brief of assignment definition

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Academic writing skills guide: understanding assignments.

• Key Features of Academic Writing
• The Writing Process
• Understanding Assignments
• Brainstorming Techniques
• Planning Your Assignments
• Thesis Statements
• Writing Drafts
• Structuring Your Assignment
• How to Deal With Writer's Block
• Using Paragraphs
• Conclusions
• Introductions
• Revising & Editing
• Proofreading
• Grammar & Punctuation
• Reporting Verbs
• Signposting, Transitions & Linking Words/Phrases
• Using Lecturers' Feedback

Below is a list of interpretations for some of the more common directive/instructional words. These interpretations are intended as a guide only but should help you gain a better understanding of what is required when they are used. 

Communications from the Library:  Please note all communications from the library, concerning renewal of books, overdue books and reservations will be sent to your NCI student email account.

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Understanding Writing Assignments

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How to Decipher the Paper Assignment

Many instructors write their assignment prompts differently. By following a few steps, you can better understand the requirements for the assignment. The best way, as always, is to ask the instructor about anything confusing.

• Read the prompt the entire way through once. This gives you an overall view of what is going on.
• Underline or circle the portions that you absolutely must know. This information may include due date, research (source) requirements, page length, and format (MLA, APA, CMS).
• Underline or circle important phrases. You should know your instructor at least a little by now - what phrases do they use in class? Does he repeatedly say a specific word? If these are in the prompt, you know the instructor wants you to use them in the assignment.
• Think about how you will address the prompt. The prompt contains clues on how to write the assignment. Your instructor will often describe the ideas they want discussed either in questions, in bullet points, or in the text of the prompt. Think about each of these sentences and number them so that you can write a paragraph or section of your essay on that portion if necessary.
• Rank ideas in descending order, from most important to least important. Instructors may include more questions or talking points than you can cover in your assignment, so rank them in the order you think is more important. One area of the prompt may be more interesting to you than another.
• Ask your instructor questions if you have any.

After you are finished with these steps, ask yourself the following:

• What is the purpose of this assignment? Is my purpose to provide information without forming an argument, to construct an argument based on research, or analyze a poem and discuss its imagery?
• Who is my audience? Is my instructor my only audience? Who else might read this? Will it be posted online? What are my readers' needs and expectations?
• What resources do I need to begin work? Do I need to conduct literature (hermeneutic or historical) research, or do I need to review important literature on the topic and then conduct empirical research, such as a survey or an observation? How many sources are required?
• Who - beyond my instructor - can I contact to help me if I have questions? Do you have a writing lab or student service center that offers tutorials in writing?

(Notes on prompts made in blue )

Poster or Song Analysis: Poster or Song? Poster!

Goals : To systematically consider the rhetorical choices made in either a poster or a song. She says that all the time.

Things to Consider: ah- talking points

• how the poster addresses its audience and is affected by context I'll do this first - 1.
• general layout, use of color, contours of light and shade, etc.
• use of contrast, alignment, repetition, and proximity C.A.R.P. They say that, too. I'll do this third - 3.
• the point of view the viewer is invited to take, poses of figures in the poster, etc. any text that may be present
• possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing I'll cover this second - 2.
• ethical implications
• how the poster affects us emotionally, or what mood it evokes
• the poster's implicit argument and its effectiveness said that was important in class, so I'll discuss this last - 4.
• how the song addresses its audience
• lyrics: how they rhyme, repeat, what they say
• use of music, tempo, different instruments
• possible cultural ramifications or social issues that have bearing
• emotional effects
• the implicit argument and its effectiveness

These thinking points are not a step-by-step guideline on how to write your paper; instead, they are various means through which you can approach the subject. I do expect to see at least a few of them addressed, and there are other aspects that may be pertinent to your choice that have not been included in these lists. You will want to find a central idea and base your argument around that. Additionally, you must include a copy of the poster or song that you are working with. Really important!

I will be your audience. This is a formal paper, and you should use academic conventions throughout.

Length: 4 pages Format: Typed, double-spaced, 10-12 point Times New Roman, 1 inch margins I need to remember the format stuff. I messed this up last time =(

Academic Argument Essay

5-7 pages, Times New Roman 12 pt. font, 1 inch margins.

Minimum of five cited sources: 3 must be from academic journals or books

• Design Plan due: Thurs. 10/19
• Rough Draft due: Monday 10/30
• Final Draft due: Thurs. 11/9

Remember this! I missed the deadline last time

The design plan is simply a statement of purpose, as described on pages 40-41 of the book, and an outline. The outline may be formal, as we discussed in class, or a printout of an Open Mind project. It must be a minimum of 1 page typed information, plus 1 page outline.

This project is an expansion of your opinion editorial. While you should avoid repeating any of your exact phrases from Project 2, you may reuse some of the same ideas. Your topic should be similar. You must use research to support your position, and you must also demonstrate a fairly thorough knowledge of any opposing position(s). 2 things to do - my position and the opposite.

Your essay should begin with an introduction that encapsulates your topic and indicates 1 the general trajectory of your argument. You need to have a discernable thesis that appears early in your paper. Your conclusion should restate the thesis in different words, 2 and then draw some additional meaningful analysis out of the developments of your argument. Think of this as a "so what" factor. What are some implications for the future, relating to your topic? What does all this (what you have argued) mean for society, or for the section of it to which your argument pertains? A good conclusion moves outside the topic in the paper and deals with a larger issue.

You should spend at least one paragraph acknowledging and describing the opposing position in a manner that is respectful and honestly representative of the opposition’s 3 views. The counterargument does not need to occur in a certain area, but generally begins or ends your argument. Asserting and attempting to prove each aspect of your argument’s structure should comprise the majority of your paper. Ask yourself what your argument assumes and what must be proven in order to validate your claims. Then go step-by-step, paragraph-by-paragraph, addressing each facet of your position. Most important part!

Finally, pay attention to readability . Just because this is a research paper does not mean that it has to be boring. Use examples and allow your opinion to show through word choice and tone. Proofread before you turn in the paper. Your audience is generally the academic community and specifically me, as a representative of that community. Ok, They want this to be easy to read, to contain examples I find, and they want it to be grammatically correct. I can visit the tutoring center if I get stuck, or I can email the OWL Email Tutors short questions if I have any more problems.

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Writing Assignments

Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine

Introduction

Assignments are a common method of assessment at university and require careful planning and good quality research. Developing critical thinking and writing skills are also necessary to demonstrate your ability to understand and apply information about your topic.  It is not uncommon to be unsure about the processes of writing assignments at university.

• You may be returning to study after a break
• You may have come from an exam based assessment system and never written an assignment before
• Maybe you have written assignments but would like to improve your processes and strategies

This chapter has a collection of resources that will provide you with the skills and strategies to understand assignment requirements and effectively plan, research, write and edit your assignments.  It begins with an explanation of how to analyse an assignment task and start putting your ideas together.  It continues by breaking down the components of academic writing and exploring the elements you will need to master in your written assignments. This is followed by a discussion of paraphrasing and synthesis, and how you can use these strategies to create a strong, written argument. The chapter concludes with useful checklists for editing and proofreading to help you get the best possible mark for your work.

Task Analysis and Deconstructing an Assignment

It is important that before you begin researching and writing your assignments you spend sufficient time understanding all the requirements. This will help make your research process more efficient and effective. Check your subject information such as task sheets, criteria sheets and any additional information that may be in your subject portal online. Seek clarification from your lecturer or tutor if you are still unsure about how to begin your assignments.

The task sheet typically provides key information about an assessment including the assignment question. It can be helpful to scan this document for topic, task and limiting words to ensure that you fully understand the concepts you are required to research, how to approach the assignment, and the scope of the task you have been set. These words can typically be found in your assignment question and are outlined in more detail in the two tables below (see Table 19.1 and Table 19.2 ).

Table 19.1 Parts of an Assignment Question

Make sure you have a clear understanding of what the task word requires you to address.

Table 19.2 Task words

The criteria sheet , also known as the marking sheet or rubric, is another important document to look at before you begin your assignment. The criteria sheet outlines how your assignment will be marked and should be used as a checklist to make sure you have included all the information required.

The task or criteria sheet will also include the:

• Word limit (or word count)
• Referencing style and research expectations
• Formatting requirements

Task analysis and criteria sheets are also discussed in the chapter Managing Assessments for a more detailed discussion on task analysis, criteria sheets, and marking rubrics.

Preparing your ideas

Brainstorm or concept map:  List possible ideas to address each part of the assignment task based on what you already know about the topic from lectures and weekly readings.

Finding appropriate information: Learn how to find scholarly information for your assignments which is

See the chapter Working With Information for a more detailed explanation .

What is academic writing?

Academic writing tone and style.

Many of the assessment pieces you prepare will require an academic writing style.  This is sometimes called ‘academic tone’ or ‘academic voice’.  This section will help you to identify what is required when you are writing academically (see Table 19.3 ). The best way to understand what academic writing looks like, is to read broadly in your discipline area.  Look at how your course readings, or scholarly sources, are written. This will help you identify the language of your discipline field, as well as how other writers structure their work.

Table 19.3 Comparison of academic and non-academic writing

Thesis statements.

Essays are a common form of assessment that you will likely encounter during your university studies. You should apply an academic tone and style when writing an essay, just as you would in in your other assessment pieces. One of the most important steps in writing an essay is constructing your thesis statement.  A thesis statement tells the reader the purpose, argument or direction you will take to answer your assignment question. A thesis statement may not be relevant for some questions, if you are unsure check with your lecturer. The thesis statement:

• Directly  relates to the task .  Your thesis statement may even contain some of the key words or synonyms from the task description.
• Does more than restate the question.
• Is specific and uses precise language.
• Let’s your reader know your position or the main argument that you will support with evidence throughout your assignment.
• The subject is the key content area you will be covering.
• The contention is the position you are taking in relation to the chosen content.

Your thesis statement helps you to structure your essay.  It plays a part in each key section: introduction, body and conclusion.

Planning your assignment structure

When planning and drafting assignments, it is important to consider the structure of your writing. Academic writing should have clear and logical structure and incorporate academic research to support your ideas.  It can be hard to get started and at first you may feel nervous about the size of the task, this is normal. If you break your assignment into smaller pieces, it will seem more manageable as you can approach the task in sections. Refer to your brainstorm or plan. These ideas should guide your research and will also inform what you write in your draft. It is sometimes easier to draft your assignment using the 2-3-1 approach, that is, write the body paragraphs first followed by the conclusion and finally the introduction.

Writing introductions and conclusions

Clear and purposeful introductions and conclusions in assignments are fundamental to effective academic writing. Your introduction should tell the reader what is going to be covered and how you intend to approach this. Your conclusion should summarise your argument or discussion and signal to the reader that you have come to a conclusion with a final statement.  These tips below are based on the requirements usually needed for an essay assignment, however, they can be applied to other assignment types.

Writing introductions

Most writing at university will require a strong and logically structured introduction. An effective introduction should provide some background or context for your assignment, clearly state your thesis and include the key points you will cover in the body of the essay in order to prove your thesis.

Usually, your introduction is approximately 10% of your total assignment word count. It is much easier to write your introduction once you have drafted your body paragraphs and conclusion, as you know what your assignment is going to be about. An effective introduction needs to inform your reader by establishing what the paper is about and provide four basic things:

• A brief background or overview of your assignment topic
• A thesis statement (see section above)
• An outline of your essay structure
• An indication of any parameters or scope that will/ will not be covered, e.g. From an Australian perspective.

The below example demonstrates the four different elements of an introductory paragraph.

1) Information technology is having significant effects on the communication of individuals and organisations in different professions. 2) This essay will discuss the impact of information technology on the communication of health professionals.   3)  First, the provision of information technology for the educational needs of nurses will be discussed.  4)  This will be followed by an explanation of the significant effects that information technology can have on the role of general practitioner in the area of public health.  5)  Considerations will then be made regarding the lack of knowledge about the potential of computers among hospital administrators and nursing executives.  6)   The final section will explore how information technology assists health professionals in the delivery of services in rural areas .  7)  It will be argued that information technology has significant potential to improve health care and medical education, but health professionals are reluctant to use it.

1 Brief background/ overview | 2 Indicates the scope of what will be covered |   3-6 Outline of the main ideas (structure) | 7 The thesis statement

Note : The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.

Writing conclusions

You should aim to end your assignments with a strong conclusion. Your conclusion should restate your thesis and summarise the key points you have used to prove this thesis. Finish with a key point as a final impactful statement.  Similar to your introduction, your conclusion should be approximately 10% of the total assignment word length. If your assessment task asks you to make recommendations, you may need to allocate more words to the conclusion or add a separate recommendations section before the conclusion. Use the checklist below to check your conclusion is doing the right job.

Conclusion checklist 

• Have you referred to the assignment question and restated your argument (or thesis statement), as outlined in the introduction?
• Have you pulled together all the threads of your essay into a logical ending and given it a sense of unity?
• Have you presented implications or recommendations in your conclusion? (if required by your task).
• Have you added to the overall quality and impact of your essay? This is your final statement about this topic; thus, a key take-away point can make a great impact on the reader.
• Remember, do not add any new material or direct quotes in your conclusion.

This below example demonstrates the different elements of a concluding paragraph.

1) It is evident, therefore, that not only do employees need to be trained for working in the Australian multicultural workplace, but managers also need to be trained.  2)  Managers must ensure that effective in-house training programs are provided for migrant workers, so that they become more familiar with the English language, Australian communication norms and the Australian work culture.  3)  In addition, Australian native English speakers need to be made aware of the differing cultural values of their workmates; particularly the different forms of non-verbal communication used by other cultures.  4)  Furthermore, all employees must be provided with clear and detailed guidelines about company expectations.  5)  Above all, in order to minimise communication problems and to maintain an atmosphere of tolerance, understanding and cooperation in the multicultural workplace, managers need to have an effective knowledge about their employees. This will help employers understand how their employee’s social conditioning affects their beliefs about work. It will develop their communication skills to develop confidence and self-esteem among diverse work groups. 6) The culturally diverse Australian workplace may never be completely free of communication problems, however,   further studies to identify potential problems and solutions, as well as better training in cross cultural communication for managers and employees,   should result in a much more understanding and cooperative environment. 

1  Reference to thesis statement – In this essay the writer has taken the position that training is required for both employees and employers . | 2-5 Structure overview – Here the writer pulls together the main ideas in the essay. | 6  Final summary statement that is based on the evidence.

Note: The examples in this document are taken from the University of Canberra and used under a CC-BY-SA-3.0 licence.

Writing paragraphs

Paragraph writing is a key skill that enables you to incorporate your academic research into your written work.  Each paragraph should have its own clearly identified topic sentence or main idea which relates to the argument or point (thesis) you are developing.  This idea should then be explained by additional sentences which you have paraphrased from good quality sources and referenced according to the recommended guidelines of your subject (see the chapter Working with Information ). Paragraphs are characterised by increasing specificity; that is, they move from the general to the specific, increasingly refining the reader’s understanding. A common structure for paragraphs in academic writing is as follows.

Topic Sentence 

This is the main idea of the paragraph and should relate to the overall issue or purpose of your assignment is addressing. Often it will be expressed as an assertion or claim which supports the overall argument or purpose of your writing.

Explanation/ Elaboration

The main idea must have its meaning explained and elaborated upon. Think critically, do not just describe the idea.

These explanations must include evidence to support your main idea. This information should be paraphrased and referenced according to the appropriate referencing style of your course.

Concluding sentence (critical thinking)

This should explain why the topic of the paragraph is relevant to the assignment question and link to the following paragraph.

Use the checklist below to check your paragraphs are clear and well formed.

Paragraph checklist

• Does your paragraph have a clear main idea?
• Is everything in the paragraph related to this main idea?
• Is the main idea adequately developed and explained?
• Do your sentences run together smoothly?
• Have you included evidence to support your ideas?
• Have you concluded the paragraph by connecting it to your overall topic?

Writing sentences

Make sure all the sentences in your paragraphs make sense. Each sentence must contain a verb to be a complete sentence. Avoid sentence fragments . These are incomplete sentences or ideas that are unfinished and create confusion for your reader. Avoid also run on sentences . This happens when you join two ideas or clauses without using the appropriate punctuation. This also confuses your meaning (See the chapter English Language Foundations for examples and further explanation).

Use transitions (linking words and phrases) to connect your ideas between paragraphs and make your writing flow. The order that you structure the ideas in your assignment should reflect the structure you have outlined in your introduction. Refer to transition words table in the chapter English Language Foundations.

Paraphrasing and Synthesising

Paraphrasing and synthesising are powerful tools that you can use to support the main idea of a paragraph. It is likely that you will regularly use these skills at university to incorporate evidence into explanatory sentences and strengthen your essay. It is important to paraphrase and synthesise because:

• Paraphrasing is regarded more highly at university than direct quoting.
• Paraphrasing can also help you better understand the material.
• Paraphrasing and synthesising demonstrate you have understood what you have read through your ability to summarise and combine arguments from the literature using your own words.

What is paraphrasing?

Paraphrasing is changing the writing of another author into your words while retaining the original meaning. You must acknowledge the original author as the source of the information in your citation. Follow the steps in this table to help you build your skills in paraphrasing (see Table 19.4 ).

Table 19.4 Paraphrasing techniques

Example of paraphrasing.

Please note that these examples and in text citations are for instructional purposes only.

Original text

Health care professionals   assist people often when they are at their most  vulnerable . To provide the best care and understand their needs, workers must demonstrate good communication skills .  They must develop patient trust and provide empathy   to effectively work with patients who are experiencing a variety of situations including those who may be suffering from trauma or violence, physical or mental illness or substance abuse (French & Saunders, 2018).

Poor quality paraphrase example

This is a poor example of paraphrasing. Some synonyms have been used and the order of a few words changed within the sentences however the colours of the sentences indicate that the paragraph follows the same structure as the original text.

Health care sector workers are often responsible for vulnerable  patients.   To understand patients and deliver good service , they need to be excellent communicators .  They must establish patient rapport and show empathy if they are to successfully care for patients from a variety of backgrounds  and with different medical, psychological and social needs (French & Saunders, 2018).

A good quality paraphrase example

This example demonstrates a better quality paraphrase. The author has demonstrated more understanding of the overall concept in the text by using the keywords as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph. Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up to see how much the structure has changed from the original text.

Empathetic   communication is a vital skill for health care workers.   Professionals in these fields   are often responsible for patients with complex medical, psychological and social needs. Empathetic   communication assists in building rapport and gaining the necessary trust   to assist these vulnerable patients  by providing appropriate supportive care (French & Saunders, 2018).

The good quality paraphrase example demonstrates understanding of the overall concept in the text by using key words as the basis to reconstruct the paragraph.  Note how the blocks of colour have been broken up, which indicates how much the structure has changed from the original text.

What is synthesising?

Synthesising means to bring together more than one source of information to strengthen your argument. Once you have learnt how to paraphrase the ideas of one source at a time, you can consider adding additional sources to support your argument. Synthesis demonstrates your understanding and ability to show connections between multiple pieces of evidence to support your ideas and is a more advanced academic thinking and writing skill.

Follow the steps in this table to improve your synthesis techniques (see Table 19.5 ).

Table 19.5 Synthesising techniques

Example of synthesis

There is a relationship between academic procrastination and mental health outcomes.  Procrastination has been found to have a negative effect on students’ well-being (Balkis, & Duru, 2016). Yerdelen, McCaffrey, and Klassens’ (2016) research results suggested that there was a positive association between procrastination and anxiety. This was corroborated by Custer’s (2018) findings which indicated that students with higher levels of procrastination also reported greater levels of the anxiety. Therefore, it could be argued that procrastination is an ineffective learning strategy that leads to increased levels of distress.

Topic sentence | Statements using paraphrased evidence | Critical thinking (student voice) | Concluding statement – linking to topic sentence

This example demonstrates a simple synthesis. The author has developed a paragraph with one central theme and included explanatory sentences complete with in-text citations from multiple sources. Note how the blocks of colour have been used to illustrate the paragraph structure and synthesis (i.e., statements using paraphrased evidence from several sources). A more complex synthesis may include more than one citation per sentence.

Creating an argument

What does this mean.

Throughout your university studies, you may be asked to ‘argue’ a particular point or position in your writing. You may already be familiar with the idea of an argument, which in general terms means to have a disagreement with someone. Similarly, in academic writing, if you are asked to create an argument, this means you are asked to have a position on a particular topic, and then justify your position using evidence.

What skills do you need to create an argument?

In order to create a good and effective argument, you need to be able to:

• Read critically to find evidence
• Plan your argument
• Think and write critically throughout your paper to enhance your argument

For tips on how to read and write critically, refer to the chapter Thinking for more information. A formula for developing a strong argument is presented below.

A formula for a good argument

What does an argument look like?

As can be seen from the figure above, including evidence is a key element of a good argument. While this may seem like a straightforward task, it can be difficult to think of wording to express your argument. The table below provides examples of how you can illustrate your argument in academic writing (see Table 19.6 ).

Table 19.6 Argument

Editing and proofreading (reviewing).

Once you have finished writing your first draft it is recommended that you spend time revising your work.  Proofreading and editing are two different stages of the revision process.

• Editing considers the overall focus or bigger picture of the assignment
• Proofreading considers the finer details

As can be seen in the figure above there are four main areas that you should review during the editing phase of the revision process. The main things to consider when editing include content, structure, style, and sources. It is important to check that all the content relates to the assignment task, the structure is appropriate for the purposes of the assignment, the writing is academic in style, and that sources have been adequately acknowledged. Use the checklist below when editing your work.

Editing checklist

• Have I answered the question accurately?
• Do I have enough credible, scholarly supporting evidence?
• Is my writing tone objective and formal enough or have I used emotive and informal language?
• Have I written in the third person not the first person?
• Do I have appropriate in-text citations for all my information?
• Have I included the full details for all my in-text citations in my reference list?

There are also several key things to look out for during the proofreading phase of the revision process. In this stage it is important to check your work for word choice, grammar and spelling, punctuation and referencing errors. It can be easy to mis-type words like ‘from’ and ‘form’ or mix up words like ‘trail’ and ‘trial’ when writing about research, apply American rather than Australian spelling, include unnecessary commas or incorrectly format your references list. The checklist below is a useful guide that you can use when proofreading your work.

Proofreading checklist

• Is my spelling and grammar accurate?
•  Are they complete?
• Do they all make sense?
• Do they only contain only one idea?
• Do the different elements (subject, verb, nouns, pronouns) within my sentences agree?
• Are my sentences too long and complicated?
• Do they contain only one idea per sentence?
• Is my writing concise? Take out words that do not add meaning to your sentences.
• Have I used appropriate discipline specific language but avoided words I don’t know or understand that could possibly be out of context?
• Have I avoided discriminatory language and colloquial expressions (slang)?
• Is my referencing formatted correctly according to my assignment guidelines? (for more information on referencing refer to the Managing Assessment feedback section).

This chapter has examined the experience of writing assignments.  It began by focusing on how to read and break down an assignment question, then highlighted the key components of essays. Next, it examined some techniques for paraphrasing and summarising, and how to build an argument. It concluded with a discussion on planning and structuring your assignment and giving it that essential polish with editing and proof-reading. Combining these skills and practising them, can greatly improve your success with this very common form of assessment.

• Academic writing requires clear and logical structure, critical thinking and the use of credible scholarly sources.
• A thesis statement is important as it tells the reader the position or argument you have adopted in your assignment. Not all assignments will require a thesis statement.
• Spending time analysing your task and planning your structure before you start to write your assignment is time well spent.
• Information you use in your assignment should come from credible scholarly sources such as textbooks and peer reviewed journals. This information needs to be paraphrased and referenced appropriately.
• Paraphrasing means putting something into your own words and synthesising means to bring together several ideas from sources.
• Creating an argument is a four step process and can be applied to all types of academic writing.
• Editing and proofreading are two separate processes.

Academic Skills Centre. (2013). Writing an introduction and conclusion . University of Canberra, accessed 13 August, 2013, http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/conclusions

Balkis, M., & Duru, E. (2016). Procrastination, self-regulation failure, academic life satisfaction, and affective well-being: underregulation or misregulation form. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31 (3), 439-459.

Custer, N. (2018). Test anxiety and academic procrastination among prelicensure nursing students. Nursing education perspectives, 39 (3), 162-163.

Yerdelen, S., McCaffrey, A., & Klassen, R. M. (2016). Longitudinal examination of procrastination and anxiety, and their relation to self-efficacy for self-regulated learning: Latent growth curve modeling. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16 (1).

Writing Assignments Copyright © 2021 by Kate Derrington; Cristy Bartlett; and Sarah Irvine is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Meaning of assignment in English

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• It was a jammy assignment - more of a holiday really.
• He took this award-winning photograph while on assignment in the Middle East .
• His two-year assignment to the Mexico office starts in September .
• She first visited Norway on assignment for the winter Olympics ten years ago.
• He fell in love with the area after being there on assignment for National Geographic in the 1950s.
• act as something
• all work and no play (makes Jack a dull boy) idiom
• be at work idiom
• be in work idiom
• housekeeping
• in the line of duty idiom
• join duty idiom

You can also find related words, phrases, and synonyms in the topics:

assignment | American Dictionary

Assignment | business english, examples of assignment, collocations with assignment.

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put a spoke in someone's wheel

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Definition of assignment

task , duty , job , chore , stint , assignment mean a piece of work to be done.

task implies work imposed by a person in authority or an employer or by circumstance.

duty implies an obligation to perform or responsibility for performance.

job applies to a piece of work voluntarily performed; it may sometimes suggest difficulty or importance.

chore implies a minor routine activity necessary for maintaining a household or farm.

stint implies a carefully allotted or measured quantity of assigned work or service.

assignment implies a definite limited task assigned by one in authority.

Examples of assignment in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'assignment.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

see assign entry 1

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Phrases Containing assignment

• self - assignment

Dictionary Entries Near assignment

Cite this entry.

“Assignment.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assignment. Accessed 7 Jun. 2024.

Legal Definition

Legal definition of assignment, more from merriam-webster on assignment.

Nglish: Translation of assignment for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of assignment for Arabic Speakers

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• Key words in Assignment Briefs

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It is important to understand what an essay question or assignment brief is asking of you. Before you start to research or write, it is worth spending time considering the wording of the question and any learning outcomes that may accompany it. Each assignment will generally have at least three learning outcomes which you must cover if you are to achieve a pass.

Breaking down an assignment question

Before you attempt to answer an assignment question, you need to make sure you understand what it is asking. This includes not only the subject matter, but also the way in which you are required to write. Different questions may ask you to discuss, outline, evaluate… and many more. The task words are a key part of the question.

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Assignment briefs

An assignment brief explains the task you are being asked to do for your assessment and how your lecturers would like you to do it. It could be as short as a single essay question, or it could be more detailed, such as a project brief with a number of sections or stages.  

Scroll down for our recommended strategies and resources.  

Get informed

As well as your assignment brief, you may have other documents with useful information for your assignment. Check on Moodle for things like the deadline, format, marking criteria, and any additional guidance that may be in lecture slides. If you have looked, but cannot find something, do ask your lecturer.

Take time to understand everything in the question and exactly what you are being asked to do. If you do not understand a word, look it up. Language learner dictionaries can be useful as they offer longer and clearer definitions of words.

Do initial research

Although understanding the words in your assignment brief is important, usually you won’t fully comprehend the concepts or ideas behind those words without doing some reading first. Don’t worry if you don’t immediately know how to answer your brief; this is normal. List some questions about what you don’t understand and need to find out, and use these to guide your initial reading around the topic. See the resource below for a series of questions to get you started:

Model to generate critical thinking (University of Plymouth)

Keywords and overview

Break the question down and look at keywords but also consider the overall purpose and main issues raised by the question as a whole.

Analysing questions using keywords (UNSW, Australia)

More complex or implied questions (UNSW, Australia)

Answer the question

It may sound obvious, but make sure you are answering the question you have been set, not the question you would prefer to answer. If the brief has a number of tasks or parts, answer all of them. Parts that involve evaluation or analysis are usually longer and worth more marks than parts that ask for description or explanation. Keep the brief in front of you and check it regularly.

Marking criteria

Unless you have been told otherwise, your marking criteria is not usually a guide to the structure of your assignment. Each section of the criteria is not a separate paragraph in your assignment, but qualities that you need to demonstrate throughout. Treat the marking criteria as a checklist at the end not as a plan at the beginning. Also the criteria often tells you what to demonstrate (e.g. critical analysis) but not necessarily how to do it. For the how to do it, look back at the skills and activities you have covered in the rest of the module.

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Brief vs. Debrief – What’s the Difference?

Home » Brief vs. Debrief – What’s the Difference?

Brief and debrief are verbs with a confusing relationship. Based on the structure of debrief , they would appear to be opposites. But if brief means short , does debrief really mean long?

Actually, it does not. The sense in which these words are related does not involve the length of something. Continue reading to learn more about these confusing words.

What is the Difference Between Brief and Debrief?

In this post, I will compare brief vs. debrief . I will use each word in several example sentences that shows you how it should appear in context.

Plus, I will share a memory tool that makes choosing either brief or debrief much easier next time you need one of these words.

When to Use Brief

As an adjective , brief means short , like in the sentence below,

• Write a brief reflection on a session you found insightful at the conference.

As a noun , brief means a summary or short statement .

• “Did everyone read the brief I sent out via email?” asked the manager.

As a verb , brief means to prepare someone by informing him or her of necessary information .

• As his aide, it will be your job to brief the director on all meetings he does not personally attend.

When to Use Debrief

Here are some more examples,

• Protocol states that all operatives must debrief with dispatchers immediately upon returning from an engagement.
• Debrief with me after the plane touches down.

Debrief can also function as a noun where it simply means a series of questions about a completed mission of assignment. This relates to the verb definition.

Debrief is a relatively young word in the history of English and was first recorded in 1944. Its origins are unknown. This period in world history was fraught with tensions, and World War II saw heavy use of spies. It is easy to speculate that this word sprang from the geopolitical tensions of the time.

Trick to Remember the Difference: Debrief vs. Brief

With verbs, the situation is a little trickier.

• To brief someone is to give that person information.
• To debrief the same person would be to interrogate him, in other words, to obtain information from him.

Debrief and interrogate both have two E’s, so you can use this fact to pair the two in your mind.

Is it debrief or brief? Brief can be an adjective, a noun, or a verb. As a verb, it means to give someone a summary . Debrief is a verb that means to interrogate someone . Though they are related, they are not interchangeable, and you must use each carefully.

To summarize,

• Brief means to inform someone with necessary information
• Debrief means to interrogate someone for information about a recently completed assignment.

Definition of 'assignment'

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How to Create a Project Brief (Example Included)

Projects don’t just happen. There’s a lot of work before they’re approved, and once they have been given the go-ahead, there’s even more planning and scheduling needed! How do you communicate that information with stakeholders and the team so they understand the project?

You use a project brief, an important document that outlines what the project is about, to do just that. A project brief lets you convey the main goals of the project so that everyone understands what they’ll be doing.

Read on to learn more about them, and how to make one for yourself.

What Is a Project Brief?

A project brief communicates the reason and approach for a project and the processes that will be used to manage it. It’s not as detailed as a project plan, though it’s up there in importance.

Stakeholders and the project team need a short and concise pitch to explain the project. The project brief is a way to deliver this information in a summary that will outline the objectives of the project, its scope, the main deliverables, milestones and the timeline .

Taking the time to create a thorough project brief helps bring everyone together to better fulfill the mandate of the project. It will also set the stage for a better plan and project schedule. The better your project brief, the better you’ll achieve the goals and objectives of the project.

Get your free

Project Brief Template

Use this free Project Brief Template for Word to manage your projects better.

What Is the Purpose of a Project Brief?

The project brief does more than frame the project—it also acts as an effective communication tool. A strong project brief helps stakeholders, teams, designers and anyone involved in the project understand its requirements and goal. It’s a key document at the initiation of a project , in that it brings everyone together to serve a common end.

It is not an exaggeration to say the project brief is the most crucial document to leading a successful project. It is here that you define the scope of the project and open the door to a conversation between all parties involved in getting to the goal most efficiently.

In practical terms, the project brief will make clear what your client’s objectives are, who the target audience or market for the product or service is, and even the key competitors in that space.

Who Creates a Project Brief?

Because it’s such a fundamental document in any project, the project brief is created by the project manager. The project manager is responsible for creating the project plan and schedule, as well as managing resources , so it’s only natural that they are involved in the creation of the project brief as it will guide all those other project components.

However, a project manager doesn’t pull the information contained in the project brief out of their hat. Like producing the project plan and schedule, there are resources a project manager will tap to make sure the document accurately captures the project’s mission.

The first and among the most key people to speak to, naturally, are the client and project stakeholders. They are the ones for whom the project exists and can define its goals and objectives.

Once the vision is clear, project managers can refer back to older projects for historical data that can help guide the direction of this new project. Similarly, input from other project managers and project team members who have run similar projects can be very helpful.

While the buck stops with the project manager, a lot of cooks are in this kitchen. The more research and preparation are done before the pencil hits the paper, the better the results, which will set the tone for the entire project that follows.

What Should a Project Brief Include?

The project brief is a bit of an oxymoron. It must describe the whole project thoroughly while at the same time offering only a summary. It’s not so different from an executive summary, in that it acts somewhere between an elevator pitch and the overview of an agenda.

While project briefs can vary in format, most will touch on these topics.

• Client (contact info, type of business and customer base)
• Project Definition (background, outcomes, scope)
• Project Approach (processes and procedures)
• Project Objective
• Project Details (target audience, goals, timeline, phase, review, etc.)

Project Brief Example

The goals and objects are described, constraints and assumptions are given and the project scope is detailed. You can also add the target audience and who is authorized to deem the project a success and by what criteria.

After that follows more details about executing the project, such as the budget , timeline, duration and milestones.

How to Create a Project Brief

When you write a project brief you have to incorporate the background, the objectives of the project and what will determine if it’s a success. There needs to be an outline of the project’s schedule and target audience.

At its simplest, a project brief can answer those questions and serve its purpose. You can list the sections as bullet points on a one-page document or if it’s a digital link to supporting documentation . There is no one way to create a project brief, but the following is a general guide to how to get started:

Project Overview

Begin by collecting the contact information. It’s a good and easy start. Jot down the client, their contract, a brief about their business and customer base. Having a solid background will inform the rest of your business brief.

Project Objectives

Knowing what your project objectives are is how you get a better understanding of the project at large. Look at what deliverables you have, especially the final one. This is also how you begin to define what a successful project looks like. Use SMART goals, as in being specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-bound.

Project Timeline

You’ve defined what you have to deliver, now you need to figure out the timeframe in which you have to make those deliverables. This means knowing when you’re going to start and what the project’s timeline is. What you’re undertaking here is the T in SMART, the time-bound part. To further refine the schedule, look at milestones (important dates, like when one phase ends and another begins).

Who’s the Target Audience?

The project brief is more than just what you’re doing and when you’re doing it, you need to outline who you’re doing it for. Without a target audience, you can’t define whether your project is a success or not. You can get it all done on time and within budget and still fail because you didn’t deliver on the quality expectations of your target audience. That means demographics and other profiling to make sure you’re fulfilling that audience’s needs.

Tie It to the Stakeholders & Team

Finally, you want to tie all the pieces to the stakeholders and the team, who are the target audience for the project brief. That means, making it relevant to them by including resources for the project, outlining the budget, even a communication plan and defining the roles and responsibilities. How much more you want to add is up to you, but it should strike a good balance between what’s important and what’s too in the weeds. Remember, you don’t want to obscure your message.

Things to Avoid when Making a Project Brief

There are common mistakes people make when crafting their project brief; let’s take a quick look at those mistakes below.

Biting Off More Than You Can Chew

Be on the lookout for pitfalls such as defining too many goals. The project brief needs to be, well, brief and too many goals will not only make it longer but harder to understand.

Confusing Communication

Clarity is key to a successful project brief. If you aren’t clear when defining your target audience, then the project sights will be off from the start. Even if the aim is only a little off, over the course of the project the effect will be cumulative and your final deliverable will be well off the mark.

Lack of Precision

Another thing to avoid is generalizations. Good writing is specific, and a well-written project brief shares the same precision. Avoid jargon and any meaningless filling. Say what you want is a few, well-pointed words that describe what you’re talking about, putting it in focus.

Phoning It In

Finally, don’t be lazy. Put in the work. Do all the research, talk to everyone you need to in order to deliver a strong project brief. This is a foundational document that leads to the project plan, but it’s also a communication tool. If you don’t have a clear project brief, the rest of the project will suffer.

How ProjectManager Enables Successful Projects

ProjectManager is an award-winning project management software that turns a brief into a successful project. With features that can plan, monitor and report on progress and performance, you’ll only need one software to manage all aspects of your project.

All the tasks that lead to deliverables in the project brief need to get done within the timeframe and budget you estimated. To control all these elements, we have an online Gantt chart project view. It organizes your tasks and subtasks, resources and costs.

Task Lists for Easy Execution

Now you have your tasks laid out, but tasks need people to execute them and move your project forward. You can direct your team to use our task lists, which list out your task descriptions and file attachments. Then, they can work together, commenting at the task level with other team members, who are notified by email.

Track Projects with Automated Dashboards

You can keep track of their progress with great monitoring features, such as a real-time dashboard that displays task status, costs and other high-level views of the project. Our software calculates task updates and displays them in color-coded charts and graphs, perfect to share at stakeholder meetings to keep them in the loop.

Deliver your projects on time and on budget

Start planning your projects.

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Definition of assignment noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• Students are required to complete all homework assignments.
• You will need to complete three written assignments per semester.
• a business/special assignment
• I had set myself a tough assignment.
• on an assignment She is in Greece on an assignment for one of the Sunday newspapers.
• on assignment one of our reporters on assignment in China
• The students handed in their assignments.
• The teacher gave us an assignment on pollution.
• Why did you take on this assignment if you're so busy?
• He refused to accept the assignment.
• assignment on

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Policy Briefs

What this handout is about.

This handout will offer tips for writing effective policy briefs. Be sure to check with your instructor about their specific expectations for your assignment.

What are policy briefs?

Imagine that you’re an elected official serving on a committee that sets the standards cars must meet to pass a state inspection. You know that this is a complex issue, and you’d like to learn more about existing policies, the effects of emissions on the environment and on public health, the economic consequences of different possible approaches, and more–you want to make an informed decision. But you don’t have time to research all of these issues! You need a policy brief.

A policy brief presents a concise summary of information that can help readers understand, and likely make decisions about, government policies. Policy briefs may give objective summaries of relevant research, suggest possible policy options, or go even further and argue for particular courses of action.

How do policy briefs differ from other kinds of writing assignments?

You may encounter policy brief assignments in many different academic disciplines, from public health and environmental science to education and social work. If you’re reading this handout because you’re having your first encounter with such an assignment, don’t worry–many of your existing skills and strategies, like using evidence , being concise , and organizing your information effectively , will help you succeed at this form of writing. However, policy briefs are distinctive in several ways.

In some of your college writing, you’ve addressed your peers, your professors, or other members of your academic field. Policy briefs are usually created for a more general reader or policy maker who has a stake in the issue that you’re discussing.

Tone and terminology

Many academic disciplines discourage using unnecessary jargon, but clear language is especially important in policy briefs. If you find yourself using jargon, try to replace it with more direct language that a non-specialist reader would be more likely to understand. When specialized terminology is necessary, explain it quickly and clearly to ensure that your reader doesn’t get confused.

Policy briefs are distinctive in their focus on communicating the practical implications of research to a specific audience. Suppose that you and your roommate both write research-based papers about global warming. Your roommate is writing a research paper for an environmental science course, and you are writing a policy brief for a course on public policy. You might both use the exact same sources in writing your papers. So, how might those papers differ?

Your roommate’s research paper is likely to present the findings of previous studies and synthesize them in order to present an argument about what we know. It might also discuss the methods and processes used in the research.

Your policy brief might synthesize the same scientific findings, but it will deploy them for a very specific purpose: to help readers decide what they should do. It will relate the findings to current policy debates, with an emphasis on applying the research outcomes rather than assessing the research procedures. A research paper might also suggest practical actions, but a policy brief is likely to emphasize them more strongly and develop them more fully.

To support these changes in audience, tone, and purpose, policy briefs have a distinctive format. You should consult your assignment prompt and/or your professor for instructions about the specific requirements of your assignment, but most policy briefs have several features in common. They tend to use lots of headings and have relatively short sections. This structure differs from many short papers in the humanities that may have a title but no further headings, and from reports in the sciences that may follow the “IMRAD” structure of introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Your brief might include graphs, charts, or other visual aids that make it easier to digest the most important information within sections.  Policy briefs often include some of these sections:

• Title: A good title quickly communicates the contents of the brief in a memorable way.
• Executive Summary: This section is often one to two paragraphs long; it includes an overview of the problem and the proposed policy action.
• Context or Scope of Problem: This section communicates the importance of the problem and aims to convince the reader of the necessity of policy action.
• Policy Alternatives: This section discusses the current policy approach and explains proposed options. It should be fair and accurate while convincing the reader why the policy action proposed in the brief is the most desirable.
• Policy Recommendations: This section contains the most detailed explanation of the concrete steps to be taken to address the policy issue.
• Appendices: If some readers might need further support in order to accept your argument but doing so in the brief itself might derail the conversation for other readers, you might include the extra information in an appendix.
• Consulted or Recommended Sources: These should be reliable sources that you have used throughout your brief to guide your policy discussion and recommendations.

Depending on your specific topic and assignment, you might combine sections or break them down into several more specific ones.

How do I identify a problem for my policy brief?

An effective policy brief must propose a solution to a well-defined problem that can be addressed at the level of policy. This may sound easy, but it can take a lot of work to think of a problem in a way that is open to policy action.

For example, “bad spending habits in young adults” might be a problem that you feel strongly about, but you can’t simply implement a policy to “make better financial decisions.” In order to make it the subject of a policy brief, you’ll need to look for research on the topic and narrow it down. Is the problem a lack of financial education, predatory lending practices, dishonest advertising, or something else? Narrowing to one of these (and perhaps further) would allow you to write a brief that can propose concrete policy action.

For another example, let’s say that you wanted to address children’s health. This is a big issue, and too broad to serve as the focus of a policy brief, but it could serve as a starting point for research. As you begin to research studies on children’s health, you might decide to zoom in on the more specific issue of childhood obesity. You’ll need to consult the research further to decide what factors contribute to it in order to propose policy changes. Is it lack of exercise, nutritional deficiencies, a combination of these, or something else? Choosing one or another of these issues, your brief would zoom in even further to specific proposals that might include exercise initiatives, nutritional guidelines, or school lunch programs.

The key is that you define the problem and its contributing factors as specifically as possible so that some sort of concrete policy action (at the local, state, or national level) is feasible.

Framing the issue

Once you’ve identified the problem for yourself, you need to decide how you will present it to your reader. Your own process of identifying the problem likely had some stops, starts, and dead-ends, but your goal in framing the issue for your reader is to provide the most direct path to understanding the problem and the proposed policy change. It can be helpful to think of some of the most pressing questions your audience will have and attempt to preemptively answer those questions. Here are some questions you might want to consider:

What is the problem?

Understanding what the problem is, in the clearest terms possible, will give your reader a reference point. Later, when you’re discussing complex information, your reader can refer back to the initial problem. This will help to ‘anchor’ them throughout the course of your argument. Every piece of information in the brief should be clearly and easily connected to the problem.

What is the scope of the problem?

Knowing the extent of the problem helps to frame the policy issue for your reader. Is the problem statewide, national, or international? How many people does this issue affect? Daily? Annually? This is a great place for any statistical information you may have gathered through your research.

Who are the stakeholders?

Who does this issue affect? Adult women? College-educated men? Children from bilingual homes? The primary group being affected is important, and knowing who this group is allows the reader to assign a face to the policy issue.

Policy issues can include a complex network of stakeholders. Double check whether you have inadvertently excluded any of them from your analysis. For example, a policy about children’s nutrition obviously involves the children, but it might also include food producers, distributors, parents, and nutritionists (and other experts). Some stakeholders might be reluctant to accept your policy change or even acknowledge the existence of the problem, which is why your brief must be convincing in its use of evidence and clear in its communication.

Effective policy-writing

This handout has emphasized that good policy briefs are clear, concise, and focused on applying credible research to policy problems. Let’s take a look at two versions of the introduction to a policy brief to see how someone might write and revise to achieve these qualities:

A “not-so-good” policy brief

Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia: A Call to Action

The Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia (2010), issued by Secretary of Health Dr. Polly Galver, served as a platform to increase public awareness on the importance of dermatologic health for adolescents. Among the major themes of the report are that dermatologic health is essential to general health and well-being and that profound and consequential dermatologic health disparities exist in the state of Outlandia. Dr. Galver stated that what amounts to a silent epidemic of acne is affecting some population groups–restricting activities as schools, work, and home–and often significantly diminishing the quality of life. Dr. Galver issued the Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health as a wake-up call to policymakers and health professionals on issues regarding the state’s dermatologic health. (“ Not so good policy brief ,” Reproduced with permission of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD.)

This paragraph introduces a relevant and credible source, but it fails to use that source to explain a problem and propose policy action. The reader is likely to be confused because the word “acne” does not appear until the middle of the paragraph, and the brief never states what action should be taken to address it. In addition to this lack of focus, the paragraph also includes unnecessary phrases like “among the major themes” that could be removed to make it more concise.

A better policy brief

Seeing Spots: Addressing the Silent Epidemic of Acne in Outlandia’s Youth

Acne is the most common chronic disease among adolescents in Outlandia (Outlandia Department of Health, 2010). Long considered a benign rite of passage, acne actually has far-reaching effects on the health and well being of adolescents, significantly affecting success in school, social relationships, and general quality of life. Yet large portions of the state’s population are unable to access treatment for acne. The Secretary of Health’s Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia (2010) is a call to action for policymakers and health professionals to improve the health and wellbeing of Outlandia’s youth by increasing access to dermatologic care (“ A Better Policy Brief” , Reproduced with permission of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD.)

This paragraph is far more focused and concise than the first version. The opening sentence is straightforward; instead of focusing on the source, it makes a clear and memorable point that is supported by the source. Additionally, though the first version was titled “a call to action,” it did not actually say what that action might be. In this version, it is clear that the call is for increased access to dermatologic care.

Keep in mind that clarity, conciseness, and consistent focus are rarely easy to achieve in a first draft. Careful editing and revision are key parts of writing policy briefs.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Smith, Catherine F. 2016. Writing Public Policy , 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Young, Eoin, and Lisa Quinn. n.d. “The Policy Brief.” University of Delaware. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blog.lrei.org/dist/c/104/files/2009/11/PolicyBrief-described.pdf .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Writing an Appellate Brief

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Introduction

In most appeals, an initial brief , an answer brief , and a reply brief will be filed, in that order.  The appellant , who filed the notice of appeal , will file the initial brief first.  Then the other party , the appellee , will respond with an answer brief.  Finally, the appellant can respond to the answer brief by filing a reply brief.  In the case of extraordinary writs, a petition is filed as the brief.  Extraordinary writ petitions are discussed in Chapter 10 of this Handbook.

Before writing an appellate brief, a party should review the appellate record to understand the history and facts of the case, research the law , and decide what arguments to make and issues to raise. The appellant will want to argue why the lower tribunal ’s decision or judgment should be reversed (why the lower court “erred”).  And the appellee will want to argue why the decision was correct and should be upheld, or “affirmed.”

Again, the initial brief is filed first by the appellant.  The appellee does not file an answer brief until after the initial brief, because the answer brief will respond to the arguments in the initial brief.  The reply brief is then filed by the appellant after, and in response to, the answer brief.  Both the initial brief and the answer brief will contain a section called the statement of the case and facts.  In this section, the briefs discuss the history and facts of the case. There must be no argument in the facts section.  The initial and answer briefs will also contain argument sections.  There will be a summary of the argument section, which is a short preview of the argument, and also a separate and longer argument section where the party will fully discuss all points on appeal .  Initial and answer briefs should also state the standard of review .  The reply brief will only need an argument section, since it just responds to the answer brief (and cannot add any new arguments).  All appellate briefs should contain citations to the appellate record for any facts discussed, whether in the facts section or the argument.  All briefs should also contain citations to legal authority (statutes and case law) in the argument section.

As mentioned above, before a party writes an appellate brief, he or she should consider and study several things.  For example, the party writing the appellate brief reads the record on appeal prepared by the clerk of the lower tribunal that entered the order or judgment appealed.  This record will include the important pleadings filed in the case and should also include transcripts of any important hearings that were held that relate to the issues raised in the appeal.

The party writing the appellate brief also researches what law applies to the party’s case and to the issues raised in the appeal.  This may include statutes, case law, rules, or other sources of law. The party writing the appellate brief goes to a law library or does legal research on the computer to look for cases or statutes, preferably ones from the State of Florida, that support his or her argument.  Then the party writing the appellate brief gathers together any statutes and case law that support the argument he or she is going to make in the appellate brief.  This is because the Florida Rules of Appellate Procedure require the appellate party to specifically refer, or “cite,” to those cases or statutes in the appellate brief to support his or her argument.  Citations to legal authorities in the brief should follow the format for citations found in Florida Rule of Appellate Procedure 9.800.

Formatting for All Briefs

Florida Rule of Appellate Procedure 9.210 requires that all briefs have a specific format.  Briefs must generally be printed or typed on opaque, white, unglossed paper. The paper size should be 8.5 by 11 inches.  The paper should have margins of at least one inch on all sides.  The lettering should be black.  If a brief is typed on a computer, it must be double-spaced and use Times New Roman 14-point font, or Courier New 12-point font.  Any headings or footnotes must be the same font and size as the rest of the brief.  Although typed briefs must be double spaced, headings, indented quotations, and footnotes can be single spaced.

The brief should have a cover sheet stating: the name of the appellate court; the case number the appellate court has assigned to the case, or a space to enter that number if it is a new case that does not have a number; the name or “ style ” of the case (i.e., John Smith v. Jane Doe); the name of the lower tribunal that entered the order or opinion on appeal; the name of the brief (i.e., initial brief of appellant John Doe); and the name and address of the person filing the brief.

Briefs filed in paper format should not be stapled or bound (except by paper clip or rubber band).  This is a recent requirement that assists the clerks of court, who now have to scan paper briefs into the computer.

Contents of the Initial Brief and Answer Brief

The initial brief is the first brief.  It is filed by the appellant who filed the appeal. The appellant’s initial brief is due within 70 days after filing the notice of appeal.  An appellant who needs extra time to file the initial brief should file a motion for an extension of time in the appellate court before the deadline for the brief.  Motion practice is discussed in Chapter 4 of this Handbook.  The initial brief should set out the facts and history of the case in the statement of case and facts section.  It should also present legal arguments explaining each reason the appellant believes the decision of the lower tribunal was wrong (i.e., erroneous ) and why it should be reversed.  The initial brief cannot be longer than 50 pages, not counting the pages used for the Table of Contents, Table of Citations, Certificate of Service , Certificate of Font Compliance and the signature block for the brief’s author. A party can ask the court for permission to file brief longer than 50 pages, but such motions are rarely granted.  And briefs are usually much shorter, often 20 to 30 pages or less.

The answer brief is the next brief.  It is filed by the appellee within 20 days after the initial brief, again unless a motion for an extension of time is filed before the deadline. The answer brief responds to the arguments in the initial brief.  It will argue why the lower tribunal’s decision was correct and should be affirmed. Like the initial brief, the answer brief generally cannot be longer than 50 pages.  Unlike the initial brief, the answer brief is not required to have a statement of the case and facts section, but it usually should have one to explain the case from the appellee’s perspective. Although the appellee will argue in the answer brief that the appellant’s arguments in the initial brief are incorrect, both sides must argue their positions respectfully and without name-calling or insults.

The initial brief and the answer brief will each have the following sections:

• Table of Contents
• Table of Authorities
• Statement of the Case and Facts

Summary of the Argument

Standard of review.

• Certificate of Service
• Certificate of Font Compliance

The table of contents lists the sections and issue headings in the brief, with the corresponding page numbers of where in the brief those sections and headings are.  For example, a table of contents for an initial brief might look something like this in an appeal of a final judgment entered after a jury trial :

The table of authorities (also called the table of citations) is similar to the table of contents.  It is a list of the legal authorities (cases, statutes, and rules) referred to or “cited” in the brief to support the party’s arguments, along with all of the page numbers where those authorities were cited in the brief. Cases are listed in alphabetical order.  Statutes are listed in numerical order.  Legal authorities are cited in the format required by Rule 9.800 of the Florida Rules of Appellate Procedure.

For example, a table of authorities in an appellate brief might look like this:

Statement of the Case and the Facts

Before writing the brief, the party will have reviewed the record on appeal that was prepared by the clerk of the trial court (or other lower tribunal) that entered the order or judgment being appealed. The statement of the case and facts explains to the appellate court, based only on the documents and evidence that are in the record, what the history and facts of the case are, and what occurred in the lower tribunal. This part of the brief is for facts only, not argument.

The appellate party may not discuss in the brief any fact or circumstance that is not in the appellate record, such as events occurring after the order or opinion on appeal was entered, or documents or evidence he or she did not present to or file in the lower tribunal.  In any appellate brief, every sentence containing a fact must be followed by a citation referring to the page number of the record on appeal where that fact can be found or supported.  Usually, the appellate party would refer to a page of the record in parentheses or brackets with an “R.” followed by the volume and page number. Two common formats for citing the record volume and page numbers are, for example:  (R. Vol. 1, pp. 1-8; R. Vol. 4, p.815), or [RI.1-8; RIV.815].  If there is a trial transcript in the record that has separate page numbers, the appellate party may refer to it as “T.” followed by the page number.  Citations in the statement of case and facts section of a brief might look something like this:

This case arises from an automobile accident.  [RI.12-18]. Plaintiff , Mr. Roberts, filed a lawsuit against Defendant , Ms. Wynn, alleging she was negligent in causing the accident and that he was injured as a result. [RI.12-18].  Defendant denied she was negligent or that the accident caused Plaintiff’s alleged injuries.  [RI.34-36; RII.205].

At trial, Plaintiff’s treating physician, Dr. John, testified Plaintiff was injured as a result of the accident.  [T.235-40, 315-19]. Defendant’s expert, Dr. Smith, testified that Plaintiff was not injured. [T.441-44, 448-52].

In the statement of the case and the facts section of an appellate brief, the party writing the brief will discuss:

• the type of case (civil, criminal, etc.), and nature of the appeal (such as an appeal from a final judgment or non-final order, etc.);
• the procedural history of the case in the lower tribunal, such as what documents, pleadings, or motions were filed and when; what arguments and positions the parties raised the lower tribunal; and what happened in the pre-trial and trial proceedings ;,
• the evidence that was presented to the lower tribunal at the trial or hearing , such as written documents and/or the testimony of witnesses; and
• the outcome of the trial, hearing, or other proceeding.

The appellate party drafting the brief includes in this section those facts that specifically relate to the issue he or she is arguing.  For example, an appellant who is only arguing that the trial court erred in excluding certain evidence at trial probably would not need to discuss facts regarding jury selection in the brief.  The statement of the case and the facts is usually presented in chronological order to make it easier for the appellate court to follow and understand.

This section provides an overview of the arguments made in the appellate brief.  It is much like a “road map” that previews the arguments.  The summary of the argument is seldom longer than two pages, and is never longer than five pages.  Since the summary of the argument is just a short preview of the arguments, it generally does not need to have citations to the appellate record or legal authorities.

While the standard of review does not have to be in a separate section, it must be included in the brief.  If it is not in a separate section, it should be included in the argument section, at the beginning of each issue. Whether it is in a separate section or in the argument, the standard of review should be stated for each point on appeal.  The standard of review is very short, usually just a sentence or two and often no longer than a paragraph.  It tells the appellate court whether the issue raised on appeal is a question of fact, law, or both.  This is important because the standard of review determines how much weight or “ deference ” the appellate court will give to, or how strictly it will question, the lower tribunal’s rulings and decision.

Appellate courts give the greatest deference to a lower tribunal’s findings of fact and discretionary decisions.  Findings of fact are generally reviewed for “competent substantial evidence,” meaning they will usually be upheld if supported by any competent evidence in the record.  Discretionary decisions, such as rulings on evidence, are reviewed for an “ abuse of discretion ,” meaning they will usually be upheld unless the decision was extremely unreasonable.

Appellate courts review pure legal issues, such as the interpretation of a statute , with the least amount of deference.  This is called the “ de novo ” standard of review.  Under this standard, appellate courts decide for themselves what the law says and what the decision of law should be, without deferring to the trial court’s decision.

The argument section explains the party’s legal arguments in the appeal and why the decision of the lower tribunal should either be affirmed or reversed. It discusses the relevant statutes and case law, how the law applies to the facts in the case, and the party’s arguments based on the law as applied to the facts.  It explains the legal reasons why the order or judgment of the lower tribunal was either correct or incorrect, and what specific result, or “ relief ,” the party wants in the appeal (i.e., what the party wants the appellate court to do).  For example, an appellant may ask the appellate court to reverse the final judgment and return, or “ remand ,” the case to the lower tribunal for a new trial, whereas an appellee may ask the appellate court in the answer brief to affirm the final judgment.  The argument should be supported by references to legal cases, statutes, and rules that support that appellate party’s argument that the lower tribunal decision was either correct or incorrect.

The argument is divided into specific legal issues.  The argument section in the brief starts with an issue heading for each argument or point on appeal.  In many cases, an appellant might only raise one or two specific issues. In other cases, the appellant might argue more than one or two issues, if he or she believes the lower tribunal made more errors.  Each issue the appellant raises should have a reasonable basis in the facts and in the law. The appellant’s issue or issues should be clearly and concisely stated.  If the appellant is arguing more than one issue, the appellant usually starts with the strongest point first.  Under each issue heading, the appellant discusses the case law, statutes, and rules that deal with the issue for that section.

The appellee’s answer brief arguments respond to the argument issues raised in the initial brief.  It often has the same or similar issue headings as the initial brief, to help the appellate court know which of appellant’s initial brief arguments the appellee’s answer brief is responding to.  Like the initial brief, the appellee’s answer brief should explain how the law applies to the facts and present his or her arguments in support of the outcome he or she wants in the appeal (usually affirmance).  The answer brief arguments should also include citations to the legal authorities, cases, and statutes the appellee believes supports his or her position and arguments in the appeal.

Conclusion.

In the conclusion, the party tells the court what result or relief he or she wants in the appeal (i.e., what the party is asking the appellate court to do in the case).  It is usually only a sentence or two in length, and should not be longer than one page. For example, the conclusion in appellate brief in an appeal from a judgment entered after a trial might look like this:

The brief should contain a certificate of service , in which the party filing the brief with the court affirms that he or she has sent, or “served,” a copy of the brief to the opposing party (or their attorney if they have one) on a specific date and states the method of service , such as by mail, delivery, or service by e-mail (if the procedures for e-service are followed). The certificate of service must be signed by the appellate party and should include a signature block containing the appellate party’s name, address and telephone number.  For example, a certificate of service might look like this:

It is important for pro se litigants to remember that, generally, a party has to both file the brief with the court, and serve a copy on the opposing party.  Pro se parties are generally permitted to serve documents by e-mail if they comply with certain requirements, which are set forth in detail in Florida Rule of Judicial Administration 2.516.  In addition, most courts now allow (but do not require) electronic filing by pro se parties.  See Florida Rule of Judicial Administration 2.525(c)-(d).

The requirements for electronic filing, even when it is available, often vary in different courts. Accordingly, pro se parties interested in electronic filing should consult the website or clerk’s office of the particular court to find out if electronic filing is allowed, and, if so, the requirements for electronic filing and service by e-mail.  See also Florida Rules of Judicial Administration 2.516 and 2.525(c)-(d). Unless electronic filing and service by e-mail is available, a brief must generally be filed by mail or delivery to the court, and served by mail or delivery to the opposing party.

Certificate of Font Compliance.

According to Florida Rules of Appellate Procedure 9.210(a)(2), the font of the letters in the brief must be either Times New Roman 14-point font or Courier New 12-point font.  In the certificate of compliance, the appellate party states that the font and type size used in the brief complies with this Rule and signs below the statement.  A certificate of compliance might look like this:

The Reply Brief

The Florida Rules of Appellate Procedure do not require that the appellant file a reply brief, but an appellant often should file a reply brief to respond to the arguments in the answer brief.  The appellant’s reply brief, if any, is due 20 days after the answer brief and responds to the answer brief arguments.  The reply brief can be no more than 15 pages long, not counting the pages necessary for the Table of Contents, Table of Citations, Certificate of Service, Certificate of Font Compliance, and the signature block for the brief’s author.

The reply brief typically includes the following sections:

• Reply Argument

The reply brief does not raise new arguments. Issues that were not raised first in the initial brief are generally waived.  But, if new or different arguments are raised in the answer brief, the reply brief can respond to those argument.  The key is that the reply brief responds to the answer brief arguments. It does not just repeat the initial brief, nor does it raise new arguments that were not in either the initial or answer brief.  Although the appellant argues in the reply brief that the appellee’s answer brief arguments are incorrect, the appellant, like the appellee, must do so respectfully and without name calling or insults.

Download the Chapter 5 PDF here.

• Term: Certificate of Service
• Term: Notice of Appeal
• Term: Extraordinary Writ
• Term: Standard of Review
• Term: Abuse of Discretion
• Term: Initial Brief
• Term: Answer Brief
• Term: Findings of Fact
• Term: Reply Brief
• Term: Trial Court
• Term: Proceedings
• Term: Appellant
• Term: Appellate
• Term: Authority
• Term: Erroneous
• Term: Transcript
• Term: Plaintiff
• Term: Defendant
• Term: Non-Final
• Term: Testimony
• Term: Deference
• Term: Appellee
• Term: Petition
• Term: Tribunal
• Term: Judgment
• Term: Opinion
• Term: Service
• Term: Evidence
• Term: Citation
• Term: Hearing
• Term: Statute
• Term: De Novo
• Term: Attorney
• Term: Review
• Term: Record
• Term: Appeal
• Term: Clerk
• Term: Motion
• Term: Lawsuit
• Term: Relief
• Term: Remand
• Term: Pro se
• Term: Brief
• Term: Party
• Term: Court
• Term: Legal
• Term: Style
• Term: Table
• Term: Final
• Term: Trial
• Term: Serve

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The entire pro se handbook is available in the following three languages:, appellate practice section.

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Assignment: Definition in Finance, How It Works, and Examples

Adam Hayes, Ph.D., CFA, is a financial writer with 15+ years Wall Street experience as a derivatives trader. Besides his extensive derivative trading expertise, Adam is an expert in economics and behavioral finance. Adam received his master's in economics from The New School for Social Research and his Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in sociology. He is a CFA charterholder as well as holding FINRA Series 7, 55 & 63 licenses. He currently researches and teaches economic sociology and the social studies of finance at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

Yarilet Perez is an experienced multimedia journalist and fact-checker with a Master of Science in Journalism. She has worked in multiple cities covering breaking news, politics, education, and more. Her expertise is in personal finance and investing, and real estate.

What Is an Assignment?

Assignment most often refers to one of two definitions in the financial world:

• The transfer of an individual's rights or property to another person or business. This concept exists in a variety of business transactions and is often spelled out contractually.
• In trading, assignment occurs when an option contract is exercised. The owner of the contract exercises the contract and assigns the option writer to an obligation to complete the requirements of the contract.

Key Takeaways

• Assignment is a transfer of rights or property from one party to another.
• Options assignments occur when option buyers exercise their rights to a position in a security.
• Other examples of assignments can be found in wages, mortgages, and leases.

Uses For Assignments

Assignment refers to the transfer of some or all property rights and obligations associated with an asset, property, contract, or other asset of value. to another entity through a written agreement.

Assignment rights happen every day in many different situations. A payee, like a utility or a merchant, assigns the right to collect payment from a written check to a bank. A merchant can assign the funds from a line of credit to a manufacturing third party that makes a product that the merchant will eventually sell. A trademark owner can transfer, sell, or give another person interest in the trademark or logo. A homeowner who sells their house assigns the deed to the new buyer.

To be effective, an assignment must involve parties with legal capacity, consideration, consent, and legality of the object.

A wage assignment is a forced payment of an obligation by automatic withholding from an employee’s pay. Courts issue wage assignments for people late with child or spousal support, taxes, loans, or other obligations. Money is automatically subtracted from a worker's paycheck without consent if they have a history of nonpayment. For example, a person delinquent on $100 monthly loan payments has a wage assignment deducting the money from their paycheck and sent to the lender. Wage assignments are helpful in paying back long-term debts.

Another instance can be found in a mortgage assignment. This is where a mortgage deed gives a lender interest in a mortgaged property in return for payments received. Lenders often sell mortgages to third parties, such as other lenders. A mortgage assignment document clarifies the assignment of contract and instructs the borrower in making future mortgage payments, and potentially modifies the mortgage terms.

A final example involves a lease assignment. This benefits a relocating tenant wanting to end a lease early or a landlord looking for rent payments to pay creditors. Once the new tenant signs the lease, taking over responsibility for rent payments and other obligations, the previous tenant is released from those responsibilities. In a separate lease assignment, a landlord agrees to pay a creditor through an assignment of rent due under rental property leases. The agreement is used to pay a mortgage lender if the landlord defaults on the loan or files for bankruptcy . Any rental income would then be paid directly to the lender.

Options Assignment

Options can be assigned when a buyer decides to exercise their right to buy (or sell) stock at a particular strike price . The corresponding seller of the option is not determined when a buyer opens an option trade, but only at the time that an option holder decides to exercise their right to buy stock. So an option seller with open positions is matched with the exercising buyer via automated lottery. The randomly selected seller is then assigned to fulfill the buyer's rights. This is known as an option assignment.

Once assigned, the writer (seller) of the option will have the obligation to sell (if a call option ) or buy (if a put option ) the designated number of shares of stock at the agreed-upon price (the strike price). For instance, if the writer sold calls they would be obligated to sell the stock, and the process is often referred to as having the stock called away . For puts, the buyer of the option sells stock (puts stock shares) to the writer in the form of a short-sold position.

Suppose a trader owns 100 call options on company ABC's stock with a strike price of $10 per share. The stock is now trading at $30 and ABC is due to pay a dividend shortly. As a result, the trader exercises the options early and receives 10,000 shares of ABC paid at $10. At the same time, the other side of the long call (the short call) is assigned the contract and must deliver the shares to the long.

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Designing AI-Enhanced Assignments for Deeper Learning

D ue to the rise of generative AI-powered tools, educators need to consider retooling their assignments to push assignments to the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy .

While AI offers undeniable benefits in streamlining processes and providing data-driven insights, concerns remain about its impact on fostering deeper learning experiences. To bridge that gap, educators need to adapt practical strategies to design AI-enhanced assignments that engage students in higher-order thinking.

Creating A Deeper Learning AI Assignment

Generative AI tools can be powerful allies in creating assignments that move beyond basic knowledge recall and organization. One way to achieve this is by utilizing AI to generate large, diverse datasets for students to analyze.

For example, a traditional history class assignment might relate to asking students to create an event timeline. Multiple generative AI tools could create such a timeline. By allowing students to use an AI tool to create such a timeline, they will have to learn to craft an effective prompt.

Sample prompt: Please create a brief timeline of events of the American Revolution that occurred along the Mississippi River.

Then ask the students to evaluate the resulting timeline . In this specific example, the results missed the primary battles of St. Louis and Cahokia fought in May 1780. It additionally missed the Spanish and British events on the lower Mississippi.

Ultimately, this assignment encourages students to access and organize information and then critically analyze the results, drawing connections and making informed inferences, a key component of the "analyze" level in Bloom's taxonomy.

Alternatively, or as a further extension of the assignment, students can be asked to refine their prompts until a more credible timeline is created.

Evaluative Assignments

At the evaluation level, an assignment could be to have students ask an AI tool to draft a version of a ubiquitous five-paragraph essay previously assigned. Then the students can be asked to edit the generated results and justify their edits in a brief essay.

This allows the original five-paragraph essay assignment to be utilized while pushing the exercise further up the Bloom hierarchy.

To help make sure the students are personally engaged and not simply using two generative tools, embed the need for students to cite their personal experiences within the scope of their feedback. Requiring students to relate assignments to personal experiences or local environments are two good ways to defeat generative AI tools, which still struggle with personalization at this point.

While these examples focus on generative AI for enhancing learning, it's crucial to acknowledge potential concerns. Over-reliance on AI for assessments can detract from the value of human expertise. It's important to remember that AI serves as a tool to augment, not replace, the role of instructors. Educators must carefully select appropriate tools and provide context and guidance for student engagement with generative AI.

By embracing a considered approach to the integration of generative AI, educators can create a dynamic learning environment that fosters deeper intellectual inquiry. AI-enhanced assignments can empower students to move beyond memorization and develop critical thinking and evaluative skills, hallmarks of the upper levels of Bloom's taxonomy. This approach ultimately paves the way for a more engaging and enriching learning experience for students.

• 5 Key Policy Considerations for Regulating AI in Classrooms
• 8 AI Tools for Summarizing and Reviewing

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DOE releases zero-emissions building definition, part 1

The definition will bring clarity to the public and private sectors, supporting their efforts to decarbonize buildings and ramp up clean energy, said U.S. Secretary of Energy Jennifer Granholm.

First published on

Dive Brief:

• The U.S. Department of Energy on Thursday released the first part of a national definition of a zero-emissions building intended to provide guidance that will support decarbonization efforts in new and existing buildings and advance public- and private-sector climate goals.
• Part 1 of the definition focuses on operational emissions from energy use, setting criteria to determine whether a building generates zero emissions from energy used in building operations, the DOE said. These criteria involve requiring buildings to be among the most energy efficient; free of on-site direct greenhouse gas emissions from energy use; and powered solely from clean energy, meaning all on-site and off-site energy used in the building must come from clean energy sources,  according to a guidance document released by the DOE .
• “With today’s announcement, DOE is helping bring clarity to our public and private sector partners to support decarbonization efforts and drive investment—paving the way for the cutting-edge clean energy technologies we need to make America’s buildings more comfortable and affordable,” U.S. Secretary of Energy Jennifer Granholm said in a statement.   

Dive Insight:

The U.S. has nearly 130 million existing buildings that cost over $400 billion a year to heat, cool, light and power, the DOE said. By 2050, an additional 60 billion square feet of commercial space are expected to be constructed, per the release. The department said defining what constitutes a zero-emissions building would help the nation achieve climate goals and cut energy costs for businesses and homes, while providing market certainty and clarity to scale zero emissions in new construction and retrofits. 

Plans to define what constitutes a “zero-emissions” building were first announced by White House National Climate Adviser Ali Zaidi last September . In developing a draft of this definition, the DOE sought input from industry stakeholders at the beginning of this year. Responses to its request for information, the department said, would serve “as a clear market signal and consistent target, backed by measurable data, to help move buildings toward zero emissions goals.” 

In April, DOE released a federal blueprint laying out actions that can be taken to slash U.S. building emissions 65% by 2035 and 90% by 2050, compared with 2005 levels. The blueprint also aims to reduce energy used on-site in buildings 35% by 2035 and 50% by 2050, compared with 2005 levels. Major technical advances in energy efficiency, heat pumps and clean energy mean that new and existing buildings can help the nation achieve zero emissions, the department said Thursday. 

Numerous factors, including embodied carbon, refrigerant use, grid interactivity, indoor air quality and electric vehicle support equipment can improve human health and minimize environmental impacts while cutting utility costs and boosting resiliency to climate change, according to the document outlining part 1 of the definition . Thus, the definition is “not a substitute for the green building and energy efficiency standards and certifications that public and private parties have developed,” the document clarifies. 

To meet the first pillar of the definition, being energy efficient, existing buildings must satisfy certain criteria. These include obtaining an Energy Star score of 75 or higher, or, if the building is not eligible for an Energy Star score, reducing site energy use intensity to at least 35% better than the median EUI for buildings of that category, the document says. Alternatively, a building can ensure its energy use intensity is less than the EUI specified in the latest version of ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 100, Energy and Emissions Building Performance Standard for Existing Buildings , “for buildings of that type and location.”

Meanwhile, new buildings must satisfy one of three requirements, the document says. These include ensuring that estimated whole building energy use is at least 10% lower than the model code, being designed to obtain an Energy Star score of 90 or higher, if eligible, or being certified to the most recent effective version of the Energy Star Residential New Construction Program or Zero Energy Ready Homes program.

The second pillar, zero on-site emissions from energy use, involves ensuring that direct greenhouse gas emissions from energy use equal zero, the document says. However, emergency backup generators, which need to be used when grid power is unavailable, are exempt from this requirement, according to the document. 

The third pillar of the definition involves ensuring that all energy consumed by the building is clean energy obtained through any combination of on- and off-site sources, as long as GHG emissions from that source equal zero. If the building obtains heating or cooling from a district energy system, for example, that district energy must be generated from clean sources, the DOE says. It also recommends maximizing on-site clean energy before procuring off-site clean energy. 

ASHRAE has commended the release of the national definition ’s part 1. "ASHRAE is pleased to be recognized and have our referenced standards acknowledged as guiding tools in this significant milestone to combat climate change by decarbonizing the built environment," ASHRAE President Ginger Scoggins said in a statement Thursday. 

“The Biden Administration, perhaps more than any previous administration, recognizes the enormous role that buildings play in our lives and our environment.” Peter Templeton, president and CEO of the U.S. Green Building Council, said in another statement Thursday .

“This is the future of buildings, and the definition will be an important tool for establishing a common understanding of what it really means to be a zero operating emissions building,” Templeton said. “ As financial institutions, investors, and insurers grapple with climate risks, we see the baseline established by this definition as key to evolving market expectations.”  

Recommended Reading

• High-priority local actions in Biden’s new plan to slash building GHG emissions By Ysabelle Kempe • April 3, 2024
• To be truly net-zero, buildings must buy 100% renewable energy, global council says By Nish Amarnath • Dec. 18, 2023
• Biden administration will define zero emissions for buildings By Nish Amarnath • Oct. 2, 2023

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REIT PLR addresses the definition of “health care facility” for an independent living community

What happened?

In Private Letter Ruling 202415001 (PLR) the IRS determined that certain independent living communities (ILCs) owned by a real estate investment trust (REIT) did not have a health care focus and, therefore, were not health care facilities under the REIT rules. The IRS held that the mere presence of unrelated commercial tenants who provide health and personal care services that were available to both the residents of the ILCs and the general public did not cause the ILCs to have a health care focus.

With respect to another ILC that the REIT owned, which was registered as a regulated community by the relevant state regulatory body and was required to comply with state health care regulations, the IRS ruled that that this ILC was a “congregate care facility” and, thus, a “qualified health care property” (QHCP) under the REIT rules.

Why is it relevant?

The IRS continues to issue rulings that, in the absence of features at a property that indicate a focus on the health and well-being of its residents, an ILC will not be considered a congregate health care facility or any other type of facility that qualifies as a “health care facility” under the REIT provisions.

Action items to consider

REITs that operate or plan to operate an ILC may want to consider seeking guidance from the IRS or consult their tax advisors to determine whether the ILC may qualify as a health care facility under the REIT rules, which would require specific structuring considerations for REITs.

REIT background

A REIT must meet certain requirements regarding the income it receives (the REIT Income Tests) and the assets it holds.

Rent received from related parties is not qualifying income for purposes of the REIT Income Tests unless it satisfies certain specific exceptions. A related party is any tenant where the REIT owns 10% or more of the voting power or value of the ownership interests of the tenant. One such exception is that a REIT may lease a health care facility or a lodging facility to a taxable REIT subsidiary (TRS) if the facility is a qualified health care property or a qualified lodging facility and the TRS hires an eligible independent contractor (EIK) to operate the facility. A TRS is a corporation (other than a REIT) in which a REIT, directly or indirectly, owns stock if (1) a joint election is made by the REIT and the TRS for the entity to be treated as a TRS of the REIT and (2) the entity does not operate or manage a health care facility or lodging facility.

A QHCP is any real property and any personal property incident to such real property that is a “health care facility” or is necessary or incidental to the use of a “health care facility.

A health care facility is any hospital, nursing facility, assisted living facility, congregate care facility, qualified continuing care facility, or other licensed facility that extends medical or nursing or ancillary services to patients and which, immediately prior to the termination, expiration, default, or breach of the lease of or the mortgage secured by the facility, was operated by a provider of such services that was eligible for participation in the Medicare program with respect to such facility.

PLR facts and analysis

The REIT in the PLR owned a diversified portfolio of health care-related properties, including age-restricted ILCs. The ILCs included: (1) communities leased to a TRS and operated by EIKs (Leased Communities); (2) communities managed by a TRS and sub-managed by EIKs (Managed Communities); and (3) property (Property). The REIT treated the Leased Communities as QHCPs. The REIT intended to convert the Leased Communities into Managed Communities, at which point health care or personal care services no longer would be provided at the Leased Communities.

Managed Communities

The Managed Communities provided amenities such as common dining areas, activity rooms, and community grounds, as well as common bathrooms and hallways equipped with handrails. The Managed Communities were not licensed under state or local law as facilities licensed to extend medical or nursing or ancillary services to patients.

The lease agreements with the residents of the Managed Communities (Resident Agreements) required the residents to pay a fixed monthly rent for a specified term. The Resident Agreements did not require an initial health screening and did not include any health care services provided by the Managed Communities.

The staff at the Managed Communities (Community Staff) were not healthcare professionals and did not monitor the residents’ health and medical needs. In addition, the Community Staff did not assist residents with basic living activities (e.g., dressing, toileting, and bathing). The Community Staff did, however, provide assistance in calling 911 and obtaining emergency medical services, contact family when needed, and could provide assistance to first responders as well as first aid. They also could offer information to residents through pamphlets, brochures, or websites.

The Managed Communities offered a host of services to their residents (Resident Services) as part of their rent. The taxpayer represented that the provision of the Resident Services was primarily for the residents’ living convenience and social purposes. The taxpayer further represented that the Resident Services were customary for similar age-restricted, non-health care ILCs in the geographic markets in which the Managed Communities were located. These services included:

• Meals provided in a common dining area;
• Transportation to and from local destinations and group activities;
• Social, cultural, fitness, and worship activities;
• Emergency call pendants that connect to third-party care providers, family, or emergency services;
• Light housekeeping, including linen service;
• Containers to safely dispose of medical instruments; and
• Age-appropriate activities (e.g., exercise classes and programs about physical, social, and mental wellness).

The IRS held that the Managed Communities did not meet the definition of “health care facility” under Section 856(e)(6)(D)(ii). The IRS held that while there may be an overlap between the services found in congregate care facilities and those offered by the Managed Communities, the focus of the services and amenities in the Managed Communities was not the health and well-being of the residents but rather the residents’ living convenience and the provision of a social living environment. The IRS noted that the Managed Communities lacked medical personnel and that the Resident Agreements stipulated that the residents be capable of taking care of their own personal and health needs. Therefore, the IRS concluded, the Managed Communities were not intended to be relied on to provide for health care needs.

Observation : The IRS continues to issue rulings that in the absence of factors that indicate a focus on the health and well-being of its residents, an ILC will not be considered a congregate health care facility or any other type of facility that qualifies as a “health care facility.” Provision of services that are primarily for the residents’ living convenience and their social well-being does not appear to suffice for this purpose .

Commercial Tenants

Some of the Managed Communities also leased space to commercial tenants (Commercial Tenants) that typically provided services such as personal care (e.g., beauty salons) and in-home health care that were open to the general public. The REIT made several representations, including that:

• The REIT did not proactively seek Commercial Tenants.
• The Commercial Tenants were not required to provide their services exclusively to the residents, and the space leased to a Commercial Tenant was accessible to all Commercial Tenant’s customers, including non-residents.
• The monthly rent amount under the lease agreements with the Commercial Tenants (Commercial Leases) was consistent with the fair market value rent of the premises, was not based on the volume or value of any referrals, and the rent paid by the Commercial Tenants was insignificant compared to the aggregate rent received from the residents and the Commercial Tenants.
• The Commercial Leases did not provide for any profit shares, kickbacks, or access fees and prohibited any referral fees.
• The Managed Communities did not make any representation to the residents that in-home health and personal care providers would be among the businesses operated by the Commercial Tenants, and they did not influence the residents to choose any in-home services or to select a particular service provider.
• The REIT did not have access to the Commercial Tenant’s customer base, and it did not engage in any marketing activities related to the business of the Commercial Tenants.
• The Managed Communities did not manage, control, or supervise the services provided by the Commercial Tenants.
• Most Commercial Leases provided that neither the Commercial Tenants nor any of their employees were employees of the Managed Communities.
• The Commercial Tenants had to comply with all applicable licensing laws, maintain their own liability insurance, and follow the Managed Communities’ code of conduct, including a prohibition on soliciting residents’ business door-to-door or in common areas.

The IRS held that the mere presence of the Commercial Tenants that provide in-home health care and personal care services did not cause the Managed Communities to be treated as furnishing services and amenities with a health care focus. The IRS noted that while the Commercial Tenants may provide in-home health care, neither the REIT nor the Managed Communities controlled, supervised, or managed the Commercial Tenants’ business in the provision of health or personal care services. The IRS noted that while the residents of the Managed Communities were more likely to procure services from the Commercial Tenants as opposed to the general public, the space leased to the Commercial Tenants was equally accessible to both. The IRS also noted that there were no other amounts exchanged between the REIT and the Commercial Tenants other than the rent payments.

Observation : The IRS’s holding that the presence of the Commercial Tenants did not cause the Managed Communities to be treated as furnishing services and amenities with a health care focus is consistent with earlier PLRs analyzing the definition of health care facilities. Although the residents of the Managed Communities may have been the most significant customers of the Commercial Tenants, the IRS’s analysis of whether the Managed Communities were health care-focused appears to be based on whether the Managed Communities or the REIT had significant control, influence, supervision, or management of the Commercial Tenants’ business operations. This analysis implies that neither the Managed Communities nor the REIT were viewed by the IRS as participating in the business operations of the Commercial Tenants.

Observation : While this PLR and earlier PLRs discussed the presence of commercial tenants at non-health care ILCs, the IRS has not yet issued any PLRs where commercial tenants were present at ILCs that constituted QHCPs. This raises the issue of whether the IRS would view the commercial space as part of the ILC such that a TRS could not manage or operate the commercial space.

The Property provided many of the Resident Services offered by the Managed Communities to their residents in addition to health care services. The Property was registered as a regulated community by the relevant state regulatory body and the state regulations required it to conduct an initial health screening for each resident before move-in and yearly thereafter. The regulations also required the Property to have a formal agreement with at least one licensed home health care provider (Property Licensed Provider) whose services were required to be available to the residents. Nevertheless, the residents were free to choose any provider. If residents chose health care services from a Property Licensed Provider, such services were arranged by the management of Property.

The IRS determined that the Property met the definition of “congregate care facility” and, therefore, constituted a QHCP. The IRS noted in its analysis that the Property had an emphasis on the health and well-being of its residents because the Property had to comply with state health care regulations to provide initial and periodic health screenings and was active in the management in procuring health care services when required by residents pursuant to a written agreement with a licensed health care provider.

Observation : The IRS’s holding that the Property met the definition of a “congregate care facility” was similar to its holding in earlier PLRs where such facilities had an emphasis on the health and well-being of the residents. The discussion in the PLR of features that differentiate an ILC that constitutes a “congregate care facility” from one that is a non-health care ILC helps clarify the line between a health care facility and a non-health care facility in the ILC context. If a facility is a congregate care facility, a REIT may not engage its TRS to operate or manage the facility, but the REIT can lease the facility to a TRS if the TRS engages an EIK to operate and manage the facility on behalf of the TRS.

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Cubs recall OF Pete Crow-Armstrong after he heats up during minor league assignment

Chicago Cubs’ Pete Crow-Armstrong rounds the bases after hitting a triple in the eighth inning of a baseball game against the Atlanta Braves Wednesday, May 15, 2024, in Atlanta. (AP Photo/John Bazemore)

Chicago Cubs’ Pete Crow-Armstrong hops back to first base after hitting a single during the third inning of the team’s baseball game against the San Diego Padres, Tuesday, May 7, 2024, in Chicago. (AP Photo/Erin Hooley)

Chicago Cubs’ Pete Crow-Armstrong grounds out but scores a run during the second inning of a baseball game against the New York Mets at Citi Field, Thursday, May 2, 2024, in New York. (AP Photo/Seth Wenig)

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MILWAUKEE (AP) — Chicago Cubs outfielder Pete Crow-Armstrong is back in the majors after going on a tear during a brief minor league assignment.

The Cubs announced before their Thursday afternoon game with the Milwaukee Brewers that they had recalled Crow-Armstrong and optioned infielder Luis Vázquez to Triple-A Iowa.

Crow-Armstrong, 22, is regarded as an outstanding defender and one of the Cubs’ top prospects. He has batted .236 with a .295 on-base percentage, one homer, nine RBIs and five steals in 23 games with Chicago this season.

After getting sent to the minors, Crow-Armstrong heated up at Iowa. He was named the International League player of the week for the period of May 21-26 after going 12 of 27 with three homers, 10 runs, four doubles, seven RBIs and five steals during a six-game series with Indianapolis.

“He certainly had a good 10-game stretch, 10-day stretch,” Cubs manager Craig Counsell said.

For the season, Crow-Armstrong has batted .255 with a .299 on-base percentage, five homers, 14 RBIs and 10 steals in 26 games with Iowa.

Crow-Armstrong was in the Cubs’ starting lineup batting eighth and playing center field Thursday. Counsell stopped short of committing to Crow-Armstrong as the Cubs’ primary center fielder and noted that “I think Pete has to earn playing time.”

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Counsell said Crow-Armstrong’s return meant that Cody Bellinger could play some different positions at times. Bellinger made his sixth start at DH on Thursday. Bellinger also has started 35 games at center field and one each at right field and first base this year.

AP MLB: https://apnews.com/hub/MLB

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What Is Machine Learning? Definition, Types, and Examples

Machine learning is a common type of artificial intelligence. Learn more about this exciting technology, how it works, and the major types powering the services and applications we rely on every day.

Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence that uses algorithms trained on data sets to create models that enable machines to perform tasks that would otherwise only be possible for humans, such as categorizing images, analyzing data, or predicting price fluctuations.

Today, machine learning is one of the most common forms of artificial intelligence and often powers many of the digital goods and services we use every day. 

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Machine learning definition 

Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence (AI) that uses algorithms trained on data sets to create self-learning models that are capable of predicting outcomes and classifying information without human intervention. Machine learning is used today for a wide range of commercial purposes, including suggesting products to consumers based on their past purchases, predicting stock market fluctuations, and translating text from one language to another. 

In common usage, the terms “machine learning” and “artificial intelligence” are often used interchangeably with one another due to the prevalence of machine learning for AI purposes in the world today. But, the two terms are meaningfully distinct. While AI refers to the general attempt to create machines capable of human-like cognitive abilities, machine learning specifically refers to the use of algorithms and data sets to do so.

Read more: Machine Learning vs. AI: Differences, Uses, and Benefits

Examples and use cases

Machine learning is typically the most mainstream type of AI technology in use around the world today. Some of the most common examples of machine learning that you may have interacted with in your day-to-day life include:

Recommendation engines that suggest products, songs, or television shows to you, such as those found on Amazon, Spotify, or Netflix. 

Speech recognition software that allows you to convert voice memos into text.

A bank’s fraud detection services automatically flag suspicious transactions. 

Self-driving cars and driver assistance features, such as blind-spot detection and automatic stopping, improve overall vehicle safety. 

Learn more about the real-world applications of machine learning in this lecture from Stanford and DeepLearning.AI's Machine Learning Specialization :

Read more: 9 Real-Life Machine Learning Examples

How does machine learning work? 

Machine learning is both simple and complex. 

At its core, the method simply uses algorithms – essentially lists of rules – adjusted and refined using past data sets to make predictions and categorizations when confronted with new data. For example, a machine learning algorithm may be “trained” on a data set consisting of thousands of images of flowers that are labeled with each of their different flower types so that it can then correctly identify a flower in a new photograph based on the differentiating characteristics it learned from other pictures.  

To ensure such algorithms work effectively, however, they must typically be refined many times until they accumulate a comprehensive list of instructions that allow them to function correctly. Algorithms that have been trained sufficiently eventually become “ machine learning models ,” which are essentially algorithms that have been trained to perform specific tasks like sorting images, predicting housing prices, or making chess moves. In some cases, algorithms are layered on top of each other to create complex networks that allow them to do increasingly complex, nuanced tasks like generating text and powering chatbots via a method known as “ deep learning .”

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Machine learning vs. deep learning 

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1. Supervised machine learning 

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Supervised machine learning is often used to create machine learning models used for prediction and classification purposes. 

2. Unsupervised machine learning 

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3. Semi-supervised machine learning 

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Learn more with Coursera 

AI and machine learning are quickly changing how we live and work in the world today. As a result, whether you’re looking to pursue a career in artificial intelligence or are simply interested in learning more about the field, you may benefit from taking a flexible, cost-effective machine learning course on Coursera. 

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.