write numbers in essays

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Writing Numbers

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Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for numbers that are three or more words long. Note: If you are using a specific citation style, such as MLA or APA , consult the style manual for specific formatting instructions.

Here are some examples of specific situations:

Days and Years

Time of Day

Identification Numbers

Page and Division of Books and Plays

Decimals and Percentages

Large Round Numbers

Notes on Usage

Repeat numbers in commercial writing.

Use numerals in legal writing.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

Write out numbers beginning sentences.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.

When to Spell Out Numbers in Writing: Guide and Examples

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The Rules for Writing Numbers in English 

You may have noticed a theme when it comes to the English language: most rules are not standardized. This (somewhat frustrating) fact is especially true when it comes to spelling out numbers. Should you write them out in words or leave them as numerals? To write numbers properly, you will also need to identify potential differences between major style guides (such as MLA , APA , and Chicago , to name a few) because these guides often outline different rules for using numbers in writing.

To make it easier, let's use an example. Say you're working on a paper evaluating the importance of the local public library in your community. The document will make use of small numbers, large numbers, decades, and statistics. Each type of number may follow a different rule.

Thankfully, when using numbers in writing, you can count on a few conventions that apply to most situations; just be sure to consult your specific style guide if one has been assigned. If you don't have time to review each number yourself, a professional editor or proofreader can ensure that your numbers are written correctly.

Writing Small and Large Numbers

A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals.

For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library," you would write, "It cost $10,416 to renovate the local library."

The reason for this is relatively intuitive. Writing out large numbers not only wastes space but could also be a major distraction to your readers.

Beginning a Sentence with a Number

Here is a rule that you can truly rely on: always spell out numbers when they begin a sentence, no matter how large or small they may be.

Incorrect: 15 new fiction novels were on display.

Correct: Fifteen new fiction novels were on display.

If the number is large and you want to avoid writing it all out, rearrange the sentence so that the number no longer comes first.

Revised: There were 15 new fiction novels on display.

Whole Numbers vs. Decimals

Another important factor to consider is whether you are working with a whole number or a decimal. Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.

To revisit our library example, perhaps circulation statistics improved in 2015. If a number falls in the range of one to ten and is not a whole number, it should be written as a numeral.

Incorrect: The circulation of library materials increased by four point five percent in 2015.

Correct: The circulation of library materials increased by 4.5% in 2015.

Paired Numbers (Two Numbers in a Row)

When two numbers come next to each other in a sentence, be sure to spell out one of these numbers. The main purpose of this rule is to avoid confusing the reader.

Incorrect: There were 12 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were 12 four-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were twelve 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Decades and Centuries

Decades or centuries are usually spelled out, especially if the writing is formal.

Incorrect: The library was built in the '50s.

Correct: The library was built in the fifties.

If you are referring to a specific year (e.g., 1955), use the numeral.

Consistency Is Key When Using Numbers in Your Writing

Always strive for consistency, even if it overrides a previous rule. For example, if your document uses numbers frequently, it is more appropriate for all numbers to remain as numerals to ensure that usage is uniform throughout. Similarly, if a single sentence combines small and large numbers, make sure that all the numbers are either spelled out or written as numerals.

Incorrect: The library acquired five new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Correct: The library acquired 5 new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Style Guides May Have Slightly Different Rules for Writing Numbers in Words

Let's complicate things a bit, shall we?

If your work must follow the rules of a specific style guide, understand that various guides all have rules for spelling out numbers that may differ slightly from the rules listed above. For example, MLA style indicates that writers may spell out numbers if they are not used too frequently in the document and can be represented with one or two words (e.g., twenty-four, one hundred, three thousand ). APA style advises that common fractions (e.g., two-thirds ) be expressed as words. A number of specific rules for spelling out numbers are outlined in Section 9.1 of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Your ultimate authority will always be a style guide, but in the absence of one, following the rules outlined above will help you stay consistent in your use of numbers in writing.

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Writing Numbers: How to Write Numbers Correctly (Examples)

Are you confused about how to write numbers correctly in your writing? Should you spell them out or use numerals? After reading this article, you'll wonder no more.

You have several options when writing numbers: spell them out or use digits. Which one you go for will depend on common number writing conventions and the style guide you're using.

This article is part of our free online Grammar Book .

What Are the Different Types of Numbers?

Before diving in, let's review the different kinds of numbers. The two main types are cardinal and ordinal numbers.

• Cardinal numbers are what you think of when you think of numbers: one, two, three, etc. They tell you how many of something there is, and you use them for counting. 

Here are some examples of sentences that use cardinal numbers:

I have one dog and three cats. The concert was attended by over a thousand people. There were nine of us in the office this morning. 

• Ordinal numbers tell you what order things are in or their rank or position: first, second, third, etc . As the word 'ordinal' suggests, ordinal numbers allow you to put things in order.

Here are some examples of sentences that use ordinal numbers:

She came second in the competition.  I'm the third tallest girl in my class. Our offices are on the sixteenth floor.

There are also other types of numerals, such as nominal, iterative, multiplicative, and many more.

How to Write Numbers Correctly

Now that we've established what numbers are and the different types, let's learn how to write them.

You can either spell out a number as such:

Or you can write it in numerals , as such:

This can be a little tricky because different style guides follow different rules. Your best bet is always to consult your chosen style guide if you have one. If you don't , this article will provide some guidance in the form of commonly used conventions for writing numbers.

I'll use the words 'numeral, ' 'Arabic numbers,' 'digits,' and 'figures' interchangeably to refer to numbers ('1') and the terms 'spell out' and 'letters' to refer to words written out ('one').

Writing Cardinal Numbers

I'll start by outlining standard practice for cardinal numbers. Again, these are just general guidelines that are most commonly agreed upon, and you can feel free to deviate from these. The key is to remain consistent: pick a style and stick with it.

Spell the First Word

Firstly, it's standard practice to spell out a number if it's the first word in the sentence , which trumps any other rule. So, for example, even though dates are usually written in numerals, if it's the first word in the sentence, you should spell it out.

If you'd prefer to write it in numerals for better aesthetic and readability, you can always rephrase your sentence so the date isn't the first word.

For example:

Nineteen-ninety nine was a big year for us. A big year for us was 1999.

Small and Large Numbers

A good rule of thumb is to spell out numbers zero through nine and use numerals from there onwards. However, some style guides disagree with this, such as the Chicago Manual of Style, which suggests that you spell out the numbers zero through one hundred and use numbers from 101 onwards.

Just pick the rule that makes the most sense to you!

Years, Decades, and Centuries

Generally, it's best to write specific years in Arabic numerals.

I was born in 1972.

Spell out decades in formal writing, but know that it's also safe to write them in numerals. Just remember there's no apostrophe before the 's.'

I love the fashion in the sixties. I love the fashion in the 60s. I love the fashion in the 1960s.

The same rule applies to centuries: spell it out in formal writing, but numerals are acceptable the rest of the time.

This is the twenty-first century, you know . This is the 21st century, you know. 

Percentages

Write percentages in figures followed by the percent sign.

I'm about 80% certain this deal isn't going to go through .

Units of Measurement

Write units of measurement in figures:

I weigh 65kg. The park is 100m to the right. He ran the race in 3h45mn.

Write money in figures, too:

I've only got $1 to my name. The house is about 10 grand over my budget. You're 5 cents short.

Fractions and Decimals

Fractions aren't technically cardinal numbers, but we use a mixture of cardinal and ordinal numbers to spell them out. Depending on the context, they can be written in numerals or letters. Usually, if it's a scientific or mathematical text, the fraction will be written in figures, but if it's any other kind of text (such as an essay discussing research findings,  you'll most likely want to spell it out.

About one-fifth of the class is behind in Mathematics. 

Write decimals using numerals. If you have to spell it out, round it up to the closest number:

Unless it is half, then you can write:

one and a half.

Multiple Numbers in a Sentence

If your sentence has two numbers in a row, you should use different formats for each one so they don't get mixed up.

There are five 4-year olds in my class.

If a sentence has multiple numbers and one of them requires numerals, then use numerals for all of them, even those under 10.

The farm has 3 goats, 11 cows, 5 horses and 8 pigs.

Using Hyphens in Numbers

Sometimes when spelling out numbers, you'll need to use a hyphen . We use them to connect two-word numbers. Hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine.

There are one thousand, three hundred and fifty-six children that go to this high school .

Als,o hyphenate fractions:

About two-thirds of the population have tried meditation at least once.

Writing Ordinal Numbers

Now we've covered how to write cardinal numbers, let's learn how to write ordinal numbers. First of all, you might want to know how to make them.

For the most part, you create ordinal numbers by adding 'th' to cardinal numbers.

That's with the exception of the following:

Other than those, it's pretty smooth sailing:

• fifteenth, and so on.

To write them in numerals, it's even easier: you add the last two letters of the written number to the end of the cardinal number:

• Fir st  → 1st
• Seco nd → 2nd
• Thi rd → 3rd
• Four th → 4th
• Fif th → 5th

So what are ordinal numbers used for? The answer is they are pretty much used for any kind of positioning or ranking. That could include floors of a building, dates, fractions, centuries, positions in line,e or lists.

When should you spell vs use numerals with ordinals? The answer is the same as with cardinal numbers: spell them out from 'first' to 'ninth,' and then after that, use numerals.

Concluding Thoughts

That concludes this article on writing numbers correctly. I hope you now feel more confident using numbers in your writing.

Let's summarize what we've learned:

• The two main types of numbers are cardinal and ordinal.
• You can either spell out or use numerals when writing numbers.
• It's generally agreed upon that you should spell out numbers zero through nine and then switch to digits.
• Different style guides have different rules.
• Stay consistent with the rules you decide to follow.

If you enjoyed this article, check out our Grammar Book , a free online database of articles to help you with your writing, just like this one. Check it out!

Learn More:

• Ellipses: When to Use Ellipses in Writing (Examples)
• ‘Ninty’ or ‘Ninety’: How to Spell the Number ‘90’ Correctly
• Simple Sentence: What Is a Simple Sentence? Definition and Examples
• Sentence Fragments: What Are Sentence Fragments? Definition and Examples
• Periods: When to Use Periods in Writing (Examples)
• Question Marks: When to Use Question Marks in Writing (Examples)
• Exclamation Points: When to Use Exclamation Points in Writing (Examples)
• Semicolons: When to Use Semicolons in Writing (Examples)
• Apostrophes: When to Use Apostrophes in Writing (Examples)
• Parentheses: When to Use Parentheses in Writing (Examples)
• Brackets: When to Use Brackets in Writing (Examples)
• Slash: When to Use Slash in Writing (Examples)
• Italics and Underlining: When to Use Italics and Underlining in Writing (Examples)
• ‘Holliday’ or ‘Holiday’: How to Spell ‘Holiday’ Correctly
• ‘Colum’ or ‘Column’: How to Spell ‘Column’ Correctly

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Writing numbers When to use words and when to use numerals

It can be difficult to know how to write numbers in academic writing (e.g. five or 5 , 1 million or 1,000,000 ). This section gives some guidelines on when to use words to write numbers, and when to use numerals . There are also some exceptions to the rule which are considered, i.e. times when you might expect to use words but should instead use numerals. There is also a checklist at the end, that you can use to check the use of numbers in your own writing.

When to use words

In general, words should be used for zero to ten , and numerals used from 11 onwards. The same rule should be applied to ordinal numbers, i.e. use words for first, second up to tenth, and numbers plus 'th' (or 'st') from 11th onwards. However, it is always best to check what the accepted practice is at your university (or in your department/on your course), and remember that some common referencing systems have their own, different requirements, as follows.

• MLA . Use words if the number can be written using one or two words (e.g. three , twenty-seven ).
• APA . Use words for numbers zero to nine.
• Chicago . Use words for numbers zero to one hundred.

Before looking at when to use numerals (which is almost all other situations, see next), it is useful to look at important exceptions.

(1) When the number begins a sentence , you should use words , whatever the size of the number (though if possible, rewrite the sentence so the number is not at the beginning).

• Fifty respondents agreed with the statement.
• There were 50 respondents who agreed with the statement. [ rewritten sentence ]
• 50 respondents agreed with the statement.

(2) When expressing part of a very large round number , e.g. million, billion, you should use words for that large number part (it is common to use abbreviations m for million and bn billion ).

• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7 billion people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7bn people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7,000,000,000 people.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70 million.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70,000,000.

Conversely, numerals should be used rather than words, whatever the size of the number, when large and small numbers are combined , since this makes comparisons easier.

• There were 2 respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.
• There were two respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.

When to use numerals

Numerals are used for almost all other situations. These include the following.

• Measurements (e.g. 6 kg, 3 cm, 10 min, 2 hr, 3 days, 6 years, 5 decades )
• Currency (e.g. $10, £50, £60 billion )
• Statistical data , including survey data (e.g. A survey of participants revealed that 4 out of 5 students worked. )
• Mathematical functions (e.g. v 2 = u 2 + 2as )
• Decimals (e.g. 2.5, 4.54 )
• Percentages (e.g. 75% )
• Ratios (e.g. 3:1 )
• Percentiles/quartiles (e.g. the 95th percentile, the 1st quartile )
• Times (e.g. 12.30 a.m., 6 p.m., 16:00 )
• Dates (e.g. Wednesday 25 December 2019 )
• Scores/points on a scale (e.g. This item scored 5 on a 9-point scale )

Other important points

The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers.

• Consistency. You should be consistent in how you write numbers; for example, if write a figure like 7bn in one place, do not write a figure like 5 billion in another.
• Use of commas. When giving numerals of 1,000 or larger, use commas for each thousand, e.g. 5,500, 8,326,500 .
• Use of hyphens. When displaying a range, use a hyphen, with no space, e.g. 30%–50%
• Expressing fractions. Fractions can be written either as numerals e.g. 2/3 or words e.g. two-thirds . If using words, use a hyphen.

American Psychological Association (2019a) Numbers Expressed in Words . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/words (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

American Psychological Association (2019b) Numbers Expressed in Numerals . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/numerals (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

Harvard Wiki (2019) Numbers . Available at: https://wiki.harvard.edu/confluence/display/HSG/Numbers . (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Bristol (2015) Using numbers . Available at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_33.htm (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of New England (nd) Numbers in academic writing . Available at: https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/miscellaneous/numbers/ (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Oxford (2015) Style Guide . Available at: https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

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Below is a checklist for using numbers in academic writing. Use it to check your writing, or as a peer to help.

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 16 January 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

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Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

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How to Write Numbers in Words

Last Updated: September 13, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Joseph Quinones . Joseph Quinones is a High School Physics Teacher working at South Bronx Community Charter High School. Joseph specializes in astronomy and astrophysics and is interested in science education and science outreach, currently practicing ways to make physics accessible to more students with the goal of bringing more students of color into the STEM fields. He has experience working on Astrophysics research projects at the Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Joseph recieved his Bachelor's degree in Physics from Lehman College and his Masters in Physics Education from City College of New York (CCNY). He is also a member of a network called New York City Men Teach. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,133,002 times.

Using words to write short numbers makes your writing look clean and classy. In handwriting , words are easy to read and hard to mistake for each other. While you may not need to write longer numbers as words that much, it's still helpful practice. This wikiHow will explain how you can write numbers as words.

Writing 1 to 999

• 11 = eleven
• 12 = twelve
• 13 = thirteen
• 14 = fourteen
• 15 = fifteen
• 16 = sixteen
• 17 = seventeen
• 18 = eighteen
• 19 = nineteen

• 20 = twenty
• 30 = thirty
• 70 = seventy
• 80 = eighty
• 90 = ninety

• 42 is written with two numbers: 4 2.
• 2 is in the ones place, so this just equals 2. Write this as two .
• 4 is in the tens place, so this is actually 40. Write this as forty .
• Write the two parts together: forty-two . Don't forget the - sign between them.

• 100 = one hundred
• 200 = two hundred
• 300 = three hundred (and so on)

• 120 = one hundred twenty
• 405 = four hundred five
• 556 = five hundred fifty-six
• 999 = nine hundred ninety-nine

• 21 = twenty-one
• 37 = thirty-seven
• 49 = forty-nine
• 255 = two hundred fifty-five
• 876 = eight hundred seventy-six

Writing Long Numbers

• 1 → the ones place.
• 1 0 → the tens place.
• 1 00 → the hundreds place.
• 1 ,000 → the thousands place.
• 1 0,000 → the ten thousands place.
• 1 00,000 → the hundred thousands place.
• 1 000,000 → the millions place.
• 1 0,000,000 → the ten millions place.
• 1 00,000,000 → the hundred millions place.

• For example, turn 458735 into 458,735.
• Write 1510800 as 1,510,800.
• You can use a period instead if that's how people in your country write numbers.

• 5,467,3 50 looks hard, but don't worry. Start with just the 50 at the end. Write this as fifty .

• In 5,467, 3 50, the 3 is the hundreds place. Write this as ' three hundred .
• Now we have ' three hundred fifty .

• In 5, 467 ,350, the 467 is the thousands chunk.
• Write the 4 as four hundred.
• Write the 67 as sixty-seven.
• Write the whole chunk as four hundred sixty-seven thousand .
• Now we have four hundred sixty-seven thousand, three hundred fifty .

• In 5 ,467,350, we only have a 5 in the millions place.
• Write this as five million .
• Finish writing the number: five million, four hundred sixty-seven thousand, three hundred fifty.

Writing Numbers Practice and Answers

Community Q&A

• You don't need to write "and" in the middle of the number. Write "one hundred three," not "one hundred and three." Thanks Helpful 29 Not Helpful 9
• It is standard practice to always write numbers under 11, such as three and seven, in words in essays, articles, correspondence etc. and use figures for higher number such as 35 and 14,500. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 3
• If the commas are confusing, you can write the number with gaps instead. For instance, turn 20000000 as 20 000 000. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 5

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Expert Interview

Thanks for reading our article! If you’d like to learn more about physics, check out our in-depth interview with Joseph Quinones .

• ↑ https://www.cuemath.com/numbers/number-names-1-to-100/
• ↑ https://www.cuemath.com/numbers/number-names-1-to-1000/
• ↑ https://content.nroc.org/DevelopmentalMath/COURSE_TEXT_RESOURCE/U01_L1_T1_text_final.html
• ↑ https://www.grammarbook.com/numbers/numbers.asp

About This Article

To write numbers in words, start by learning to write the numbers one through nine. Once you know those words, learn the words for the numbers ten through nineteen. Then, count in tens from twenty to ninety. From there, you can write any number from one to one hundred by combining the words you've learned! To count by hundreds, write the number as usual, add the word "hundred," then write the rest of the number. For tips on writing numbers in the thousands and higher, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write Numbers in English Correctly: Main Rules

We use numbers every day without even thinking about them – in our calendars, recipes, to-do lists, etc. Let's figure out how to use them in writing correctly.

Cardinal Numbers

Ordinal numbers, fractions and decimals, the bottom line.

Most people would agree that writing numbers is not the most exciting topic in the world. However, it is an important skill to have, especially for students. Just remember to stick to a specific style guide if you have one.

Whether you’re only at the beginning of your English learning journey or you work in an English-speaking environment, learning how to use English numbers correctly will allow you to improve your skills. And, while there are many guidelines for how to properly spell numbers in spoken English, there are also several rules for writing them correctly.

In the English language, we typically write numbers as words and there are specific rules outlined for doing so. In this brief, we will explore the different ways to write cardinal and ordinal numbers and when to use each one along with punctuation marks needed. We will also look at fractions and decimals and provide some examples for clarification. Let’s start!

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Cardinal numbers are the numbers that we use to count objects, people, animals, etc. Cardinal numbers represent a quantity . When writing cardinal numbers , we can either write them out as words or use digits – numerals from 0 to 9.

When it comes to using cardinal numbers in writing, we usually spell out numbers from 1 to 9 , i.e., write them as words. For example:

• I have one sister.
• There are five apples in the fridge.

Although The Chicago Manual of Style recommends spelling out numbers zero through one hundred, this style can make your writing unnecessarily complicated and takes out too much space. As such, you should use numerals to express large numbers (i.e., above nine or ten – depending on the style guide). For example:

• There are 12 people in my team.
• The temperature today is higher than 30 degrees Celsius!

When it comes to fractions , you should spell them out in formal writing . In casual texts, this is a matter of preference.

• You have completed just one quarter of the book.
• Take a half gallon of milk // Take 1/2 gallon of milk.

Another important thing to note is that currency symbols , such as a dollar sign, should be placed in front of the number in writing. In English, we also use commas with figures of four or more digits – you should place a comma after every three digits . For example:

• He won $10,000 in the lottery.

We also use cardinal numbers to write precise time in English, such as 19:23. Although time can be expressed in various formats, you may want to stick to a 24-hour system to avoid misunderstandings and confusing AM and PM. We use numerals for writing time as well as phone numbers.

We use a hyphen (-) to connect two-word numbers in writing. You should hyphenate all compound numbers from twenty-one through ninety-nine. For example:

• My sister is twenty-seven years old.
• This coat costs ninety-eight dollars and ninety-nine cents.
• I have finished twenty-five percent of this task.

If the sentence begins with a number, we always spell out numbers, no matter how small or large they are. For example:

• Two hundred and fifty babies are born every minute.
• Forty-seven minutes are left.

If you want to avoid spelling out numbers that have three or more digits, you can try and rearrange the sentence so the number doesn’t come first. You could write it like this:

• There are 250 babies born every minute.
• There are 47 minutes left.

How to Write Years and Decades

There are different ways to express decades in writing. For example, the shortest format to write decades is using two-digit numbers with an apostrophe before them and an s after them, e.g., ‘60s . You can also write an entire decade in numerals with an s after it – the 1960s .

However, when in doubt, it’s better to write them out – the sixties. Longform numbers tend to be the most suitable format for formal writing.

If you are referring to a specific year, use Arabic numerals, e.g., 1969 . Sometimes, Roman numerals are also suitable – for example, in books (to number the chapters), titles (like Elizabeth II), or for the copyright date on films, television programs, and videos.

Ordinal numbers are the numbers that we use to express order or rank in a sequence, e.g., first, second, third, etc. Ordinal numbers represent position . We also use ordinal numbers to write dates in English - for example, the 4th of July .

To write ordinal numbers in words, we add th to a cardinal number, e.g., seven th . However, there are several irregular ordinal numbers you need to memorize by heart:

• one - first
• two - second
• three - third
• five - fifth
• eight - eighth
• nine - ninth
• twelve - twelfth

To write ordinal numbers as numerals, we add the last two letters of the written number to it. Like this:

• fir st - 1st
• seco nd - 2nd
• thi rd - 3rd
• four th - 4th

When spelling out large numbers, we only change the last numeral to an ordinal number. For example:

• I was three hundred twenty- first in line to buy tickets for this concert.

We use fractions and decimals in the English language to indicate partial amounts of something.

You can create fractions of whole numbers using both cardinal and ordinal numbers. The numerator (the numeral above the line) is always a cardinal number while the denominator (the numeral below the line) is always an ordinal number. For example, fraction number ⅕ should be written out as one-fifth .

When a numerator is greater than one , we use the denominator in plural by adding an s - ⅔ should be written out as two-thirds .

Mixed fractions are often expressed in figures unless they begin a sentence. For example, both these examples will be correct:

• For this recipe, you need 1 ¾ cup of flour.
• Five and half hours of sleep isn’t enough for proper rest.

A decimal is a number that consists of a whole number and a fractional part separated by a decimal point, e.g., 1.275 . Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.

However, it’s not advised to use a decimal point or a dollar sign when writing out sums of less than a dollar. For example:

• I have only fifty cents left in my pocket.

Keep in mind that we use decimal points in decimal numbers, and decimal commas – to separate larger numbers.

As you can see, there are several rules you need to follow when writing numbers in English, but the great news is that the majority of these rules you already understand intuitively. As such, writing numbers shouldn’t be a problem for you.

However, the main rule is to choose a specific style guide and stay consistent with it throughout the whole text. You can choose from Chicago style , MLA style, APA style, or AP style, to name a few, and consult with them whenever you’re in doubt.

You should also consider downloading our Langster app and learn English with stories! This way, you’ll get even more examples of using numbers in daily contexts and pick up proper phrasing. Good luck!

Ellis is a seasoned polyglot and one of the creative minds behind Langster Blog, where she shares effective language learning strategies and insights from her own journey mastering the four languages. Ellis strives to empower learners globally to embrace new languages with confidence and curiosity. Off the blog, she immerses herself in exploring diverse cultures through cinema and contemporary fiction, further fueling her passion for language and connection.

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How to properly format numbers in academic essays – a comprehensive guide.

When writing academic essays, it is crucial to follow certain guidelines to ensure your work is clear, accurate, and professional. One area that often causes confusion is the use of numbers. Should you write numbers out in full or use numerals? Are there specific rules for when to use each format? In this article, we will explore the best practices for using numbers in academic writing to help you convey your ideas effectively.

One of the primary rules to keep in mind when using numbers in academic essays is consistency. Choose a style guide, such as APA or MLA, and stick to its guidelines throughout your paper. This will help maintain a uniform appearance and make your work easier to read. Additionally, consider the context in which you are using numbers. Are you discussing statistics, measurements, or dates? Each of these may require a different approach to ensure clarity and accuracy.

Another important aspect of using numbers in academic writing is knowing when to write them out in full and when to use numerals. In general, numbers zero to nine are typically written out in full (e.g., three, seven), while numerals are used for numbers 10 and above (e.g., 15, 42). However, there are exceptions to this rule, so be sure to consult your style guide for specific cases.

Importance of Using Numbers

Numbers play a crucial role in academic essays as they provide a concrete and quantitative basis for arguments and evidence. When used appropriately, numbers can add credibility and precision to your writing, making your arguments more convincing and compelling.

By including specific numerical data, such as statistics, percentages, or numerical examples, you can enhance the clarity and accuracy of your statements. Numbers can help quantify the magnitude of a problem, demonstrate trends over time, or compare different scenarios effectively.

Additionally, numbers can enhance the reader’s understanding of complex concepts and ideas by providing a clear and measurable context. They can also help you make your arguments more persuasive and impactful by presenting evidence in a concise and structured manner.

Overall, using numbers in academic essays is essential for presenting factual information, supporting your arguments with evidence, and making your writing more precise and effective. Properly integrating numbers into your writing can significantly strengthen your academic work and contribute to its overall quality.

Formatting Guidelines for Numbers

When writing academic essays, it is important to follow specific formatting guidelines for numbers to ensure clarity and consistency throughout your paper. Here are some key rules to keep in mind:

1. Spell out numbers one to nine: In general, spell out numbers from one to nine (e.g., “two apples”, “seven participants”) to improve readability and avoid confusion.

2. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above: Use numerals for numbers 10 and above (e.g., “12 years old”, “22 participants”) to maintain consistency in your writing.

3. Use numerals for measurements and percentages: Always use numerals for measurements (e.g., “5 meters”, “10 kilograms”) and percentages (e.g., “25%”) to provide accurate and precise information.

4. Use commas for numbers with four or more digits: Use commas to separate thousands, millions, etc., in numbers with four or more digits (e.g., 1,000, 10,000,000).

5. Be consistent in using numerical formats: Maintain consistency in how you present numbers within your essay. For instance, if you start a list with numerals, continue using numerals for the rest of the list.

Proper Use of Numerals

When writing an academic essay, it is important to know how to properly use numerals. Here are some guidelines to follow:

1. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above: When expressing numbers 10 and above, use numerals. For example, “There were 15 participants in the study.”

2. Spell out numbers below 10: For numbers below 10, spell them out. For example, “There were seven different hypotheses tested in the study.”

3. Use numerals for units of measurement and time: Use numerals when expressing units of measurement (5 grams) and time (6 hours).

4. Consistency is key: Be consistent in your use of numerals throughout the essay. If you start with numerals, continue to use numerals for similar types of information.

5. Follow style guidelines: Some academic disciplines have specific style guidelines for the use of numerals. Make sure to follow the guidelines provided by your institution or the journal you are submitting to.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your use of numerals in your academic essay is clear and consistent.

Writing Numbers as Words

When writing numbers in academic essays, it is important to follow the style guide provided by your institution or the specific guidelines of the publication you are submitting your work to. In general, numbers from one to nine are typically written out as words (e.g., “two” or “seven”), while numbers 10 and above are written as numerals (e.g., 10 or 27). However, there can be exceptions to this rule depending on the style guide being used.

It is also a good practice to spell out ordinal numbers (e.g., first, second, third) rather than using numerals (e.g., 1st, 2nd, 3rd) in academic writing. This helps maintain consistency and clarity throughout your essay. Additionally, when a sentence begins with a number, it is generally recommended to write it out as a word to avoid starting a sentence with a numeral.

Remember to always check the specific style guide you are required to follow for any variations or exceptions when writing numbers in your academic essays. Consistency and accuracy are key to conveying your ideas clearly and professionally.

Consistency in Number Usage

When writing academic essays, it is essential to maintain consistency in the usage of numbers throughout the document. This consistency applies to both the style and format of numbers used in the text. Here are some guidelines to ensure proper usage:

• Choose a style guide and follow its rules for writing numbers. Some style guides prefer spelling out numbers from one to ten and using numerals for numbers above ten, while others may have different preferences.
• Be consistent within the same sentence or paragraph. For example, if you spell out a number in one instance, make sure to do the same for similar numbers in the following sentences.
• Decide on a format for dates, times, and measurements and stick to it throughout the essay. For instance, choose between writing dates in the month-day-year format or the day-month-year format and use it consistently.
• Use numerals for percentages, decimals, fractions, and numbers with scientific units. Make sure to format these numbers according to the conventions of your chosen style guide.

By maintaining consistency in number usage, you can improve the readability and professionalism of your academic writing. Paying attention to these details demonstrates your attention to accuracy and precision in your work.

Tips for Enhancing Clarity

When using numbers in academic essays, it is essential to prioritize clarity to ensure that your reader can easily follow your arguments and understand your points. Here are some tips to enhance the clarity of your numerical expressions:

By following these tips, you can effectively enhance the clarity of your numerical expressions in academic essays and improve the overall readability of your work.

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How to Write Numbers

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Style and context matter when you're using numbers in a sentence.

Since this is my 100th episode, it seems like a fitting time to talk about how to use numbers in sentences.

[Note: There are many exceptions to the rules about how to write numbers. These tips will point you in the right direction, but if you are serious about understanding all the rules, you need to buy a style guide such as The Chicago Manual of Style or The Associated Press Stylebook .]

Whether to use a numeral or to spell out a number as a word is a matter of style . For general writing, most guides agree that you should use words for the numbers one through nine, but for larger numbers the rules vary wildly from style guide to style guide . Some say to use words for the numbers one to one hundred, one to ten, any word that can be written with one or two words, and so on. Typically, people who write business or technical documents are more likely to use numerals liberally, whereas people who write less technical documents are more likely to write out the words for numbers. If someone handles numbers a different way than you do, they’re probably using a different style guide, so the best advice I can give you is to pick a style and stick with it when it makes sense. (Since I used to be a technical writer, I write out the words for numbers one through nine, and use numerals for most other numbers.)

Fortunately, some rules about writing numbers are more universally agreed upon than the general rules I just told you about.

Normalization

Let’s say you’re writing about snail development–a technical subject–and you’ve decided on a style that says you use words for the numbers one through nine and numerals for anything bigger. If you come upon a case where you have two related numbers in the same sentence, you should write them both as numerals if you would write one as a numeral. The idea is to write them the same way when they are in the same sentence. So even though you would normally write out the word “one” if you were writing,

“The snail advanced one inch,”

if you added a number over nine to that sentence, then you would use numerals instead of words when you write,

“The snail advanced 1 inch on the first day and 12 inches on the second day.”

(You’d write both 1 and 12 as a numeral.) Most style guides agree that you should break your general rule in cases like that, when doing so would make your document more internally consistent.

Web Bonus: Normalization

If you have a third number that would normally be written as a word in the example sentence above, and if it isn’t referring to inches, you would still write it out as a word. You only normalize to numerals if the numbers are referring to the same thing:

The five researchers noted that the snail advanced 1 inch on the first day and 12 inches on the second day.

Next: When Numbers Are Next to Each Other

Numbers Next to Each Other

Here’s another one most people seem to agree on: When you are writing two numbers right next to each other, you should use words for one of them and a numeral for the other because that makes it a lot easier to read . For example, if you write,

“We tested 52 twelve-inch snails,”

you should write the number 52, but spell out twelve (or vice versa).

Beginning of a Sentence

When you put a number at the beginning of a sentence, most sources recommend writing out the words. If the number would be ridiculously long if you wrote out the words, you should rephrase the sentence so the number doesn’t come at the beginning. For example, this sentence would be hard to read if you wrote out the number:

Twelve thousand eight hundred forty-two people attended the parade.

It’s better to rephrase the sentence to read something like this:

The parade was attended by 12,842 people.

The second sentence uses passive voice , which I generally discourage, but passive voice is better than writing out a humongous number and taking the risk that your readers’ brains will be numb by the time they get to the verb.

Some style guides make an exception to allow you to use the numeral when you’re putting a year at the beginning of a sentence, but others recommend that you use words even in the case of years.

Next: Numbers in Dialogue

OK, here’s a final rule that’s pretty straightforward. If you’re writing dialogue, for example quoting someone in a magazine article or writing a conversation in fiction , spell out all the numbers. Of course, even here The Chicago Manual of Style notes that you should use numerals “if [words] begin to look silly.” But the idea is that you should lean toward using words in dialogue.

There is so much more to say about numbers that I’m going to make this a two-part series. Next week I’ll cover rules about writing percents, decimals, and numbers over a million .

Web Bonus: What Is a Numeral?

Numeral can be used to refer to any symbol representing a number, including a word. I am using it in this episode to refer to Arabic numerals (e.g., 1, 2, 3).

Questions and comments for me, Grammar Girl, go to [email protected] , or you can post them to me on Facebook or Twitter .

References Used for This Episode

Aaron, J. The Little, Brown Essential Handbook . New York: Pearson Education, 2006, p. 101.

Garner, B. Garner’s Modern American Usage . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 560.

Goldstein, N., ed. The Associated Press Stylebook and Libel Manual . Reading: Perseus Books, 1998, p. 144-45.

Lutz, G. and Stevenson, D. Grammar Desk Reference . Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books, 2005, p.318.

“Numbers,” Chicago Style Q&A . Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.  (accessed March 25, 2008).

“Numbers,” The Chicago Manual of Style , Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006, section 9. (accessed March 25, 2008).

Strumpf, M. and Douglas, A. The Grammar Bible . New York: Henry Holt and Company, 2004, p. 349.

The American Heritage Guide to Contemporary Usage and Style. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005, p. 324-26.

Image of numbers © Shutterstock

Mignon Fogarty is the founder of Quick and Dirty Tips and the author of seven books on language, including the New York Times bestseller " Grammar Girl's Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing ." She is an inductee in the Podcasting Hall of Fame, and the show is a five-time winner of Best Education Podcast in the Podcast Awards. She has appeared as a guest expert on the Oprah Winfrey Show and the Today Show. Her popular  LinkedIn Learning courses help people write better to communicate better. Find her on Mastodon .

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Commitment • high standards • excellence • ethics • results • leadership • focus, bite size grammar tip: how to write numbers in essays.

It is important for writers to recognize and to understand how to express numbers in formal writing, and to be able to determine when to write out numbers into words and when to use figures or numerical digits. Although the leading guides, The Chicago Manual of Style and The Associated Press Stylebook , offer differing approaches when it comes to American English grammar rules, as long as writers are consistent within their own writing, the expression of numbers in formal writing can be varied. Keep in mind that with each varying discipline, the number expression can also follow different rules.   Below are helpful rules for most writers to follow when engaged in formal writing.

Numbers Smaller Than Ten

• Spell out smaller numbers such as whole numbers that are smaller than ten. Especially in formal writing, it is important to spell out the numbers, otherwise it looks too informal.

One-Word Numbers vs. Two-Word Numbers

• Although there is no consensus on the application of this rule, here is a good rule of thumb to follow. For any one-word number, such as thirteen or thirty, it should be spelled or written out. For any two-word number, such as 36 or 42, the number should be expressed in figures.

Hyphenated Numbers and Fractions

• For compound or two-word numbers, use a hyphen for numbers twenty-one through ninety-nine. For example, “thirty-four students attended the club meeting” rather than “34 students attended the club meeting.”
• Hyphenate all fractions that are spelled out. For example, “My sister ate three-fourths of the pie.”

Time Periods

• When referencing time such as decades or centuries, these figures should be spelled out and they should not be capitalized. Use seventeenth century and the seventies , rather than 17 th and 70s , respectively.

Never Start a Sentence With a Numerical Figure

• If a writer begins a sentence with a number, then the number must be spelled out. For example, “Fourscore and seven years ago” should not be written as “4 score and 7 years ago.” If a sentence includes a larger number within the sentence, it can be written as digits. For example, “There were 50,000 fans who attended the concert.”

Recipes and Percentages

• For informal and daily writing, writers can use numerical digits to refer to percentages such as “15% of the students” and recipes such as “Add 3 cups of sugar.” For formal writing, percentages should be spelled out, such as “15 percent of teachers.”

Neighboring Numbers

• If the writing includes two numbers that are next to one another, spell out the number that has the least amount of letters when spelled out. It is confusing to readers if there are too many numbers written next to each other; therefore, write one of the numbers as a digit and the other spelled out. For example, write “four 18-year-olds” rather than “4 18-year-olds.”

Ordinal numbers

• An ordinal number is a number that defines an object or a thing’s position in a series such as “first,” “second,” or “third.” When using ordinal numbers, spell out the number. Write “The baseball player made it to second base” rather than “The baseball player made it to 2 nd base.”
• When using time markers such as midnight or noon , do not write out the number such as 12:00AM and 12:00PM.
• When writing about a time of day, write the numerical digits, such as 5:30p.m. or 1:30 sharp.
• AM and PM can also be written as A.M and P.M or a.m. and p.m. Some writers choose to place a space between the time and AM or PM (7 AM, 4:15 P.M., 3:30 p.m.) while others choose not to leave a space (7AM, 4:15P.M., 3:30p.m.).

When composing a formal piece of writing, consider now how you might express the use of numbers.

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About 1 in 5 U.S. teens who’ve heard of ChatGPT have used it for schoolwork

Roughly one-in-five teenagers who have heard of ChatGPT say they have used it to help them do their schoolwork, according to a new Pew Research Center survey of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17. With a majority of teens having heard of ChatGPT, that amounts to 13% of all U.S. teens who have used the generative artificial intelligence (AI) chatbot in their schoolwork.

Teens in higher grade levels are particularly likely to have used the chatbot to help them with schoolwork. About one-quarter of 11th and 12th graders who have heard of ChatGPT say they have done this. This share drops to 17% among 9th and 10th graders and 12% among 7th and 8th graders.

There is no significant difference between teen boys and girls who have used ChatGPT in this way.

The introduction of ChatGPT last year has led to much discussion about its role in schools , especially whether schools should integrate the new technology into the classroom or ban it .

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand American teens’ use and understanding of ChatGPT in the school setting.

The Center conducted an online survey of 1,453 U.S. teens from Sept. 26 to Oct. 23, 2023, via Ipsos. Ipsos recruited the teens via their parents, who were part of its KnowledgePanel . The KnowledgePanel is a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses. The survey was weighted to be representative of U.S. teens ages 13 to 17 who live with their parents by age, gender, race and ethnicity, household income, and other categories.

This research was reviewed and approved by an external institutional review board (IRB), Advarra, an independent committee of experts specializing in helping to protect the rights of research participants.

Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

Teens’ awareness of ChatGPT

Overall, two-thirds of U.S. teens say they have heard of ChatGPT, including 23% who have heard a lot about it. But awareness varies by race and ethnicity, as well as by household income:

• 72% of White teens say they’ve heard at least a little about ChatGPT, compared with 63% of Hispanic teens and 56% of Black teens.
• 75% of teens living in households that make $75,000 or more annually have heard of ChatGPT. Much smaller shares in households with incomes between $30,000 and $74,999 (58%) and less than $30,000 (41%) say the same.

Teens who are more aware of ChatGPT are more likely to use it for schoolwork. Roughly a third of teens who have heard a lot about ChatGPT (36%) have used it for schoolwork, far higher than the 10% among those who have heard a little about it.

When do teens think it’s OK for students to use ChatGPT?

For teens, whether it is – or is not – acceptable for students to use ChatGPT depends on what it is being used for.

There is a fair amount of support for using the chatbot to explore a topic. Roughly seven-in-ten teens who have heard of ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use when they are researching something new, while 13% say it is not acceptable.

However, there is much less support for using ChatGPT to do the work itself. Just one-in-five teens who have heard of ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use it to write essays, while 57% say it is not acceptable. And 39% say it’s acceptable to use ChatGPT to solve math problems, while a similar share of teens (36%) say it’s not acceptable.

Some teens are uncertain about whether it’s acceptable to use ChatGPT for these tasks. Between 18% and 24% say they aren’t sure whether these are acceptable use cases for ChatGPT.

Those who have heard a lot about ChatGPT are more likely than those who have only heard a little about it to say it’s acceptable to use the chatbot to research topics, solve math problems and write essays. For instance, 54% of teens who have heard a lot about ChatGPT say it’s acceptable to use it to solve math problems, compared with 32% among those who have heard a little about it.

Note: Here are the  questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its  methodology .

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Olivia Sidoti is a research assistant focusing on internet and technology research at Pew Research Center

Jeffrey Gottfried is an associate director focusing on internet and technology research at Pew Research Center

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This May Be Our Last Chance to Halt Bird Flu in Humans, and We Are Blowing It

By Zeynep Tufekci

Opinion Columnist

The outbreak of H5N1 avian influenza among U.S. dairy cows, first reported on March 25 , has now spread to at least 33 herds in eight states. On Wednesday, genetic evidence of the virus turned up in commercially available milk. Federal authorities say the milk supply is safe, but this latest development raises troubling questions about how widespread the outbreak really is.

So far, there is only one confirmed human case. Rick Bright, an expert on the H5N1 virus who served on President Biden’s coronavirus advisory board, told me this is the crucial moment. “There’s a fine line between one person and 10 people with H5N1 ,” he said. “By the time we’ve detected 10, it’s probably too late” to contain.

That’s when I told him what I’d heard from Sid Miller, the Texas commissioner for agriculture. He said he strongly suspected that the outbreak dated back to at least February. The commissioner speculated that then as many as 40 percent of the herds in the Texas Panhandle might have been infected.

Dr. Bright fell silent, then asked a very reasonable question: “Doesn’t anyone keep tabs on this?”

The H5N1 outbreak, already a devastating crisis for cattle farmers and their herds, has the potential to turn into an enormous tragedy for the rest of us. But having spent the past two weeks trying to get answers from our nation’s public health authorities, I’m shocked by how little they seem to know about what’s going on and how little of what they do know is being shared in a timely manner.

How exactly is the infection transmitted between herds? The United States Department of Agriculture, the Food and Drug Administration and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention all say they are working to figure it out.

According to many public health officials, the virus load in the infected cows’ milk is especially high, raising the possibility that the disease is being spread through milking machines or from aerosolized spray when the milking room floors are power washed. Another possible route is the cows’ feed, owing to the fairly revolting fact that the U.S. allows farmers to feed leftover poultry bedding material — feathers, excrement, spilled seeds — to dairy and beef cattle as a cheap source of additional protein.

Alarmingly, the U.S.D.A. told me that it has evidence that the virus has also spread from dairy farms back to poultry farms “through an unknown route.” Well, one thing that travels back and forth between cattle farms and chicken farms is human beings. They can also travel from cattle farms to pig farms, and pigs are the doomsday animals for human influenza pandemics. Because they are especially susceptible to both avian and human flu, they make for good petri dishes in which avian influenza can become an effective human virus. The damage could be vast.

The U.S.D.A. also told me it doesn’t know how many farmers have tested their cattle and doesn’t know how many of those tests came up positive; whatever testing is being done takes place at the state level or in private labs. Just Wednesday, the agency made it mandatory to report all positive results, a long overdue step that is still — without the negative results alongside them — insufficient to give us a full picture. Also on Wednesday, the U.S.D.A. made testing mandatory for dairy cattle that are being moved from one state to another. It says mandatory testing of other herds wouldn’t be “practical, feasible or necessarily informative” because of “several reasons, ranging from laboratory capacity to testing turnaround times.” The furthest the agency will go is to recommend voluntary testing for cattle that show symptoms of the illness — which not all that are infected do. Dr. Bright compares this to the Trump administration’s approach to Covid-19: If you don’t test, it doesn’t exist.

As for the F.D.A., it tells me it hasn’t completed specific tests to confirm that pasteurization would make milk from infected cows safe, though the agency considers it “very likely” based on extensive testing for other pathogens. (It is not yet clear whether the elements of the H5N1 virus that recently turned up in milk had been fully neutralized.) That testing should have been completed by now. In any case, unpasteurized milk remains legal in many states. Dr. Bright told me that “this is a major concern, especially given recent infections and deaths in cats that have consumed infected milk.”

Making matters worse, the U.S.D.A. failed to share the genomes from infected animals in a timely manner, and then when it shared the genomes did so in an unwieldy format and without any geographic information, causing scientists to tear their hair out in frustration.

All this makes catching potential human cases so urgent. Dr. Bright says that given a situation like this, and the fact that undocumented farmworkers may not have access to health care, the government should be using every sophisticated surveillance technique, including wastewater testing, and reporting the results publicly. That is not happening. The C.D.C. says it is monitoring data from emergency rooms for any signs of an outbreak. By the time enough people are sick enough to be noticed in emergency rooms, it is almost certainly too late to prevent one.

So far, the agency told me, it is aware of only 23 people who have been tested. That tiny number is deeply troubling. (Others may be getting tested through private providers, but if negative, the results do not have to be reported.)

On the ground, people are doing the best they can. Adeline Hambley, a public health officer in Ottawa, Mich., told me of a farm whose herd had tested positive. The farm owner voluntarily handed over the workers’ cellphone numbers, and the workers got texts asking them to report all potential symptoms. Lynn Sutfin, a public information officer in the Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, told me that response rates to those texts and other forms of outreach can be as high as 90 percent. That’s heartening, but it’s too much to expect that a poor farmworker — afraid of stigma , legal troubles and economic loss — will always report even mild symptoms and stay home from work as instructed.

It’s entirely possible that we’ll get lucky with H5N1 and it will never manage to spread among humans. Spillovers from animals to humans are common, yet pandemics are rare because they require a chain of unlucky events to happen one after the other. But pandemics are a numbers game, and a widespread animal outbreak like this raises the risks. When dangerous novel pathogens emerge among humans, there is only a small window of time in which to stop them before they spiral out of control. Neither our animal farming practices nor our public health tools seem up to the task.

There is some good news: David Boucher, at the federal government’s Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response, told me that this virus strain is a close match for some vaccines that have already been formulated and that America has the capacity to manufacture and potentially distribute many millions of doses, and fairly quickly, if it takes off in humans. That ability is a little like fire insurance — I’m glad it exists, but by the time it comes into play your house has already burned down.

I’m sure the employees of these agencies are working hard, but the message they are sending is, “Trust us — we are on this.” One troubling legacy of the coronavirus pandemic is that there was too much attention on telling the public how to feel — to panic or not panic — rather than sharing facts and inspiring confidence through transparency and competence. And four years later we have an added layer of polarization and distrust to work around.

In April 2020, the Trump administration ousted Dr. Bright from his position as the director of the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, the agency responsible for fighting emerging pandemics. In a whistle-blower complaint , he alleged this happened after his early warnings against the coronavirus pandemic were ignored and as retaliation for his caution against unproven treatments favored by Donald Trump.

Dr. Bright told me that he would have expected things to be much different during the current administration, but “this is a live fire test,” he said, “and right now we are failing it.”

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Zeynep Tufekci  ( @zeynep ) is a professor of sociology and public affairs at Princeton University, the author of “Twitter and Tear Gas: The Power and Fragility of Networked Protest” and a New York Times Opinion columnist. @ zeynep • Facebook