  1 shows two trials with successful impasse break). To analyze what factors affected impasse break, participants AUT responses were aggregated by trial, so that each trial had as an outcome a binary measure of having one or more responses after the word recommendation (impasse break) or none (participant remains in the impasse). Two individual AUT trials were excluded due to technical issues, although the remaining four trials of each of these two participants were still used, and 14 of the participants completed three trials instead of five, leaving ( N = 505) trials included in the analysis.

For this model, participants ID and trial order were both included as random variables as the baseline model. We used a bottom-up model selection mechanism where each variable was added and compared to the preceding significant model. If adding the new variable resulted in a model that was significantly different from the previous best model, the new variable was kept, and this new model is now considered the best model. Table  2 shows this analysis. We started with the baseline model and first analyzed the addition of demographic variables age, sex, years of education and country as random effects. None of these significantly improved model fit over the baseline, so these were not included in the final analysis. Trial object was then analyzed as a random effect but did not improve the model fit over baseline. We then analyzed the fixed effect of Gf on impasse break. Gf significantly improved model fit over the baseline, so further models were compared to this one. Following this we analyzed the fixed effects of creative activities and achievements, literature activities and achievements, and participants’ number of responses (fluency) before impasse on the impasse break outcome measure. None of these variables significantly improved model fit over the Gf model. Finally, we analyzed the fixed effects of the distance and direction of word recommendations on impasse break, and the interaction of distance and direction. Both distance and distance \(\times\) direction had nearly significant effects. We also tested the interaction of distance \(\times\) direction \(\times\) Gf, but this too did not significantly improve model fit. The final model had the baseline random effects of subject ID and trial order and showed a positive effect of Gf on impasse break Est = 0.049, SE = 0.020, p = .015.

Next, the effect of word recommendations on response originality was analyzed similarly to impasse break. For this model, each response was analyzed individually. Only trials which had at least one post-impasse response were included in this analysis, leaving 310 trials from 102 participants. From the 310 trials included in the analysis, we include 599 post-word recommendation responses, compared to 1055 pre-impasse responses which serve as a control. For this model, only subject ID was included as a random effect, because the trial order intercept was found to have a variance and standard deviation of zero. Similarly to the impasse break model, the model was analyzed in a bottom-up manner where variables were added one at a time and compared to the previous best model (Table  3 ). If the addition of a variable resulted in a significantly better model, the ‘previous best’ model was updated to include this variable. We began by analyzing the effect of demographic variables (age, sex, country, education) as random effects. None of these had significant effects of model fit so they are not included in the final analysis (Table  3 ). We then analyzed trial order and trial object compared to the baseline. The addition of trial object resulted in a significantly better model than the baseline, so this model became the comparison model. Next, we analyzed the effects of Gf, creative activities and achievements, and literature activities and achievements, none of which significantly improved model fit. Idea order was then tested and found to improve model fit. Finally, we analyzed the effects of word recommendation distance and direction, distance \(\times\) direction and compared these to the previous best model. Specifically, we test the effects of close (1–2 steps) and far (3–4 steps) compared to the originality of pre-impasse (hereinafter control) responses and test the effects of towards and away vs. the originality of control responses. Distance and the interaction of distance and direction were found to significantly improve model fit. We then tested the effects of distance \(\times\) direction \(\times\) creativity (compared to the distance \(\times\) direction model), as this tests our a priori hypothesis, but did not find this improved model fit.

We examined the coefficients and estimations of each fixed effect in our final model on the outcome variable originality of responses . In the final model (Table  3 ), the random effects were subject ID, Var = 0.107, SD = 0.327, and trial object (T), Var = 0.022, SD = 0.148. The final model had significant effects of idea order, Est = .165, SE = .020, p < .001, and distance \(\times\) direction. For this variable we find that close-towards recommendations lead to responses significantly less original than control (pre-impasse) responses, Est = – 0.217, SE = 0.064, p < .001. When comparing the different word recommendation conditions, we also find that the close-towards recommendations resulted in responses significantly less original than the other three types. The close-away responses were Est = 0.154, SE = 0.007, p = .044, more original than close-towards, far-towards were Est = 0.25, SE = 0.079, p < .001, more original, and far-away were Est = 0.247, SE = 0.0806, p = .002 more original (Fig. 3 ).

ACS impact on impasse break in Study 1 . Top left : The impact of Gf on impasse break. Top right : The impact of word-recommendations on originality. Bottom : The effect of idea order and word recommendation distance on originality

Study 1 demonstrates that the ACS is effective at breaking participants out of creative fixations. The word recommendations inspired new ideas in 33% of the trials and were helpful for 78% of participants in at least one trial. This study also demonstrates that the distance of the word-recommendations relative to the cue object and direction relative to previous responses affect participants’ originality of responses. Responses following word recommendations that are far from the cue object are more original than close word recommendations. However, this effect is moderated by the direction of word recommendations: responses that are close to the object cue and towards the participant’s previous ideas are the least original of all, both compared to pre-impasse responses and the other types of word recommendations. In Study 1 we find that participants’ fluid intelligence ( Gf) affects impasse break, but that creativity and literature experience as measured through the ICAA do not affect any outcome variable.

In Study 2 , we sought to replicate and extend the results from Study 1 using a larger sample of participants and by focusing on expertise in the literature domain. Additionally, because our study focuses on breaking creative blocks of which writer’s block is a classic example, in Study 2 we examine how novice and experienced writers differ in their ability to benefit from word recommendations in the ACS. We hypothesize that participants with more writing experience will have greater experience generating and adjusting creative writing ideas, and thus will be better able to integrate writing prompts creatively than novice writers.

To identify the groups of novice and expert writers, we conducted a preliminary survey collecting 500 participants’ levels of activity and achievement in the domain of literature. We used the literature section of the ICAA for this survey and added several more questions about writing experience as sanity checks (see Appendix ). After excluding 60 participants who failed attention checks, provided incomplete responses, or indicated they did not want to take part in the follow-up study, we analyzed the survey responses to determine the novice and experienced writer groups. Responses to the additional sanity check questions closely correlated with participants stated activities and achievements in literature. As such, we applied a PCA on the activity and achievement scores to compute a single literary creativity score for each participant. To be consistent with sample size of Study 1 , the top scoring 120 participants were labeled as experienced writers and bottom 120 participants labeled as novice writers.

These 240 participants from the initial filtering questionnaire on Prolific were invited to return and complete the study. Of these, 204 completed the study without technical issues and were included in this analysis. A total of 104 are experienced writers (mean age = 41.34 years, SD = 11.03 years, 71 female), and 100 are novice writers (mean age = 35.26 years, SD = 10.50 years, 59 female). The two groups exhibited significant differences in the stated writing experience of these two groups: Novice writers had (M = 0.69, SD = 3.22) years of writing experience, and expert writers wrote for a mean of 12.39 years, SD = 9.62, t (203)= – 11.59, p < .001.

All participants are from the UK and native English speakers. All participants adequately completed the questionnaires and attention checks, so all participants’ responses were included. Five individual trials were excluded from the analysis due to technical issues. Participants were compensated 0.15 pounds for the 2-min preliminary survey, participated voluntarily and provided informed consent. Participants who completed the main study were compensated a further 4.5 pounds. The study took 35 min to complete on average. This study was approved by the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology Institutional Review Board.

The same website as in Study 1 is used to run the ACS trials, using the same text analysis and word recommendation method. A new Heroku database is used to store results.

ACS Measures

As in Study 1 , we measure impasse break: whether the trial has at least one response or not and response originality.

As in Study 1 . We computed a single factor using PCA on the ICAA activities and achievements scores. To determine that a unidimensional model fit this data we computed the factor loadings [0.707, 0.707] and eigenvalue (0.860), showing that the PCA factor captured a large proportion of each variable’s variance (Forthmann et al., 2023 ; Gilmer & Feldt, 1983 ). The factor determinacy index (Ferrando & Lorenzo-Seva, 2018 ) computed on the extracted factor was found to be 1.73.

In addition to the literature experience (novice/expert) category we extracted from the initial participant selection process, we computed a factor score for literature activities and achievements from the ICAA to be consistent with Study 1 . To determine that a unidimensional model fit this data we computed the factor loadings [0.707, 0.707] and eigenvalue (0.771), showing that the PCA factor captured a large proportion of each variable’s variance (Forthmann et al., 2023 ; Gilmer & Feldt, 1983 ). The factor determinacy index (Ferrando & Lorenzo-Seva, 2018 ) computed on the extracted factor was found to be 2.16.

As in Study 1 , we computed a single factor using PCA on the three Gf tests. To determine that a unidimensional model fit this data we computed the factor loadings [0.540, 0.614, 0.574] and eigenvalue (0.593), showing that the PCA factor captured a large proportion of each variable’s variance (Forthmann et al., 2023 ; Gilmer & Feldt, 1983 ). The factor determinacy index (Ferrando & Lorenzo-Seva, 2018 ) computed on the extracted factor was found to be 1.79.

Following Study 1 , we assess Gf via the CFIT, letter-sets task and number-series task. We use principal component analysis to compute the general Gf score (Kenett, Beaty, et al., 2016a ). To measure participants’ creativity, we use the ICAA, and compute a composite score using principal component analysis on the activity and achievement scores. Participants’ writing experience is derived from the initial writing expertise group selection using the literature activity and achievement section of the ICAA. In addition, we added several questions about participant writing experience and experience of writer’s block in their everyday life and in the ACS (These questions are listed in Appendix ).

As in Study 1 , we analyze the fixed effects of interest (participant literature experience, Gf , creativity, distance, and direction) on the outcomes (impasse break and originality of responses) using linear mixed effects models. We also test the effects of age, sex, years of education, and trial order, and include the random effect of participants ID in all models.

This study repeated the experimental set up of Study 1 . Participants completed the ACS for five different objects, in the same way as in Study 1 , as well as completing the same Gf and ICAA questionnaires. In addition, in this study we added a questionnaire following the trials which examined participants’ subjective experience of writing with the help of word recommendations. The questions are listed in appendix A . After the five ACS trials and the writing questionnaire participants answered the ICAA, Gf , and demographic questionnaires, with accompanying attention checks as in Study 1 .

We examined all responses generated by participants for clarity, and then analyzed the impact of word recommendations on fluency, originality, and response time. Finally, we analyzed participants’ subjective experience of writer’s block in the ACS.

We begin by analyzing the impact of word recommendations on impasse break. Participants had at least one response to the word recommendations in 64% of trials, and 95% had a response after the word recommendation at least once. As in Study 1 , responses were aggregated by trial and we model likelihood of impasse break , as outcome variable. A total of 1008 trials were included in the analysis, of which 648 have at least one response after impasse. We conduct the same analysis as in Study 1 with the addition of writing experience as an independent variable (Table  4 ).

For impasse break, we began with a baseline model including participants ID and trial order as random effects. We then tested the effects of the inclusion of demographic variables (age, sex, education) as random effects and compared each of these to the baseline model. None significantly improved model fit so they were not included in the final analysis. We then tested the effect of the inclusion of trial object compared to the baseline, but it did not improve model fit, so was not included in later models. Next, we tested fixed effects. We first tested Gf which like in Study 1 , significantly improved model fit over the baseline, so was included in later models. In Study 2 we also found that the model with Gf + Lit was significantly better than Gf and Gf + Lit + creativity was better than the previous model, so all three of these variables were included in all later models. The inclusion of number of ideas before impasse (nIdeas) did not improve model fit, so was not included. We then tested the inclusion of distance, which did not independently improve model fit, direction which improved model fit and distance \(\times\) direction which improved model fit. Finally, we tested for any interaction effects with distance \(\times\) direction, and found a nearly significant interaction with Lit, but none with Gf or creativity.

The final model had significant effects of creativity (Est = 0.044, SE = 0.021, p = .036), and distance \(\times\) direction: The far-away condition resulted in less impasse break than the other three word-recommendation types. Compared to far-away recommendations, far-towards had Est = 0.112, SE= 0.041, p = .006 more impasse break, close-towards had Est = 0.115, SE = 0.042, p = 0.005 more impasse break, and the relationship to close-away recommendations was nearly significant with Est = 0.078, SE = 0.041, p = .061 more impasse break (Fig. 4 ).

ACS impact on impasse break in Study 2 . Upper row : impasse break. Left: impasse break according to word recommendation condition. Upper middle : Impasse break according to word recommendation condition, but further breaks this down according to writing experience. Upper right : How the novice and experienced writing groups differ in their subjective perception of writer’s block (according to how many pre-impasse responses it takes for them to attribute writer’s block to a given trial). Lower left : The effects of idea order and distance on response originality. Lower right : Originality according to word recommendation condition

Because the interaction of distance \(\times\) direction with writing fit our a priori hypothesis we also examined this model, and in addition to the effects described above, we also found that distance \(\times\) direction effect was moderated by literature experience and was different in the far-away condition from the other word recommendation conditions. This was significant for the far-towards condition Est = – 0.202, SE = 0.083, p = .015, and nearly significant for close-away and close-towards. This effect can be seen in Fig.  4 , where we see that the writing recommendation condition did not affect impasse break in the experienced writing group but had a large effect on the novice writer group who had an especially difficult time with impasse break in the far-away condition compared to the other conditions.

The final model in Study 2 did not reproduce the main effect found in Study 1 of Gf. However, Gf was nonetheless found to significantly improve model fit in the model analysis process, which accords with the finding in Study 1 .

Next, we examine the impact of both fixed and random effects on the originality of responses, as per Study 1 , with writing experience included as a fixed effect. After removing trials which did not have any responses after impasse, those with technical issues, and responses that clearly did not fit instructions we include 3345 pre-impasse and 1210 post word-recommendation responses in this analysis (Table  5 ).

The baseline model included participants ID as a random effect. Similarly to Study 1 , for originality, trial order was not included in the baseline because it had standard deviation and variances of 0 when included as a random effect, so it was tested later as a fixed effect. No demographic variables (age, sex, education) significantly improved model fit over the baseline. We then tested the effect of trial order as a fixed effect and did not find a significant improvement over baseline. Trial object (T) was then included as a random effect and did significantly improve model fit, so later models are compared to the trial object model. We then tested fixed effects. Adding Gf did not improve model fit. Creativity did improve model fit compared to the previous best model (T) so was kept for all future models and model comparisons. Literature experience did not improve model fit. Idea order did improve model fit compared to previous best model. Both distance and direction improved model fit compared to the previous best model, as did the interaction of distance and direction. The interaction of distance and direction with creativity and literature experience did not improve model fit.

In the final model the random effects were participants ID, Var = 0.099, SD = 0.316, and trial object, Var = 0.001, SD = 0.031. As in Study 1 , the final model has significant effects for Idea order (IO), Est = 0.022, SE = 0.003, p < .001, and for distance \(\times\) direction. In addition, in Study 2 the final model had a significant effect for creativity, Est = 0.051, SE = 0.019, p = .007. For distance \(\times\) direction, Study 2 reproduced the effect found in Study 1 where the responses after close-towards recommendations where significantly less original than pre-impasse control Est = – 0.201, SE = 0.045, p < .001, and close-towards responses where significantly less original than far-towards, Est = – 0.312, SE = 0.059, p < .001. In addition, in Study 2 we found that the close-away responses were also less original than control, Est = – 0.188, SE = 0.045, p < .001, far-away responses were less original than control Est = – 0.098, SE = 0.046, p = .034, and far-towards responses were more original than control Est = 0.110, SE = 0.046, p = .017. We also found that far-towards responses where the most original of all the word recommendations: In addition to being more original than pre-impasse control, and close-towards responses (as shown above) the far-towards responses were also more original than close-away, Est = 0.299, SE = 0.059, p < .001 and far-away responses, Est = 0.209, SE = 0.057, p < .001.

Overall, these results replicate the main effects found in Study 1 . In both cases idea order (IO) had a positive effect on originality, and close-towards responses were less original than pre-impasse control responses, and less original than far-towards responses.

Next, we examined how writing expertise affects self-perception of impasse break and response originality. In Study 2 , participants were asked a series of questions following the five ACS trials evaluating the perceived utility of the word recommendations. These questions include whether the participant experienced writer’s block during the tasks; self-rated originality before and after the word recommendations; and whether the word recommendations helped spark new ideas. We measured the correlation between reported experience of writer’s block, participant’s subjective reported originality of responses, and fluency. These correlations were analyzed for the novice and expert groups using Spearman correlations, and the Benjamini and Yekutieli multi-test analysis to reduce false discovery rate was applied (Benjamini & Yekutieli, 2001 ). We found that novice writers associate writer’s block with fluency (number of ideas before impasse), Novice: r = – .24, p < .001, Experienced: r = – .07, p = .751, while experienced writers associate writer’s block with a perceived increase in originality after the word recommendations, Novice: r = .150, p < .068, Experienced: r = .232, p < .001 (Fig.  4 ).

Finally, we qualitatively analyzed participants’ feedback about the ACS (questions listed in Appendix A ). We found that 76% of participants reported experiencing writer’s block during the tasks. 37% of participants reported the word recommendations to be helpful, and 23% reported them as ‘neutral.’ When asked if and how the word recommendations helped some participants reported that the word recommendations were either “too obviously related to the subject” or to [their] “previous ideas” to be helpful, or “utterly bizarre” and too disconnected from the subject to prompt creative ideas, suggesting that participants are sensitive to effects of semantic distance of the word recommendations (Fig. 5 ). However, others reported using the word recommendations to form new and creative associations. For example, one participant wrote “Yes, it was surprising how I had gotten myself stuck in a corner, but when the new word was given, I suddenly saw some completely new avenues to investigate, the shoe being the first and then, love. I immediately thought of a horseshoe and that changed everything.”

Themes in participant feedback to the question: “Do you have any suggestions or feedback for us about what you think would help solve writer's block and aid in creative writing tasks?”

We then analyzed participants’ suggestions for improving the ACS. First, we evaluated participants’ answers and used a grounded theory method to identify common themes. We then searched the answers for the keywords representing each of the themes. Many participants requested to see more word recommendations for each task, longer phrase suggestions or questions (Fig. 5 ). Some also suggested more experiential writer’s block help such as music or having the participant take a break or walk in nature.

Study 2 aimed at replicating and extending the results found in Study 1 , demonstrating the success of the ACS in breaking participants’ mental fixation. Study 2 goes a step further by examining how literature experience relates to the success of the ACS. In Study 2 , participants had at least one response to the word recommendations in 64% of trials, and 95% had a response after the word recommendation at least once. In the experienced writing group 70% (95% CI 66.5–77.9 %) of trials had responses after impasse, while in the novice group it was 58% (95% CI 52.8–61.9%), reproducing the effect found in Study 1 . The rate of impasse break is almost twice as high as in Study 1 , which might be attributable to the preliminary filtering resulting in a group more motivated to complete creative writing tasks. Taylor and Barbot ( 2024 ), found a positive correlation between creativity and effort in a story writing task and in a divergent thinking task (AUT), supporting the notion that the group of people who indicated interest in an experiment related to creative writing would put more effort into the ACS task, as opposed to the unfiltered population sampled in Study 1 .

This finding was confirmed in the statistical analysis of the impasse break model, which found that literature experience significantly improved model fit. We found a nearly significant effect of the far-away condition negatively impacted the likelihood of impasse break for novice writers, but not for experienced writers (Fig. 4 ; bottom left). This effect of literature experience thus moderated the negative effect of far-away word recommendations on impasse break found in the final model. While this effect was not found in the statistical analysis of Study 1 , a post hoc analysis showed this same pattern as in Study 1 . However, we did not find significant effects of literature experience on originality (same as Study 1 ).

Overall, the effects of distance and direction replicated and expanded on the results found in Study 1 . In both studies, close-towards responses were significantly less original than control (pre-impasse) responses and were less original than far-towards responses. In Study 2 , we further found that far-towards responses were more original than the pre-impasse control responses and the three other word recommendation conditions. Study 2 also reproduced the effects of idea order on response originality found in Study 1 .

General discussion

In the current study, we introduce the Associative Creativity Sparker (ACS), which we use to investigate the role of semantic distance and semantic relatedness to previously explored ideas (direction) of text recommendations on impasse break and originality. The ACS draws on cognitive network science (Siew et al., 2019 ) to enable the investigation of effects of word recommendations at different locations in semantic memory on idea generation and impasse break. We also examine the roles of Gf , creativity, and literature experience on the utility of word recommendations. This allowed us to ask how different types of text recommendations might provide greater utility to people with differing cognitive traits, with implications for the design of human machine co-creativity tools.

Our findings indicate that the ACS can be a useful method for breaking participants out of mental fixation during creative ideation and divergent thinking. This may facilitate a greater understanding of creative fixations and blocks (Smith, 1995 ), including writer’s block by using the ACS recommendations during impasse states to examine what factors break participants out of creative block. Furthermore, the ACS allows us to study the co-creative process where a person completes creative tasks with a machine in the loop (Rafner et al., 2023 ), and tie our theoretical understanding of co-creativity to new insights into the creative process stemming from semantic network analysis.

We conducted two studies with the ACS: in Study 1 we find that the ACS is effective at breaking participants out of creative fixations, that it increases the originality of responses compared to pre-impasse responses, and that the experimental parameters of the word recommendations significantly affect the originality of responses. In Study 2 , we replicate these results and also show differences in impasse break between novice and expert writer’s using the tool. These results demonstrate the ability of the ACS in manipulating the process of creative association (Beaty & Kenett, 2023 ), or spreading activation of concepts (Collins & Loftus, 1975 ), and to our knowledge is the first tool explicitly aimed at facilitating the study of the role of semantic memory in creative ideation and creative block, by directly activating specific areas in semantic memory.

Overall, in this work we find that the interaction of distance \(\times\) direction of word recommendations affects the likelihood of impasse break. Far-away recommendations are the least likely to result in impasse break (Study 2 ). Semantically farther recommendations are less likely to result in impasse break than semantically close recommendations. However, this negative effect of distance is attenuated by the direction of the word recommendations towards or away from the participants previous ideas, and is found to interact with writing expertise: in Study 2 we find that novice writers struggle to draw on far-away recommendations, but when far-towards recommendations are shown, which are equally far but more closely related to ideas the participant already considered, the likelihood of impasse break is not negatively affected. This interaction effect with literature experience was nearly significant in Study 2 , and evident from the data but not significant in the model of Study 1 , likely because of lack of power. Notably, fluency in the pre-impasse section of the ACS – equivalent to the fluency measure in a standard AUT (Acar & Runco, 2019 ) – did not predict the likelihood of impasse break for Study 1 or 2.

This effect demonstrating that far-away word recommendations are more difficult to use suggests that participants may be exploring the semantic area around the word recommendation through a spreading activation process (Collins & Loftus, 1975 ; Siew, 2019 ), and it is harder to spark usable associations to distant and unrelated concepts. This could be tied to theories of foraging in semantic memory (Hills et al., 2012 ), which suggest that humans use optimal and dynamic search strategies to find semantically related concepts, switching semantic ‘patches’ once the rate of finding new concepts in the current ‘patch’ becomes too slow (Todd & Hills, 2020 ). Related to our findings, Ovando-Tellez, Benedek et al. ( 2022a ), Ovando-Tellez Kenett et al. ( 2022b ) have shown how switching between clusters is related to a richer semantic memory structure. In addition, Beaty et al. ( 2023 ) demonstrate how the semantic neighborhoods of AUT objects impact the quantity and fluency of participants’ responses, and how such effects impact serial order of idea originality and interacts with Gf . Finally, Marko et al. (Marko & Riečanský, 2021 ; Michalko et al., 2023 ) have shown how semantic neighborhoods (or communities) impact retrieval of words in a semantic fluency task.

Taken together, the effects on impasse break and originality seem to indicate that the responses after the word recommendations were not simply a continuation of the participants’ idea generation process before reaching a block. Rather, the word recommendations encourage participants to explore previously unconsidered areas in their semantic memory. The fact that distance and direction of the word recommendations affect the likelihood of impasse break, shows that participants to at least some extent attempt to form associations to the concept recommended to them, and are sensitive to its content.

The effects of distance and direction on originality contrast with the effects found on impasse break. In both studies, we found that close-towards responses are the least original, and Study 2 showed that far-towards responses are the most original, with far-away and close-away responses somewhere in the middle. This further suggests that the ACS sparks a semantic memory search, as participants may have the easiest time accessing concepts in areas that are semantically close to the object, and connected (towards) the ideas they already had, but many of these concepts may have already been visited and the remaining ones inspire the least original ideas of all. The far-away responses, in contrast, may have been too distant in semantic memory for participants to adequately explore, causing these to result in the least amount of impasse break, while the far-towards responses which are sufficiently semantically far from the trial object, but close enough to the participants’ previous ideas to be explorable led to more original ideas.

It may be that especially original associations are sparked when participants use the word recommendation as the starting point for a search in semantic memory, rather than fixating on the specific concept suggested, also further highlighting the significance of idea remoteness in creative thinking (Benedek et al., 2023 ). This may correspond to the adversarial use of large language models described in Calderwood et al. ( 2020 ), where novelists use the recommendations as ideas of what not to write.

Finally, both studies reproduce the serial order effect (Bai et al., 2021 ; Beaty & Silvia, 2012 ). In the pre-impasse section ideas become more original over time, and even after seeing the word recommendations the ideas start from roughly the level of originality at impasse and continue to increase. However, as seen in Figs. 3 and 4 , in the far condition, the originality of ideas reduces over time, while in the close condition it goes up, suggesting that participants may be able to continually explore outwards from close recommendations, while the challenge of far recommendations causes them to fixate again. This shows a possible effect interaction between the structure of activated concepts in semantic memory and the serial order effect, which was not found in previous work examining the interaction between serial order and target object set size (Beaty et al., 2023 ).

In contrast to the negative effects on impasse break of far-away recommendations, we find that these recommendations have a positive effect on originality of responses. This may indicate a trade-off between fluency and originality of responses after the word recommendation in the ACS, echoing the trade-off effect between AUT responses to rich semantic cues (with a large degree of edges in the semantic memory network) and sparse semantic cues found in Beaty et al. ( 2023 ). In our case, while we do not take into account the effects of word recommendation or target object degree (neighborhood set size), it could be that the distance and direction parameters similarly affect the number of possible associations a participant is able to make between the target object and word recommendation.

Because the structure of semantic memory networks has been found to vary in connectivity and flexibility according to creativity and Gf (Kenett, Beaty et al., 2016a ), we hypothesized that these variables would affect impasse break and originality. We found mild support for this hypothesis. Gf significantly affected impasse break in both studies, creativity significantly affected both impasse break and originality in Study 2 , and literature experience significantly affected impasse break in Study 2 . Moreover, we hypothesized that there would be interaction effects of the distance and direction parameters with Gf , participant creativity and literature experience. However, we did not find this effect. We did find a nearly significant effect of writing experience and distance x direction in Study 2 , partially supporting this hypothesis.

Generally, our work deals with a very common phenomena, of creative block. It is a frequent part of people’s creative process, and is a source of negative emotion, distress and even loss of income (Ahmed & Güss, 2022 ). Previous work attempting to mitigate creative block have examined various methods such as group brainstorming, crowdsource suggestions, sleeping and incubation periods, subliminal messaging, and hypnotically inducing dreams (Chan et al., 2017 ; Davé, 1979 ; Gonçalves et al., 2017 ; Nijstad & Stroebe, 2006 ; Siangliulue et al., 2015 ; Sio et al., 2013 ; Sio & Rudowicz, 2007 ). Yet, these efforts target creative thinking in general, less focusing on specific stages of the creative process (Benedek et al., 2023 ). The rapid development of computational methods over the past few years is leading to an increase in the development of text-based creativity support systems (Calderwood et al., 2020 ; Chan et al., 2017 ; Huang et al., 2020 ; Kang et al., 2022 ; Lee et al., 2022 ; Rhys Cox et al., 2021 ; Siangliulue et al., 2015 ). Our current work on the ACS builds on and extends this work, by integrating cognitive theory from creativity research with computational methods from cognitive network science, text analysis, and recommendation systems. A significant characteristic of the ACS is its modular structure, whereas each of its components (e.g., semantic memory network model, text analysis method, and word recommendation method) can be easily swapped with corresponding components. Thus, the ACS offers a general basis for many possible future expansions and adaptations.

Limitations

Several limitations exist in our study. First, in the ACS itself, basing word recommendations on an aggregated representation of semantic memory means that the location of word recommendations is only roughly approximated. Future work is needed to examine how more individualized representations of semantic memory might improve results and reduce noise (Benedek et al., 2017 ; He et al., 2020 ; Ovando-Tellez, Kenett et al., 2022b ). However, the question of how to generate individual semantic networks on a large enough scale to be useful for this type of study is still open (e.g., Wulff et al., 2022 ).

Second, while we used a simplified measure for the distance and direction parameters, it is imperative to recognize the inherent limitation concerning the uniform importance assigned to all words. Although our approach acknowledges this limitation through stoplisting, a more nuanced strategy such as employing term weighting to adjust network edge weights could have potentially enhanced the accuracy of direction, distance, and adherence scores by mitigating noise. This adjustment is suggested as a consideration for future work using the ACS system.

Another limitation relates to our approach in measuring literature expertise in Study 2 . We note that due to the sample available on Prolific, the experienced group in our study is likely not composed of true writing experts, but rather of slightly more experienced writers than the average person. In addition, because participants completed the entire ICAA questionnaire again in the main study, we were able to compare responses to the literature section in the preliminary and main survey and found high variability in responses between the two sets of responses. This was especially notable in the expert group: some participants may have assumed that if they report greater writing experience, they would be more likely to be chosen to complete the follow-up study. However, even in the novice group a high variability can be seen between the two runs. For literary achievement there is a correlation between the two runs of .26 in the novice group and .32 in the experienced group; for literary activity the correlation is .53 for the novice group and .70 for the experienced group. This may point to some difficulty in accurately answering the ICAA questionnaire. Because of the low number of participants who had exactly the same answer in both questionnaires, we include all participants in our final analysis. The lack of truly expert writers in Study 2 may also affect results. Future studies more reliably estimating novice and expert writing groups that are more different from each other in experience level might demonstrate different behaviors than the groups we used.

In future directions, the ACS may be used to examine other aspects of co-creativity and the creative ideation process apart from writer’s block, as was examined in this work. For example, a word recommendation might be shown several times in the same trial, or once after every response. This can allow examining whether people may be slowly and iteratively guided by the text recommendations towards especially creative and distant areas in semantic memory. Many participants in our study requested that the tool show more than word recommendation per trial, or show phrases, questions, or images instead of single words – these options were identified by participants as potentially useful for real-life creative writing endeavors. Other modifications to the tool or study design may be made to bridge from this current setup to real life co-creative and creativity support tool scenarios. For example, it is possible to adjust the tool so that participants write part of a short story, or give ideas for slogans, metaphors or jokes and request assistance when experiencing writer’s block. The word recommendations themselves could also be modified to be phrases by prompting a large language model to generate phrases based on the concept in the location in semantic memory generated by the original word recommendation algorithm. Finally, we add that this tool is configured to be usable for neuroscience research using EEG or fMRI, as it runs on any computer and collects timing data for every action of the participant. In addition, it can be applied in different populations, both healthy and clinical, that exhibit increased rigidity of thought – such as shown in older adults or people with high-functioning autism (Cosgrove et al., 2021 ; Faust & Kenett, 2014 ; Kenett, Gold et al., 2016b ).

Conclusions

In conclusion, our research introduces the Associative Concept Sparker, which allows us to study creative fixation, by giving participants personalized word recommendations at various locations in semantic memory at the time they experience writer’s block in a divergent thinking task. Our research demonstrates that the ACS is often effective at breaking participants out of writer’s block. Responses after seeing the word recommendations are often more original than responses before impasse, but this also has a tradeoff with impasse break: word recommendations that are too distant from the target object and previously considered responses may inspire the most creative responses but are least likely to inspire new ideas. Yet, we find that this effect may differ between novice and expert writers.

As such, our research demonstrates how current understanding of the role of semantic memory in the creative process facilitates generating remote associations that can be applied to “spark” new ideas and break mental impasse (Beaty & Kenett, 2023 ; Benedek et al., 2023 ; Kenett, 2024 ). Furthermore, our work highlights an exciting new era of research, one that focuses on co-creativity tool development, and how personalizing such tools can facilitate creative impasse breaking.

Data Availability

Data and materials are available at https://github.com/TaliaWise/ACS/tree/main

Code availability

Not applicable.

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We thank Gal Samuel for his contribution to initial version of this work.

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Writer’s block questionnaire

How much did the word suggestions help you come up with new ideas?

(Likert scale: 1 Not at all, … 5: Very much)

How creative would you rate the ideas you had in each task before you ran out of ideas and saw the word suggestions?

(Likert scale: 1: Not at all creative …. 5: Very creative)

How creative would you rate the ideas you had after you saw the word suggestions?

Did you like getting the word suggestions?

Did you experience writer's block while completing these tasks?

(Yes, No, Unsure)

The next few questions refer to your writing experience in your daily life. If you do not ever write please select the IRRELEVANT option for these three questions.

How often do you experience writer's block when you write?

(Irrelevant - I do not write, or Likert scale 1: Never, … 7: Always)

What causes writer's block for you? Select all that apply:

(fear of evaluation, perfectionism, procrastination, writing anxiety, decreased intrinsic, motivation, overplanning, inconsistent writing habit, interruptions, other (please type),

IRRELEVANT: I do not write or do not experience writer's block)

What do you do to solve writer's block when you experience it?

(take a break, work on a different project, force myself to keep writing, other (please type), discuss ideas with others, IRRELEVANT: I do not write or do not experience writer's block)

Did you feel the word suggestions in these tasks helped you come up with new ideas? If so, how?

(open text answer)

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Written Communication Guide: Types, Examples, and Tips

9 min read · Updated on August 16, 2023

The power of words inspires change, evokes emotions, and fosters connections

We live in a world where the words you write hold the key to unlocking new opportunities. It doesn't matter if you're writing formal business correspondence or a personal letter to your best friend, writing has the power to take readers on a profound journey through your thoughts. 

The types of written communication are as diverse as the purposes they serve and can allow you to excel at work, engage academically, and be more expressive and eloquent. This written communication guide will lead you down a path to discover different types of written communication and will provide examples and tips to ensure that you write exactly what you mean. 

Definition of written communication

At its core, written communication is the art of transmitting messages, thoughts, and ideas through the written word. It serves as a bridge that connects individuals across time and space, allowing for the seamless exchange of information, emotions, and knowledge. Whether etched onto parchment centuries ago or typed onto a digital screen today, written communication has withstood the test of time as a powerful means of expression.

In a fast-paced world where information travels at the speed of light, written communication holds its ground as a tangible record of human interaction. Unlike its oral counterpart , written communication transcends temporal boundaries, leaving an indelible mark that can be revisited and analyzed. It's this permanence that lends written communication a significant place in personal correspondence, professional documentation, and academic discourse.

In personal realms, heartfelt letters and carefully crafted emails capture emotions and sentiments that words spoken aloud might fail to convey

Within professional settings, written communication takes the form of reports, proposals, and emails, each meticulously composed to ensure clarity and precision

Academia finds its treasure trove in research papers, essays, and presentations, where written communication serves as the cornerstone of knowledge dissemination

Yet, amidst this sophistication lies a distinction: written communication lacks the immediate feedback and nuances present in oral discourse. This difference demands attention to detail and precise articulation, to ensure the intended message is accurately received. The immediate feedback present in oral communication allows you to instantly adjust your rhetoric, but that opportunity isn't always present in written communication. 

Types of written communication

We've briefly explored the concept that written communication can be found in personal, professional, and academic settings. But its reach extends far beyond those three realms. Each type of written communication wields a unique power, catering to different purposes and audiences. Understanding the four types of written communication – formal, informal, academic, and creative – will empower you to communicate effectively across a wide spectrum of contexts. 

1. Formal communication

In the corporate arena, formal written communication is the backbone of professional interactions. This type of writing demands precision, clarity, and adherence to established norms. Written communication in the workplace encompasses emails, memos, reports, and official documents. These documents serve as a lasting record of decisions, proposals, and agreements, emphasizing the need for accuracy and professionalism. Examples of formal written communication include:

Formal business emails: These messages are structured, concise, and adhere to a specific etiquette. For instance, sending a well-constructed email to a prospective client introducing your company's services demonstrates effective formal communication. The tone should remain respectful and informative, reflecting the sender's professionalism.

Office memos: Memos serve as succinct internal communication tools within organizations. These documents address specific topics, provide instructions, or announce updates. An example of formal communication through a memo is when a department head distributes a memo outlining the upcoming changes to company policies. 

Business reports: Reports are comprehensive documents that analyze data, present findings, and offer recommendations. A formal business report might involve an in-depth analysis of market trends, financial performance, or project outcomes. Such reports are meticulously structured, featuring headings, subheadings, and references. A quarterly financial report submitted to company stakeholders is an example of formal written communication in the form of a report. The language employed is precise and backed by evidence, maintaining an authoritative tone.

2. Informal communication

Stepping away from corporate rigidity, informal written communication captures the casual essence of everyday life. Informal communication embraces text messages, social media posts, and personal letters. It encourages self-expression and authenticity, enabling individuals to communicate in a more relaxed and relatable manner. Balancing the informal tone while maintaining appropriate communication standards is essential in this type of communication. Some examples of informal communication are:

Text messages: Text messages are characterized by their casual tone, use of abbreviations, and emojis. The language used is relaxed and often mirrors spoken language, fostering a sense of familiarity and ease.

Social media posts: From Facebook statuses to Twitter updates and Instagram captions, these informal writing opportunities allow you to express yourself freely. The language is personal, engaging, and may include humor or personal anecdotes that boost your personal brand .

Personal letters: Although originally rather formal, personal letters have transitioned into the realm of informality. Letters written to friends or family members often showcase a mix of personal anecdotes, emotions, and everyday language. The language is warm, reflective of personal connections, and might include elements of nostalgia or shared experiences.

3. Academic writing

Within educational institutions, academic writing reigns as the conduit of knowledge dissemination. This type of writing includes essays, research papers, and presentations. Academic writing upholds a formal tone, requiring proper citation and adherence to established formats. The objective is to convey complex concepts coherently and objectively, fostering critical thinking and intellectual growth. Here are a few examples of academic writing:

Essays: Essays are fundamental forms of academic writing that require students to analyze and present arguments on specific topics. The essay is structured with an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion, all aimed at conveying a well-organized argument supported by evidence.

Research papers: Research papers dive deeper into specific subjects, often requiring extensive investigation and citation of sources. They should be organized with specific sections such as an introduction, literature review, methodology, findings, and conclusion. This type of academic writing focuses on presenting original insights backed by thorough research.

Presentations: While presentations involve spoken communication, their accompanying slides often feature written content. Academic presentations might include a slide deck explaining the findings of a research study. Each slide contains concise written points that support the speaker's verbal explanations. Effective academic presentation writing ensures clarity and conciseness, to aid the audience's understanding.

4. Creative writing

Creative writing introduces a touch of artistry to written communication. Poetry, short stories, and blog posts exemplify this style. Creative writing explores the depths of human imagination, invoking emotions and vivid imagery. This type of writing encourages personal flair, allowing individuals to experiment with language, style, and narrative structure. While the examples of creative writing are vast, we'd like to share a few examples with you.

Poetry: Poetry is an artistic form of written communication that emphasizes rhythm, imagery, and emotions. In such works, words are carefully chosen to evoke feelings and paint vivid mental pictures, allowing readers to experience a heightened emotional connection.

Short stories: Short stories are concise narratives that capture a moment, an emotion, or a complete tale in a limited space. An example of creative writing as a short story could be a suspenseful narrative that unfolds over a few pages, engaging readers with its characters, plot twists, and resolution. Creative short stories often explore themes of human nature and provide a glimpse into unique worlds or experiences.

Novels: Novels stand as an epitome of creative writing, offering a more extensive canvas for storytelling. Novels delve deep into emotions, relationships, and the complexities of human existence, allowing readers to immerse themselves in fictional realms with remarkable depth.

Tips for improving your written communication skills

Believe it or not, writing is one of those skills that many people struggle with. The question of whether writing is a skill or a talent has long sparked debates among linguists, educators, and writers themselves. Whether effective written communication is something that you're naturally good at or something that you struggle with, everyone can benefit from some tips on being a better writer. 

Clarity: Clarity is arguably the cornerstone of good writing. It ensures your message is understood by eliminating ambiguity, confusion, and misinterpretation. Prioritize simplicity over complexity, using clear and concise sentences to deliver your message effectively. Avoid unnecessary jargon and convoluted phrases, aiming to convey ideas in a straightforward manner.

Understand your audience: It's critical to consider who will be reading what you write. Think about their knowledge, interests, and expectations when crafting your message. Adjust your tone, style, and choice of words to resonate with your intended readers. This ensures that your message is relatable and engaging, enhancing its impact.

Grammar and spelling: If there's one thing that will turn people off your writing, it's improper grammar and bad spelling. Maintaining proper grammar and spelling reflects professionalism and attention to detail. Proofread your work meticulously or use online tools to catch errors.

Practice and learn: Even if you're an expert writer, writing is a skill that evolves. Stephen King – the “king of writing” – asserts that every writer should read . Regular reading exposes you to diverse writing styles and perspectives that expand your knowledge of presenting the written word. 

Embrace the power of words

Through clear communication, tailored messages, and continuous practice, you can harness the art of written expression to connect, inspire, and leave a lasting impact. The power of words is always within your grasp.

Your resume is another place that requires exceptional writing skills. Let our team of expert resume writers unlock the door to your professional success by showcasing your exceptional writing skills on the most important career marketing tool you have. Send your resume for a free review today ! 

Recommended reading:

The Essential Steps of Your Communication Process

4 Types of Communication Style – What's Yours?

Improve your Powers of Persuasion With These Rhetorical Choices!

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Writing Creatively to Make Sense of the Times We Live In

Journalist katrin schumann talks about why she writes fiction..

Updated July 12, 2024 | Reviewed by Davia Sills

• Studies show that the act of all kinds of writing hones our reflective abilities.
• Creative writing stretches our imagination, increases emotional resilience, and alleviates stress.
• Writers of nonfiction examine complex issues that are relevant to our times.
• Novelists examine the issues using characters as a vehicle for empathy.

Studies show that the act of writing hones our reflective abilities, stretches our imagination , increases emotional resilience , and alleviates stress . In my conversation with journalist-turned-novelist Katrin Schumann, we discuss how creative writing, in particular, is a worthy pursuit to understand the issues of our time. Schumann is the author of the nonfiction books Mothers Need Time Outs Too and The Secret Life of Middle Children, as well as the novels The Forgotten Hours and This Terrible Beauty .

You’re a trained journalist and the author of nonfiction books. Why, in the last few years, have you focused on writing fiction?

Writing nonfiction has been a way for me to examine complex issues that are relevant to our times, including psychological ones, but I’ve found that in recent years, I’ve been drawn to fiction because it allows me to get closer to the subject. In exploring thorny issues like loyalty and trust or co-dependency , I’m able to do more of a deep dive in fiction. The form allows me to sit with the complexities, to live in the gray areas with my characters.

I can’t always do this with nonfiction, where I’m approaching the topic from a specific angle, seeking solutions. In fiction, I have space to explore nuances that fascinate and confuse me and try to make sense of the inevitable contradictions. It’s messier and more delicate than nonfiction. For me, this feels more true to the human experience.

All writing involves deep reflection. Do you find the act of writing fiction to be a different kind of therapy?

Yes. Spending years creating characters and situations that grapple with serious, real-world problems lets me explore my own difficult experiences. For instance, I’d been wrestling with the aftermath of dealing with a narcissist when I started writing my first novel. By fictionalizing those challenges, I was able to find the courage to linger in the dark areas, examining them from all angles in order to find where the light might get in.

I discovered greater empathy and resilience in myself while also being able to acknowledge the trauma I’d been through. It’s using my imagination, combined with researching some very real and current psychological challenges, that ultimately feels most powerful to me and an effective way to reach readers.

How does fictionalizing the story give you more latitude or depth in exploring topics? You write about things like self-reliance and depression, and I’m wondering why not just write articles about it.

I write to figure out my own issues and to learn, but also to share. For me, fiction writing makes me work harder and go deeper. I’m trying to change people’s minds and hearts in subtler ways. I’m reflecting on experiences I’ve had, wrestling with what they mean, and how we can all learn from them and come out the better for it.

Yet, I don’t want to be prescriptive; I want people to draw their own conclusions. I research deeply about whatever topic I’m tackling.

To write my last novel, I studied the history of neuropsychology, dissecting studies on substance abuse . I conducted interviews. For all my books, I gather and study facts and figures, but with novels, I take that a step further. I put those facts and figures into play with my imagined characters to explore what happens. I imbue the impersonal with empathy and allow readers to try to figure out how they feel about how the characters contend with the issue. This approach leads me to meaningful personal discoveries while also taking the reader along on the emotional journey.

How do you decide whether to approach a topic in a nonfiction book or in a novel?

The more I’m personally involved with the topic, the more I want to explore it in fictional form. Ironically, for fiction, I feel like I should have an even better understanding of some of these psychological challenges than if I were covering them through straight nonfiction reportage. I first have to understand the topic and its history so my story is not only realistic but feels authentic.

I want readers to trust me, which means I have to be thorough. It’s my aim to take them on a ride that’s compelling as well as informative. And I love learning something new when I’m immersed in researching and writing fiction.

If writing fiction is about wrestling with your own demons, why not simply journal?

Journaling is, without question, a beneficial reflective activity. Yet what differentiates this kind of work from journaling about our problems or writing blog posts is that novelists are committing more time and energy to the deep dive on a specific topic. My last novel took almost three years to write, and during that time, I was reading everything I could get my hands on about the topic in order to distill it so that readers might find it relevant to their own lives.

At that stage, it’s not really about me anymore; it’s about the human condition. And in the end, that’s what readers relate to, I think. It’s what makes them call their friends and say, “I just finished this great book. You’ve got to read it.”

More about Katrin Schumann 's work

Lynne Griffin, R.N., M.Ed. , researches family life and is a novelist.

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