good philosophical questions for essays

450 Philosophy Topics & Questions for Your Essay

When you start studying philosophy, you may think it’s boring and has nothing to do with the real world. It couldn’t be further from the truth! The study of philosophy deals with the most exciting and mysterious aspects of reality. It is closely connected with science, psychology, art, and politics. Philosophy is an integral part of universal knowledge, as well as our everyday lives. Everyone who had ever asked the question “who am I?” engaged in philosophy.

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• 🔝 Top 10 Topics

💭 What Is Philosophy?

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• What is metaphilosophy?
• Compare 2 schools of thought
• Ancient vs. modern philosophy
• Philosophical concepts of space
• Applied aesthetics in fashion design
• The concepts of the philosophy of self
• Ancient traditions of political philosophy
• How philosophical traditions vary by region
• Modern problems of the philosophy of religion
• Contemporary issues of environmental philosophy

As you can see, philosophy studies a lot of things, and can be divided into the following branches:

• Metaphysics studies reality: what it is, what its properties are, where does it come from, and so on. It is also concerned with the problems of personal identity, free will, and religion.
• Epistemology, which is the study of knowledge and thinking. For example, it asks such philosophical questions as “what is knowledge?” “can knowledge ever be sufficient?” “how can a certain belief be justified?” “how does perception work?” and so on.
• Logic , which studies arguments and reasoning. It includes such types of thinking as induction, abduction, and deduction.
• Ethics , which is concerned with the concepts of right and wrong behavior. It studies ethical principles, their origin, and ways by which they can be improved. Ethics also covers controversial subjects, such as abortion, animal rights, and capital punishment.
• Aesthetics , which is the study of beauty. It includes the study of artworks, perception of beauty, aesthetic experience, and other related concepts.

All these different types of philosophies are equally valid and exciting! Choose any of them and have a philosophical discussion about life, justice, happiness, time, or beauty.

• What is action theory?
• Definition of anarchism
• Philosophy of business ethics
• What is the soul made of?
• Why you should study logic
• Are beauty standards objective?
• Is religion relevant in the modern world?
• Can happiness be scientifically measured?
• Does higher intelligence make you less happy?
• Does personality consist of memories?

✍️ Philosophy Topics

Here you will find a list of philosophy topics for essays, discussions, or presentations. It can be used by high school as well as university students.

Ancient Greece can be regarded as a cradle of Western philosophy. Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, and many others were the first who started questioning the world around us. Initially, Ancient Greek philosophy was interested in the essence of the universe, but then it also became oriented at the problems of consciousness, politics, and existence.

• Materialism and naturalism of the pre-Socratic period. Pre-Socratic philosophers believed that only matter was real, rejecting the ideas of spirituality. You can compare and contrast it with Platonic idealism .
• Democritus and pre-Socratic atomism. The concept that all matter is made of small particles dates back to ancient times. You can compare the idea of atomism with what we know today.
• Pre-Socratic view on knowledge and perception . This topic refers to the idea that we get all information by perceiving images of everything that surrounds us.
• Diogenes and the Sophists. Sophists believed that the universe is ruled by intelligence. They also popularized ethics and politics as philosophical aspects.
• What are the key elements of Socrates’ philosophy? Socrates was an enigmatic figure with a unique philosophical outlook. His ideas influenced everything from politics to pop culture.
• Heraclitus of Ephesus and his school. Philosophers of the Ephesian school believed that everything in the world is connected by a logical structure called Logos. This idea parallels several other concepts, such as the Tao.
• Plato’s Republic: what is democracy? In the Republic, Plato describes his views on an ideal society . It includes the concepts of what later became communism and totalitarianism.
• The Eleatic school’s doctrines. It’s a fascinating philosophy paper topic that includes the concept of one omnipotent God as opposed to many gods, as well as new standards of logical reasoning .
• Philosophy of Empedocles. Empedocles was a pre-Socratic philosopher who introduced the idea of cosmogony and fundamental forces. You can write an excellent essay about how Empedocles’ views are reflected in science.
• Plato’s ethics. Here you can discuss Plato’s ideas about virtues, happiness, harmony, and other concepts.
• Plato and idealism. Plato’s central doctrine included the notion of perfect “ideas,” which manifest itself in our material world as all objects. You can write an excellent paper on this subject!
• Plato: allegory of the cave. In this essay, you may talk about Plato’s concept of reality, definitions of microcosm and microcosm, and the “unifying idea.”
• Aristotle : logic and dialectic. Aristotle was the first philosopher who formulated the rules of logical reasoning. They were crucial in the development of exact sciences.
• Aristotle’s Metaphysics and its legacy . You can write an essay about Aristotle’s major work and how it influenced philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas.

• Hellenistic philosophy and Stoicism. The ideas of Stoics originated in Greece but were especially popular in Rome. One of the most prominent stoics, Marcus Aurelius, was also a Roman emperor.
• Stoicism and Buddhism: a comparison. This exciting philosophy essay topic allows you to compare the common concepts in these very similar philosophies : from self-discipline to eternal recurrence.
• What are the key characteristics of Skepticism? Ancient skepticism was rooted in the desire to find truth by continually questioning it. See what other ideas made the Skeptics so influential.
• The concepts of the soul in Ancient Greece. You can include Plato’s Aristotle’s , and the Stoic theory of the soul into this essay.
• Psychology in Aristotle’s De Anima. Aristotle’s writings often include ideas concerning psychology. In De Anima, he attempts to describe the human mind in connection to psychology, as well as biology.
• What were Plato’s ideas about aesthetics ? This stunning philosophy paper topic covers Plato’s concept of beauty, art, and inspiration in his dialogues Hippias Major, Republic, and Phaedrus.
• How did other philosophers influence Plato’s ideas?
• The Lyceum: Aristotle’s school and its impact.
• Mathematics and philosophy of Pythagoreanism.
• What were the concepts of principal substances in Greek philosophy?
• Heraclitus: universal flux and the unity of opposites.
• Cosmological ideas in Ancient Greece: Plato, Aristotle , Heraclitus, Empedocles.
• Seneca’s views on anger arguments by Aristotle .
• Explanation of natural phenomena: mythology vs. philosophy .

• Xenophanes and monotheism .
• Melissus of Samos: the concept of “what-is.”
• Zeno of Elea: the impact of paradoxes on philosophy and science.
• The philosophy of Democritus: anthropology .
• Diogenes: the founder of cynicism.
• Plato’s and Aristotle’s thoughts on knowledge: a comparison .
• Philosophy of Protagoras: ethics, language, argument.
• Plato’s concept of reality.
• Ancient Greek types of love: eros, agape, and philia .
• Moral Philosophical Views: From Plato to Nussbaum.
• Theophrastus: ideas on psychology, logic, and metaphysics .
• What is “the Socratic method?”
• What is Plato’s theory of recollection?
• What was Plutarch’s idea of God and daemons?
• Anaximander’s philosophy: substantial opposites and the origins of things.
• What was the concept of “logos” in different philosophies?
• Diairesis: the Platonic method.
• Aristotle’s concept of catharsis.
• The ever-changing nature of reality in ancient philosophy .
• The concept of pneuma in works of Aristotle and Stoics.
• What was Homer’s influence on Greek philosophy?
• The study of ontology in Plato, Aristotle, and Avicenna.
• Natural philosophy as the prototype of natural science.
• Moral intention concept in philosophy .
• Apeiron and other concepts in Anaximander’s cosmological theory.
• What were Hesiod’s theogony and cosmogony?
• What is the concept of “becoming” in atomism?
• What are the definitions of monad and dyad in Pythagoreanism?
• Eudemonia in works of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Stoics.

• What is the definition of arete in Plato ?
• What are the forms of the good in Plato’s Republic ?
• Aristotle’s virtue ethics .
• Aristotle’s idea of hyle vs. Plato’s eidos.
• Hylozoism in pre-Socratic philosophies.
• What is tabula rasa ?
• Metempsychosis as the concept of reincarnation.
• Ousia: the feminine principle in Ancient Greek philosophies .
• What are physis and nomos in pre-Socratic philosophies?
• What are Aristotle’s “four causes”?
• The concept of predication in Ancient Greek philosophy.
• What is the Euthyphro dilemma ?
• What Plato meant by “philosopher-king”?
• The lost city of Atlantis .
• What was the problem of universals in Ancient Greek philosophy?
• Golden mean as a virtue and an attribute of beauty.
• Pyrrhonism and its philosophy.
• The concepts of episteme and doxa.
• The problem of the criterion in Pyrrhonism.
• Acatalepsy vs. katalepsis in Stoicism.
• What are the main features of Homeric worldview?
• Aporia in rhetorics.
• What is Platonic realism ?
• Ionian school and its philosophies.
• Trivium: the three arts of discourse .
• Pathos in Aristotle and other philosophers.
• Aristotle’s views on euthanasia .
• Isocrates: rhetoric and influence.
• What is the place of hedone in Aristotle’s ethics ?
• Tetrapharmakos and other Ancient Greek views on happiness .
• Epicureanism vs. Stoicism.
• The philosophy of Epicureanism .
• Logic and ethics in works of Antisthenes.

Medieval philosophy was mostly focused on studying nature and religion. The most popular school of thought at that time was Scholasticism. It refers to a particular way of teaching and education. The Classical ideas mostly lost their influence, though some philosophers tried to incorporate the ideas of Ancient Greeks into their doctrines.

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• Roger Bacon’s re-interpretation of Aristotle . In this philosophy essay, you can write about Bacon’s views on soul-body dualism , matter, universals, and knowledge

• Robert Grosseteste as the founder of the modern scientific tradition. This philosopher was one of the most remarkable figures in Medieval England. His ideas in theology and natural sciences helped to make Oxford the center of intellectual life.
• Aquinas’ five proofs of God’s existence vs. Aristotle’s four causes: a comparison. Aquinas’ Five Ways are exciting from a logical point of view. You can discuss each of them and find parallels with Aristotle’s causes of being.
• Augustine of Hippo’s idea of illumination vs. Plato’s conception of recollection: a comparison. Similarly, you can compare the theory of illumination with Plato’s “prior knowledge.”
• Aquinas : logic and debate. Aquinas famously came up with a very effective model of debate. It is based on Ancient Greek ideas and is based on including both thesis and antithesis.
• Avicenna: metaphysics . Avicenna’s study of metaphysics was aimed at understanding the connections between all things in the world. It includes his “cause chains” and the concept of intelligence .
• Augustine’s philosophy of language. Write an essay about the connections between Augustine’s thoughts and Stoic theories of grammar. Mention his original ideas, too.
• John Duns Scotus’ natural theology . Here you can discuss Scotus’ elaborate arguments for the existence of God as the first cause of everything.
• Rucelinus as the founder of nominalism. Nominalism is based on the rejection of everything abstract, as well as the absence of universals.
• What makes the Ockham’s razor principle so widely applicable? William of Ockham was a nominalist, too, and preferred simple explanations to miracles. His “razor” method is still considered very effective.
• What did Averroes contribute to philosophy and law?
• Aquinas : knowledge and perception.

• The medieval conception of motion: Aristotle vs. Avicenna.
• Avicenna’s views on natural science and atomism.
• Cosmological argument as a philosophical concept .
• Augustine’s ethics: eudaimonism in the context of Christianity.
• Augustine’s understanding of memory .
• What was St. Anselm’s conception of divine attributes?
• What were the ways of integrating sacred doctrine with secular learning in medieval philosophy?
• In what ways does faith relate to reason in medieval philosophies?
• Medieval theology as philosophy of religion.
• Scholasticism: principal characteristics.
• How did Averroes re-interpret Aristotle’s idea of time ?
• The Scholastics attitude towards Aristotle .
• Religious concepts in Eastern philosophy.
• What characterized the problem of universals in medieval philosophy?
• Peter Abelard: dialectics and conceptualism.
• Guillaume de Champeaux: the founder of moderate realism.
• What was Peter Lombard’s concept of marriage ?
• What was Albert the Great’s interpretation of Aristotelian metaphysics?
• Christian teaching of St Augustine .
• The discourse of the Apologetics : Islam, Hinduism, Judaism.
• Philosophical apologetics : main categories of arguments.
• What characterized the idea of a human soul in Aquinas and Augustine?
• The doctrines of John Wycliffe.
• Plato’s role in medieval concept of soul-body dualism.
• Theological approaches comparison: Thomas of Aquinas and Saint Augustine .
• What was the philosophy of the Dominican order ?
• The problem of free will: theological point of view.
• What are the concepts of sin and divine providence?
• What was Bonaventure’s conception of creation?
• John Duns Scotus’ contribution to Aristotelian study of matter.
• East and West teachings’ concepts differences.
• What characterized Albert of Saxony’s logic and metaphysics ?
• Nicholas of Autrecourt’s concepts of experience and perception.
• Insolubilia, or the “liar paradox”, in medieval philosophy.
• Richard Kilvington’s theology: influences and legacy.
• What was the problem of theodicy in medieval philosophy?
• William of Ockham: the notion of mental language.

• The concept and discourse of the divine freedom .

The fundamental concept of the Renaissance philosophy is humanism. It appeared as an alternative to strict religious doctrines of the Medieval period. The main inspiration for the Renaissance philosophy came from Ancient Greek and Roman sources, that’s why it is called Renaissance: a “rebirth” of classical philosophy.

• The concept of “renaissance man”. “Renaissance man” is defined as someone who embraced all available knowledge and used their full potential. See what outstanding Renaissance personalities fit this description!
• Roger Bacon’s contribution to philosophy and sciences. This philosophy paper topic includes Bacon’s ideas about logic, semiotics , optics, and other subjects. Bacon is a prime example of a “renaissance man” who excelled in many areas.
• Why is Petrarch called the “father of humanism “? Discuss Petrarch’s attitude towards ancient authors, and how his writings gave rise to a humanist philosophy that defined Renaissance .
• Tommaso Campanella’s The City of the Sun as a utopia . This book was inspired by Plato’s Republic and Atlantis, and it describes a perfect world united by a theocratic monarchy.
• Plato’s influence in the Renaissance era vs. Aristotelianism in the Middle Age. It’s an interesting philosophical topic that can show you why during the Renaissance humanism became so popular.
• Humanists vs. Calvinists: a comparison. Here you can write about the Calvinist concept of predestination and Humanist idea of freedom.
• François Rabelais as a humanist. Discuss Rabelais’ Gargantua and Pantagruel books and point out humanist ideas in them!
• The Renaissance critique of scholasticism. With the rise of humanism , scholasticism lost its popularity. It was now considered formalistic and too rigid. Find out why!
• In what ways does Calvinism parallel capitalism? The way Calvinist influenced capitalism and the American Dream can be an excellent topic for an essay or a research paper.
• How did Machiavelli bring humanism into politics? Niccolo Machiavelli revolutionized the concept of politics. He promoted the idea of ambition and innovation as opposed to virtue.

• The critique of Pelagianism by Jerome and Augustine .
• Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam’s “Christian humanism.”
• Jacques Lefèvre d’Étaples’s role in Protestant reformation .
• Thomas More’s Utopia.
• Giovanni Pico della Mirandola’s “manifesto of the Renaissance”.
• How did Martin Luther’s theology change Europe?
• John Calvin and his philosophy.
• Mona Lisa and Renaissance humanism .
• Who were the heretics?
• Nominalism: impact on doubting faith.
• What philosophical, intellectual, and political conditions led to the Reformation?
• Skepticism during the Renaissance period.
• How did Paul of Venice expand on Averroes’ ideas?
• The question of the immortality of the soul in Renaissance-era philosophy.
• What characterized Nicoletto Vernia’s gnoseology and logic?
• Pietro Pomponazzi’s discussion of the supernatural .
• Jacopo Zabarella’s new method of scientific inquiry.
• What was Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa’s Pyrrhonic skepticism?
• What were Lorenzo Valla’s methods of textual analysis and criticism?
• How did Rudolph Agricola revolutionize rhetorical studies?
• Why is Juan Luis Vives considered “the father of modern psychology ?”
• Political influence of William Shakespeare .
• The evolution of psychology during the Renaissance period : spiritual and biological aspects.
• What characterized Platonism and Neoplatonism in the Renaissance era?
• How did Marsilio Ficino merge ideas of both Plato and Aristotle?
• The history of European alchemy .
• John Dee’s philosophy, alchemy, and divination.
• Magic and science in Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and Marsilio Ficino.
• What were Nicholas of Cusa’s political and philosophical contributions?
• What was the influence of Kabbalah in Renaissance-era Italy?
• What were the key differences between medieval and Renaissance notions of probability?
• What characterized Bessarion’s Neoplatonic views on science?
• The concept of Platonic love in Ficino, Bembo, and Leone Ebreo.
• Michel de Montaigne’s skepticism and its legacy.
• René Descartes’ philosophy and influence.

• Francisco Sanches: empirical skepticism.
• Pierre Gassendi and atomism of the Renaissance era.
• Bernardino Telesio’s critique of metaphysics and the importance of empiricism .
• The legacy of Giordano Bruno.
• Franciscus Patricius’ theory of the universe .

Classical German philosophy is synonymous with Idealism. The most influential philosopher of that period, Immanuel Kant, paved the way for the exploration of human will, consciousness, and ego. Later the ideas of idealists inspired psychoanalysis.

• How did Johann Gottlieb Fichte transform Kant’s critical idealism into absolute idealism? It includes the elimination of the “thing-in-itself” concept and proclaiming the self as the ultimate reality .
• Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling’s absolute idealism . According to von Schelling, everything we see are the works of imagination, and nature itself is spiritual. These ideas influenced German Romanticism.
• How did Kant differentiate modes of thinking? In this essay, you can discuss analytic and synthetic propositions, their definitions, and applicability.
• Kant’s ethical ideas . See how they’re connected to his belief in everyone’s fundamental freedom.
• How did Immanuel Kant influence other philosophers? Kant was hugely influential: in particular, he provided the basis for what later became Marxism .
• Leibniz’s concept of knowledge . You can include Leibniz’s idea that it’s possible to understand everything in the world with the help of logic and analysis.
• How did Indian philosophy influence Schopenhauer ? For example, you can study the influence of Buddhism in Schopenhauer’s idea that the world is full of suffering , which can be overcome by way of renunciation.
• What did Nietzsche mean by saying that “God is dead”? This quote is often misunderstood. In fact, it is hinting at the fact that traditional values have lost their power.
• What were Immanuel Kant’s antinomies? Antinomies are contradictions that can both be justified. They create logical paradoxes.
• What are the main points of Kant’s transcendentalism ? In short, transcendental idealism focuses on the self as the center of reality. People get information about the outer world, but it will never be able to know the world as it is.
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and his philosophy.

• The problem of subjectivity and consciousness in German Idealism .
• What are paralogisms?
• Ends-in-themselves and means-to-ends: definition and comparison.
• What is Hegel’s absolute spirit?
• Schopenhauer ‘s philosophy of pessimism.
• How did Nietzsche influence the ideas of the National Socialists?
• Kierkegaard’s angst and “fear and trembling.”
• What are Leibniz’s contributions to metaphysics and epistemology?
• Benedict de Spinoza and his doctrines.
• F.W.J. Schelling’s understanding of nature.
• Ethics and moral philosophy in Kant, Nietzsche, and others .
• Schelling’s identity philosophy .
• Ludwig Feuerbach anthropological materialism .
• Kierkegaard’s conception of irony.
• What were Christian Thomasius’ views on reason and prejudice?
• What was Christian Wolff’s role in German philosophical thought?
• What are the main features of Pietism?
• Who were the Thomasians?
• How did Sturm und Drang movement influence philosophy?
• Baumgarten’s Aesthetica and the concept of art.
• What characterized Elisabeth of the Palatinate’s critique of Descartes ?
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s impact on German philosophy.
• What did Johann Gottfried Herder mean by “the great chain of being”?
• What was Richard Warner’s influence on Nietzsche’s philosophy ?
• What was Johanna Charlotte Unzer’s contribution to feminism ?
• Friedrich Hölderlin as an Idealist.
• Epistemology and metaphysics: philosophers views.
• What are Karl Marx’s concepts of labor, class, and capital ?
• What were Schleiermacher’s thoughts on psychology and knowledge?
• What was Schleiermacher’s influence on Gadamer and Heidegger?
• What were Nietzsche’s main “positive values?”
• What was Nietzsche’s interpretation of nihilism?
• Nietzsche’s doctrine of “will to power.”
• What impact had Eastern philosophy on Nietzsche’s work ?
• Nietzsche’s concept of Apollonian vs. Dionysian and its impact on culture.
• What was the role of Plato and Aristotle in classical German philosophy?
• Leibniz’s vs. Pythagorean theory of monads: a comparison.
• What is Leibniz’s “fundamental question of metaphysics ?”
• Gottfried Leibniz’s contribution to logic.

In the 20th century, philosophy was developing just as rapidly as technology. New standards of living, change of values, wars, and conflicts led to increased disappointment and alienation among people. Philosophers of that era tried to reflect on these changes and come up with new outlooks on life and the world around us.

• Karl Popper’s concept of three worlds. This philosophy topic includes the analysis of three categories of reality (physical objects, mental works, and objective knowledge ) and their interactions.
• How did the theory of relativity and quantum mechanics influence idealism in the 20th century? It’s a terrific philosophy question that shows the complexity of our reality.
• The philosophy of modernism as a reflection of societal changes. It includes the massive influence of art on modernism . See what led to the rejection of realism and increased focus on personal experience.
• Lyotard’s Postmodern Condition: technology, communication, and mass media. Lyotard’s book offers a surprisingly accurate glimpse into the 21st century’s spread of communication technologies . It can be an exciting paper topic.
• Marxism-Leninism : key concepts and legacy. In this essay, you can discuss world revolutions, vanguardism, and other concepts that led to the popularity and eventual demise of Marxist-Leninist philosophy.
• Marxism vs. Freudism differences . Freudism was based on psychoanalysis; later, Freud’s ideas about the human psyche were expanded into a philosophy concerned with society as a whole.
• Slavoj Zizek’s concept of The Real. Inspired by Lacan’s psychoanalysis , Zizek formulated a classification of different types of The Real. He provided examples from pop culture, such as The Matrix .
• Feminist philosophers: Rosa Luxemburg , Sandra Bartky, Julia Kristeva . While the philosophy of the 20th century was dominated by men, there were also many outstanding women. You can choose to write about them!
• Foucault’s theories of power, knowledge, and subjectivity. Foucault’s philosophy was very influential in society, as well as in the arts. In many ways, he shaped postmodernism as we know it.
• Deconstruction as a critique of Platonism. Deconstructivism concerned everything from architecture to queer studies. It was influenced by Nietzsche and critiqued Plato’s idea of forms .
• Walter Benjamin ‘s “angel of history.” This is a wonderful topic that covers Benjamin’s concept of history and the importance of remembering the past exactly as it was.

• Jacque Derrida’s key concepts: an overview. Here you can discuss the ideas Derrida introduced to philosophy as well as literature studies and politics.
• Karl Marx views on history . Karl Marx’s historical materialism was tremendously influential in early socialist societies. Explore it in your essay!
• Theodore Herzl and Zionism . This philosophy topic is closely connected with 20th-century history. You can also discuss arguments for and against Zionism.
• Jacques Lacan’s impact on philosophy , linguistics, and film theory . Discuss Lacan’s concepts such as the “mirror stage” and” the Other” in your philosophy essay!
• International development, colonialism, social inequality and class stratification. This topic is centered on the influence of the colonial past on today’s politics. You’d be surprised to see how much colonial worldview affected almost every facet of life in all countries.
• Behaviorism and philosophy of mind. It’s a very interesting branch of philosophy that has elements of natural science, linguistics, and psychology . See what different approaches to behavior were proposed by philosophers, and describe them in an argumentative essay!
• Being-in-itself in Heidegger and Sartre . This topic is closely connected with several other concepts, such as Dasein and bad faith, and it can be an excellent theme for an extended research paper.
• John Searle’s “Chinese room.” It is an exciting topic about the philosophical aspects of artificial intelligence. “Chinese room” is a thought experiment that led to many curious replies.
• Existentialism in Jean-Paul Sartre’s Nausea: an analysis . Here you can study one of the most brilliant books of the 20th century from the philosophical point of view! Discuss what made Sartre’s Nausea so famous and influential.
• Anarchism in the 20th century: the classical era.
• Communism: theory and reality .
• The fundamental concepts of existentialism: angst, despair, the absurd .

• Existentialism in France after WWII: key figures.
• Karl Popper’s critique of historicism.
• Determinism : mathematical models and the quantum realm.
• Post-modernism vs. modernism: a comparison.
• Foucault’s conceptions of biopower and biopolitics.
• Structuralism concept in philosophy .
• What was Karl Marx’s idea of a higher-stage communist society?
• Friedrich Engels ‘ socialism vs. the Soviet economic model.
• How Aristotle and other Greeks influenced Heidegger?
• Heidegger’s concepts of “present-at-hand” and “ready-to-hand.”
• Bertrand Russell and analytical philosophy .
• What was Frankfurt school’s dialectical method of investigation?
• Freudian perspective on dreams .
• Jaques Maritain and neo-Thomism.
• What were the breakthroughs of 20th-century feminism?
• What was the influence of war and globalization on the late 20th-century anarchism ?
• Queer theory and philosophy of gender.
• The concept of the Other in philosophy, psychology, and film.
• The power of ideas: from ancient to modern philosophies.
• Hans-Georg Gadamer’s philosophical hermeneutics.
• What are the key ideas of Jean-Paul Sartre’s philosophy ?
• Simone de Beauvoir’s existentialist philosophy .
• What is the concept of Dasein in Heidegger’s Being and Time?
• The Decline of the West: what caused Oswald Spengler’s bleak outlook on the future?
• Philosophical views of Albert Camus: absurdism, existentialism, anarcho-syndicalism.
• Absurdism: parallels with nihilism and existentialism .
• Nihilism in the 20th century: Deleuze , Derrida, Heidegger, Lyotard.
• Jean Baudrillard: the concept of simulacra .
• Camus’s The Stranger and Rousseau’s Natural Man .
• How do Derrida’s concepts of différance and trace correspond to ideas of Plato and Aristotle ?
• What was Edmund Husserl’s contribution to phenomenology?
• Roland Barthes’ semiotics and structuralism .
• “Death of the Author”: Bartes vs. Foucault .
• Hannah Arendt : the origins of Nazism and Stalinism.
• Julius Evola’s critique of fascism and national-socialism.
• Iris Murdoch’s philosophy and influences.
• Feminist philosophers: Rosa Luxemburg, Sandra Bartky, Julia Kristeva.
• How did Russian cosmism influence space exploration?
• What was Heidegger’s influence on Sartre’s Being and Nothingness?
• Of Grammatology: Derrida’s critique of structuralism.
• Henry Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience.
• Berlin and Vienna circles of logical positivism and their characteristics.
• Marxist feminism as opposed to the exploitation of women in capitalism.
• The Communist Manifesto and its legacy .

• The concept of social privilege from Du Bois to the late 20th century.
• Richard Taylor’s view of cruelty and compassion .
• The development of the “collective conscious” concept.
• Emile Zola’s positivism.
• Activity theory and its field of usage.
• The philosophy of Maoism.
• What is “Moore’s paradox,” and how can it be used?
• Philosophy of artificial intelligence .
• Umberto Eco’s philosophical works.
• What are the characteristics of empiricism?
• The “cultural turn” of the ’70s.
• Claude Lévi-Strauss: philosophical and anthropological ideas.
• Social character and social psychology .
• Georg Simmel’s philosophy of money .
• What is the role of classical pragmatism in the development of feminist theories ?
• Jane Addams and her ethical principles .
• Holism in philosophy: an overview.
• Can the concept of noosphere be considered real?
• Pierre Teilhard de Chardin: controversies and influence on the New Age movement.
• Bertrand Russell’s Problems of Philosophy .
• Edmund Husserl’s phenomenology of temporality.
• Intentism: authorial intent vs. death of the author.
• The concept of aboutness in philosophy of mind .

The basic definition of ethics is “moral philosophy.” It is concerned with the problems of good and evil, right and wrong, and everything in-between. The first ethical teachings appeared in ancient times, but they’ve always been changing throughout history, and they vary among different nations.

• What are the three main theories of ethics ? In this essay, you can talk about utilitarian, deontological , and virtue ethics as the basis for ethical reasoning.
• What are the main principles of utilitarian ethics? The main appeal of utilitarianism is its promise to produce greater good for a greater number of people. However, it also has a number of dubious aspects.
• What is Internet ethics? Write about the ethical problems of the information age and discuss their role in globalization.

• Virtue ethics and its main concepts . This topic includes the definitions of virtues and vices given from different points of view. You can also trace these concepts throughout the history of philosophy and show how they have changed.
• What are the main challenges of deontological ethics ? Here you can discuss problems that arise out of the principle “people should be treated with respect according to their rights.”
• The problem of free will . The discussion of moral responsibility and control can serve as an excellent basis for a research paper!
• What are the peculiarities of Chinese ethics? Confucianism, Daoism, Buddhism , and globalization – see what influenced the ethics of Chinese people over the course of history.
• The ethics of religious belief: Christianity, Judaism , Islam, Buddhism. Different religions have their ethical peculiarities. Some people argue that without religious belief, a person can’t be moral. Discuss it in your paper!
• Personal information, privacy , and other ethical issues of Internet search engines. You can mention both the positive and negative aspects of private data collection via search engines.
• The ethics of cultural appropriation . It is a controversial topic that should include the definition of what can and can’t be qualified as offensive. Discuss past events, such as colonialism, that contributed to the problem of cultural appropriation.
• What are the specifics of feminist ethics?
• Gender binarism as an ethical issue.
• Emotions: definition of love .
• The ethics of the US voting system.
• What are the distinctive features of morality ?
• The concepts of freedom and responsibility in relation to metaethics.
• The benefits of “human-values approach” to computer ethics .
• Ethics of working environment .
• What are the main views on public health ethics?
• What are the ethical problems of human tests in clinical research ?
• The milestones of animal rights activism.
• What is beneficence and benevolence in ethical theory?
• The ethical problems of social justice .
• Business ethics: from Ancient Greece to modern era.
• Confronting physician-assisted suicide and euthanasia .
• Environmental ethics and deep ecology.
• What are the ethical issues of Manifest Destiny?
• Bioethics and its main disciplines.
• Axiology: the relations between ethics and aesthetics.

• What are the issues of organ donation ?
• Neutrality vs. moral agency in ethics of technology.
• What are the central moral issues of human enhancement?
• The “is-ought problem” of evolutionary ethics.
• The issues of human/non-human chimera creation.
• Should animals have the same rights as humans?
• What is the definition and issues of informed consent ?
• The moral challenges of parent-child relationships .
• The ethics of war: the “just war” theory.
• What’s the difference between utilitarianism and hedonism?
• Ethics in psychotherapy: principles and issues.
• Conscience and its main characteristics.
• What are the moral issues of stem cell research?
• Disability ethics: promotion and optimization.
• What is the role of ethics in education?
• The principles of global justice.
• Gender issues in public ethics.
• What is the difference between ethical and unethical marketing ?
• Abolition of capital punishment .
• What are the possible ethical questions of postmortem autopsies?
• Should abortions be legal?

🧐 Top 50 Philosophical Questions

• Is there such a thing as free will?
• What are the constituents of a good life?
• Can mathematical concepts be considered real?
• Does chaos always triumph over order?
• What is the role of religion in modern society?
• Can a lie be justified ?
• Should we strive for immortality ?
• What makes us human?
• Is evil a necessary part of life?
• Is it possible to find answers to all questions about the Universe ?
• What’s the point of art?
• Is there such a thing as destiny ?
• Does knowledge make up happier?
• Can we separate art from the artist ?
• Do our small actions affect the world?
• Is it possible to know a person completely?
• Does power corrupt?
• Is religion necessary for morality?
• Is hedonism a right way of life?
• What does it mean to be conscious ?
• What makes a genius ?
• Can thoughts exist without language?
• Why do people need poetry and fiction?
• Can a murder be justified?
• Is there inherent order in nature?
• What are the limits of free speech?

• Is media censorship necessary?
• Why is beauty associated with morality?
• How can we eliminate prejudice ?
• How will the spread of AI change the world ?
• Should genetic engineering be allowed?
• Is it possible to bridge the gap between the wealthy and the poor?
• Is democracy an effective way of government?
• Why have women been oppressed throughout history?
• Can perfect laws ever be created?
• Why do many people like conspiracy theories ?
• Is a formal education important ?
• Will there be an end to technological progress ?
• Is it possible to be completely free?
• How much do genetics influence human personality?
• Is there such a thing as synchronicity?
• Should animals be used in medical experiments?
• Why is it important to preserve cultural heritage ?
• Should coma patients be kept on life support?
• What is the true nature of time?
• Is it possible to free ourselves from all material thoughts?
• Why is success so important to people?
• Why are people afraid of death ?
• Is there such a thing as soulmates?
• How much freedom should children have?

Throughout history, philosophers have developed many schools of thought. Their ideas vary, but they’re also interconnected. Here is the list of philosophies from Philosophy 101 book that will help you prepare for exam or test:

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• Aristotelianism is a school of thought inspired by Aristotle and his followers. Aristotle rejected Plato’s concept of “ideas” and placed more emphasis on practical wisdom. He also developed what we know as the deductive method of reasoning, as well as a highly influential idea that everything has a purpose. Aristotelianism served as a basis for Scholasticism.
• Atomism is an ancient idea that everything in the world is made out of tiny “atoms.” It proved to be very accurate in the Modern era. The conception of atoms was used not only in natural sciences but also as a way to answer philosophical questions, such as “ why does everything change? “
• Cynicism can be considered a way of life. The Cynics opposed conventions and lived in harmony with nature. They were also famously straightforward and advocated free speech. The most prominent Cynic was Diogenes.

• Stoicism was partially inspired by cynics. Stoics such as Seneca and Epictetus thought that a true sage should be impassionate and calm. They taught people not to worry about things beyond one’s control and that “virtue is sufficient for happiness.”
• Platonism was founded by Plato. According to him, there exists another realm beyond our material world. It is filled with abstract objects (“ideas” or “forms”) which manifest themselves in our world as concrete objects of different kinds. Platonism was popular during the Renaissance, and it served as a basis for Idealism and Humanism.
• Zen Buddhist philosophy originates from Japan. It aims at attaining perfection by way of achieving enlightenment. According to Zen Buddhists, all things in life are equally important. A person should always live “here and now,” and free themselves from all unnecessary thoughts and feelings.
• Scholasticism can be characterized as a method of learning. Initially, it was meant to combine the ideas of Christianity with Aristotelian philosophy. Later it encompassed logic, science, psychology, linguistics, and many other elements. Scholasticism introduced many essential aspects of logical reasoning, such as thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. It was especially popular during the Middle Ages.
• Humanism was the leading philosophical school during the Renaissance. It was influenced by the Italian poet Petrarch, who popularized classical Greek writings. It lead to the re-discovery of Ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, as well as classical arts and literature. Humanism was characterized by the increased importance of human life as opposed to God, striving for perfection, and reliance on scientific methods.
• Existentialism is a significant philosophical school of the 19th-20th centuries. In the center of existentialism was a person with their unique subjective experience. Some of the leading Existentialists, such as Sartre, were novelists and influenced literature with their writings. It also influenced psychology by introducing concepts of anxiety and dread.
• Absurdism is closely related to Existentialism. Its main idea is that searching for the meaning of life is meaningless, as it does more harm than good. We must come to terms with the absurdity of the universe and learn to accept it as it is, without resorting to religion.
• Idealism is another influential school of philosophy which is based on Platonism. It emphasizes the mind and human perception. Some Idealists postulate that the world is an illusion, and only what’s inside our minds is real. Immanuel Kant is considered the most influential Idealist. He argued that the brain perceives reality in a distorted way, and we can never see things as they really are.
• Postmodernism is one of the most prominent philosophical schools of the 20th century. It re-contextualized the notions of identity, reality, difference, and meaning while introducing new concepts. Postmodernism can be described as playful, skeptical, and ambiguous.
• Marxism is a philosophical school that played a massive role in the history of the 20th century. It is mostly concerned with economics and sociology. It introduced the ideas of the proletariat, class struggle, and socialism. These concepts became crucial in the development of Socialist and Communist societies, such as the USSR and China. The most prominent Marxist thinkers are Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
• Feminist philosophy is focused on justice for women, as well as marginalized groups. It fights prejudice and tackles many controversial topics, such as racism and disability. Besides, feminists rethink existing philosophical ideas and make their original contributions to philosophy and science.

Writing a philosophy essay can be a great experience! It teaches you to see the problem from different angles, analyze it, and improve your critical thinking. Besides, studying a philosophy topic allows you to learn new things about the world and even about yourself!

First of all, you need to choose a good paper topic . It can be a classic philosophy topic concerning different schools of thought, or it can be a more abstract existential question. If the problem is too broad, try to narrow it down as much as possible. Also, if you’re only starting to study philosophy, find an easy topic that you can work with. Choose something that will be interesting for you to research!

When you come up with a theme, think of something you can discuss from different sides . Philosophy is all about questioning, debating, and a deeper understanding of things, both real and hypothetical. If you choose to write about the works of a famous philosopher, go ahead and add your own thoughts on the topic!

e.g., Plato’s Republic has many outstanding ideas, but I disagree with his concept of selecting the wisest people to be rulers.

The second step is the thesis statement . Express the main point of your essay or paper in one sentence. It is possible to write it at a later stage. However, if you start with a thesis statement, it would help you stay on topic. It should present the aim of your paper and convince the readers that your work is important. It will also be beneficial if you write an outline!

Get an originally-written paper according to your instructions!

e.g., Socratic dialogue helped to advance the way of thinking.

Then you come up with arguments for and against your thesis statement . This way, you’ll see the subject from multiple points of view, and you’ll be able to discuss it more fully.

You can present your arguments in different ways:

The arguments can be positive or negative – that is, they can either support or refute the thesis statement. You can use evidence from life or quote the ideas of other philosophers. If you’ve chosen a big philosophical question, e.g., “ what is the meaning of life? ” you can select arguments for related problems, such as “should everything always have meaning?” or “why is meaning important?” Don’t forget to show how all these questions are related to your main topic!

e.g., the Socratic method can be very beneficial in education and psychotherapy; at the same time, it may be used for manipulating people.

When coming up with arguments, choose only the strongest ones . The same thing goes for examples. They can be empirical or hypothetical, but most important of all, credible. As philosophy is interconnected with all kinds of arts and sciences, you can find your evidence everywhere: in fiction, physics, or psychology. The choice is yours!

We are sure that these tips will help you to write a perfect philosophy paper. Now it’s time to choose your topic and get started! Good luck!

The most interesting topics in philosophy are usually concerned with politics, the human mind, and ethics. They can also be inspired by modern-day problems. E.g. how does philosophy apply to an AI, or can AI become better than humans.

Philosophy covers a vast number of topics. They can be related to everything from politics to quantum physics. There are classical questions, such as the purpose of life, but also new topics about the modern world, like computer ethics.

The Greek philosopher Socrates is often called the father of western philosophy. He taught his disciples the importance of asking questions, showing that philosophy is the art of searching for the truth.

There are five major areas of philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, and aesthetics. They study reality, knowledge, debate, morality, and beauty.

🔎 References

• Scholasticism: Philosophy Basics
• Renaissance Philosophy: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• History of Philosophy | Ancient Philosophy: Illinois State University
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Main Page
• Ethics: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Virtue Ethics: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Ethical Theories: The Arthur W. Page Center
• Atomism: Encyclopedia Britannica
• A Brief Guide to Writing a Philosophy Paper: Harvard University
• Feminist Philosophy: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• What is Marxism: All About Philosophy
• Idealism: CUNY
• Postmodernism Philosophy: Encyclopedia Britannica
• Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophy: Encyclopedia Britannica
• What is Philosophy?: Florida State University
• Karl Marx | Biography, Philosophy and Facts: Famous Philosophers
• Kant and the Foundations of Analytic Philosophy: Academia
• Immanuel Kant: International Bureau of Education
• Friedrich Nietzsche Philosophy: The Quintessential Mind
• German Idealism: New World Encyclopedia
• Greek Philosophy: Ancient History Encyclopedia
• Medieval Philosophy: Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Medieval Philosophy: The University of Tennessee Martin
• Renaissance Philosophy Review: Birkbeck University of London
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Philosophy essay writing guide

Introduction.

This guide is intended to give new students of philosophy some preliminary advice about writing philosophy essays at university. For many of you, writing a philosophy essay will be something of a new experience, and no doubt many of you will be a little unsure of what to expect, or of what is expected of you. Most of you will have written essays in school for English, History, etc. A philosophy essay is something a little different again. However, it is not an unfathomable, mysterious affair, nor one where anything goes.

Just what a philosophy essay is will depend a lot, as you'd expect, on just what philosophy is. Defining philosophy is always a more or less controversial business, but one way to think of what is done in university philosophy departments is to think of the difference between having a philosophy and doing philosophy. Virtually everyone "has a philosophy" in the sense that we have many basic beliefs about the world and ourselves and use certain key concepts to articulate those beliefs. Many of us initially come to thus "have a philosophy" (or elements of several philosophies) often only unconsciously, or by following "what's obvious" or "what everybody knows", or by adopting a view because it sounds exciting or is intellectually fashionable.

"Doing philosophy", on the other hand, is a self-conscious unearthing and rigorous examination of these basic beliefs and key concepts. In doing so, we try to clarify the meanings of those beliefs and concepts and to evaluate critically their rational grounds or justification. Thus, rather than having their heads in the clouds, philosophers are really more under the surface of our thinking, examining the structures that support - or fail to support - those who trust that they have their feet on the ground. Such examination may even help to develop new and firmer ground.

Doing philosophy, then, begins with asking questions about the fundamental ideas and concepts that inform our ways of looking at the world and ourselves, and proceeds by developing responses to those questions which seek to gain insight into those ideas and concepts - and part of that development consists in asking further questions, giving further responses, and so on. Human beings across the world have been engaged in this sort of dialogue of question and response for many centuries - even millennia - and a number of great traditions of reflection and inquiry have evolved that have fundamentally influenced the development of religion, art, science and politics in many cultures. The influence of philosophical thinking on Western civilization, in particular, can be traced back more than 2,500 years to the Ancient Greeks.

In philosophy, a good essay is one that, among other things, displays a good sense of this dialectic of question and response by asking insightful, probing questions, and providing reasoned, well-argued responses. This means that you should not rest content with merely an unintegrated collection of assertions, but should instead work at establishing logical relations between your thoughts. You are assessed not on the basis of what you believe, but on how well you argue for the position you adopt in your essay, and on how interesting and insightful your discussion of the issues is. That is to say, you are assessed on how well you do philosophy, not on what philosophy you end up having. Nonetheless, you ought to make sure that your essay's discussion is relevant to the topic. (See Section 5.2 below on relevance.)

It is hoped that you enjoy the activity of essay writing. If you have chosen to study Arts, it is likely that you will have a particular interest in - even a passion for - ideas and the variety of forms and genres in which ideas are expressed and explored. The argumentative or discursive formal academic essay is one such form, and one which can be a pleasure to read and to write. Thus, the assessment that is set in philosophy courses is primarily an invitation to you to pursue what is already (or, hopefully, soon to be) your own interest in writing to explore ideas. However, your immediate goal in writing an academic philosophy essay ought not to be to write a personal testament, confession or polemic. Rather, you should primarily aim at articulating, clearly and relatively dispassionately, your philosophical thinking on the topic at hand. Nevertheless, the kind and degree of personal development one can gain from taking up the challenge to think and to write carefully, clearly and thoroughly is certainly something to be greatly valued.

This guide is intended to help you get started in the business of writing philosophy essays. As you practise your philosophical writing skills, you will develop your own technique, and learn what is appropriate in each particular case. So you may well come to "work around" many of these guidelines. Nonetheless, it is important that you pass through that which you seek to pass beyond.* In addition to your own writing, your reading of other philosophers will help you to develop your sense of what constitutes good philosophical writing. As you read, note the various styles and techniques that philosophical authors employ in their treatment of philosophical issues. Practice and studying good examples, then, are the most valuable ways to develop your essay writing skills.

This guide is, moreover, only one of many publications that introduce philosophy students to essay writing. Some others you may like to consult include:

• A. P. Martinich, Philosophical Writing, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997)
• J. Feinberg and R. Shafer-Landau, Doing Philosophy: A Guide to the Writing of Philosophy Papers, 2nd ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001)
• Z. Seech, Writing Philosophy Papers, 4th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2003)
• R. Solomon, "Writing Philosophy", Appendix to his The Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy, 6th ed. (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth, 2001)
• S. Gorovitz et al., Philosophical Analysis: An Introduction to its Language and Techniques, 3rd ed. (New York: Random House, 1979)

Also, the websites of many philosophy departments in universities around Australia and the world contain downloadable essay writing guides or links to them.

*This phrase is adapted from Jacques Bouveresse, "Why I am so very unFrench", in Alan Montefiore, ed., Philosophy in France Today (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 12.

What do I do in a Philosophy essay?

Philosophy essay topics are not designed to provide an intellectual obstacle course that trips you up so as to delight a malicious marker. They are designed to invite you to "grapple with" with some particular philosophical problem or issue. That is to say, they are designed to offer you an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of a particular philosophical problem or issue, and to exhibit your own philosophical skills of analysis, argumentation, etc. These twin goals are usually best achieved by ensuring that your essay performs two basic functions (your understanding and your skills apply to both):

an exposition of the problem or issue in question (often as it is posed in some particular text); and a critical discussion of the problem or text

These two functions can, but need not always, correspond to physically or structurally distinct sections of your essay. See Section 5.1.

The expository ("setting forth") aspect of your essay is where you should make clear what the issue is and why it is an issue. Where you are dealing with an issue as it is presented in some particular text, your aim should be to make clear what it is that the author in question meant in their text, what they see as the issue and why they see it as an issue. This does not involve merely quoting or paraphrasing a text. Of course, occasional quotation and paraphrase may be appropriate - sometimes necessary - but these ought not to constitute the sole or major content of your exposition. Where you do quote or paraphrase, make sure you attribute your sources in footnotes or endnotes. (See Section 7.)

Exposition is, then, primarily a matter of developing in your own words what you think the issue is or what you think the text means. In all expository work you should always try to give a fair and accurate account of a text or problem, even when the exposition becomes more interpretive rather than simply descriptive. You ought to be patient and sympathetic in your exposition, even if you intend later to criticise heavily the philosopher in question. Indeed, the better the exposition in this regard, usually the more effective the critique.

An important part of exposition is your analysis of the text or issue. Here you should try to "break down" the text, issue or problem into its constitutive elements by distinguishing its different parts. (E.g. "There are two basic kinds of freedom in question when we speak of freedom of the will. First, … . Second, …", or "There are three elements in Plato's conception of the soul, namely... He establishes these three elements by means of the following two arguments... ") This also involves showing the relationships between those elements, relationships which make them "parts of the whole".

As well as laying out these elements within a text or issue, you can also (when appropriate or relevant) show how a text or issue "connects up with" other texts, issues, or philosophical and/or historical developments, which can help to shed further light on the matter by giving it a broader context. (eg "Freedom of the will is importantly connected to the justification of punishment", or "Plato's tripartite theory of the soul bears interesting resemblances to Freud's analysis of the psyche", or "Kant's transcendental idealism can be seen as reconciling the preceding rationalist and empiricist accounts of knowledge".)

An exposition of a text need not always simply follow the author's own view of what it means. You should, of course, demonstrate that you understand how the author themself understands their work, but an exposition can sometimes go beyond this, giving another reading of the text. (eg "Heidegger might deny it, but his Being and Time can be read as developing a pragmatist account of human understanding.") A given text or issue may well be susceptible to a number of plausible or reasonable interpretations. An exposition should aim to be sensitive to such variety. When appropriate, you should defend your interpretations against rivals and objections. Your interpretation ought, though, to be aimed at elucidating the meaning or meanings of the text or issue and not serve merely as a "coat-hanger" for presenting your own favoured views on the matter in question, which should be left to your ...

Critical discussion

This is where your thought gets more of the centre stage. Here you should attempt to develop a response to the issues which your exposition has made clear, and/or, in the case of a discussion of some particular text, attempt to give a critical appraisal of the author's treatment of the issue. In developing a response to a philosophical problem, argumentation is, again, of central importance. Avoid making unsupported assertions; back up your claims with reasons, and connect up your ideas so that they progress logically toward your conclusions. Consider some of the various objections to and questions about your views that others might or have put forward, and try to respond to them in defence of your own line of thinking. Your goal here should be to discuss what you have expounded so as to come to some conclusion or judgement about it. ("Critical" is derived from the Ancient Greek for "to decide, to judge".) Critical discussion is thus not necessarily "destructive" or "negative"; it can be quite constructive and positive.

In the case of a critical appraisal of a particular author's text, you can negatively criticise the author's arguments by pointing out questionable assumptions, invalid reasoning, etc. If, on the other hand, you think that the text is good, then your critical discussion can be positive. This can be done by revealing its "hidden virtues" (that is, by showing that there is more to the author's arguments and views than what lies on the surface) and/or by defending an author against possible and/or actual criticisms. (eg "Norman Malcolm argues that Descartes is mistaken in assuming that dreams and waking episodes have the same content.* However, Malcolm fails to appreciate the subtlety of Descartes' argument in the First Meditation, which allows Descartes to claim . . .") Just to expound an author's arguments and then say "I disagree" or "That seems right" is not really enough - you need to "have something to say" about it. Of course, by all means go on, after finding fault with some philosopher, to answer in your own way the questions tackled or raised by the author. (eg "Simone de Beauvoir's analysis of women's oppression in The Second Sex suffers from serious weaknesses, as I have shown in Section 2 above. A better way to approach the issue, I shall now argue, is to . . .".)

Where you are not primarily concerned with evaluating or responding to a particular text, your critical discussion can be more focused on your own constructive response to the issue. (eg "Having used Dworkin's account to clarify the meanings of the concepts of 'the sanctity of life' and 'voluntariness', I shall now argue that voluntary euthanasia is morally permissible because its voluntariness respects what is of value in the notion of the sanctity of life" - where you now leave Dworkin behind as a source and move on to give your own account.)

* See Norman Malcolm, "Dreaming and Skepticism", in Willis Doney, ed., Descartes: A Collection of Critical Essays (London: Macmillan, 1967), p. 56.

Guide to researching and writing Philosophy essays

5th edition by Steven Tudor , for the Philosophy program, University of Melbourne, 2003.

This fifth edition of How to Write a Philosophy Essay: A Guide for Students (previous editions titled A Guide to Researching and Writing Philosophy Essays ) was prepared in consultation with members of the Philosophy program, the University of Melbourne. For advice and assistance on this and earlier editions, thanks are due to Graham Priest, Barry Taylor, Christopher Cordner, Doug Adeney, Josie Winther, Linda Burns, Marion Tapper, Kimon Lycos, Brendan Long, Jeremy Moss, Tony Coady, Will Barrett, Brian Scarlett, and Megan Laverty. Some use was also made of materials prepared by the Philosophy Departments of La Trobe University, the University of Queensland, and The Australian National University.

Disclaimer: University, Faculty and program rules

Please note: this booklet does not provide authoritative statements of the official policies or rules of the University of Melbourne, the Faculty of Arts, or the Philosophy program with regard to student essays and examinations or any other matters. Students should, therefore, not rely on this booklet for such information, for which they should consult the various appropriate notice boards, handbooks, websites, and/or members of staff.

Essay topics

What do philosophy essay topics look like? There are, very roughly, two basic kinds of philosophy essay topics: "text-focused" topics and "problem-focused" topics. Text-focused topics ask you to consider some particular philosopher's writing on some issue. (eg "Discuss critically David Hume's account of causation in Part III of Book I of his A Treatise of Human Nature " or "Was Wittgenstein right to say that 'the meaning of a word is its use in the language', in his Philosophical Investigations, Sec. 43?"). Problem-focused topics are more directly about a particular philosophical problem or issue, without reference to any particular philosopher's text. (eg "Is voluntary euthanasia morally permissible?" or "What is scientific method?")

There is another sort of topic, one which presents a statement and asks you to discuss it, where that statement is a "made up" or, at least, unattributed quote. (eg. "'Without belief in God, people cannot be moral'. Discuss.") I shall regard these as variations of the problem-focused type of topic. Where you are asked to discuss some such statement "with reference to" some specified text or philosopher, then that topic becomes more text-focused. (eg "'Without belief in God, people cannot be moral'. Discuss with reference to J.L. Mackie's Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. ") Occasionally, a topic presents an unattributed statement, but the statement is, in fact, a quote from a particular philosopher you've been studying, or, at least, a good paraphrase of their thinking. (An example of the latter: "'All the ideas in our minds originate from either sense perception or our reflection upon sensory information.' Discuss.", in a course devoted to John Locke, whose views are summed up in the quoted statement, though those words are not actually his.) Should you take such topics as problem- or text-focused? Rather unhelpfully, I'll say only that it depends on the case. You might ask your lecturer or tutor about it. Whichever way you do take it, be clear in your essay which way you are taking it.

The difference between text-focused and problem-focused essay topics is, however, not very radical. This is because, on the one hand, any particular philosopher's text is about some philosophical problem or question, while, on the other hand, most philosophical problems (certainly virtually all those you will be given as essay topics at university) will have been written about by previous philosophers.

The basic way to approach text-focused topics, then, is to treat the nominated text as an attempt by one philosopher to deal with a particular philosophical problem or issue. The essay topic will, generally speaking, be inviting you to do philosophy with that philosopher, to engage with them in thinking about the issue, whether that engagement proves to be as an ally or an adversary. The chosen text will usually be one which has been (or deserves to be) influential or significant in the history of philosophy, but the task is not to pay homage to past masters. But, even if homage is your thing, the best way to do that here is to engage with the master philosophically.

With regard to problem-focused topics, you will often find your exploration of the problem aided by taking some text or texts which have dealt with it as reference points or prompts. This is not always strictly necessary, but many of you starting out in philosophy will find it helpful to do so - it can help you give focus to your response to the question. (Thus, you might, in an essay on the topic "Is voluntary euthanasia morally permissible?" take it upon yourself to use, for example, Ronald Dworkin's Life's Dominion and Peter Singer's Practical Ethics as reference points. Or, in an essay on the topic "What is scientific method?", you might set up your answer via a comparison of the two different accounts in Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery and Paul Feyerabend's Against Method.*) How will you know which texts to adopt as reference points or prompts, if none is mentioned in the essay topic itself? One way is to consider what texts have already been mentioned with regard to the topic in your course reading guide and in lectures and tutorials. Another way is to do some of your own research. On this see Section 4 below.

* In this guide, in giving examples of how to go about answering an essay question, I am not necessarily giving any concrete or reliable advice for any particular topic. The examples are primarily to do with the form or style or strategy you might find helpful.

Researching your essay

To do research for your philosophy essay you need to do only two things: read and think. Actually, for problem-focused essays, thinking is the only truly necessary bit, but it's highly likely that you will find your thinking much assisted if you do some reading as well. Philosophical research at university is a little different to research in most other disciplines (especially the natural sciences), in that it is not really about "collecting data" to support or refute explanatory theories. Rather, the thinking that's involved in philosophical research (as part of one's preparation for philosophical writing) is more a matter of reflecting critically upon the problems in front of one. Researching the writings of other philosophers should, therefore, be primarily directed towards helping you with that reflection rather than aiming at gathering together and reporting on "the relevant findings" on a particular topic. In many other disciplines, a "literature review" is an important research skill, and sometimes philosophy academics do such reviews - but it is rare that philosophy students are asked to do one.

What, then, to read? It should be clear from your lectures and tutorials what some starting points for your reading might be. (All courses provide reading guides; many also have booklets of reading material.) Your tutor and lecturer are also available for consultation on what readings you might begin with for any particular topic in that subject. Independent research can also uncover useful sources, and evidence of this in your essay can be a pleasing sign of intellectual independence. Make sure, though, that what you come up with is relevant to the topic. (See Section 5.2 below on relevance.) Whichever way you proceed, your reading should be purposive and selective.

In the case of essay questions that refer to a particular text, you should familiarise yourself thoroughly with this text. Usually, such a text will be a primary text, i.e. one in which a philosopher writes directly about a philosophical issue. Texts on or about a primary text are called secondary texts. (Many philosophical works will combine these two tasks, and discuss other philosophical texts while also dealing directly with a philosophical issue.) Some secondary texts can be helpful to students. However, don't think you will only ever understand a primary text if you have a nice friendly secondary text to take you by the hand through the primary text. More often than not, you need to have a good grasp of the primary text in order to make sense of the secondary text.

How much to read? The amount of reading you do should be that which maximises the quality of your thinking - that is, you should not swamp yourself with vast slabs of text that you can't digest, but nor should you starve your mind of ideas to chew over. There is, of course, no simple rule for determining this optimal amount. Be wary, though, of falling into the vice of looking for excuses not to read some philosopher or text, as in "Oh, that's boring old religious stuff" or "She's one of those obscure literary feminist types", or "In X Department they laugh at you if you mention those authors in tutes". If someone wants a reason not to think, they'll soon come up with one.

Philosophical writings

Most philosophical writings come in either of two forms: books or articles. Articles appear either in books that are edited anthologies or in academic journals, such as Philosophical Quarterly or Australasian Journal of Philosophy. Some academic journals are also on the internet. Most articles in the journals are written by professional philosophers for professional philosophers; similarly with many books. But by no means let this put you off. Everyone begins philosophy at the deep end - it's really the only kind there is!

There are, however, many books written for student audiences. Some of these are general introductions to philosophy as a whole; others are introductions to particular areas or issues (eg biomedical ethics or philosophy of science). Among the general introductions are various philosophical dictionaries, encyclopedias and "companions". These reference works collect short articles on a wide range of topics and can be very useful starting points for newcomers to a topic. Among the most useful of the general reference works are:

• Edward Craig, ed., The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.) (London: Routledge, 1998)
• Paul Edwards, ed., The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (8 vols.) (New York: Macmillan, 1967)
• Robert Audi, ed., The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)
• Ted Honderich, ed., The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995)
• Simon Blackburn, The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
• Thomas Mautner, ed., The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Penguin, 1998)
• J.O. Urmson and Jonathan Ree, eds., The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers (London: Routledge, 1993)
• Edward N. Zalta, ed., The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (an internet-based reference work: plato.stanford.edu/ )

Note taking

Note taking, like your reading, should not be random, but ought to be guided by the topic in question and by your particular lines of response to the issues involved. Note taking for philosophy is very much an individual art, which you develop as you progress. By and large it is not of much use to copy out reams of text as part of your researches. Nor is it generally helpful to read a great number of pages without making any note of what they contain for future reference. But between these two extremes it is up to you to find the mean that best helps you in getting your thoughts together.

Libraries and electronic resources

The University's Baillieu Library (including the Institute of Education Resource Centre), which is open to all members of the University, contains more than 2,500 years' worth of philosophical writings. The best way to become acquainted with them is by using them, including using the catalogues (including the Baillieu's on-line catalogues and subject resources web-pages), following up a work's references (and references in the references), intelligent browsing of the shelves, etc.

In the main Baillieu Library, the philosophical books are located (mostly) between 100–199 in the Dewey decimal system, and philosophical journals are located in the basement. The Reference section on the ground floor also has some relevant works. The Education Resource Centre also has a good philosophy collection.

In addition to hard-copy philosophical writings, there is also a variety of electronic resources in philosophy, mostly internet-based. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy was already mentioned above. Links to other useful internet sites (such as the Australasian Association of Philosophy website) can be found through the Baillieu Library's web-page and the Philosophy Department's web-page.

A strong word of warning, however, for the would-be philosophical web-surfer: because anyone can put material on a website, all kinds of stuff, of varying levels of quality, is out there - and new-comers to philosophy are usually not well placed to sort their way through it. Unless you have a very good understanding of what you're looking for - and what you're not looking for - most of you will be much better off simply carefully reading and thinking about a central text for your course, eg Descartes' First Meditation, rather than wandering about the internet clicking on all the hits for "Descartes". Exercise your mind, not your index finger.

Writing your essay

Planning and structuring your essay.

It is very important that you plan your essay, so that you have an idea of what you are going to write before you start to write it. Of course, you will most likely alter things in later drafts, but you should still start off by having a plan. Planning your essay includes laying out a structure. It is very important that your essay has a clearly discernible structure, ie that it is composed of parts and that these parts are logically connected. This helps both you and your reader to be clear about how your discussion develops, stage by stage, as you work through the issues at hand.

Poor essay structure is one of the most common weaknesses in student philosophy essays. Taking the time to work on the structure of your essay is time well spent, especially since skill in structuring your thoughts for presentation to others should be among the more enduring things you learn at university. A common trap that students fall into is to start their essay by writing the first sentence, then writing another one that seems to follow that one, then another one that sort of fits after that one, then another that might or might not have some connection with the previous one, and so on until the requisite 1,500 words are used up. The result is usually a weak, rambling essay.

There are, of course, no hard and fast rules about how to structure a philosophy essay. Again, it is a skill you develop through practice, and much will depend on the particular topic at hand. Nonetheless, it might be helpful to begin by developing an essay structure around the basic distinction between your exposition and your critical discussion (as discussed above). In this it will be important that you make clear who is putting forward which point, that is, make it clear whether you are presenting your own thoughts or are expounding someone else's. (Again, confusion in this regard is a common problem in student essays.) It can often help your structuring if you provide headings for different sections (possibly numbered or lettered). Again, this helps both your reader to follow your discussion and you to develop your thoughts. At each stage, show clearly the logical relations between and the reasons for your points, so that your reader can see clearly why you say what you say and can see clearly the development in your discussion.

Another key to structuring your essay can be found in the old adage "Tell 'em what you're gonna tell 'em. Tell 'em. Then tell 'em what you've told 'em", which provides you with a ready-made structure: Introduction, Main Body, and Conclusion.

In your Introduction, first introduce the issues the essay is concerned with. In doing so, try to state briefly just what the problem is and (if there is space) why it is a problem. This also applies, of course, to issues covered in text-focused essay topics. Next, tell the reader what it is that you are going to do about those problems in the Main Body. This is usually done by giving a brief sketch or overview of the main points you will present, a "pre-capitulation", so to speak, of your essay's structure. This is one way of showing your reader that you have a grasp (indeed, it helps you get a grasp) of your essay as a structured and integrated whole, and gives them some idea of what to expect by giving them an idea of how you have decided to answer the question. Of course, for reasons of space, your Introduction might not be very long, but something along these lines is likely to be useful.

In your Main Body, do what you've said you'll do. Here is where you should present your exposition(s) and your critical discussion(s). Thus, it is here that the main philosophical substance of your essay is to be found. Of course, what that substance is and how you will present it will depend on the particular topic before you. But, whatever the topic, make clear at each stage just what it is you are doing. You can be quite explicit about this. (eg "I shall now present Descartes' ontological argument for the existence of God, as it is presented in his Fifth Meditation. There will be three stages to this presentation.") Don't think that such explicitness must be a sign of an unsophisticated thinker.

A distinct Conclusion is perhaps not always necessary, if your Main Body has clearly "played out" your argument. So you don't always have to present a grand summation or definitive judgement at the end. Still, often for your own sake, try to state to yourself what it is your essay has achieved and see if it would be appropriate to say so explicitly. Don't feel that you must come up with earth-shattering conclusions. Of course, utter banality or triviality are not good goals, either. Also, your essay doesn't always have to conclude with a "solution" to a problem. Sometimes, simply clarifying an issue or problem is a worthy achievement and can merit first-class honours. A good conclusion to a philosophy essay, then, will usually combine a realistic assessment of the ambit and cogency of its claims with a plausible proposal that those claims have some philosophical substance.

What you write in your essay should always be relevant to the question posed. This is another common problem in student essays, so continually ask yourself "Am I addressing the question here?" First-class answers to a question can vary greatly, but you must make sure that your essay responds to the question asked, even if you go on to argue that the question as posed is itself problematic. (eg "To ask ‘What is scientific method?' presupposes that science follows one basic method. However, I shall argue that there are, in fact, several different scientific methods and that these are neither unified nor consistent.") Be wary, however, of twisting a topic too far out of shape in order to fit your favoured theme. (You would be ill-advised, for example, to proceed thus: "What is scientific method? This is a question asked by many great minds. But what is a mind? In this essay, I shall discuss the views of Thomas Aquinas on the nature of mind.")

This requirement of relevance is not intended as an authoritarian constraint on your intellectual freedom. It is part of the skill of paying sustained and focused attention to something put before you - which is one of the most important skills you can develop at university. If you do have other philosophical interests that you want to pursue (such as Aquinas on mind), then please do pursue them, in addition to writing your essay on the set topic. At no stage does the requirement of relevance prevent you from pursuing your other interests.

Citing Philosophical "Authorities"

There might be occasions when you want to quote other philosophers and writers apart from when you are quoting them because they are the subject of your essay. There are two basic reasons why you might want to do this. First, you might quote someone because their words constitute a good or exemplary expression or articulation of an idea you are dealing with, whether as its proponent, critic, or simply its chronicler. (eg "As Nietzsche succinctly put the point, 'There are no moral phenomena at all, only a moral interpretation of phenomena'.*") You may or may not want to endorse the idea whose good expression you have quoted, but simply want to use the philosopher as a spokesperson for or example of that view. But be clear about what you think the quote means and be careful about what you are doing with the quote. It won't do all the work for you.

The second reason you might want to quote a philosopher is because you think their words constitute an "authoritative statement" of a view. Here you want to use the fact that, eg Bertrand Russell maintained that there are two kinds of knowledge of things (namely, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description) in support of your claim that there are two such kinds of knowledge of things. However, be very careful in doing this, for the nature of philosophical authority is not so simple here. That is to say, what really matters is not that Bertrand Russell the man held that view; what matters are his reasons for holding that view. So, when quoting philosophers for this second reason, be careful that you appreciate in what exactly the authority lies - which means that you should show that you appreciate why Russell maintained that thesis. Of course, you can't provide long arguments for every claim you make or want to make use of; every essay will have its enabling but unargued assumptions. But at least be clear about these. (eg "For the purposes of this essay, I shall adopt Russell's thesis* that ...").

* Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, trans. R.J. Hollingdale (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973 [first German ed.1886]), Sec. 108.

* See Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1967 [first pub. 1912]), Ch. 5.

Philosophy is by its nature a relatively abstract and generalising business. (Note that abstractness and generality are not the same thing. Nor do vagueness and obscurity automatically attend them.) Sometimes a longish series of general ideas and abstract reasonings can become difficult for the reader (and often the writer) to follow. It can often help, therefore, to use some concrete or specific examples in your discussion. (Note that there can be different levels of concreteness and specificity in examples.)

Examples can be taken from history, current events, literature, and so on, or can be entirely your own invention. Exactly what examples you employ and just how and why you use them will, of course, depend on the case. Some uses might be: illustration of a position, problem or idea to help make it clearer; evidence for, perhaps even proof of, a proposition; a counter-example; a case-study to be returned to at various points during the essay; or a problem for a theory or viewpoint to be applied to. Again, be clear about what the example is and how and why you use it. Be careful not to get distracted by, or bogged down in, your examples. Brevity is usually best.

English expression

There's another old saying: "If you can't say what you mean, then you can't mean what you say" - and this very much applies to philosophical writing. Thus, in writing philosophically, you must write clearly and precisely. This means that good philosophical writing requires a good grasp of the language in which it is written, including its grammar and vocabulary. (See Section 9.3 for advice for people from non-English speaking backgrounds.) A high standard of writing skills is to be expected of Arts graduates. Indeed, this sort of skill will last longer than your memory of, for example, the three parts of the Platonic soul (though it is also hoped that some of the content of what you study will also stick). So use your time at university (in all your subjects) to develop these skills further.

Having a mastery of a good range of terms, being sensitive to the subtleties of their meaning, and being able to construct grammatically correct and properly punctuated sentences are essential to the clear articulation and development of your thoughts. Think of grammar, not as some old-fashioned set of rules of linguistic etiquette, but rather as the "internal logic" of a sentence, that is, as the relationships between the words within a sentence which enable them to combine to make sense.

Virtually all sentences in philosophical writing are declarative (ie. make statements), as opposed to interrogative, imperative or exclamatory types of sentences. There is some place, though, for interrogative sentences, ie. questions. (Note that, in contrast, this guide, which is not in the essay genre, contains many imperative sentences, ie. commands.) As you craft each (declarative) sentence in your essay, remember the basics of sentence construction. Make clear what the sentence is about (its subject) and what you are saying about it (the predicate). Make clear what the principal verb is in the predicate, since it is what usually does the main work in saying something about the subject. Where a sentence consists of more than one clause (as many do in philosophical writing), make clear what work each clause is doing. Attend closely, then, to each and every sentence you write so that its sense is clear and is the sense you intend it to have. Think carefully about what it is you want each particular sentence to do (in relation to both those sentences immediately surrounding it and the essay as a whole) and structure your sentence so that it does what you want it to do. To help you with your own sentence construction skills, when reading others' philosophical works (or indeed any writing) attend closely to the construction of each sentence so as to be alive to all the subtleties of the text.

Good punctuation is an essential part of sentence construction. Its role is to help to display the grammar of a sentence so that its meaning is clear. As an example of how punctuation can fundamentally change the grammar and, hence, meaning of a sentence, compare (i) "Philosophers, who argue for the identity of mind and brain, often fail to appreciate the radical consequences of that thesis." and (ii) "Philosophers who argue for the identity of mind and brain often fail to appreciate the radical consequences of that thesis." In the first sentence it is asserted (falsely, as it happens) that all philosophers argue for the identity of mind and brain; in the second, only some philosophers are said to argue for the identity of mind and brain. Only the punctuation differs in the two strings of identical words, and yet the meanings of the sentences are very different. Confusions over this sort of thing are common weaknesses in student essays, and leave readers asking themselves "What exactly is this student trying to say?"

It will be assumed that you can spell - which is not a matter of pressing the "spell-check" key on a word-processor. A good dictionary and a good thesaurus should always be within reach as you write your essay.

Also, try to shorten and simplify sentences where you can do so without sacrificing the subtlety and inherent complexity of the discussion. Where a sentence is becoming too long or complex, it is likely that too many ideas are being bundled up together too closely. Stop and separate your ideas out. If an idea is a good or important one, it will usually deserve its own sentence.

Your "intra-sentential logic" should work very closely with the "inter-sentential logic" of your essay, ie. with the logical relations between your sentences. (This "inter-sentential logic" is what "logic" is usually taken to refer to.) For example, to enable sentences P and Q to work together to yield sentence R as a conclusion, you need to make clear that there are elements within P and Q which connect up to yield R. Consider the following example: "Infanticide is the intentional killing of a human being. However, murder is regarded by all cultures as morally abhorrent. Therefore, people who commit infanticide should be punished." This doesn't work as an argument, because the writer has not constructed sentences which provide the connecting concepts in the various subjects and predicates, even though each sentence is grammatically correct (and possibly even true).

If you are concerned to write not only clearly and precisely, but also with some degree of grace and style (and I hope you are), it's still best to get the clarity and precision right first, in a plain, straightforward way, and then to polish things up afterwards to get the style and grace you want. But don't sacrifice clarity and precision for the sake of style and grace - be prepared to sacrifice that beautiful turn of phrase if its presence is going to send your discussion down an awkward path of reasoning. Aim to hit the nail on the head rather than make a loud bang. What you are likely to find, however, is that a philosophy essay which really is clear and precise will have a large measure of grace and style in its very clarity and precision.

Remember that obscurity is not a sign of profundity. (Some profound thought may well be difficult to follow, but that doesn't mean that one can achieve profundity merely through producing obscure, difficult-to-read writing.) Your marker is interested in what's actually in your essay, not what's possibly inside your head (or indeed what's possibly in some book you happen to have referred to in your essay). So avoid hinting at or alluding suggestively to ideas, especially where they are meant to do some important work in your essay. Instead, lay them out explicitly and directly. Of course, you won't have space to spell out every single idea, so work out which ideas do the most important work and make sure that you at least get those ideas clearly articulated. In expounding a text or problem that ultimately just is vague, muddled, or obscure, try to convey such vagueness, muddle or obscurity clearly, rather than simply reproducing it in your own writing. That is, be clear that and how a text or problem has such features, and then perhaps do your best to make matters clearer.

Despite these stern pronouncements, don't be afraid of sometimes saying things which happen to sound a little odd, if you have tried various formulations and think you have now expressed your ideas just as they should be expressed. Philosophy is often an exploratory business, and new ways of seeing and saying things can sometimes be a part of that exploration.

The need for clarity and precision in philosophical writing sometimes means that you need to stipulate your own meaning for a term. When you want to use a particular word in a particular way for the purposes of your essay - as a "technical term" - be clear about it. (eg "In this essay, I shall intend ‘egoism' to mean ...") Also, be consistent in your technical meanings, or else note when you are not. Be wary, though, of inventing too many neologisms or being too idiosyncratic in your stipulations.

With regard to what "authorial pronoun" to adopt in a philosophy essay, it's standard to write plainly in the first person singular ("I", "me", "my", etc.) rather than use the royal "we" (as in "we shall argue that ..."), or the convoluted quasi-legal indirect form ("It is submitted that ..."), or the scientific objectivity of a physics experimental report. Nonetheless, stick closer to "I argue", "I suggest", "my definition", etc., than to "I wish", "I hate", "my feeling", etc. A philosophy essay is still something more intellectual and formal than a personal reminiscence, polemic, or proclamation. In terms of audience, it's probably best to think of your reader as someone who is intelligent, open to discussion and knows a little about the topic you're writing on, but perhaps is not quite clear or decided about the issues, or needs convincing of the view you want to put forward, or is curious about what you think about the issues.

Try also to use non-discriminatory language, ie. language which does not express or imply inequality of worth between people on the basis of sex, gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality, and so on. As you write, you will be considering carefully your choice of words to express your thoughts. You will almost always find that it is possible to avoid discriminatory language by rephrasing your sentences.

Other things to avoid:

• waffle and padding
• vagueness and ambiguity
• abbreviations (this guide I'm writing isn't an eg. of what's req'd. in a phil. essay)
• colloquialisms (which can really get up your reader's nose)
• writing whose syntax merely reflects the patterns of informal speech
• unnecessary abstractness or indirectness
• unexplained jargon
• flattery and invective
• overly-rhetorical questions (do you really need me to tell you what they are?) and other flourishes

There are many guides to good writing available. Anyone who writes (whether in the humanities or the sciences, whether beginners or experienced professionals) will do well to have some on hand. Most good bookshops and libraries will have some. Among the most consulted works are (check for the latest editions):

• J. M. Williams and G. C. Colomb, Style: Toward Clarity and Grace (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)
• W. Strunk and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, 4th ed. (New York: Longman, 2000)
• E. Gowers, The Complete Plain Words, 3rd ed. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987)
• R. W. Burchfield, ed., The New Fowler's Modern English Usage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996)
• Pam Peters, The Cambridge Australian English Style Guide (Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1995)
• Australian Government Publishing Service, Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers, 5th ed. (Canberra: AGPS, 1995)

Vocabulary of logical argument

Closely related to the above points about English expression is the importance of having a good grasp of what can rather generally be called "the vocabulary of logical argument". These sorts of terms are crucial in articulating clearly and cogently a logical line of argument. Such argumentation will, of course, be of central importance in whatever discipline you are studying, indeed in any sphere of life that requires effective thinking and communication. I have in mind terms such as these (grouped a little loosely):

all, any, every, most, some, none, a, an, the that, this, it, he, she, they if . . . , then. . . ; if and only if . . . , then . . . ; unless either . . . or . . .; neither . . . nor . . . not, is, are therefore, thus, hence, so, because, since, follows, entails, implies, infer, consequence, conditional upon moreover, furthermore which, that, whose and, but, however, despite, notwithstanding, nevertheless, even, though, still possibly, necessarily, can, must, may, might, ought, should true, false, probable, certain sound, unsound, valid, invalid, fallacious, supported, proved, contradicted, rebutted, refuted, negated logical, illogical, reasonable, unreasonable, rational, irrational assumption, premise, belief, claim, proposition argument, reason, reasoning, evidence, proof

Most of these are quite simple terms, but they are crucial in argumentative or discursive writing of all kinds. (Many are themselves the subject of study in logic, a branch of philosophy). The sloppy use of these sorts of terms is another common weakness in students' philosophy essays. Pay close and careful attention to how you employ them. Moreover, pay close and careful attention to how the authors you read use them. For further discussion of some of these terms and others, see:

• Basic Philosophical Vocabulary, prepared by the staff of the Philosophy Department and available from the programs Office
• Wesley C. Salmon, Logic, 2nd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1973)
• Antony Flew, Thinking About Thinking (London: Fontana, 1985)
• Graham Priest, Logic: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)
• Joel Rudinow and Vincent E. Barry, Invitation to Critical Thinking, 4th ed. (Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt Brace, 1999)

Revising your essay

It is virtually essential that you write a first draft of your essay and then work on that draft to work towards your finished essay. Indeed, several drafts may well be necessary in order to produce your best possible work. It is a rare philosopher indeed who can get things perfectly right on the first attempt, so be prepared to revise and re-develop what you write. Don't be too precious about what you have written, if it appears that it should be sacrificed in the revision process. There is usually a very marked difference between essays which are basically first draft rush-jobs done the night before they are due and those which have been revised and polished. Give yourself time to revise by starting writing early on. For most philosophy students, the greater part of the work in essay writing is in the writing, not in the preliminary researches and planning stages. So be wary of thinking "I've done all the research. I only need to write up my notes, which I can do the night before the essay's due". This is likely to lead to a weak, perhaps non-existent, essay (and very likely a sleepless night).

Stick to the word limit given for your essay. Why are word limits imposed? First, to give the markers a fair basis for comparing student essays. Second, to give you the opportunity to practise the discipline of working creatively under constraints. Skill in this discipline will stand you in very good stead in any sphere where circumstances impose limitations. Again, word limits are not constraints on your intellectual freedom. Outside your essay you are free to write without limit. But even there you'll probably find that your creativity is improved by working under a self-imposed discipline.

As a general rule, most student essays that fall well short of the word limit are weak or lazy attempts at the task, and most essays that go well over the limit are not much stronger or the result of much harder work - the extra length is often due to unstructured waffle or padding which the writer hasn't thought enough about so as to edit judiciously. If you structure your essay clearly, you'll find it easier to revise and edit, whether in order to contract or expand it. ("Hmm, let's see: section 2 is much longer than section 4, but is not as important, so I'll cut it down. And I should expand section 3, because that's a crucial step. And I can shift that third paragraph in the Introduction to the Conclusion.")

Plagiarism and originality

Plagiarism is essentially a form of academic dishonesty or cheating. At university level, such dishonesty is not tolerated and is dealt with severely, usually by awarding zero marks for a plagiarised essay or, in some cases, dismissing a student from the university.

When you submit your essay, you are implicitly stating that the essay is your own original and independent work, that you have not submitted the same work for assessment in another subject, and that where you have made use of other people's work, this is properly acknowledged. If you know that this is not in fact the case, you are being dishonest. (In a number of university departments, students are in fact required to sign declarations of academic honesty.)

Plagiarism is the knowing but unacknowledged use of work by someone else (including work by another student, and indeed oneself - see below) and which is being presented as one's own work. It can take a number of forms, including:

• copying : exactly reproducing another's words
• paraphrasing : expressing the meaning of another's words in different words
• summarising : reproducing the main points of another's argument
• cobbling : copying, paraphrasing or summarising the work of a number of different people and piecing them together to produce one body of text
• submitting one's own work when it has already been submitted for assessment in another subject
• collusion : presenting an essay as your own independent work when in fact it has been produced, in whole or part, in collusion with one or more other people

None of the practices of copying, paraphrasing, summarizing or cobbling is wrong in itself, but when one or more is done without proper acknowledgment it constitutes plagiarism. Therefore, all sources must be adequately and accurately acknowledged in footnotes or endnotes. (See Section 7.) Plagiarism from the internet in particular can be a temptation for a certain kind of student. However, be warned: there is a number of very good internet and software tools for identifying plagiarism.

With regard to collusion, it's undoubtedly often very helpful to discuss one's work with others, be it other students, family members, friends or teachers. Indeed, philosophy thrives on dialogue. However, don't kid yourself that you would simply be extending that process if you were to ask your interlocutor to join with you in the writing of your essay, whether by asking them to tell you what you should write or to write down some of their thoughts for you to reproduce in your essay. At the end of the day, you must be the one to decide what goes into your essay.

Originality

Students sometimes worry about whether they will be able to develop "original ideas", especially in light of the fact that nearly every philosophical idea one comes up with seems to have been thought of before by someone else. There is no denying that truly original work in philosophy is well rewarded, but your first aim should be to develop ideas that you think are good and not merely different. If, after arguing for what you believe is right, and arguing in way that you think is good, you then discover that someone else has had the same idea, don't throw your work away - you should feel vindicated to some extent that your thinking has been congruent with that of another (possibly great) philosopher. (If you have not yet handed your essay in when you make this discovery, make an appropriately placed note to that effect.) Don't be fooled, however, into thinking that plagiarism can be easily passed off as congruent thinking. Of course, if that other philosopher's ideas have helped you to develop your ideas, then this is not a matter of congruent ideas but rather of derivative ideas, and this must be adequately acknowledged. If, after developing your ideas, you discover that they are original, then that is an added bonus. But remember that it is more important to be a good philosopher than an original one.

Quotations, footnotes, endnotes and bibliography

Quotations in your essay should be kept to a minimum. The markers know the central texts pretty well already and so don't need to have pages thereof repeated in front of them. Of course, some quotation will usually be important and useful - sometimes essential - in both exposition and critical discussion.

When you quote the words of someone else directly, you must make the quotation clearly distinct from your own text, using quotation marks . (eg "Descartes said that 'it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once.'* He makes this claim …" - where the words quoted from Descartes are in 'single quotation marks'. Note that it is relatively arbitrary whether one uses 'single' or "double" quotation marks for "first order" quotations, but whichever style you adopt, use it consistently in the one essay.) Alternatively, where the quoted passage is greater than three lines, put the quoted words in a separate indented paragraph , so that your essay would look like this:

In his First Meditation , Descartes argues as follows:

Whatever I have up till now accepted as most true I have acquired either from the senses or through the senses. But from time to time I have found that the senses deceive, and it is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once.* In this essay I shall argue that prudence does not in fact require us to distrust our senses and that Descartes's sceptical method is therefore seriously flawed.

In both cases, the quotations must be given proper referencingin a footnote or endnote.

When you are not quoting another person directly, but are still making use of their work - as in indirect quotations (eg "Descartes says that it is wise not to trust something that has deceived us before"*), paraphrases, summaries, and cobblings - you must still acknowledge your debts, using footnotes or endnotes.

* Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy , trans. John Cottingham (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986 [first French ed., 1641]), p. 12.

Footnotes and endnotes

Footnotes appear at the foot of the same page on which the cited material appears, clearly separated from the main body of the text, each one clearly numbered. Endnotes appear at the end of the essay, again clearly separated from the main body of text, numbered and headed "Endnotes" or "Notes". Either method is acceptable, but you should choose one and stick with it throughout the one essay.

Below are some examples of how to put the relevant referencing information in footnotes and endnotes. This is not intended as an exercise in pedantry, but as a guide to how to provide the information needed for adequate referencing. The reason we provide this information is to enable our readers to find the sources we use in order to verify them and to allow them to pursue the material further if it interests them. In your own researches you will come to value good referencing in the texts you read as a helpful source of further references on a topic. Again, it is this sort of research skill that an Arts graduate will be expected to have mastered.

There are various conventions for writing up footnotes and endnotes. The Philosophy Department does not require that any particular convention be followed, only that you be consistent in your use of the convention that you do choose. For other conventions see the style guides mentioned above, or simply go to some texts published by reputable publishers and see what formats they employ.

Imagine, then, that the following are endnotes at the end of your essay. I will explain them below.

• James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy , 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993), p. 25.
• Philippa Foot, "Moral Relativism", in Michael Krausz and Jack W. Meiland, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982), p. 155.
• Ibid., p. 160.
• Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton (New York: Harper and Row, 1964 [first German ed., 1785]), p. 63.
• Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, (London: Dent, 1973 [first pub. 1651]),p. 65.
• Rachels, The Elements, p. 51.
• Peter Winch, "The Universalizability of Moral Judgements", The Monist 49 (1965), p. 212.
• Antony Duff, "Legal Punishment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/legal-punishment/ at 15 June 2003, sec. 6.

Notes explained

• This is your first reference to a book called The Elements of Moral Philosophy. The title is given in full and in italics. If you are unable to use italics, then you should underline the title. The book's author is James Rachels. It's the 2nd edition of that book, which was published in New York, by the publishers McGraw-Hill, in 1993. The page you have referred to in your main text is page 25
• This is your first reference to Philippa Foot's article, "Moral Relativism", the title of which is put in "quotation marks". This article appeared in a book (title in italics) which is an anthology of different articles, and which was edited by Krausz and Meiland (names in full). The rest is in the same style as note (1)
• "Ibid." is short for "ibidem", which means "in the same place" in Latin. Use it on its own when you want to refer to exactly the same work and page number as in the immediately preceding note. So here the reference is again to Foot's article at page 155
• Ditto, except this time you refer to a different page in Foot's article, namely page 160
• This is reference to a book by Kant. Same book details as per note (1), except that, because this is a translation, you include the translator's name, and the date of the first edition in the original language
• This is a book reference again, so it's the same as note (1), except that, because it's an old book, you include the date of the original edition. (How old does a book have to be before it merits this treatment? There is no settled view. Note, though, that this convention is not usually followed for ancient authors)
• Here you are referring to Rachels' book again, but, because you are not in the very next note after a reference to it, you can't use "ibid.". Simply give the author's surname and a short title of the book, plus page reference. There is also a common alternative to this, whereby you give the surname, and write "op. cit." (which is short for "opere citato", which is Latin for "in the work already cited") and page reference (eg "Rachels, op. cit., p. 51.") Your reader then has to scan back over the notes to see what that "op." was exactly. The first option (author plus short title) is usually easier on the reader
• This is a reference to an article by Peter Winch in a journal called The Monist. The article's title is in "quotes", the journal title is in italics. The volume of the journal is 49, the year of publication is 1965, the page referred to is p. 212
• This is a reference to an article in the internet-based Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The article is titled "Legal Punishment" and was written by Antony Duff. The Encyclopedia was edited by Edward N. Zalta. Note that I have basically followed the mode of citation that the Encyclopedia itself recommends. (This is one sign of the site being a reputable one. Where a site makes such a recommendation, it's best to follow it.) I have, however, also added the date on which the article was retrieved from the site, and put the author's given name first, to be consistent with the other footnotes. I have also added the reference to section 6, in an effort to be more precise as to where in the article the material I used came from. Since web pages aren't numbered in the manner of hard copy works, it will help if you are able to refer to some other feature, such as paragraphs or sections, so as to pin-point your reference. In the absence of a site recommending a mode of citation to its own material, the basic information needed for adequate citation of internet-based material is (where identifiable) the author, the document title, the year the document was created, the website name, the uniform resource locator (URL) in <arrow-brackets>, date of retrieval, and a pin-point reference*

* I am here following the mode of citation of internet materials recommended in Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc, Australian Guide to Legal Citation , 2nd ed. (Melbourne: Melbourne University Law Review Association Inc, 2002), pp. 70-73. I have, though, added the desirability of a pin-point reference.

Bibliography

At the end of your essay (after your endnotes, if used) you should list in a bibliography all of the works referred to in your notes, as well as any other works you consulted in researching and writing your essay. The list should be in alphabetical order, going by authors' surnames. The format should be the same as for your notes, except that you drop the page references and should put surnames first. So the bibliography of our mock-essay above would look like this:

• Duff, Antony, "Legal Punishment", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/legal-punishment/ at 15 June 2003
• Foot, Philippa, "Moral Relativism", in Michael Krausz and Jack Meiland, eds., Relativism: Cognitive and Moral (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1982)
• Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan (London: Dent, 1973 [first pub.1651])
• Kant, Immanuel, Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals , trans. H.J. Paton (New York: Harper and Row, 1964 [first German ed. 1785])
• Rachels, James, The Elements of Moral Philosophy , 2nd ed., (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1993)
• Winch, Peter, "The Universalizability of Moral Judgements", The Monist 49 (1965)

Presentation of essays and seeking advice

Generally, you should present an essay that is legible (hand-writing is OK, but typed or word-processed essays are preferable), in English, on one side of pieces of paper that are somewhere in the vicinity of A4 size and are fixed together . You should attach a completed Cover Sheet provided by the Philosophy program. Plastic document covers, spiral binding and other forms of presentational paraphernalia are not necessary (nor are they usually even desirable, as they mostly just get in the marker's way).

Late essays

Late essays are penalised . (For details of penalties consult the Philosophy program's notice board.)

Essays not handed in

Essays not handed in at all get zero marks. An essay that is handed in but gets a mark below 50 (and so is technically a "failed" essay) still gets some marks. (At least, it will so long as it's not so extremely late that the deducted marks wipe out all the marks it would have received if handed in on time.) All marks received for your essay (whether pass or fail) go toward your final score in the subject. Therefore, even if you think your essay is bound to fail (but please let your marker be the judge of that), or the due date has already passed, or both, it is still in your interests to hand your essay in .

Tutors and lecturers

Philosophy staff are not there just to be listened to by you; they are also there to listen to you. So don't hesitate to contact your tutor or lecturer to discuss questions or problems you have concerning your work.

If you have a legitimate excuse, you may be granted an extension on the due date for your essay by the lecturer in charge. Similarly, special consideration may also be granted when illness or other circumstances adversely affect your work. Applications for special consideration are made online via the Special Consideration web page.

Student counselling

Some personal or non-philosophical academic difficulties you might have you might want to discuss with someone other than your tutor or lecturer. Student Counselling and Psychological Services are there for you to discuss all sorts of problems you might encounter. Please consult your student diary for details on the counselling service.

English language assistance

As noted above, good philosophical writing requires a good grasp of the language in which it is written. If you are from a non-English speaking background and are having difficulties with your English expression in an academic context, you might like to make use of the services provided by Student Services Academic Skills . Many native English speakers, too, can benefit from short "refresher" courses and workshops run by the Centre. Please consult your student diary for details about this service.

A bit on Philosophy exams

Essays of the sort discussed so far in this guide are not the only form of assessment in the Philosophy program - examinations are also set. What is to be said about them?

First, not much that is different from what's been said above about philosophy essays. This is because what you write in a philosophy exam is none other than a philosophy essay . Have a look at past philosophy exam papers, in the Gibson and Baillieu libraries, to get a feel for them. The only basic difference between essays and exams is the matter of what constraints you're working under. Essays have word limits; exams have time limits . Again, stick to them. (Actually, you'll be made to stick to them by the exam invigilators.)

It's best, then, to think about how long to spend writing on an exam essay topic, rather than about how many words to write on it. Simple arithmetic will tell you how much time to spend on each exam question. (eg if you have a 2-hour exam and have to answer 3 questions, each worth one-third of the exam mark, then spend 40 minutes on each question.) Avoid the trap of "borrowing time" from a later question in order to perfect your answer to an earlier question, and then working faster on the later questions to catch up on lost time - this is likely to get you in a tangle. There are no word limits in philosophy exam essays, but don't think that the more you scrawl across the page, the more marks you'll get. Nonetheless, use the time you've got so as to maximise your display of your philosophical understanding and skills in answering the question.

Planning and structuring remain very important in exam essays. With regard to the niceties of footnotes, endnotes and bibliographies, etc., these are not necessary, so don't waste time on these. However, if you quote or refer to a specific passage from a text, do indicate clearly that it is a quotation or reference. (The principle of being clear as to who is saying what remains central.) If you have the reference handy, just put it briefly in the text of your exam essay. (eg "As Descartes says in Meditation I (p. 12), . . ." or "'[I]t is prudent never to trust completely those who have deceived us even once' (Descartes, Meditation I, p. 12)".) Generally speaking, you will show your familiarity with any relevant texts by how you handle them in your discussion. This is also true for your non-exam essays.

Your preparation for the exam should have been done well before entering the exam hall. Note that various subjects have restrictions on what texts and other items can be brought into the exam hall. (Consult the Philosophy program's notice board for details.) Many subjects will have "closed book" exams. Even if an exam is "open book", if you are properly prepared, you should not need to spend much time at all consulting texts or notes during the exam itself.

You won't have time for redrafting and revising your exam essay (which makes planning and structuring your answers before you start writing all the more important). If you do want to delete something, just cross it out clearly. Don't waste time with liquid paper or erasers. Write legibly . Don't wr. "point form" sav. time. Diff. kn. mean. use incomp. sent.

Finally, read the instructions at the beginning of the exam paper. They are important. (eg it's not a good strategy to answer two questions from Part A, when the Instructions tell you to answer two questions, one from Part A and one from Part B.) Note the (somewhat quaint) University practice of starting Reading Time some time before the stated time for the exam. Philosophy exams usually have 15 minutes of reading time. (Check for each of your exams.) So, if your exam timetable says the exam is at 2.15 pm, with reading time of 15 minutes, then the reading time starts at 2.00 pm and the writing time starts at 2.15pm - so get to the exam hall well before 2.00 pm. Reading time is very important. Use it to decide which questions you'll answer and to start planning your answers.

Checklist of questions

• Do I understand the essay question ? Do I know when the essay is due ?
• Do I know which texts to consult? Do I know where to find them?
• Have I made useful notes from my reading of the relevant texts?
• Have I made a plan of how I'll approach the question in my essay?
• Have I given myself enough time to draft and redraft my essay?
• Have I written a clearly structured essay? Is it clear what each stageis doing? Do I do what I say I'll do in my Introduction?
• Have I clearly distinguished exposition and critical discussion ? Have I given a fair and accurate account of the author(s) in question?
• Is my response to the topic relevant ? Do I answer the question? Have I kept my essay within the general bounds of the topic?
• Have I displayed a good grasp of the vocabulary of logical argument ? Are my arguments logically valid and sound? Are my claims supported by reasons ? Am I consistent within my essay?
• Is my English expression clear and precise ? Are my grammar, punctuation and spelling correct? Have I said what I meant to say? Is my writing legible?
• Have I fully acknowledged all my sources in footnotes or endnotes? Are my quotations accurate? Have I included a bibliography ?
• Do I need to revise any part of my essay again?
• Have I made a copy or photocopy of my essay for myself?
• Have I kept the receipt for my handed-in essay?

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How to Write a Philosophy Essay: Ultimate Guide

What Is a Philosophy Essay: Definition

Philosophical writing isn't your typical assignment. Its aim isn't to provide an overview of professional philosophers' works and say whether you agree with them.

Philosophy demands becoming a philosopher for the time of writing, thinking analytically and critically of ideas, pondering the Big Questions, and asking 'Why?'. That's why it requires time and energy, as well as a lot of thinking on your part.

But what is philosophy essay, exactly? If you're tasked with writing one, you'll have to select a thesis in the philosophical domain and argue for or against it. Then, you can support your thesis with other professional philosophers' works. But it has to contain your own philosophical contribution, too. (This is only one definition of philosophy essay, of course.)

What's a Good Philosophy Paper Outline?

Before you start writing your first line, you should make a philosophy essay outline. Think of it as a plan for your philosophy paper that briefly describes each paragraph's point.

As for how to write a philosophy essay outline, here are a few tips for you:

• Start with your thesis. What will you be arguing for or against?
• Read what philosophical theory has to say and note sources for your possible arguments and counterarguments.
• Decide on the definitions of core concepts to include precise philosophical meanings in your essay.
• After careful and extended reflection, organize your ideas following the structure below.

How To Structure a Philosophy Paper?

Like any other essay, a philosophy paper consists of an introduction, a main body, and a conclusion. Sticking to this traditional philosophy essay structure will help you avoid unnecessary stress.

Here's your mini-guide on how to structure a philosophy essay:

• Introduction - Clarify the question you will be answering in your philosophy paper. State your thesis – i.e., the answer you'll be arguing for. Explain general philosophical terms if needed.
• Main body - Start with providing arguments for your stance and refute all the objections for each of them. Then, describe other possible answers and their reasoning – and counter the main arguments in their support.
• Conclusion - Sum up all possible answers to the questions and reiterate why yours is the most viable one.

What's an Appropriate Philosophy Essay Length?

In our experience, 2,000 to 2,500 words are enough to cover the topic in-depth without compromising the quality of the writing.

However, see whether you have an assigned word limit before getting started. If it's shorter or longer than we recommend, stick to that word limit in writing your essay on philosophy.

What Format Should You Use for a Philosophy Paper?

As a service we can attest that most students use the APA guidelines as their philosophy essay format. However, your school has the final say in what format you should stick to.

Sometimes, you can be asked to use a different college philosophy essay format, like MLA or Chicago. But if you're the one to choose the guidelines and don't know which one would be a good philosophy argumentative essay format, let's break down the most popular ones.

APA, MLA, and Chicago share some characteristics:

• Font: Time New Roman, 12 pt
• Line spacing: double
• Margins: 1" (left and right)
• Page number: in the header

But here's how they differ:

• A title page required
• Sources list: 'References' page
• No title page required
• Sources list: 'Works cited' page
• Sources list: 'Bibliography' page
• Footnotes and endnotes are required for citations

Have a Tight Deadline?

Our PRO writers will quickly produce a unique paper for you based on your specifications!

Guideline on How to Write a Philosophy Essay

If you still don't feel that confident about writing a philosophy paper, don't worry. Philosophical questions, by definition, have more than one interpretation. That's what makes them so challenging to write about.

To help you out in your philosophical writing journey, we've prepared this list of seven tips on how to write a philosophy essay.

• Read Your Sources Thoughtfully

Whether your recommended reading includes Dante's Divine Comedy or Jean-Paul Sartre's Existentialism Is a Humanism , approach your sources with curiosity and analytical thinking. Don't just mindlessly consume those texts. Instead, keep asking yourself questions while you're reading them, such as:

• What concepts and questions does the author address?
• What's the meaning behind key ideas and metaphors in the text?
• What does the author use as a convincing argument?
• Are there any strange or obscure distinctions?

As for which sources you should turn to, that all depends on your central question; philosophy topics for essay are diverse and sometimes opposed. So, you'll have to do your fair share of research.

• Brainstorm & Organize Your Ideas

As you're reading those texts, jot down what comes to your mind. It can be a great quote you've stumbled upon, an idea for an argument, or your thoughtful, critical responses to certain opinions.

Then, sort through and organize all of those notes into an outline for your essay in philosophy. Make sure that it holds up in terms of logic. And ensure that your arguments and counterarguments are compelling, sensible, and convincing!

Now, you might be wondering how to write a philosophy essay introduction. Don't worry: there's an explanation right below!

• Craft Your Introductory Paragraph

Think of your introduction as a road map preparing your reader for the journey your essay will take them on. This road map will describe the key 'stops' in your essay on philosophy: your topic, stance, and how you will argue for it – and refute other stances.

Don't hesitate to write it out as a step-by-step guide in the first or third person. For example: 'First, I will examine... Then, I will dispute... Finally, I will present….'

Need an example of an excellent introduction for a philosophy paper? You’ll be thrilled to know that we have one of our philosophy essay examples below!

• Present Your Key Arguments & Reflections

Philosophy papers require a fair share of expository writing. This is where you demonstrate your understanding of the topic. So, make your exposition extensive and in-depth, and don't omit anything crucial.

As for the rest of the main body, we've covered how to structure a philosophy essay above. In short, you'll need to present supporting arguments, anticipate objections, and address them.

Use your own words when writing a philosophy paper; avoid pretentious or verbose language. Yes, some technical philosophical terms may be necessary. But the point of a philosophical paper is to present your stance – and develop your own philosophy – on the topic.

• Don't Shy Away from Critical Ideas

Whenever you examine a philosophical theory or text, treat it with a fair share of criticism. This is what it means in practice – and how to structure a philosophy essay around your critical ideas:

• Pinpoint what the theory's or idea's strengths are and every valid argument in its support;
• See the scope of its application – perhaps, there are exceptions you can use as counterarguments;
• Research someone else's criticism of the theory or idea. Develop your own criticism, as well;
• Check if the philosopher already addressed those criticisms.
• Ponder Possible Answers to Philosophical Questions

Writing an essay in philosophy is, in fact, easier for some students as the topic can always have multiple answers, and you can choose any of them. However, this can represent an even tougher challenge for other students. After all, you must consider those possible answers and address them in the paper.

How do you pinpoint those possible answers? Some of them can come to your mind when you brainstorm, especially if you'll be writing about one of the Big Questions. Others will reveal themselves when you start reading other philosophers' works.

Remember to have arguments for and against each possible answer and address objections.

• Write a Powerful Conclusion

The conclusion is where you sum up your paper in just one paragraph. Reiterate your thesis and what arguments support it. But in philosophical writing, you can rarely have a clear, undebatable answer by the end of the paper. So, it's fine if your conclusion doesn't have a definitive verdict.

Here are a few tips on how to write a conclusion in a philosophy essay:

• Don't introduce new arguments or evidence in conclusion – they belong in the main body;
• Avoid overestimating or embellishing the level or value of your work;
• Best conclusions are obvious and logical for those reading the paper – i.e.; a conclusion shouldn't be surprising at all;
• Stay away from poorly explained claims in conclusion.

Philosophical Essay Example

Sometimes, it's better to see how it's done once than to read a thousand guides. We know that like no one else, so we have prepared this short philosophy essay example to show you what excellent philosophy papers look like:

Like this example? Wondering how to get a perfect philosophy essay as great as it is? You're in luck: you can leave " write my philosophy paper " request and buy online essay at EssayPro without breaking the bank! Keep in mind: this example is only a fraction of what our writers are capable of!

30 Philosophy Paper Topic Ideas

Philosophical writing concerns questions that don't have clear-cut yes or no answers. So, coming up with philosophy essay topics yourself can be tough.

Fret not: we've put together this list of 30 topics for philosophy papers on ethics and leadership for you. Feel free to use them as-is or tweak them!

15 Ethics Philosophy Essay Topics

Ethics deals with the question of right and wrong. So, if you're looking for philosophy essay topic ideas, ethics concerns some of the most interesting – and most mind-boggling – questions about human behavior.

Here are 15 compelling philosophy essay topics ethics has to offer you:

• Is starting a war always morally wrong?
• Would it be right to legalize euthanasia?
• What is more important: the right to privacy or national security?
• Is justice always fair?
• Should nuclear weapons be banned?
• Should teenagers be allowed to get plastic surgery?
• Can cheating be justifiable?
• Can AI algorithms behave ethically?
• Should you abide by an unfair law?
• Should voting become mandatory?
• When can the right to freedom of speech be limited?
• Is it the consumers' responsibility to fight climate by changing their buying decisions?
• Is getting an abortion immoral?
• Should we give animals their own rights?
• Would human gene editing be immoral?

15 Leadership Philosophy Essay Topics

You're lucky if you're tasked with writing a leadership philosophy essay! We've compiled this list of 15 fresh, unconventional topics for you:

• Is formal leadership necessary for ensuring the team's productivity?
• Can authoritative leadership be ethical?
• How do informal leaders take on this role?
• Should there be affirmative action for formal leadership roles?
• Is it possible to measure leadership?
• What's the most important trait of a leader?
• Is leadership an innate talent or an acquired skill?
• Should leadership mean holding power over others?
• Can a team function without a leader?
• Should you follow a leader no matter what?
• Is leader succession necessary? Why?
• Are leadership and power the same?
• Can we consider influencers contemporary leaders?
• Why do people follow leaders?
• What leadership style is the most ethical one?

7 Helpful Tips on Crafting a Philosophical Essay

Still, feeling stuck writing a philosophical essay? Here are seven more tips on crafting a good philosophy paper that can help you get unstuck:

• Write the way you would talk about the subject. This will help you avoid overly convoluted, poor writing by using more straightforward prose with familiar words.
• Don't focus on having a definitive answer by the end of your philosophical essay if your conclusion states that the question should be clarified further or that there are multiple answers.
• You don't have to answer every question you raise in the paper. Even professional philosophers sometimes don't have all the answers.
• Get straight to the point at the start of your paper. No need to warm up the reader – and inflate your word count.
• Avoid using quotes. Instead, explain the author's point in your own words. But if you feel it's better to use a direct quote, explicitly state how it ties to your argument after it.
• Write in the first person unless your assignment requires you to use the third person.
• Start working on your philosophical essay well in advance. However much time you think you'll need, double it!

7 Common Mistakes to Avoid in Philosophy Writing

Sometimes, knowing what you shouldn't do in a philosophical essay is also helpful. Here are seven common mistakes that often bring down students' grades – but are easily avoidable:

• Appealing to authority – in philosophy, strive to develop your own stance instead;
• Using convoluted sentences to appear more intelligent – instead, use simpler ways to deliver the same meaning;
• Including interesting or important material without tying it to your point – every piece of evidence and every idea should explicitly support your arguments or counterarguments;
• Inflating your word count without delivering value – in the writing process, it's crucial to 'kill your darlings';
• Making poorly explained claims – explicitly present reasons for or against every claim you include;
• Leaving core concepts undefined – explain what you mean by the words like 'free will' or 'existentialism' in the introduction;
• Worrying about being wrong – no one can be proven wrong in philosophy!

Realize that your draft contains those mistakes, and it's too late to fix them? Then, let us help you out! Whether you ask us, 'Fix my paper' or ' Write my paper from scratch,' our philosophy writers will deliver an excellent paper worth the top grade. And no, it won't cost you a fortune!

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Writing a Philosophy Essay

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Is there a God? Are there objective, universal moral norms or rules? What is meant by ‘reality’? Do we have free will? In studying philosophy, students aim to do the following:

• understand such philosophical questions and the concepts, arguments, and theories that philosophers use to address them
• think critically about such arguments and theories
• develop their own answers to philosophical questions

Writing philosophy essays is a key part of studying philosophy. Make sure first to understand the assignment, looking out for the questions asked and paying attention to prompts such as “outline” or “evaluate” or “compare”. Most philosophy assignments will ask you to demonstrate your understanding of the subject through exposition of arguments and theories, and many will also test your ability to assess these arguments and theories by writing a critical evaluation of them. Write your paper so that the reader understands how your exposition and evaluation answer the questions and address all parts of the assignment.

Read the Texts Carefully, Asking Questions

Before you write a paper, though, you need to understand the course texts and recommended readings. Philosophical works need to be read slowly and with focused attention. As you read, ask yourself the following:

• What philosophical question(s) is the author addressing?
• What exactly is meant by key ideas or concepts in the text (e.g., Plato’s “Forms”, Aristotle’s “substance” and “accident”, Kant’s “categorical imperative,” Sartre’s “being-for-itself”)? Each discipline has its own technical language, which students must learn.
• What arguments does the author make (e.g., Aquinas’s five arguments for the existence of God)?
• What theories does the author propose (e.g., a dualist mind-body theory or—one of its competitors—a physicalist theory of mind)?

Organize Your Ideas into a Logical Structure

Take notes as you read. Then put your ideas for the essay into a logical order. Because philosophy papers proceed by logical argument, creating a point-form outline that captures the structure of your argument is generally a good strategy. An outline will allow you to spot problems in your argument more easily.

Augment Your Thesis with a Road Map that Reveals the Structure of Your Argument

Most assignments will require you to present a clear thesis statement that sums up the position for which you are arguing. In the introduction you should also provide a ‘road map’—a few sentences that announce in sequence what you intend to accomplish in each of the key stages of your paper. Road maps often rely on first person (“First, I will analyze . . . “), but if your professor prefers that you don’t use the first person, you can instead describe what your essay will accomplish (“First, the essay will analyze . . . “).

Show Your Understanding through Clear and Accurate Exposition

Try to make your expository writing as clear and accurate as possible, and try to show the logical connections between the different parts of a philosophical system. Avoid vague or overly brief exposition, serious omissions, or misunderstandings.

In some first year courses, an early assignment may ask you to write a short paper expounding but not evaluating a concept or theory. For example: “Explain what Plato means by Forms.” Subsequent assignments in the course usually involve evaluation as well as exposition (e.g., “Outline and evaluate Plato’s theory of Forms”). In some courses, assignments may call for detailed interpretation of a text rather than an assessment of it. “Was Hume an idealist?”, “Was Wittgenstein a behaviourist?” and “Was Marx a nihilist about morality?” are examples. Such questions are posed when there is disagreement among scholars about how to interpret a philosopher. In such essays, you will need to examine texts very closely, find passages which support a yes or no answer, choose where you stand in the debate, and defend your answer.

Critically Evaluate a Philosophical Theory

When studying a philosophical theory, you will need to think about both its strengths and weaknesses. For example, is a particular theory of art (such as the view that art is the expression of emotion) comprehensive: does it apply to all the arts and all types of art, or only to some? Is it logically consistent or does it contain contradictions? Are there counterexamples to it?

As you think about your topic, read the course materials, and take notes, you should work out and assemble the following:

• the strengths of a philosopher’s theory
• the arguments the philosopher gives in support of the theory and those the philosopher did not provide but which might still support it
• possible criticisms of those arguments
• how the philosopher has replied or could reply to these criticisms

Finally, ask yourself how you would evaluate those replies: do they work or not? Be selective, especially in a shorter paper. In a 1,000-word essay, for instance, discuss one or two arguments in favour and one or two against. In a 2,000- or 2,500-word paper, you can include more arguments and possible replies. Finally, plan carefully: leave enough space for your assessment.

A different type of critical evaluation assignment may ask for a comparative appraisal of two or more theories. For example, “Which account of human decision-making is stronger: X’s free will theory or Y’s determinist theory?” In such essays, your thesis could be that one account is better than the other or, perhaps, that neither account is clearly superior. You might argue that each has different strengths and weaknesses.

Develop Your Own Answers to Philosophical Questions

In the type of critical assessments above, you are already, to some extent, articulating your own philosophical positions. As you read texts in a course on, say, philosophy of mind or philosophy of art, you should be asking, based on what you have read so far, which theory is the best? Don’t be content to just understand theories and know their strengths and weaknesses. Push yourself to think out your own account of mind or art.

Some upper-year essay assignments may throw a fundamental philosophical question at you: “What is art?”, “Do we have free will?”, “What is morality?”, or “What is reality?”. Here, you will present your own answer, giving reasons, answering objections, and critically evaluating alternative approaches. Your answer/thesis might be an existing theory or a synthesis of two or more theories, or (more rarely) a completely new theory. Now you are not only expounding theories or critically evaluating them; you are also developing your own philosophy!

200+ Thoughtful Philosophical Questions to Ask

A good philosophical question is one without a black or white answer. Most of the time, a philosophical question stimulates debate, argument, and critical thinking that pushes the human mind to think about life differently. Hard philosophical questions lead one to ponder the fundamental question of life: why are we here? What is the meaning of human life , human nature , or humanity altogether?

Asking an interesting question or deep question, such as those listed below, is a great way to start a conversation and get other people thinking. Use the list below to introduce interesting topics at dinner or push the buttons of someone you’re getting to know better! However you use them, you’re in for a good discussion with some thought-provoking material on a philosophical problem or major philosophical inquiry.

A Brief History on the Creation of Western Philosophy

Pre-Socratic Philosophy:

Western Philosophy was born in 6th Century B.C. with Pre-Socratic philosophers such as Thales of Miletus. A few main findings and inquiries created the base for classic philosophical questions and theories during this time, such as metaphysics , the four classic elements, atomism, and mathematics.

Classical Philosophy:

With the continuation of philosophical thought into the 5th and 4th centuries B.C., great, classic philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were born. Socrates focussed mainly on ethics. Plato blended many ideas, including epistemology , which is the theory of knowledge and how we acquire it. Meanwhile, Aristotle created a more comprehensive system that blended many ideas, including science and logic.

Medieval Philosophy:  4th & 5th Century A.D.

Early Modern Philosophy: 

Modern philosophy began in the 17th Century with the “Age of Reason” and the 18th Century with the “Age of Enlightenment” alongside famous philosopher Kant.

19th Century Philosophy:

Modern philosophy continued with famous philosophers like Karl Marx, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau. Many theories such as Marxism, Romanticism, and Individualism came out of this time, along with many highly-esteemed pieces of literature.

20th Century Philosophy: Present Day Theories & Inquiries

Thoughtful Philosophical Questions on Metaphysics

• What does it mean to be “real”?
• What is real versus what appears to be real?
• Is existence necessary?
• What is the origin of the universe?
• What created the universe?
• What are the material components of the universe?
• Do the cosmos have a purpose?
• What is the goal of existence?
• Is there anything that has to be relatively true for everything that exists?
• Can some things exist that aren’t in time?
• Is change really possible?
• Can there be things that, in principle, are unobservable?
• Is the universe inherently random, as quantum mechanics predicts?
• What is time?
• Is time real or an illusion?
• Can there be time without change?
• Can there be aspects of reality that, in principle, are unknowable?
• Is space real or an illusion?
• What are the laws of nature?
• Do humans possess the power of free will?
• What are we?
• Why does the universe exist?
• What is consciousness?
• Are humans free?
• Do humans have immaterial souls?
• What are numbers?
• Is causation real or an illusion?
• Could time be cyclical?
• What are the laws of the universe?
• Is the self a bundle of experiences?
• Is space itself an entity, or is it reducible to spatial relations between objects and events?
• Why is there something rather than nothing?
• Could there be a person who was not in time?
• Is freedom compatible with determinism?

Fun Philosophical Questions

• If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?
• Is water wet?
• Some claim money can’t buy happiness, but can happiness exist without money?
• Which is easier: to love or to be loved?
• Does the “Law of Attraction” exist?
• Does true love exist?
• Does fate exist?
• Is friendship necessary for happiness?
• Why are drugs banned but not harmful food additives and alcohol?
• Is it ever okay to share a secret?
• Why does time feel slow or fast depending on the day and the moment?
• Does life exist outside of our world?
• Does luck exist?
• Does artificial intelligence have the ability to take over the planet one day?
• Are clowns funny or scary?
• Why do we drive on parkways and park on driveways?
• Why are they called apartments if they’re so close together?
• Can animals think and have reason?
• Why does your nose “run” and your feet “smell”?
• Why is it called a building if it’s already been built?
• Can vegetables feel pain?
• Can a vegetarian eat animal crackers?
• What hair color is listed on the driver’s license of a bald man?
• Why aren’t cheese and meat slices made the same shape as bread?
• Why do women open their mouths to put on mascara?
• Why don’t they have seatbelts on buses, but they do on airplanes?
• Why are pizza boxes square when pizzas are round?
• At what age can you consider someone “elderly”?
• Do our pets have names for us?
• How can you tell what a room full of mirrors looks like when nobody is in it?
• Does expecting the unexpected make the unexpected the expected?
• Who put the alphabet in alphabetical order?
• If two mind readers read each other’s minds, whose mind are they really reading?
• Is there a synonym for “synonym”?
• If your shirt isn’t tucked into your pants, are your pants tucked into your shirt?
• If I try to fail but succeed, which one did I do?
• How do you know you are not just in a VR computer game?
• What came first? The chicken or the egg?
• If time travel is possible, would we have met time travelers already?
• Do animals like being kept as pets?
• Are you lucky? Does luck exist?
• If you were born with a different name, would you have a different personality?
• Are you dreaming right now? How do you know?
• Is the glass half empty or half full?
• Do those who love us really love us, or do they love what they think we are?
• If tomatoes are fruits, is ketchup a smoothie?
• If you punch yourself and it hurts, does that make you strong or weak?

Epistemology Inspired Philosophy Questions

• What is knowledge?
• How do we acquire knowledge?
• What is the structure of knowledge?
• Are there limits to the amount of knowledge we can acquire?
• What justifies a justified true belief?
• What are the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge?
• Can a true belief be unjustified?
• Is justification internal or external to one’s own mind?
• What do people truly know?
• How do we understand the justification process?
• What distinguishes knowledge from mere belief?
• What can be known with certainty?
• How can we know if we have knowledge?
• What can we know by reasoning alone?
• What can we know by sensory experience?

Deep Philosophical Questions

• How can you distinguish art from something that isn’t art?
• Would you kill 1 person you love to save 100 strangers? Would you kill 100 strangers to save 1 person you love?
• Is it better to have loved and lost than to have never loved at all?
• If you were to die tomorrow, what would you do today?
• Are emotions rational or irrational?
• Is there such a thing as an ideal government?
• Is there a cause for every event?
• Is love different from lust?
• Does democracy function well for every country?
• How much freedom should people be permitted to have?
• If someone commits suicide while you watch and don’t interfere, are you responsible for that death?
• Is torture ever justified?
• Is murder ever justified?
• Which is more important: justice or mercy?
• Will time travel ever be possible?
• Is it ever okay to break the law? When?
• What is a dream, and why do we have them?
• What is self-esteem, and how is it constructed?
• What is the right age for marriage?
• Do animals have universal rights?
• Does a higher power exist?
• Does absolute morality exist?
• What shapes a person, nature, or nurture?
• Can we know about happiness without knowing about sadness?
• Can we know good without the existence of evil?
• What is the truth, and is it the same as reality?
• Is truth relative?
• Does an afterlife exist?
• Do animals have souls?
• Is it ever okay to lie?
• Do numbers exist, or were they created by man?
• Are we living in a simulation?
• If God is “good,” why does evil exist in the world?
• When will the world reach its end?
• What are thoughts?
• Where do thoughts come from?
• Does a soul exist before life and continue after?
• Do parallel universes exist?
• Why are people told to respect the dead?
• Is everyone’s life of equal value?
• Are religion and science compatible?
• Is happiness the main purpose of life?
• Which is more real: mind or matter?
• Do the needs of many outweigh the needs of a few?
• Does time have a beginning or an end?
• Do universal human rights exist?
• Are human beings inherently good or evil?
• Is beauty truly in the eye of the beholder?
• Are we morally obligated to help others?
• What is emotion, and why do we experience it?
• What is love?
• If the only thing I know is that I know nothing, do I know something?
• If I go back in time and kill my grandfather before he conceives my father, I have prevented my own conception. So, therefore, can I even travel back in time?
• If every cell in my body gets replaced in 7 years, will I still be me in 7 years?
• What makes you, you?
• Are there limitations to free speech?
• Is death a new beginning?
• Do guns protect people or kill people?
• Would the world be a better place if caste and religion ceased to exist?
• What’s more important: doing things right or doing the right thing?
• Is world peace achievable?
• Can memories be erased?
• Intelligence or wisdom, which is more important?
• Would ending all wars make a better world?
• Do thoughts have a pattern?
• If we live in a civilized world, why are there so many distinctions between the rich and the poor?
• Can you love someone without loving yourself first?
• Do you think “wild” animals should be kept as pets? When and why?
• Would you break the law to save someone you love?
• Is it more important to be a leader or a follower?
• Do people really change, or do they recognize and react logically to new circumstances?
• Is there really any completely selfless act of kindness? Or is there always a motive behind helping someone else?
• Should terminally ill people be allowed or encouraged to commit suicide?
• Which is more important, to be respected or liked?
• Can a person be “educated” without a formal education?
• Are people natural-born leaders, or do they develop the traits over time?
• What harsh truths do you prefer to ignore?
• What should be the goal of humanity?
• How will humans as a species go extinct?
• Is the meaning of life the same for animals and humans?
• What actions in your life will have the longest reaching consequences? How long will those effects be felt?
• If a child somehow survived and grew up in the wilderness without any human contact, how “human” would they be without the influence of society and culture?
• Is suffering a necessary part of the human condition?
• Will religion ever become obsolete?
• What benefits does art provide society? Does art hurt society in any way?
•  What is the best way for a person to attain happiness?
• Is it more important to help yourself, help your family, help your society, or help the world?
• Why don’t we, as a species, take advantage of the fact that we have almost infinite knowledge available to us?
• Why do we judge ourselves by our intentions but judge others by their actions?
• What would you genetically change about humans to make them a better species?
• Does jealousy have value in driving humans to improve themselves, or is it a purely negative emotion?
• Is happiness just chemicals flowing through your brain or something more?
• How would you define genius?
• How much does language affect our thinking?
• Why are humans so confident in beliefs that can’t be proven?
• Are there limits to human creativity?
• Are intelligence and happiness tied together in any way? If you are brilliant, is it more likely that you’ll be more or less happy?
• Can animals have morals?
• What’s the difference between justice and revenge?
• Are people ethically obligated to improve themselves?
•  Is privacy a right?
• If you could press a button and receive a million dollars, but one stranger would die, would you press the button?
• Does anonymity encourage people to misbehave, or does it reveal how people would choose to act all the time if they could?
• Has social media been a net positive or a net negative for our society? Why?
• Should full access to the internet be a fundamental human right?
• Does the study of philosophy ever lead to answers or simply more questions?

Katee Fletcher

Katee’s passion for writing and fascination for language has forever guided her path in life.

Keep up with Katee on Instagram and linkedin.com

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357 Philosophical Topics to Write About for Essays & Term Papers

• 🔝 Top-10 Philosophy Topics
• ⛪ Philosophy of Religion
• 🗳️ Political Philosophy
• ⚖️ Philosophy of Law
• 🔬 Philosophy of Science
• 😊 Easy Philosophy Topics
• 😀 Fun Philosophy Topics

✅ Philosophy Argumentative Essay Topics

📝 philosophy term paper topics, ✒️ philosophical topics to write about, ❓ philosophy essay questions.

• ✍️ Bonus: 17 Writing Tips

There is a joke that in successful relationships, one becomes happy, and in unsuccessful, one becomes a philosopher. Unfortunately, that could be true only if the person read philosophical books on philosophy or developed their philosophical research theories in the latter case.

Philosophy is a Greek word meaning “love for wisdom.” It analyzes how we perceive the outside and inner world using logic and reason. This discipline teaches us close reading, clear writing, critical thinking, and logical analysis. These methods try to formulate the appropriate language to describe reality and our place in it.

🔝 Top-10 Philosophy Essay Topics

• How does death shape the meaning of life?
• Do our senses reflect the accurate picture of the world?
• Why do we consider some actions to be morally incorrect?
• Is there a correct way to live a life?
• What makes humans different from other mammals?
• If art is subjective, how can we tell whether a given artist is talented or not?
• Knowledge can hurt. Why do we strive for it?
• Idealism: A way to perfection or fantasy?
• Does love have a meaning beyond itself?
• Should happiness be the ultimate purpose in life?

⛪ Philosophy of Religion Topics

• Do religious beliefs contradict scientific thinking ?
• Does religion improve or degrade humanity?
• Religion and Politics in Durkheim’s Theories .
• The belief system of each person limits their faith.
• How do different faiths envision the ultimate reality?
• Islam and Its Influence on the World Society .
• Can God’s existence be justified on rational grounds?
• If God exists, does it mean that only one religion is genuine?
• Same-sex Marriage as a Religious Issue .
• Omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, omnibenevolent: Is that true?
• What is the source of any religious belief?
• Descartes’ proof of the existence of God.
• Philosophy and religion: theory and practice.
• Differences between religion and philosophy of religion.
• Does philosophy admit that god exists?
• Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• Harmonization of god’s purposes with human goods in Kant’s philosophy.
• Reason and religious belief. An introduction to The Philosophy of Religion’ by M. Peterson.
• Religious Studies and Theology .
• Aristotle’s god: the universal source of change in the universe.
• Human rights from the perspective of Islam .
• Christian Religious Fundamentalism and Family Role Identities .
• Do you think the five philosophical proofs of god’s existence are trustworthy?
• Evangelical theology: Jesus Christ.
• Does Hegel’s doctrine of god match Christian theology ?
• Religion and public life in “American Grace” by Putnam.
• Pragmatic views in “The Will to Believe” by William James.
• God in Descartes and Nietzsche.
• Which model of faith do you prefer?
• Sociology of religion: purpose and concept.
• Describe the constant conflict of creationism.
• Relation between god, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit.
• Can religious experiences confirm the existence of ultimate reality?
• Islamic civilization: religious practices.
• How could one distinguish the genuine experience of god from the ungenuine?
• What is the highest good in Buddhism ?
• Descartes and God’s existence.
• Is morality possible without religion?
• Buddhism: teachings of Buddha.
• Can there be free will if god is omniscient?
• Afterlife in different world cultures.
• Miracle: A transgression of the natural law or a transgression of our understanding of it?
• Which side of the mind-body debate would you take?
• Religious beliefs and political decisions.
• Establish the relationship between a person’s belief in the afterlife and their theistic position.
• Karma, dharma, and samsara in Indian religions.
• How to make sense of religious diversity ?
• Conceptions of Christ.
• Can the language of god be understood from the human position?
• Judaism concepts.
• The nature of miracles in the philosophy of religion.
• Moses in Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
• The difference in the conceptions of god in monotheist and pantheist religions.
• World religions studies and key concepts.
• Does the doctrine of the trinity relate Christianism to pantheism?
• What is the logical problem of evil?

🗳️ Topics in Political Philosophy

• Why is the term “political” a problem in philosophy?
• The Research of Morality in Politics .
• Why is climate change an issue for political philosophy?
• Political Science, Philosophy & Social Criticism .
• Is it possible to establish global justice?
• What does it take to be a free citizen ?
• Political Ideologies From the Philosophic Point of View .
• Does a fair way to distribute wealth exist?
• Does a nation owe anything to another country?
• Utopia: ideal state basic principles.
• What are the limits of the legal obligations of a citizen?
• The destructive nature of capitalism.
• Civil liberties in the supreme court.
• Nationalism vs. Cosmopolitanism: A comparative study.
• Political justice: Muslims discrimination.
• The equality in opportunity for racial justice .
• Marxism and realism in international relationships.
• What are an individual’s rights against the state?
• Karl Marx’s ideas: society alienation and conflict theory.
• Alternative theories in international relations.
• Is democracy another unattainable ideal?
• International relations theories: realism & green politics.
• To which degree should the state force its people to do something for their own good?
• Democracy: pluralist theory and elite theory.
• Realist versus liberal international relations theory.
• Democracy vs. Epistocracy: which one do you support and why?
• Realism and idealism in modern international relations.
• Does the government have the moral right to ban unhealthy behavior?
• Liberal international relations theories and global security.
• Explain the importance of political philosophy in the education of future citizens.
• Italian fascism and German nazism contrast analysis.
• What could Aristotle tell us about the world of globalization : A critical study of ancient philosophy.
• Political realism is the theory of international relations.
• Why are there no permanent answers in political philosophy?
• The role of the state: ideologies and policies.
• What are the principal goals of a decent society?
• Marxism philosophy, a constitutional republic, and American criminal justice.
• Why should a person obey the law?
• The Idea of Republican Theory
• What is the basis of human dignity: freedom, virtue, friendship, and love?
• Neoliberalism: history and modern perception.
• What are the meeting points between the philosophy of religion and political philosophy?
• “The german ideology” by Karl Marx and materialism.
• Is there a single best political regime ?
• Karl Marx’s theory of exploitation: a critical analysis.
• Can humanity exist without wars?
• Tocqueville and the idea of America moving toward communism.
• The mechanism of redirecting conflict to the common good in politics.
• The essential concepts and principles of democracy.
• Is international politics a sum of the regimes of the member countries?
• Concept and the significance of soft power.
• What is the standard character type of a democratic society
• Democratic society and the capitalist system.
• What is the most praiseworthy thing for a community?
• “Civil disobedience” essay by Henry David Thoreau.
• Do you believe that humanity will find something better than democracy in the future?
• Bureaucracy and its role in society.
• Are people capable of establishing a government based on reflection and choice?
• Federalism: challenges and debates.
• What are the qualities of successful and wise statesmanship ?
• Neoliberalism and human suffering.

⚖️ Philosophy of Law Topics

• Should we obey the law because of fear of punishment or because it is good?
• Capital Punishment: The Philosophical Perspective .
• Why cannot humanity adopt single legislation for all countries?
• Individual and Social Theories in Explaining a Crime .
• The difference between consequential and categorical moral reasoning of crimes.
• The theory of rational choice in criminology.
• Are the institutions of punishment morally justifiable?
• Stanford Prison Experiment and Its Consequences .
• Wrongful conviction in the criminal court system.
• A Utilitarian Approach to Capital Punishment .
• What distinguishes law from ethical norms?
• Crime theories and countermeasures.
• How did the principal legal issues transform through the ages?
• Assisted suicide: euthanasia and self-determination.
• Do the changes in morality entail changes in the legal systems?
• The common law background of the Fourth Amendment.
• Is morality objective or subjective?
• Is healthcare a civil or human right?
• Can the empowerment of a certain population group limit the opportunities for another?
• Rights protected by the Second Amendment.
• Where is the line between the right to free speech and discrimination?
• Poverty or low income as a cause of crime.
• Can we say that law has conventional nature?
• Constitution and system of separation of powers.
• A legal system requires a sanction for non-compliance.
• Rights and freedoms in the US.
• Legal realism: the law is the product of court decisions.
• The financial cost of crime to society.
• The law of human interpretation in law.
• Is the Bill of Rights necessary or not?
• Deontology : preserving the autonomy of other people.
• Importance of drug legalization in the USA.
• The abortion debate – understanding the issues.
• Life in prison and death penalty comparison.
• Capital punishment and the concept of redemption.
• Death penalty for and against.

👼 Philosophy & Ethics Topics

• Moral right and wrong vs. moral good and evil: A personal experience.
• Capital Punishment and Its Ethics .
• Any society has its specific moral outlook.
• Positive Psychology and Philosophical Concepts .
• Ethics and morality: Interchangeable terms?
• Ethical Decision-Making & Counseling on Abortion .
• Will humanity ever find a correct way to live?
• Philosophical Ethical Theories: Kantianism and Utilitarianism .
• Should secondary education comprise ethics?
• What is the current theory of ethics prevailing in philosophy?
• Death Penalty: Crime and Morality .
• Ethics in Descartes and Nietzsche .
• Does the level of schooling define a person’s morality?
• “The Allegory of the Cave” – The philosophy of Plato and Socrates.
• Is there a moral justification for the class system?
• Is there anything morally wrong with abortions ?
• Moral Philosophy and Peter Singer .
• Lawyers and ethics: the attorney-client privilege.
• Mass surveillance as an anti-crime measure: An ethical perspective.
• Equal consideration of interests to non-human animals.
• Is honesty a must for a moral person?
• Police ethics and misconduct.
• Wealth: A prerequisite for charitable actions?
• Do we have a moral responsibility over developing countries ?
• The ethics of cloning: morality and issues.
• The ethical side of human cloning.
• Should governments consider the ethical aspects of new laws?
• Morality, ethics, and ethical integrity.
• The ethics of discrimination : is there any?
• Censorship: should we ban morally harmful content?
• Lifestyles in Don Giovanni and Dangerous Liaisons.
• Are criminals evil by nature?
• Animal experiments: benefits, ethics, and defenders.
• Do you support or discard utilitarianism ?
• Do you think there is such a thing as a moral fact?
• Animal research, its ineffectiveness, and amorality.
• Can ethical rules limit free will?
• Ethical life issues in works by Cicero and C.S. Lewis.
• Write a dissertation on the drivers of human behavior.
• The problem of moral superiority.
• Socrates and Thrasymachus’ views on justice in Plato’s Republic.
• Do we have the right to restrict the immigrant inflow?
• Does every action presuppose an intent?
• Plato and Kant’s understanding of justice.
• Does the current state of morality make us civilized?
• Case study on models of making ethical decisions.
• Is a good death possible?
• Al-Ghazali philosophy.
• Deontological ethics vs. value ethics: Research project.
• Does there exist a bad motivation for procreation?
• Euthyphro’s definition of “Holiness” or “Piety.”
• Ethics in the institutions of global governance.
• Nihilism in Nietzsche’s, Kierkegaard’s, and Heidegger’s views.

🔬 Philosophy of Science Essay Topics

• The future of technology : The responsibility of philosophers?
• Human Being in the Modern Science .
• Time travel: Should we learn to do that?
• Thinking and Intelligence in Psychological Science .
• Is artificial intelligence our only hope for unparalleled technological development?
• Explain the distinction between science and non-science.
• Einstein and his Contribution to Science .
• What are the ultimate aims of science?
• Is there a universal way to interpret scientific findings ?
• St. Thomas Aquinas’ cosmological argument analysis.
• A scientific theory and antirealism: Useful but not trustworthy.
• Is the philosophy of science useful for scientists?
• Debates of Using Animals in Scientific Analysis .
• Theory vs. empirical data: What comes first?
• Hobbes and Locke in the state of nature.
• What is a measurement in science?
• The Vienna Circle of Positivism: A historical outlook.
• Legal Positivism and Natural Theory .
• How and why did the science of ecology emerge?
• Popper’s philosophy of science and falsification.
• Describe the difference between a semantic view and a model-based approach.
• Which research problems compose the evolutionary theory ?
• Philosophical views and cultural influences.
• What does it take to obtain authoritative knowledge ?
• Analyze the social nature of any scientific knowledge.
• Clifford’s and James’ knowledge theories.
• Does gender define trust in science?
• What does it mean to be an objective scientist?
• Feminist Approaches to Gender and Science Issues .
• Mind plus computer: Homunculus theory.
• Compare Aristotle’s and Plato’s approaches to knowledge.

😊 Easy Philosophy Paper Topics

• Do you believe in the extra-sensory powers of some people?
• In which ways does God speak to people?
• Death as the Final Destination .
• Describe the future of humanity in 200 years.
• Aristotle and relationships at work.
• The way we treat nature is worse than ever before.
• Describe the ideal society.
• The Role of the Belief System in Projecting the Future .
• Analyze the most famous words of your favorite philosopher.
• Dreams : A parallel world or our fears and wishes?
• A fallacy: term definition and examples.
• Heaven and hell are our visions of good and evil.
• What is the nature of intuition?
• Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill’s Moral Theories .
• Why do people lie?
• Mind-body relationship.
• Onlooker’s responsibility: When should you not interfere?
• When do children become adults?
• Skepticism Theory of Knowledge .
• Each death is a tiny end of the world.
• People and the meaning of life.
• Can international relations be moral?
• Happiness or success: What is our purpose?
• The Concept of Justice According to Socrates and Augustine .
• Are human virtues so good for everyone?
• Plato’s allegory of the cave.
• What would happen if animals spoke?
• Luck is a form of optimism.
• The relationship between money and happiness.
• Where does responsibility come from?
• Virtue and Human Good by Aristotle and Socrates .
• Tolerance : A gateway to discrimination?

😀 Fun Philosophy Paper Topics

• Why are clowns scary and fun at the same time?
• How do our names define our personalities?
• Why Do We Make Bad Decisions ?
• Light meal vs. large snack: How do we form our eating habits?
• How do you know you are not sleeping now?
• Why Do People Behave the Way They Do?
• Why don’t passengers get a parachute on a plane?
• How do you think your pet calls you?
• What Justifies My Existence?
• What makes you “elderly?”
• Why Do Adolescents Engage in Risk-Taking Behaviors ?
• Embalming the dead: The pointless attempt to stop decomposition.
• What is the gap between living and existing?
• Why Marijuana Should Be Legalized?
• Is it moral for a vegetarian to eat animal-shaped cookies?
• Most time-saving devices are a total waste of time.
• Why Does Crime Require Punishment?
• Does a white painting on white paper exist?
• If you plan to fail, do you succeed when it happens?
• Why Should We Pay for Music?
• Everyone can be replaced.
• What would happen if you told only the truth?
• Why Are Reality Shows So Popular ?
• Knowing the date of your death: The best motivator?
• Who do we owe for our success?
• Courage and Fear: What Do You Know About Them?
• How do you know that something has a meaning?
• What does it mean to control your life?
• What Is Consciousness and How Does It Work ?
• What comes first: the ends or the means?
• Is utilitarianism morally correct?
• Should abortion be legal around the world?
• Are current policies properly protecting individuals from discrimination?
• Does Plato provide a compelling argument for the immortality of the soul?
• Al Gore and Steven Koonin have competing views on climate change awareness. Which one is better?
• Should hate speech on the Internet and social media be prohibited?
• Has feminism as a movement accomplished all of its goals?
• Is presentness a real property of events?
• Is it acceptable to have zoos and circuses?
• Do wealthy countries have a moral obligation to help reduce global hunger?
• Does faith in God transform a person?
• Michael Bloomberg and Wayne LaPierre have opposite views on gun control. Which one is better?
• The development of the notion of government by social contract.
• The issues of democracy and possible solutions.
• Civil disobedience and its efficiency in advancing social change today.
• The role of government in the distribution of economic justice.
• The textual genesis of Wittgenstein’s philosophical investigations.
• The defense of Julian Simon’s views of the environmental crisis.
• The essence of time: how do we perceive the past, present, and future?
• The current status of measures of spirituality.
• The problem of free will in the context of metaphysics.
• Analysis of Isaiah Berlin’s understanding of “positive” and “negative” liberty.
• The key principles of just and unjust wars.
• The morality of field research on animals.
• The absolute way to achieve a happy state of mind.
• What is the problem with synthetic a priori knowledge?
• The role of AI technologies in wiping humanity.
• True beauty: subjective or objective?
• The meaning of rich and poor in the modern world.
• The importance of having a perfect life.
• Does religion have an impact on scientific thinking?
• The role of spirituality in a world of material prosperity.
• Life purpose and methods to find it.
• The possibility of time travel in the modern world.
• The methods to control human thoughts.
• Is it beneficial to be aware of your consciousness?
• How can we know for certain that there is an afterlife?
• Why are people the biggest threat to humanity?
• Does religion provoke more conflict than it solves?
• Does effective time management make our lives more meaningful and happier?
• Can money buy happiness?
• Why do we respect dead people more than the living?
• Is peace the only way to stop war?
• What is the primary goal of humanity?
• How does consciousness fit into the physical world?
• Will stronger regulations create a better world?
• How do we know about what there is outside of ourselves?
• Do guns protect people or kill people?

✍️ Bonus: 17 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper

When you’re assigned a philosophy paper, it can be a perfect moment to obtain a philosophical attitude: “This too shall pass.” However, while working on it, it’s better to concentrate and make maximum effort to do it right. Here are 17 quick tips that can help you a lot.

• Scholar.google.com
• The OALster database
• Internet Public Library
• Biblioscape
• Brainstorm your topic. This simple method can save you plenty of time and bring surprising results. Set a timer and try to generate as many ideas as possible within a chosen time period. Make it a rule to write down every idea crossing your mind (even if it seems crazy). You’ll have time to sort out your ideas later.
• Create an outline. After you choose all major arguments, work on the logical structure of your paper. As an option, draw a mind map for your would-be paper.
• Create a thesis statement. Just like any other academic paper, your Philosophy term paper will require a strong thesis statement, the last sentence in the introduction part, and briefly summarizing the main idea of your paper.
• Write a stunning introduction. Start with an attention hook – a quote, a rhetorical question, striking stats, or an interesting fact.
• Explain why you chose this topic.
• Write an effective literature review. Divide your sources into groups according to the authors’ conclusions. Point out the gap in the literature.
• Make transitions between sections. Make your Philosophy term papers flow. Just a couple of words connecting sections can improve the logical structure of your paper.
• Use hamburger paragraph structure. Start every paragraph with a topic sentence – a brief summary of what you’re going to discuss in the paragraph. Complete every paragraph with a concluding sentence – a brief repetition of what you’ve just said. It’s a great way to make your writing more logical and convincing.
• Spend 70% of word count on your own ideas. One of the best things about Philosophy writing is that you should include your own vision of the problem. Instead of jumping from one quote to another one, balance the quotes you use by adding your own ideas.
• Align your ideas with your course readings. Include a couple of terms you discussed in class or heard in lectures in your Philosophy term papers to impress your teachers.
• Discuss counterarguments. Show your deep understanding of the topic, shedding light on the conflicting points of view.
• Point out the limitations. Show your analytical thinking. Make it obvious that you understand that any research can have certain flaws, such as sampling or research method.
• Use spell, grammar, style, and plagiarism checkers. The software can help you improve the quality of your writing and help you avoid trouble.
• Cite all sources. Make sure that you give credit to the authors whose writing you used.
• Write a logical conclusion. Briefly repeat what you have said in your paper and add a new perspective – ideas for further research. Avoid including any new information in the conclusion of your Philosophy term paper.

We hope that our examples of philosophy topics for essays have inspired your philosophical thinking. Still, if you haven’t found what you are looking for, try out the topic generator . Enter the related keyword and check dozens of philosophy of science essay topics, philosophy of law topics, and many more.

❓ Philosophy Essay FAQ

What topics are in philosophy.

Philosophy topics for essays are subdivided into topics on law, politics, science, ethics, existential issues, and philosophy of religion topics. You can also research feminism, logical argumentation, human rationality, empiricism, stoicism, metaphysics, and epistemology. The broadest and the most exciting title could be: What is the world we live in really like?

How to Come up With a Topic in Philosophy?

• Select the domain. Would you like to discuss ethics, metaphysics, or epistemology? These are the three pillars of philosophy.
• If you prefer something more practical, choose topics on political philosophy.
• Read through your notes over the last semester. You will find an interesting research question.

What Is a Good Philosophy Essay Topic?

A good philosophy topic for an essay does not reveal your position but instead suggests an argumentative question. Does life have a superior meaning? Does an individual have the right to suicide? Can we build a happy society without international conflicts? Such questions allow you to develop arguments and explain your opinion.

What Are Easy Topics to Write About on Philosophy?

Philosophy ethics topics are probably the easiest papers to write because each person has their moral code, which could serve as a reference point. Consider the following:

• Why do all societies have different moral standards?
• Is there a universal paradigm of ethics?
• Is it ethical to apply euthanasia?

🔗 References

• Why Study Philosophy? | University of Washington
• Research Areas | Department of Philosophy
• How death shapes life | The Harvard Gazette
• Reflections on Death in Philosophical/Existential Context
• Research Overview | Department of Philosophy
• Philosophy of art | Britannica
• Research Clusters – Philosophy – Columbia University
• Political philosophy | Britannica

IELTS Preparation Tips & Resources [How to Study IELTS by Myself?]

How to prepare for pte academic test: study guide & tips.

101 Philosophy Questions

Many philosophy questions are easy to understand but difficult to resolve satisfactorily. But thinking about them systematically and clearly can help us improve our critical thinking, and gain a better understanding of ourselves and the world. It might also be fun!

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125 Philosophical Questions To Encourage Critical Thinking and Self-Exploration

Food for thought!

Our world is full of mysteries—why not try to solve a few? One of the most incredible ways to encourage critical thinking and self-exploration is to ask kids thought-provoking questions. Hearing the responses and exchanging ideas can really expand our perspectives and leave us with important food for thought. Want to try? Here are some philosophical questions to share with students in the classroom.

What Is a Philosophical Question?

Philosophical questions usually explore human nature, morality, ethics, the origins of the universe, and even the afterlife. These types of questions require deep thinking and don’t usually have straightforward, clear answers. They leave a lot of room for interpretation, which is why they are so interesting and fun!

Fun Philosophical Questions

1. Which really came first, the chicken or the egg?

2. If you’d been given a different name, would you be a different person?

3. Would the world be more peaceful if kids were in charge?

4. What is kindness?

5. Do you think music is a universal language?

6. What does happiness feel like in your mind and body?

7. Can one person really change the world?

8. If it was possible to live forever, would you want to?

9. If people live in a time zone ahead of us, does this mean they live in the future?

10. Can a person be happy and sad at the same time?

Philosophical Questions About Life & Society

11. What is the meaning of life?

12. What is the biggest issue in our society right now?

13. What is your vision of the ideal society?

14. Do you think it’s important to conform in society?

15. How can humans improve the world in the next five years?

16. What is the most important thing in life?

17. Are people too greedy?

18. How could the world change for the better?

19. Is failure ever useful?

20. What would life be like if we never experienced pain?

21. Why is it important to help others?

22. What is freedom?

23. Can too much freedom be a bad thing?

24. Should we have to pay for basic needs such as food, water, and shelter?

25. Should education be free?

Philosophical Questions About Growing Up

26. When do children become adults?

27. Are adults as curious as kids?

28. At what age does an adult become “old”?

29. What can kids learn from grown-ups?

30. What can grown-ups learn from kids?

31. Do we become wise through age, study, or experience?

32. Does birth order affect people’s personalities?

33. Do people need to have children?

34. If you could give your younger self one piece of life advice, what would it be?

Philosophical Questions About Love & Relationships

35. What is love?

36. Is love about feelings, words, or actions?

37. Does unconditional love really exist?

38. How do you know you are loved?

39. What causes someone to fall in love?

40. What makes a good friend?

41. Are romantic relationships important?

42. Do soulmates exist?

43. Can someone be in love with more than one person?

44. Do you think love at first sight really exists?

45. Is love blind?

46. Can you love others if you don’t love yourself?

47. What makes a relationship last for many years?

48. Do large age gaps matter in a relationship?

Philosophical Questions About Animals

49. Do humans treat animals properly or do we need to improve?

50. Are dairy and eggs more ethical to eat than meat?

51. What would life be like if animals were dominant over humans?

52. Have some animals or creatures walked the Earth that we don’t know about?

53. Do spiders or bugs experience emotional pain?

54. Do animals feel love?

55. Are animals less intelligent than humans?

56. Do animals like being kept as pets?

57. Is it OK to kill bugs?

58. Do you think our pets have names for us too?

Philosophical Questions About Death

59. Where does the soul come from?

60. Does the soul die when the body does?

61. Do you believe in life after death or reincarnation? Why or why not?

62. What do you believe about this statement: “Everyone dies twice. Once with their body and again the last time someone mentions their name.”?

63. If you only had five years left to live, how would you live differently?

64. Is euthanasia an immoral way to end a life?

65. Would you ever want to know how or when you were going to die?

66. Should everyone have to be an organ donor?

Philosophical Questions About the Universe

67. Do you believe in life on other planets?

68. Why are we here on Earth?

69. Do you believe in astrology?

70. Are there alternate universes?

71. Have aliens visited Earth?

72. Should we be spending money to develop space travel?

73. Do you think there could be time travelers living among us right now?

74. If someone could time-travel, would it be ethically wrong to change history?

75. If an advanced life-form from another planet wanted to eat us, would that be wrong considering we eat animals on Earth?

76. What do you think is out in space that we have not discovered yet?

77. If aliens were to come tomorrow, what would you do?

Philosophical Questions About Law & Governance

78. Are equal and fair the same thing?

79. What makes something right and something wrong?

80. Will war ever go away?

81. Is our legal system fair?

82. Is it OK to commit a crime to save another person’s life?

83. Is it OK to steal something to survive?

84. Should the legal drinking age be lower or higher?

85. Should the legal age for driving be lower or higher?

86. Should good healthcare be a universal right?

87. Should people living an unhealthy lifestyle pay more for healthcare?

88. Should there be stricter laws about what goes into our food?

89. If killing someone saved hundreds of other people, would that make it OK?

90. Does power change people?

91. What makes a crime a crime?

92. Should buses have seat belts?

Philosophical Questions About the Paranormal

93. Have you ever had any paranormal or strange experiences that defy explanation?

94. Do you believe in ghosts or spirits?

95. Do humans have extrasensory powers like psychic abilities or telepathy?

96. Do you believe in miracles?

97. Do you think that life is predetermined or that you choose your own path?

98. Does karma really exist?

99. Is it possible that paranormal creatures like vampires and werewolves really do exist?

100. Do you believe in the law of attraction?

Philosophical Questions About Science & Technology

101. What has been the greatest advancement or invention of our time?

102. Can robots develop emotions, consciousness, or morality?

103. Are you controlling your technology or is your technology controlling you?

104. Is social media a good thing in our society?

105. Why is it so easy to spread misinformation on social media?

106. Do you think the environment is in danger?

107. Do you think that technology is advancing us or destroying us?

108. Is time travel possible?

109. Will climate change affect us in the future?

110. Is technology making us more polarized or more open in our thinking?

111. Is technology gathering too much of our information?

Tough Philosophical Questions

112. Can people change?

113. What makes someone human?

114. Is hope essential to life?

115. What is intuition (your gut feeling)?

116. Why are we so afraid of the unknown?

117. Is there only one truth or can it be different for everyone?

118. Do we need good and evil to coexist in life?

119. What are dreams?

120. Is it possible to be in the wrong place at the right time?

121. Should wealthy people leave their money to their family or give it to charity?

122. Is lying ever OK?

123. Will life as we know it end someday?

124. Why do we remember things we should forget and forget things we want to remember?

125. Where do our thoughts come from?

What are your favorite philosophical questions? Come share on the WeAreTeachers HELPLINE group on Facebook !

Plus, check out  100+ fun icebreaker questions for kids and teens ..

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1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology

Philosophy, One Thousand Words at a Time

Welcome to 1000-Word Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology , an ever-growing set of over 180 original 1000-word essays on philosophical questions, theories, figures, and arguments. 

We publish new essays frequently, so please check back for updates, follow us on Facebook , Twitter / X , and Instagram , and subscribe by email on this page to receive notifications of new essays.

All of our essays are now available in audio format; many of our essays are available as videos . 

Select Recent Essays

Objects and their Parts: The Problem of Material Composition by Jeremy Skrzypek

Artificial Intelligence: The Possibility of Artificial Minds by Thomas Metcalf

The Mind-Body Problem: What Are Minds? by Jacob Berger

Seemings: Justifying Beliefs Based on How Things Seem by Kaj André Zeller

Form and Matter: Hylomorphism by Jeremy W. Skrzypek

Kant’s Theory of the Sublime by Matthew Sanderson

Philosophy of Color by Tiina Carita Rosenqvist

On Karl Marx’s Slogan “From Each According to their Ability, To Each According to their Need” by Sam Badger

Philosophy as a Way of Life by Christine Darr

Philosophy of Mysticism: Do Mystical Experiences Justify Religious Beliefs? by Matthew Sanderson

Ancient Cynicism: Rejecting Civilization and Returning to Nature by G. M. Trujillo, Jr.

“Properly Basic” Belief in God: Believing in God without an Argument by Jamie B. Turner

Philosophy of Time: Time’s Arrow by Dan Peterson

W.D. Ross’s Ethics of “Prima Facie” Duties by Matthew Pianalto

Aristotle on Friendship: What Does It Take to Be a Good Friend? by G. M. Trujillo, Jr.

Plato’s Allegory of the Cave: the Journey Out of Ignorance by Spencer Case

Epistemic Justification: What is Rational Belief? by Todd R. Long

The Doctrine of Double Effect: Do Intentions Matter to Ethics? by Gabriel Andrade

The Buddhist Theory of No-Self (Anātman/Anattā) by Daniel Weltman

Self-Knowledge: Knowing Your Own Mind by Benjamin Winokur

The Meaning of Life: What’s the Point? and Meaning in Life: What Makes Our Lives Meaningful? by Matthew Pianalto

The Philosophy of Humor: What Makes Something Funny? by Chris A. Kramer

Karl Marx’s Theory of History by Angus Taylor

Saving the Many or the Few: The Moral Relevance of Numbers by Theron Pummer

Philosophy of Space and Time: What is Space? and Philosophy of Space and Time: Are the Past and Future Real ? by Dan Peterson

What Is Misogyny? by Odelia Zuckerman and Clair Morrissey

Philosophy and Race: An Introduction to Philosophy of Race by Thomas Metcalf

“Can They Suffer?”: Bentham on our Obligations to Animals  by Daniel Weltman

Ursula Le Guin’s “The Ones who Walk Away from Omelas”: Would You Walk Away? by Spencer Case

Indoctrination: What is it to Indoctrinate Someone? by Chris Ranalli

Agnosticism about God’s Existence by Sylwia Wilczewska

African American Existentialism: DuBois, Locke, Thurman, and King by Anthony Sean Neal

Conspiracy Theories by Jared Millson

Philosophical Inquiry in Childhood by Jana Mohr Lone

Essay Categories

• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Africana Philosophy
• Buddhist Philosophy
• Chinese Philosophy
• Epistemology, or Theory of Knowledge
• Historical Philosophy
• Islamic Philosophy
• Logic and Reasoning
• Metaphilosophy, or Philosophy of Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Phenomenology and Existentialism
• Philosophy of Education
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Mind and Language
• Philosophy of Race
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Sex and Gender
• Social and Political Philosophy

* New categories are added as the project expands. 

Popular Essays

* This is a selection of some of our most popular essays. 

Descartes’ “I think, therefore I am” by Charles Miceli and  Descartes’ Meditations by Marc Bobro

Marx’s Conception of Alienation  by Dan Lowe

John Rawls’ ‘A Theory of Justice’  by Ben Davies

The Ethics of Abortion  by Nathan Nobis

Aristotle’s Defense of Slavery  by Dan Lowe

“God is Dead”: Nietzsche and the Death of God  by Justin Remhof

Philosophy and Its Contrast with Science : Comparing Philosophical and Scientific Understanding  by Thomas Metcalf

Happiness: What is it to be Happy?  by Kiki Berk

Pascal’s Wager: A Pragmatic Argument for Belief in God  by Liz Jackson

The African Ethic of Ubuntu  by Thaddeus Metz

New to philosophy?! Perhaps begin with these essays:

What is Philosophy? by Thomas Metcalf,

Critical Thinking: What is it to be a Critical Thinker? by Carolina Flores,

Arguments: Why Do You Believe What You Believe? by Thomas Metcalf, and

Is it Wrong to Believe Without Sufficient Evidence? W.K. Clifford’s “The Ethics of Belief” by Spencer Case. 

We have resources for students on How to Write a Philosophical Essay  and How to Read Philosophy by the Editors of 1000-Word Philosophy . 

A teaching units page has resources to help instructors develop course modules.

2023 and 2022 End of Year Reports are available here . 

We have STICKERS! Want a free sticker or some stickers?? Let us know and we’ll send you some! (Offer only available for addresses in the US, unfortunately, due to postage costs.)

Follow 1000-Word Philosophy on Facebook , Twitter / X , and Instagram and subscribe to receive email notifications of new essays at  1000WordPhilosophy.com

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EvolveU – Writing

A brief guide to writing philosophical questions.

Each month I write the questions for Pub Theology.  Pub Theology promises important questions, good conversation, great beer.  It only guarantee’s great beer.  Without important questions the good conversation may go bad.

I want to improve my questions, even make them important.

I need to improve my questions, even make them understandable.

I must improve my questions, even make them philosophical.

I found an article on the net about philosophical writing and my review of summation of it follows.  I hope to extract the essentials for writing good philosophical questions.

The Harvard College Writing Center published a paper titled “A Brief Guide to Writing the Philosophy Paper”.  This seven page document is structured into the following parts:

The Challenges of Philosophical Writing

Begin by formulating your precise thesis

Define technical or ambiguous terms used in your thesis or your argument.

• If necessary, motivate your thesis (i.e. explain to your reader why they should care about it)

Explain briefly how you will argue in favor of your thesis.

If necessary, explain the argument you will be critiquing.

• Make an argument to support your thesis.

In order to strengthen your argument, anticipate and answer objections to it.

Briefly conclude by explaining what you think your argument has established.

• Conclusion (from 2 and 3)

Avoid direct quotes

Use first person personal pronouns and possessive pronouns freely; signpost.

Say exactly what you mean, and no more than you need to say.

• Be careful with specialized language.

Above find the outline of this article.  Below find my interpretation and the key elements I will need to apply to my Pub Theology questions.

You expressing your personal opinion on controversial topics is not philosophy.  A method of first attaining a clear and exact question, then provide answers supported by clear, logically structured arguments, that is philosophy.

An ideal argument should lead from obviously true premises to an unobvious true conclusion.  A successful negative argument refutes the theory.  Positive arguments usually end up discussing other questions.

Structuring a Philosophy Paper

Assignments ask you to a thesis, which is a claim that may be true or false.  Explain it, support it, objection to it, defend it, evaluate it, discuss consequences, etc.  Structure thesis as follows:

Example: State argument clear and concise, avoid ambiguity (uncertainty or inexactness of meaning in language.)

Think of an imaginary reader whenever you need to decide how much you need to say to set up a discussion, or to judge the overall clarity of your work.

If necessary, motivate your thesis (i.e. explain to your reader why they should care about it).

Take care to clearly indicate when you are speaking in your own voice, and when you are explicating someone else’s argument or point of view but not yourself advocating it.

Explain the argument in your own words.

POOR WRITING EXAMPLE: In order to prove or disprove a thesis, one must engage with it.  Explain and analyze the argument rather than just reporting on it (a book report).  Make your view clear, not ambiguous.

Make an argument to support your thesis. 

Use a single compelling argument as opposed to using multiple weaker arguments.

You must always present a reasons for thinking an objection is true.

You should always raise and reply to the strongest objections you can think. GOOD WRITING EXAMPLE: Do not let objections rest on logical fallacies or implausible premises.

HOW TO GET IT DONE

Don’t try to write a from scratch, from beginning to end: leave plenty of time.  Topic, possible thesis, rough argument in your head, sketches on paper, then begin master outline: thesis, argument, maximal logical clarity, one line for each argument logical step, potential objections and replies.  Try explaining your argument to someone else.  Read your paper out loud or have a friend read it to work out which parts of your argument might confuse or fail to persuade the reader and need more work.

Evidence for a claim generally provides a better argument.  Philosophers avoid  empirical data, and confine their investigations to their armchairs.  If you do use such evidence from elsewhere…explain exactly why it is relevant and exactly what we can conclude from it.  Show how two or more views cannot be held consistently with each other, or show that although two views are consistent with one another, they together entail an implausible third claim, known as a reductio ad absurdum.

EXAMPLE OF A REDUCTIO

If the argument is logically valid, show that the three premises of the argument can all be true. A further argument would be needed to show which of the three premises ought to be rejected.

Philosophical arguments are not always in the form of a reducti.  Basic premises should generally be claims that any reasonable reader can be expected to agree with, and they might be drawn from common experience, or from our stronger intuitions.  Avoid the fallacy of begging the question – which is to say, using any premises that one would reasonably doubt if not for one’s prior acceptance of the conclusion the argument attempts to establish.

EXAMPLE OF A QUESTION – BEGGING ARGUMENT

If the writer defined argument argument terms more carefully, its weakness would be clear. Ambiguous terms in philosophical arguments are a common problem, and can mask other weaknesses.

Examples can also help clarify the intended meaning of terms. Philosophers make great use of hypothetical examples in particular.

A GOOD USE OF EXAMPLES

Foreknown side-effect and aims are important points in arguments which involve clear moral institutions.

Do not argue that a claim is true, or is likely to be true, just because someone of great authority believed it.  Do not argue from what the dictionary says about something.

Explain other philosopher’s arguments in your own words.  Read philosophy articles slow and careful.  Understand the steps of the argument.  When using another philosopher’s argument, put it in your own words and in the logical form that seems clearest to you, add improvements, offer or modify reason, defense.

Conventions

When you paraphrase: explain any ambiguous terms or technical terms in the source, and aim to show that you’ve understood.

Give your reader a clear sense of where your argument is going at all times (i.e. I will argue…, I will now show…, My second objection is…)

Use simple prose and short, simple sentences.  Establish a modest point as clearly, carefully, and concisely as possible.

Be careful with specialized language

Philosophy reserves certain terms and phrases for special, narrow meanings that are peculiar to the subject.These include deduction, begs the question, valid, invalid, sound, and unsound (used to describe arguments), and vague (used to describe terms or concepts). You should understand the word use in philosophy before the word use in any of your writing.

Just Evolveu

240 Philosophical Questions for Deep Critical Thinking & Debate

Philosophical questions are an effective tool to stimulate and develop critical thought. They examine profound matters like free will and human nature; the source and value of happiness; morality and ethics; love, logic, and knowledge; religion, death, and the meaning of life.

Although such questions can open a “rabbit hole” that leads to endless and seemingly unanswerable questions, a list of philosophical questions to ask about life—like the ones provided below—can be used as a springboard for critical thinking.  

Such questions help us evaluate arguments, explore foreign ideas, identify potential biases, and think critically about our own beliefs and presuppositions.

We are preparing our our children to enter a society full of questions … and questionable ideas.

Consequently, it is our responsibility to train them to think critically and, above all, seek truth when asking the deep questions that arise in their own hearts. 

First, let’s take a closer look at what a philosophy question is. Then I’ll provide some examples to help encourage deep thinking. 

What is a Philosophical Question OR TOPIC?

A philosophical question is open-ended. Since philosophy itself means “love of wisdom,” it logically follows that a philosophical question is one that pursues a deep understanding of the subject examined.

The answer to this type of question isn’t necessarily an easy one—nor is it always black or white. It requires thoughtful reflection.

The deeper the reasoning behind the answer the better.  

Bear in mind there’s no such thing as a dumb philosophical question . However, don’t be surprised if the way questions are answered borders on the brink of absurdity at times.

But the goal is to inspire thought .

So … even if your students gives nonsensical responses, if they’re willing to explain how they came to their answer, count it as a win. 

(Even giving an incomplete answer is better than not pondering the question at all.)

A good example of a philosophical question is one of the three overarching “pillars” of philosophy.

The 3 Basic But Big Questions of Philosophy Deal with Existence

The fundamental questions of philosophy deal with existence and fall into three main categories::

• Where did we come from?
• Why are we here and how should we live?
• Is there hope for our future and life after death?

How we answer those questions determines what we will value and how we will behave. 

With that in mind, it’s clear just how important it is to train our children to ask meaningful questions and seek truthful answers. 

The study of philosophy can help us do that.

PDF Download of 240 Philosophical Questions

GET ALL 240 QUESTIONS IN AN INSTANT-DOWNLOAD EBOOK!

Includes strategies for using philosophical questions as debate topics.

It is natural to be inquisitive. Let’s steward our students’ curious natures well!

I’ve gathered 240 philosophy questions to help you (and your students) think through tough philosophical topics together. 

It’s tempting to look at these questions as a mere academic exercise. 

But philosophical ideas have shaped human history from ancient times until today — for better or for worse .

Look at them, instead, as a means of preparing your students to face (and combat) the deceptive ideas they will soon encounter. 

Questions of Free Will and Human Nature

Are we really free?

The question of free will versus determinism has been debated by great thinkers for centuries.

Some contend that we have complete freedom of choice.

Others believe that humans have no free will and cannot be held morally responsible for their actions (determinism).They argue that the choices we make stem exclusively from the nature we are born with and all the influences that surround us.

The Bible teaches that we have free will, and we’re responsible for our actions. As Deuteronomy 30:19 explains:

“… I have set before you life and death, blessings and curses. Now choose life, so that you and your children may live …”

Here are some questions about will and humanity:

• Are humans innately good or evil?
• Can humans change their behavior if given enough time?
• Do humans need God to exist?
• What happens when we die?
• Does consciousness continue after physical death?
• Why does suffering happen?
• Should we try to prevent bad events from happening? If so, then how would we go about doing that?
• What makes human life so valuable?
• What makes us human?
• Why does it matter if we’re alive?
• Is there anything wrong with being selfish?
• Do humans need other people in order to live?
• Can animals feel pain? If so, why don’t they try to avoid hurting each other?
• Are children born good or evil?
• Is it okay to lie to protect yourself?
• What is beauty?
• Do all people deserve respect?
• Did you exist before you were born?
• Where do emotions come from?
• Can we choose our emotions or do they just happen?
• At what age are children held accountable for their actions? How do you determine that?
• Where does self-worth come from?
• How do you determine one’s self-worth?
• Is one human life worth more than another?
• Is ignorance really bliss?
• What is the goal of humanity?
• Can predestination and free will coexist?

Philosophical Questions About Happiness

The philosopher Aristotle held the view that, “Happiness is the meaning and the purpose of life, the whole aim and end of human existence.”

Yet the very definition of happiness is as diverse as the people who seek it. Some seek it in relationships, others in work, hobbies, or pleasure. 

One school of thought says finding happiness requires a life in which every aspect contributes toward personal fulfillment. 

Another believes that happiness is “happenstance”—an emotion based on positive circumstances. 

What do you think?

Here are some questions to ponder about happiness:

• What does it mean to be happy?
• Can I be happy when faced with suffering?
• Is happiness universal or a matter of perspective?
• How much should we care about making ourselves happy?
• Is it possible to feel happy and sad at the same time?
• Is it really necessary to pursue happiness?
• Are we happier now as a society than in times past? Why or why not?
• Does anyone else’s happiness affect my own?
• If someone has less material wealth than me, does this automatically make him unhappy? 
• What brings true happiness?
• Can happiness be measured or quantified, like money and power?
• Are certain types of experiences inherently “happier” than others?
• Is it always best to seek out pleasure over avoiding pain?
• Is happiness just the product of chemical reactions in the brain?

Questions Regarding Morals and Ethics

Questions of morals and ethics are important to explore if you wish to develop critical thinking skills. 

Morality and ethics both relate to the distinction between good and bad or right and wrong. However, morality is usually thought of as personal and normative, while ethics is the standards of good and bad distinguished by a particular community or social setting. 

Because the seriousness of the two topics can elicit emotional responses, if we’re not careful, debates on ethics and morality can get heated quickly.

A good moral or ethical argument takes the whole picture into account. 

For instance, how would you answer the question, “ Is killing always wrong? ”

Our first instinct may be a resounding Yes!

But looking at the big picture, we might ask: What if it occurs in self-defense? What about soldiers? Are they held to the same ethical standard civilians are?

These are the types of philosophical questions we encounter in this category.

Here are some additional examples:

• Is morality relative or absolute?
• Where do morals come from?
• Is it possible to make moral judgments without religion?
• Is killing justified under certain conditions?
• What makes something immoral?
• How do you define “good” and “evil”?
• Why do most people think that lying is bad?
• Should all actions have equal consequences?
• Does every human life count equally?
• Is it ever justified to hurt others?
• Is it fair to punish criminals with death?
• Does morality come from within or outside ourselves?
• Is stealing ever permissible? 
• Is it ever permissible to deceive others?
• Should we judge acts based on their outcomes alone?
• Should we always follow the rules even if doing so causes harm?
• Is slavery ever ethically defensible?
• Is dishonesty always wrong?
• Would you kill one person in order to save 1,000?
• Are lies permissible if they protect someone’s feelings?
• What defines a person?
• Are we obligated to help others?
• Is it wrong to kill animals?
• Are humans replaceable?
• What is virtue?

Love is an abstract concept defined in a number of different ways. It’s described as:

• a state of mind
• a relationship
• or a desire.

You’ll find a biblical definition of love in 1 Corinthians 13:4-8:

“Love is patient and kind; love does not envy or boast; it is not arrogant or rude. It does not insist on its own way; it is not irritable or resentful; it does not rejoice at wrongdoing, but rejoices with the truth. Love bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things. Love never ends.…”

Here’s a collection of philosophical questions about love:

• Which is more important: love or money? Why?
• Is there such thing as true love? If yes, where does it come from? 
• Do all human beings want to be loved?
• Can anyone ever really understand another’s feelings?
• Are children born with an innate love for their parents? 
• Are some relationships better than others?
• Can life without love exist?
• What makes someone fall in love?
• Why do people get married?
• Is there a difference between love and lust?
• Is marriage necessary?
• Does love last forever?
• Is it okay to love yourself?
• Is love natural or a choice to be made?
• Where do we find love?

Hard Questions Concerning Death

Have you heard the cliché: “The only certainty in life is death and taxes”?

Death truly is a certainty of life. 

While some people choose to face the reality of death head-on, others pretend like it doesn’t exist. 

Perhaps it’s the finality of death that sparks fear. 

Regardless of how we feel, our time on earth will end at some point in the future. 

How should that impact how we live today?

Discussing death can be healthy when done in the right manner. 

Here are some questions about death we can use to explore the topic, provoke thought, and potentially positively affect how we live:

• Why do people fear death?
• Can we know for certain if there is life after death?
• How would you like to be remembered after you die?
• What happens to the body after you die?
• Does “good death” exist?
• What would happen if we lived forever?
• Should we try to prolong our lives at any cost?
• Could immortality be possible?
• Is euthanasia wrong in all circumstances?
• Is death actually the beginning?
• Why is it acceptable to kill insects?
• Should terminally ill patients be able to choose death?

Questions with Respect to Universal Human Rights 

Universal human rights are those rights which apply equally to everyone regardless of race, religion, gender, or creed. 

They include freedom of speech , equality before law , right to justice , and more. 

The philosophy behind human rights is based upon the idea that humans deserve respect and dignity, and—ultimately—the right to life.

They’re largely considered universal because they are natural, belonging to all members of humanity simply by virtue of being human.

Some philosophers argue that such rights can’t be taken away, while others claim they are conditional.  

Here are a few questions to help us think critically about human rights:

• What makes something a human right?
• Do you believe human rights even exist?
• Are human rights actually universal?
• Are humans rights and entitlement the same thing? 
• Can torture be justified?
• Is liberty a human right?
• Is personal autonomy a right?
• Do governments have the authority to regulate what people do?
• Does democracy guarantee individual liberty?
• How much control should individuals have over their own bodies?
• If someone commits murder, do they still have the right to life?
• Who has the ultimate responsibility for protecting human rights?
• Has modern technology made us more or less humane?
• Is education a human right for all people?
• Is war ever justifiable?
• Is due process a universal right no matter the crime?
• Is capital punishment ever appropriate?
• Are there any downsides to universal human rights?
• Is free speech a universal right?

Philosophical Questions About Politics, Government, and Society

This category contains some of the hardest philosophical questions out there. Most of us have strong beliefs about politics, government, and society that make it hard to form an unbiased opinion. 

Besides political topics, questions in this category also address social issues , social construct , culture , power , and influence .

We can go so far as to question who gets what— when, where, and how.

If you wish to argue successfully—no matter what side of an issue you align with—it is paramount to understand the opposing viewpoint. 

Let’s look at a few questions:

• What makes a country democratic?
• What responsibilities does a government have to its constituents?
• Do democracies always make better decisions than dictatorships?
• What constitutes good governance?
• Is rebellion against government ever justified?
• Is socialism fair? What is “fair”?
• If you rob from the rich and give to the poor, is it wrong?
• Are laws always good?
• Is taxation justified?
• What is the ideal government? Why?
• Should the will of the people always be followed?
• What role do political parties play?
• Who defines corruption?
• How do I know whether my views are correct?
• Is voting compulsory?
• Is there such a thing as too much freedom?
• Is bribery always bad?
• Are police officers obligated to protect criminals?
• Should citizens obey unjust laws?
• Who decides which laws apply to whom?
• Where do we draw the line between criminal behavior and civil disobedience?
• Does the state have the moral duty to provide healthcare for its citizens?
• Is wealth redistribution morally correct?
• Should college be free for all? What about grade school or high school?
• Are freedom and liberty the same thing?
• What makes someone free?
• What makes a crime a crime?
• Is it right to govern the number of children families can have to control the world’s population?

Deep Questions to Make You Think 

Deep philosophical questions are designed to help you think critically and reflect on the subject at hand. 

They are meant to challenge your beliefs so that you may stand more firmly in them , knowing why you believe what you do. 

Here are some examples:

• What is reality?
• What are the limits of science?
• Where did all matter come from?
• Can I trust my senses?
• Is there an innnate moral code?
• Does time exist objectively?
• Who created God?
• Is there a soul?
• Are perceptions real?
• Is “fair” the same for everyone? Who determines whether or not something is “fair”?
• What is time?
• What makes you … you?
• What is truth?
• Is truth reality?
• What gives life meaning?
• What determines success vs. failure?
• Why do bad things happen to good people?
• How do I know what’s true?
• Should we judge others by their actions?
• What’s the purpose of life?
• Where do ideas come from?
• What is justice?
• What is evil?
• What makes someone “good” or “bad”?
• Can something be true without evidence?
• Is fate real?
• At what point does consciousness begin?
• Can time be altered?
• Is there a cause for every effect?

Easy and Funny Questions for Conversation Starters

Not all philosophy discussion topics have to be as serious as “What is the meaning of life?” 

Learning should be fun and engaging, so don’t shy away from humor when asking deep questions or coming up with unorthodox answers. 

Sometimes the most amusing questions lead to the most profound realizations.

Here’s a list of somewhat random philosophical questions to start fun conversations with kids, teens, and older students:

• Is time travel possible? Why or why not?
• Do memories still exist if you forget them?
• Are animals freer than man?
• Are twins unique?
• Are animals like people?
• Do trees feel pain?
• How do you know you’re not dreaming right now?
• Are insects conscious of life?
• What makes something humorous to some and not to others?
• If you save time on something, what happens to that time?
• Why do we talk to ourselves?
• If you try to fail and do, did you actually succeed?
• Can 2+2 ever be something other than 4?

For more ways to engage students in the study of philosophy, try these fun and creative philosophy activities .

Epistemology Questions

Epistemology is concerned with knowledge. It asks questions like::

• How does knowledge work?
• Why do we need it?
• What kind of things count as knowledge?

Epistemologists study these kinds of questions because they’re interested in understanding how humans acquire knowledge. 

They also investigate how to differentiate between opinion and justified belief .

As such, epistemological questions analyze which types of evidence can be trusted as reliable sources of information and why. 

Needless to say, this category can contain some pretty interesting philosophical questions:

• How do we determine if something is certain?
• How do you know if you know something?
• Does anyone ever truly learn anything?
• Who decides what counts as true knowledge?
• Who determines the difference between fact and fiction?
• What is the relationship between facts and opinions?
• What is the source of human knowledge?
• What is knowledge?
• What is the nature of certainty?
• What is the basis of our confidence in claims made by other people?
• What is the role of reason in determining what’s true?
• What is the relation between logic and reasoning?
• What is the connection between language and thought?
• What is the distinction between perception and imagination?
• What is intuition?
• What is the function of intuition?
• What are thoughts?
• What is the purpose of thinking?
• If two people understand things differently, who is right?
• If we had 1000 years to learn, could we know everything?
• Is there an end of knowledge?
• Is everything subjective?

Logic and the Universe

The historical discipline of logic largely began with Thales , known as the “Father of Western Philosophy.” 

Before this point in history, questions of existence were largely “explained” with Greek mythology. 

As it stands today, logic can be described as the discipline of distinguishing good vs bad reasoning.   

But who defines “good” and “bad”?

It’s important to note that even the best logical conclusions can be false.

Logic doesn’t equal truth.

( Investigate the difference between logical thinking and critical thinking here if you’re interested).

You’ll notice many questions in this category address our origins and creation: 

• Can order come from chaos?
• Can something be created from nothing?
• Where did matter come from?
• Is everything relative?
• Is there only one universe? How do we know?
• Is there such thing as absolute truth?
• Are there different levels of existence?
• Do we live forever?
• Was the Big Bang a real event?
• Is space finite?
• Is time eternal?
• Is logic a created concept?
• What time is it really?
• Is the mind the same as the brain?
• What are numbers? 
• Does the universe end?
• Is there such a thing as perfection?
• Does sound exist without hearing?
• Are people in a different timezone in the past (or future)?
• Where does fear come from?
• Does pain exist in itself or just our perception of it?
• What is hope?
• Could there be a parallel universe?

Philosophical Questions About Religion 

Maybe some of the toughest questions are those of religion. Religion for many is the driving force in their lives (and for good reason). 

Religious views affect how we raise our children, interact with others, make decisions, and so much more. 

As such, questioning religious principles can be tricky. Some parents go so far as to encourage their kids to not question at all. 

Others choose a different route, knowing their children will soon enter a world that will challenge them to question what they believe.

Encouraging teens to question their beliefs—in a structured setting with the Word of God in hand—can prepare them to “make a defense” to those who ask about the hope that is within them (1 Peter 3:15). 

Here are some questions about religion:

• Does God exist?
• Does God’s existence depend on our belief in him?
• Can love exist without God?
• What constitutes religion?
• Are miracles real?
• Is religion compatible with science?
• Why does faith matter?
• Who decides which religions are right?
• What makes a person a Christian?
• Should I follow my beliefs blindly?
• Is God a created being?
• Can morality exist without religion?
• Is there a higher power?

Unanswerable Philosophical Questions

Let’s talk about some of the challenges that arise when we delve into the world of ideas.

Since philosophical thought lives largely in grey territory, it deals with questions that can’t be answered with the usual “yes or no,” “this or that” definitive response. 

And as our children search for answers to these philosophical questions, they will encounter deceptive lies disguised as logic. 

Many college professors of philosophy today will tell you that life’s biggest questions remain unanswered.

Yet those who possess a biblical worldview have a much different perspective. 

Even in a lost, confusing world, the Bible is a compass that always points true North. It declares truth in matters the world deems unanswerable.

That’s why it is so important to teach our children how to think and how to reason from a biblical perspective.

Philosophy and Critical Thinking Go Hand in Hand

Critical thinking involves asking questions, analyzing arguments, evaluating evidence, and making decisions based on those evaluations. 

It requires us to use logic, reasoning skills, critical analysis, and judgment.

Sound familiar?

Critical thinking is an essential skill that allows us to make decisions and solve problems effectively. 

And while it may not seem so at first glance, it is a skill that enables us to defend our beliefs effectively when challenged.

That’s why we focus so heavily on critical thinking from a biblical worldview in the resources we offer at Homeschool Adventure . 

If you’re looking for a way to help your students develop critical thinking from a biblical worldview as they explore the history of ideas, check out Philosophy Adventure :

will your children recognize truth?

Philosophy Adventure  teaches students 6th-12th grade how to  write   skillfully ,  think   critically , and  speak   clearly  as they explore the  history of ideas .

It was written to bring history alive! Instead of memorizing facts, students “travel back in time” to walk alongside ancient philosophers.

All the while, they will be challenged to examine what they believe about the world around them, and  why they believe it .

By the end of the year, students will have written their very own book of philosophy!

Tips for Using These Questions as Philosophical Debate Topics

Philosophical questions about life are naturally thought provoking.

When used properly, even controversial philosophy topics can be effective springboards for critical thinking—a skill that will benefit your teen for life!

Questions can spark wonderful, stimulating debate among older students, especially those in upper middle through high school. 

And philosophical debates can be fun but also challenging, providing the perfect opportunity to practice critical thinking. 

If you’ve never tried debating in your homeschool, you can use some of these philosophical questions to start. 

A quick note:

Not all questions are practical for satisfying philosophical discussions.  

The purpose of debate in the homeschool setting is to practice and improve critical thinking, active listening, argument formation, and even teamwork. 

Its purpose is not to waste time on frivolous arguing. 

Those of us who believe that the Bible is the Word of God know that absolute truth exists. Consequently, questions to which Scripture provides clear answers may not be the best choice for learning how to debate .

Likewise, you may want to avoid questions whose answers would have to be based solely on speculation—with no practical way to confirm facts or conclusions. 

However, keeping all of that in mind, it can be immensely productive for older, more mature students to try to debate a stance they personally disagree with.

Doing so can help them better understand their opponent … and equip them to effectively counter opposing views they may face in “real life.”

Only you know whether your students are ready for such a task, so use discernment. 

Since the list of questions we provided is pretty extensive, here’s an abbreviated list of questions that would make great philosophical debate topics :

• Does anyone else’s happiness affect my own?
• Is socialism fair? What is “fair’?

 How to Debate Philosophy

When you debate a philosophical question, follow the same general outline as any other debate process. 

An at-home, sibling-to-sibling or parent-child debate may proceed as follows:

• Assign the debate topic, first and second positions (for or against the question), and allow time for students to brainstorm ideas.
• Encourage students to organize their ideas into simple arguments or points.
• Practice structuring those ideas into a speech with an introduction, rebuttal (for those arguing in the second position), points to make, and a conclusion. 
• Designate a neutral third party to declare a “winner.”
• Start the debate.

Depending on your schedule, this entire process can be done in a single day—or stretched over the course of a week (or even a month). 

How to Handle Different Age Groups

Simply adjust how deeply you go into each step, depending on the ages of your students.

For younger middle school students, consider keeping the debate more like a simple discussion and less of an emphasis on structure and speeches. 

However, you may want to encourage high school students to organize well-developed arguments and rebuttals.

Philosophical questions about life are naturally thought-provoking.

We actually have even more thought-provoking questions here .

When used properly, even controversial philosophy topics can be effective springboards for critical thinking — a skill that will benefit your teen for life!

About The Author

Jordan Mitchell

Man or bear? Hypothetical question sparks conversation about women's safety

Women explain why they would feel safer encountering a bear in the forest than a man they didn't know. the hypothetical has sparked a broader discussion about why women fear men..

If you were alone in the woods, would you rather encounter a bear or a man? Answers to that hypothetical question have sparked a debate about why the vast majority say they would feel more comfortable choosing a bear.

The topic has been hotly discussed for weeks as men and women chimed in with their thoughts all over social media.

Screenshot HQ , a TikTok account, started the conversation, asking a group of women whether they would rather run into a man they didn't know or a bear in the forest. Out of the seven women interviewed for the piece, only one picked a man.

"Bear. Man is scary," one of the women responds.

A number of women echoed the responses given in the original video, writing in the comments that they, too, would pick a bear over a man. The hypothetical has people split, with some expressing their sadness over the state of the world and others cracking jokes. Some men were flabbergasted.

Here's what we know.

A bear is the safer choice, no doubt about it, many say

There were a lot of responses, more than 65,000, under the original post. Many wrote that they understood why the women would choose a bear.

"No one’s gonna ask me if I led the bear on or give me a pamphlet on bear attack prevention tips," @celestiallystunning wrote.

@Brennduhh wrote: "When I die leave my body in the woods, the wolves will be gentler than any man."

"I know a bear's intentions," another woman wrote. "I don't know a man's intentions. no matter how nice they are."

Other TikTok users took it one step further, posing the hypothetical question to loved ones. Meredith Steele, who goes by @babiesofsteele , asked her husband last week whether he would rather have their daughter encounter a bear or a man in the woods. Her husband said he "didn't like either option" but said he was leaning toward the bear.

"Maybe it's a friendly bear," he says.

Diana, another TikTok user , asked her sister-in-law what she would choose and was left speechless.

"I asked her the question, you know, just for giggles. She was like, 'You know, I would rather it be a bear because if the bear attacks me, and I make it out of the woods, everybody’s gonna believe me and have sympathy for me," she said. "But if a man attacks me and I make it out, I’m gonna spend my whole life trying to get people to believe me and have sympathy for me.'"

Bear vs. man debate stirs the pot, woman and some men at odds

The hypothetical has caused some tension, with some women arguing that men will never truly understand what it's like to be a woman or the inherent dangers at play.

Social media users answered this question for themselves, producing memes, spoken word poetry and skits in the days and weeks since.

So, what would you choose?