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42 fungi PhD positions

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PhD proposal : Potentialities of endolichenic metabolites for the biocontrol of plant pathogenic fungi

endolichenic flora, the diversity of endolichenic fungi , access to their specialised metabolites, the identification of their biosynthetic pathways and the identification of their potential in the biocontrol

PhD scholarship – Fungi and Plant-based alternatives for meat and dairy - DTU Food

Skip to main content. Profile Sign Out View More Jobs PhD scholarship – Fungi and Plant-based alternatives for meat and dairy - DTU Food Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Trending Job Description The PhD project

PhD position in Evolutionary Genomics

study hidden fungal diversity. The project focuses on the Archaeorhizomycetes which, based on environmental DNA data, is a species rich and abundantly occurring class of soil and root associated fungi

PhD Studentship: Microbial Hydroponics - Novel Hydroponics Using Microbial Fuel Cells

biofilm as a prosthetic rhizosphere for plant roots (which utilize symbiotic relationships between fungi & bacteria to obtain nutrients from the environment) to optimize N utilisation (synthesis

PhD position (m/f/d) Biochemistry of Plant Interactions

functions of small natural product molecules in plants and fungi (https://www.ipb-halle.de/en/ ). Your tasks: Experimental research within the framework of the SNP2Prot subproject B03  Allelic variation of a

PhD position Plant Expertise & Protein Expertise (m/f/d)

functions of small natural product molecules in plants and fungi (https://www.ipb-halle.de/en/ ). The project: Within the CRC, the position is attached to subproject C04, which is a cooperation between the

PhD position Allelic variation of a vacuolar cation channel (m/f/d)

Phd position in food technology.

Diversity of filamentous fungi in barley and malt under different climatic conditions in Slovakia Supervisor: doc. Ing. Soňa Felšöciová, PhD. Workplace: Faculty of Biotechnology and Food Science, Slovak

Seeking PhD candidate in Phycopathology (M/F)

to facilitate infection of their hosts. In parasites (oomycetes, fungi , bacteria) of plants or animals, numerous studies demonstrate that effectors can physically interact with proteins of their hosts

PhD in Biochemistry of plant immune proteases (m/f/d)

, biochemical interactions and biological functions of small natural product molecules in plants and fungi (https://www.ipb-halle.de/en/ ). The Independent Research Group “Receptor Biochemistry” studies

Searches related to fungi

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Southeastern Mycology Symposium 2018

Fungal biology - an interdisciplinary group.

Fungi range from microscopic, single-celled yeasts to vast underground mycelial colonies covering hundreds of acres. They are heterotrophs that play major roles in recycling environmental carbon, cause diseases of plants and animals, and make many industrial products. Because they are more closely related to animals than to plants and because their biology and genetics are easily manipulated, fungi are great model organisms.

With ~15 labs dedicated to the study of yeasts and filamentous fungi, the University of Georgia is an international hot spot for fungal biology. Fungal researchers at UGA study ecologically diverse organisms to investigate topics ranging from plant pathology to population genetics to developmental biology. The combination of courses focused on fungi and related research methodologies provides a strong curriculum for graduate students and a productive training environment for postdocs interested in fungi.

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Fungal Biology

Experimental models.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Image courtesy of Dr. Paul Cullen.

Focus on fungi to understand cellular processes

Faculty explore how filamentous fungi and budding yeasts assess nutrient availability and respond appropriately by adjusting gene expression, budding patterns, cell morphology, and cell wall structure. Some of these studies involve opportunistic fungal pathogens. Our faculty also use yeast as a model organism to investigate the molecular basis of gene expression, including transcription, RNA processing and translation.

The Fungal Biology faculty includes Drs. Paul Cullen, Laura Rusche, Sarah Walker, Zhen Wang, and, Michael Yu.

Fungal Biology Research Faculty

• 3/19/18 Paul Cullen
• 3/19/18 Laura Rusche
• 3/19/18 Sarah E. Walker
• 11/30/21 Zhen Q. Wang
• 3/19/18 Michael C. Yu

Fungal Biology and Biotechnology

Check your eligibility to publish open access with your fees covered.

Many institutions now cover OA publishing costs for affiliated researchers, as part of an OA agreement with Springer Nature. Find out more about OA agreements and whether you may be entitled to publish OA with your fees covered.

Aims and scope

Fungal Biology and Biotechnology is a peer-reviewed journal that publishes original scientific research and reviews covering all areas of fundamental and applied research which involve unicellular and multicellular fungi.

• Most accessed

Genomic deletions in Aureobasidium pullulans by an AMA1 plasmid for gRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 expression

Authors: Audrey Masi, Klara Wögerbauer, Robert L. Mach and Astrid R. Mach-Aigner

An improved expression and purification protocol enables the structural characterization of Mnt1, an antifungal target from Candida albicans

Authors: Patrícia Alves Silva, Amanda Araújo Souza, Gideane Mendes de Oliveira, Marcelo Henrique Soller Ramada, Nahúm Valente Hernández, Héctor Manuel Mora-Montes, Renata Vieira Bueno, Diogo Martins-de-Sa, Sonia Maria de Freitas, Maria Sueli Soares Felipe and João Alexandre Ribeiro Gonçalves Barbosa

Genetic regulation of l -tryptophan metabolism in Psilocybe mexicana supports psilocybin biosynthesis

Authors: Paula Sophie Seibold, Sebastian Dörner, Janis Fricke, Tim Schäfer, Christine Beemelmanns and Dirk Hoffmeister

Breaking down barriers: comprehensive functional analysis of the Aspergillus niger chitin synthase repertoire

Authors: Lars Barthel, Timothy Cairns, Sven Duda, Henri Müller, Birgit Dobbert, Sascha Jung, Heiko Briesen and Vera Meyer

Identification and functional characterisation of a locus for target site integration in Fusarium graminearum

Authors: Martin Darino, Martin Urban, Navneet Kaur, Ana Machado Wood, Mike Grimwade-Mann, Dan Smith, Andrew Beacham and Kim Hammond-Kosack

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Growing a circular economy with fungal biotechnology: a white paper

Authors: Vera Meyer, Evelina Y. Basenko, J. Philipp Benz, Gerhard H. Braus, Mark X. Caddick, Michael Csukai, Ronald P. de Vries, Drew Endy, Jens C. Frisvad, Nina Gunde-Cimerman, Thomas Haarmann, Yitzhak Hadar, Kim Hansen, Robert I. Johnson, Nancy P. Keller, Nada Kraševec…

Fungi as source for new bio-based materials: a patent review

Authors: Kustrim Cerimi, Kerem Can Akkaya, Carsten Pohl, Bertram Schmidt and Peter Neubauer

How a fungus shapes biotechnology: 100 years of Aspergillus niger research

Authors: Timothy C. Cairns, Corrado Nai and Vera Meyer

Current state and future prospects of pure mycelium materials

Authors: Simon Vandelook, Elise Elsacker, Aurélie Van Wylick, Lars De Laet and Eveline Peeters

Current challenges of research on filamentous fungi in relation to human welfare and a sustainable bio-economy: a white paper

Authors: Vera Meyer, Mikael R. Andersen, Axel A. Brakhage, Gerhard H. Braus, Mark X. Caddick, Timothy C. Cairns, Ronald P. de Vries, Thomas Haarmann, Kim Hansen, Christiane Hertz-Fowler, Sven Krappmann, Uffe H. Mortensen, Miguel A. Peñalva, Arthur F. J. Ram and Ritchie M. Head

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Mycology at Springer Nature

At Springer Nature, we are committed to raising the quality of academic research across Microbiology. We've created a new page, highlighting our mycology journals and mycology content. 

We are pleased to announce that all articles published in Fungal Biology and Biotechnology  are included in PubMed and PubMed Central.

Fungal Biology and Biotechnology is also included in Scopus.

Featured blog series

In a new blog series, Kustrim Cerimi looks at emerging fungal-based products and trends.

The Importance of Fungi in Securing and Threatening Food Supply For a Growing Human Population

Engineering Microbiomes for Green Technologies

Beyond the assembly line - showcasing the complexities of fungal natural product biosynthesis

Connecting material science and fungal biology

Fungal biotechnology's potential to sustainably produce textiles as well as materials for construction, furniture and transportation industries has the potential to significantly contribute to the United Nation’s sustainable development goals. The aim of this collection is to provide fungal and material experts a forum for discussion on the multidisciplinary approaches important in the rapidly evolving field of fungal biomaterials, to highlight recent breakthroughs and to exchange ideas and visions. 

Do you have an idea for a thematic series? Let us know!

Technical notes.

Fungal Biology and Biotechnology  is now considering Technical notes . This article type should present a new experimental or computational method, test or procedure, showing a novel or improved approach, a well tested method, and ideally proven value. Check out here for more details about submission guidelines.

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About the Editors

Vera Meyer runs the Chair of Molecular and Applied Microbiology at TU Berlin since 2011. The focus is on researching and optimising fungal cell factories, with the aim of making more effective use of fungal metabolic potentials for the production of medicines, platform chemicals, enzymes and biomaterials. Together with her team, she develops and combines methods from systems biology and synthetic biology. Her inter- and transdisciplinary research projects combine natural and engineering sciences with art, design and architecture and create bio-based scenarios for possible living environments of the future. Vera Meyer is also active as a visual artist under the pseudonym V. meer and uses the means of art to make society more aware of the potential of fungi for a sustainable future.

Yvonne Nygård has a PhD in Molecular Biotechnology from Aalto University and currently works as Research Professor at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and as Associate Professor at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden. Moreover, she is the CSO of a fungal start-up, Cirkulär AB. Yvonne’s main research interest is to develop microbial cell factories for industrial applications. She combines synthetic biology with high throughput screening and works with different yeast and fungi.

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Annual Journal Metrics

2022 Citation Impact 1.496 - SNIP (Source Normalized Impact per Paper) 0.975 - SJR (SCImago Journal Rank)

2023 Speed 9 days submission to first editorial decision for all manuscripts (Median) 68 days submission to accept (Median)

2023 Usage  283,844 downloads 138 Altmetric mentions 

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Companion Journals

Fungal Biology and Biotechnology is a partner journal to:

Biotechnology for Biofuels and Bioproducts

Microbial Cell Factories

Biotechnology for the Environment

Biotechnology for Sustainable Materials

Blue Biotechnology

ISSN: 2054-3085

• General enquiries: [email protected]

Fungal PhD opportunities in Edinburgh 2023

Here in Edinburgh we have an excellent biological sciences community, with many labs working on fundamental biology of fungi and several PhD opportunities available for UK and international students.

There’s a project for every fungal-curious student! Topics including cell cycle, chromatin, RNA biology, signaling, systems biology, synthetic biology, human pathogens, plant pathogens. Methods include bioinformatics, biochemistry, structural biology, proteomics, high-throughput sequencing, evolution. Organisms include Saccharomyces , Candida , S. pombe , Aspergillus , Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi. Research groups include Robin Allshire , Elizabeth Bayne , Sander Granneman , Kevin Hardwick , Thorunn Helgason , Svetlana Makovets , Vasso Makrantoni , Adele Marston , Ken Sawin , Matthew Swaffer , Peter Swain , David Tollervey , Edward Wallace .

Currently we are advertising for October 2023 entry, with deadlines early December 2022:

• BBSRC/EASTBIO mostly UK students, some international.
• Darwin Trust of Edinburgh for international students.
• Wellcome Integrative Cell Mechanisms UK & international.

Specific projects can be found on www.findaphd.com .

If you’re interested, please contact a project supervisor directly starting by explaining your background and your interest in their work - it’s helpful to send a CV too. There may be opportunities beyond advertised projects, for self-funded or Darwin Trust (international) students. Or get in touch if you want to know more about the fungal community in Edinburgh and find a project that suits your interests?

In this group

We are advertising projects looking at how fungi choose which proteins to make when, the machines that control this (RNA-binding proteins) and their evolution.

• How RNA-binding proteins control fungal growth: an interdisciplinary data-rich approach , with Atlanta Cook.
• How do proteins evolve to bind and regulate RNA? With Sander Granneman.
• Understanding hyphal growth of filamentous fungi through omics approaches , led by Ken Sawin.
• Investigating cellular strategies for decision-making , led by Peter Swain.
• wellcome trust 3
• darwin trust 2
• « Previous
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• Fellows’ Projects

Fungal Pathogenesis, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics

• Roby Bhattacharyya, MD, PhD: Developing transcriptional diagnostics for rapid fungal identification and susceptibility testing
• Sophia Koo, MD: Metabolite-based methods for diagnosis and therapeutic efficacy assessment of pneumonia and other infections
• Michael Mansour, MD, PhD: Fungal cell wall carbohydrates in the development of host immune responses
• Jatin Vyas, MD, PhD: Innate Immunity to Fungal Pathogens

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Plant and fungal taxonomy, diversity and conservation msc.

Part of: Biological and Biomedical Sciences

Skilled scientists in plant and fungal taxonomy are in short supply – and only a small percentage of the planet’s biodiversity has been formally described by science. Study MSc Plant and Fungal Taxonomy, Diversity and Conservation at Queen Mary and you’ll join a new generation of scientists ready to describe, understand and conserve biodiversity for years to come.

• Focus on plant and fungal identification skills, in combination with molecular systematics, evolutionary biology, and conservation policy, theory and practice
• Study at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and access its extensive specimen collections, databases, and scientific research
• Take a fieldwork module in Kew's Conservation Centre in Madagascar
• Learn in-demand skills that underpin work in bioscience, nature conservation, plant breeding and environmental policy development

© Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Queen Mary University of London

View application deadlines

Study options

• Full-time September 2024 | 1 year

What you'll study

MSc Plant and Fungal Taxonomy, Diversity and Conservation at Queen Mary will give you the cross-disciplinary skills and knowledge you need to describe, understand and conserve biodiversity. The course will teach you plant and fungal identification skills, molecular systematics, evolutionary biology, as well as conservation policy, theory and practice.

You’ll be taught by world-leading experts, internationally recognised for their cutting-edge research in plant and fungal sciences. You’ll learn how to apply new technologies to answer fundamental questions about the diversity of plant and fungal life on Earth, how it evolved and how we can best conserve it.

In this programme you’ll visit conservation projects and experience rare exotic plants during a field trip to Madagascar. You’ll get an introduction to practical field work, including botanical surveys and flowering plant identification and how they can be applied to solving practical problems of conservation management as well as biodiversity research. It will be taught by botanists from the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, the Kew Madagascar Conservation Centre (KMCC) in Antananarivo and local conservationists and researchers from collaborating institutions. Several site visits to conservation projects and some taught case studies will give an overview of conservation in Madagascar.

• Six compulsory taught modules
• Substantive six-month research project

Module videos

Watch Statistics and Data Analysis module video

Watch Madagascar field course video

Compulsory/Core modules

Plant and fungal taxonomy, diversity and conservation research project.

This module involves a novel piece of research, typically combining field sampling or use of Kew's biological collections, experimentation, laboratory work, and data analysis. Students can benefit from close alignment with current PhD or Post Doctoral research within specific research groups, both at QMUL and in RBG Kew. The diversity of expertise of lecturers involved with the programme means that high quality supervision can be found for a broad range of studies in plant and fungal biology, ecology and evolution.

Plant Taxonomy and Diversity

This module will provide an overview of global plant diversity, with a particular focus on flowering plants. It will be taught at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew by leading botanists, affording students the opportunity to explore the outstanding collections and facilities housed there. Topics will range from taxonomic principles and methodology, plant systematics and comparative biology (including morphology, chemistry and genomics), phylogenetics, biogeography and evolution. The module will have a practical component, providing excellent hands-on experience for students.

Fungal Taxonomy and Diversity

This module will focus on fungal diversity and it will be taught at RBG, Kew by leading mycologists. Kew has the largest collection of fungal specimens in the world that will be available to the students during the course. The module will give an overview of the systematics and taxonomy of major fungal groups, of basic concepts in mycology, field collecting, and culturing and fungarium techniques. In addition, front-line research on the ecology of fungi (e.g., symbiosis, 'rotters and recyclers', pathogens), fungal biogeography, and fungal evolutionary genomics, will be explored through study of contemporary research. The module will have a practical component, providing excellent hands-on experience for students.

Research Frontiers in Biodiversity, Evolution and Conservation

This core module will introduce you to cutting-edge topics in biodiversity, evolution and conservation. In a series of interactive lectures and workshops, you will be taught by leading experts on the latest scientific advances in their respective fields. You will conduct a critical review on a subject of your choice, with potential topics covering marine and terrestrial species and ecosystems, evolution, and conservation. The module is designed to develop skills in critical thinking and scientific writing, and offers a firm foundation for the MSc programme. This core module is taught at Queen Mary University of London.

Statistics and Data Analysis

This module aims to provide a strong foundation in data analysis, visualisation and interpretation¿all critical skills in modern biodiversity and conservation science. You will be taught experimental design, statistical analysis (incl. ANOVA, correlation and regression), and basic bioinformatics analyses. Teaching in this module uses the software R, and typically comprises formal instruction in the mornings followed by practical sessions in the afternoons, in which you will gain hands-on experience of analysing real-world datasets. This core module is taught at Queen Mary University of London.

Field Study Skills in a Biodiversity Hotspot

The module will provide an introduction to practical field work, including botanical surveys and flowering plant identification, field mycology, and how these can be applied to solving practical problems of conservation management as well as biodiversity research. It will be taught by botanists and mycologists from the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew and local conservationists and researchers from collaborating institutions. Study visits to biodiversity rich sites, conservation projects and some taught case studies will give an overview of the conservation management at the study site. Usually, the field skills module of the MSc in Plant and Fungal Taxonomy, Diversity and Conservation takes place in Madagascar. However, we reserve the right to change the location of this course if advice on travel from the Foreign Commonwealth Office changes, or for logistical reasons. For students unable to travel to the course location, an alternative method of assessment will be undertaken.

Biodiversity Survey and Spatial Analysis

Here you will learn how to work with genetic, geographical and biodiversity record data and how to draw conclusions about species distributions, status, and potential conservation approaches. There are three blocks of training: The survey and spatial analysis block teaches the main approaches to vegetation surveying and securing good quality data on which to base analysis of species distribution and status. Assessment will include production of a species distribution map. The conservation genetics block provides an introduction to theory and practice, and examines through case studies of plant and fungal diversity how genetic diversity information can inform conservation decisions. Conclusions are discussed in a group session. The final red-listing block provides training in the requirements for assessing extinction threat in plant and fungal species. The assessment includes preparing a conservation report and a preliminary red list assessment for one species. This is a professional competency using IUCN endorsed materials and approaches. This elective module is taught at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew.

• 50% Modules
• 50% Research project

Research project

You will have a chance to conduct in-depth independent research on a topic that is of interest to you and your career goals. You’ll be given a list of potential projects, as well as the opportunity to develop your own projects in agreement with supervisors. Recent projects include:

• Origin and evolution of the hyper diverse flora of the Choco biogeographic region in Tropical America
• Molecular and Morphological investigation of waxcap diversity
• Monographing and conserving the palms of New Guinea

This course has been developed and is taught by practising professionals and industry experts. In addition to attending a series of lectures from academics, you’ll develop highly sought-after practical skills through field trips and hands-on training and gain invaluable insight from guest speakers.

You will be expected to complete further hours of independent study. You’ll take an active role in your own learning by reading designated material, producing written assignments and completing projects.

To help you along your journey, you’ll also be assigned an Academic Adviser who will guide and support you in both academic and pastoral matters throughout your course.

Professor Richard Buggs

Professor Richard Buggs is a world-renowned expert in his field. Since graduating from the University of Cambridge, Richard has conducted groundbreaking research in his lab at Queen Mary and regularly contributes to leading global media outlets including the BBC, the Guardian, The Economist and Financial Times.

Dr Félix Forest

Dr Felix Forest is a plant evolutionary biologist with particular interest in phylogenomics, biogeography and conservation, and the Cape region of South Africa.

Dr Kalsum Yusah

Dr Kalsum Yusah is the Co-Director of the MSc Biodiversity and Conservation.

Dr Marybel Soto Gomez

Dr Marybel Soto Gomez is a plant evolutionary biologist and agricultural scientist interested in both wild and cultivated plants.

Professor Christophe Eizaguirre

Professor Chris Eizaguirre is an award-winning researcher and head of the Biology department. His laboratory has recently developed an interdisciplinary research program based on evolutionary and conservation genetics to improve management of endangered species

Professor Andrew Leitch

Professor Andrew Leitch is an Associate Researcher at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Professor of Plant Genetic at Queen Mary. Andrew's main areas of current research are plant genetics, genomics, and cytogenetics, focussing on questions of an evolutionary and ecological nature.

Michael Way

Michael Way is an ecologist at at Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, with extensive experience of plant conservation.

The course was overall really well taught. Some of the modules I found particularly interesting were statistics at Queen Mary, introduction to plant and fungal taxonomy at RBG Kew, the hands-on field trip to Madagascar where we made our own plant and fungal collections, and the immersive six-month independent research module. Lecturers are always experts in their fields and were keen to answer just about any question I managed to come up with. — Peter Petoe – Plant and Fungal Taxonomy, Diversity and Conservation MSc 2017, now PhD student in Palm Evolution and Biodiversity at Aarhus University, Denmark, and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 

Where you'll learn

At Queen Mary and Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew you'll have access to a number of advanced facilities:

• At Queen Mary, you will have access to laboratories that house state-of-the-art equipment for processing environmental and genetic samples, including mass spectrometry platforms for stable isotope analysis.
• At Kew, world-class resources include the Herbarium, Fungarium, Economic Botany Collection, Library, Millennium Seed Bank, Jodrell Laboratories, and the Living Collection that encompass gardens, glasshouses & nurseries at Kew and Wakehurst.
• Specialist analytical research facilities within our Centre for the Aquatic and Terrestrial Environment.
• Mesocosm and temperature-controlled facilities at Queen Mary
• The Genomics Facility, which houses equipment for high-throughput sequencing.
• Network of partner NGOs, research labs and industries.

Mile End campus

You will undertake two modules at Queen Mary’s Mile End campus in exciting east London. Mile End is the heart of our lively student community. Here you’ll be able to study and socialise with students and staff from over 160 countries around the world.

View tour of Fogg Building

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

You will study three modules at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. At Kew, you’ll experience first-hand the largest collections of living and preserved plants in Europe. You’ll also have the chance to rub shoulders with their team of over 350 highly-skilled scientists, curators and technicians.

View Kew facilities

Accommodation 

Kew Gardens is one hour by underground train from Queen Mary University of London, with a service scheduled to run every 10 minutes, meaning that movement between the two sites is easy. Teaching occurs in both places. Nevertheless, students on this programme usually find it is most convenient to find accommodation around Kew, because that is where you will typically do your Master’s project. To help you in finding accommodation around Kew, please contact Dr Kalsum Yusah ( [email protected] ) for further information. It is also fine to take accommodation around Queen Mary and if you need help in finding accommodation there, then please contact [email protected] . 

About the School

School of biological and behavioural sciences.

The School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences is one of the UK’s leading research departments, with a multi-disciplinary approach to teaching and research. We are a large and dynamic school with strong links with industry, offering students a stimulating and supportive learning experience.

Queen Mary University is also part of the  Russell Group  - a body of leading UK universities dedicated to research and teaching excellence.

We also collaborate with the School of Geography on the  Centre for the Aquatic Terrestrial Environment (CATE) . The facilities of which, some students can access for specific projects or modules.

• Tel: +44 (0)20 7882 3328
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• School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences Twitter

Career paths

This course gives you the knowledge and skills to undertake research in the fields of taxonomy, molecular systematics, ecology and evolution, or to engage in more applied conservation work. It’s ideal preparation for a PhD or a career in industry, academia, environmental consultancy or government agencies.

Graduates of this course go on to roles such as:

• PHD Candidate at The James Hutton Institute 
• Botanical Horticulturalist at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 
• Plant Science Content Editor at Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International 
• PHSI Plant Health Import Inspector at Animal and Plant Health Agency

You'll have access to our Careers and Enterprise service who'll be there to help you find the right opportunity for your next step.

• 93% of our postgraduate taught students are in employment or further study within six months of graduating (HESA GOS, 2017).
• 100% of those in work are in highly skilled employment and earning over the median salary (HESA GOS, 2017/18).
• £29,500 The average UK salary 15 months after graduating for our postgraduates (HESA GOS, 2017/18).

Fees and funding

Full-time study.

September 2024 | 1 year

• Home: £14,850
• Overseas: £28,900 EU/EEA/Swiss students

Unconditional deposit

Overseas: £2000 Information about deposits

Queen Mary alumni can get a £1000, 10% or 20% discount on their fees depending on the programme of study. Find out more about the Alumni Loyalty Award

There are a number of ways you can fund your postgraduate degree.

• Scholarships and bursaries
• Postgraduate loans (UK students)
• Country-specific scholarships for international students

Our Advice and Counselling service offers specialist support on financial issues, which you can access as soon as you apply for a place at Queen Mary. Before you apply, you can access our funding guides and advice on managing your money:

• Advice for UK and EU students
• Advice for international students

Entry requirements

Degree requirements.

Applicants with a good 2:2 degree may be considered on an individual basis.

Find out more about how to apply for our postgraduate taught courses.

International

Afghanistan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Master Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90%; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 80%; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70%; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Albania We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7 out of 10

Algeria We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licence; Diplome de [subject area]; Diplome d'Etudes Superieures; Diplome de Docteur end Pharmacie; or Diplome de Docteur en Medecine from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Angola We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Grau de Licenciado/a (minimum 4 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 17 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 15 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 13 out of 20

Argentina We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo/ Grado de Licenciado/ Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 7.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6.5 out of 10

Armenia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 87 out of 100 UK 2:1 degree: 75 out of 100 UK 2:2 degree: 61 out of 100

Australia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) or Bachelor Honours degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: High Distinction; or First Class with Honours UK 2:1 degree: Distinction; or Upper Second Class with Honours UK 2:2 degree: Credit; or Lower Second Class with Honours

Austria We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 1.5 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: 2.5 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5.0

The above relates to grading scale where 1 is the highest and 5 is the lowest.

Azerbaijan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90%; or GPA 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 80%; or GPA 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 70%; or GPA 3.5 out of 5

Bahamas We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from the University of West Indies. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours

Bahrain We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0; or 90 out of 100 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0; or 80 out of 100 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.3 out of 4.0; or 74 out of 100

Bangladesh We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.2 to 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 to 3.3 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.3 to 2.7 out of 4.0

Offer conditions will vary depending on the institution you are applying from.  For some institutions/degrees we will ask for different grades to above, so this is only a guide. 

Barbados We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from the University of West Indies, Cave Hill or Barbados Community College. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours*; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0** UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours*; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0** UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours*; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0**

*relates to: the University of West Indies, Cave Hill.

**relates to: Barbados Community College.

Belarus We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9 out of 10; or 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 7 out of 10; or 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 5 out of 10; or 3.5 out of 5

Belgium We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80% or 16/20*; or 78%** UK 2:1 degree: 70% or 14/20*; or 72%** UK 2:2 degree: 60% or 12/20*; or 65%**

*Flanders (Dutch-speaking)/ Wallonia (French-speaking) **German-speaking

Belize We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from the University of West Indies. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours

Benin We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Maitrise or Masters from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Bolivia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Bachiller Universitario or Licenciado / Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 85%* or 80%** UK 2:1 degree: 75%* or 70%** UK 2:2 degree: 65%* or 60%**

*relates to: Titulo de Bachiller Universitario

**relates to: Licenciado / Titulo de [subject area] 

Bosnia and Herzegovina We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7.5 out of 10

Botswana We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 5 years) or Master Degree from the University of Botswana. UK 1st class degree: 80% UK 2:1 degree: 70% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

Brazil We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Título de Bacharel / Título de [subject area] or Título de Licenciado/a (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8.25 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 7.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6.5 out of 10

The above grades assumes that the grading scale has a pass mark of 5.

Brunei We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours

Bulgaria We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 5.75 out of 6.0 UK 2:1 degree: 4.75 out of 6.0 UK 2:2 degree: 4.0 out of 6.0

Burundi We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diplome d'Etudes Approfondies from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 85%; or 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 75%; or 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 60%; or 12 out of 20

Cambodia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80%; or GPA 3.5 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 70%; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 60%; or GPA 2.35 out of 4.0

Cameroon We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree; Licence; Diplome d'Etudes Superieures de Commerce; Diplome d'Ingenieur de Conception/ Travaux; Doctorat en Medecine/ Pharmacie; or Maitrise or Master 1 from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20; or GPA 3.6 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20; or GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Canada We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Bachelor Honours Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.6 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.2 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Chile We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Grado de Licenciado en [subject area] or Titulo (Professional) de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 6.5 out of 7 UK 2:1 degree: 5.5 out of 7 UK 2:2 degree: 5 out of 7

China We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 85 to 95% UK 2:1 degree: 75 to 85% UK 2:2 degree: 70 to 80%

Offer conditions will vary depending on the institution you are applying from.  

Colombia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licenciado en [subject area] or Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.60 out of 5.00 UK 2:1 degree: 4.00 out of 5.00 UK 2:2 degree: 3.50 out of 5.00

Congo, Dem. Rep. of We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diplome d'Etudes Approfondies or Diplome d'Etudes Speciales from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20; or 90% UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20; or 80% UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20; or 70%

Congo, Rep. of We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diplome d'Etudes Superieures or Maitrise from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Costa Rica We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachiller or Licenciado from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7.5 out of 10

Croatia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Advanced Diploma of Higher Education Level VII/1 (Diploma - Visoko obrazovanje) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.5 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3 out of 5

Cuba We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado/ Arquitecto/ Doctor/ Ingeniero from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5

Cyprus We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8 out of 10; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 7.0 out of 10; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 6.0 out of 10; or GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Czech Republic We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 1.2 out of 4 UK 2:1 degree: 1.5 out of 4 UK 2:2 degree: 2.5 out of 4

The above relates to grading scale where 1 is the highest and 4 is the lowest.

Denmark We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 12 out of 12 (2007 onwards); or 11 out of 13 (before 2007) UK 2:1 degree: 7 out of 12 (2007 onwards); or 8 out of 13 (before 2007) UK 2:2 degree: 4 out of 12 (2007 onwards); or 7 out of 13 (before 2007)

Dominican Republic We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licenciado/ Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 95/100 UK 2:1 degree: 85/100 UK 2:2 degree: 78/100

Ecuador We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado / Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90%; or 9/10; or 19/20; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 80%; or 8/10; or 18/20; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70%; or 7/10; or 14/20; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Egypt We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 85%; or GPA 3.7 out of 4 UK 2:1 degree: 75%; or GPA 3.0 out of 4 UK 2:2 degree: 65%; or GPA 2.5 out of 4

El Salvador We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licenciado/ Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 5 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 7.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6.5 out of 10

Eritrea We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Estonia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree; University Specialist's Diploma; or Professional Higher Education Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.5 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 3.5 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 2 out of 5

The above grades assumes that 1 is the pass mark. 

Eswatini We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80% UK 2:1 degree: 70% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

Ethiopia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Fiji We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from one of the following institutions: Fiji National University, the University of Fiji, or the University of South Pacific, Fiji. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.0 out of 5.0*; or overall grade A with High Distinction pass**; or GPA 4.0 out of 4.5*** UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.33 out of 5.0*; or overall grade B with Credit pass**; or GPA 3.5 out of 4.5*** UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.33 out of 5.0*; or overall grade S (Satisfactory)**; or GPA 2.5 out of 4.5***

*relates to Fiji National University

**relate to the University of Fiji

***relates to the University of South Pacific, Fiji

Finland We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree/ Kandidaatti/ Kandidat (minimum 180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution; or Bachelor degree (Ammattikorkeakoulututkinto/ Yrkeshögskoleexamen) from a recognised University of Applied Sciences. UK 1st class degree: 4.5 out of 5; or 2.8 out of 3 UK 2:1 degree: 3.5 out of 5; or 2 out of 3 UK 2:2 degree: 2.5 out of 5; or 1.4 out of 3

France We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licence; Grade de Licence; Diplome d'Ingenieur; or Maitrise from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 12 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 11 out of 20

Gambia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80%; or GPA 4.0 out of 4.3 UK 2:1 degree: 67%; or GPA 3.3 out of 4.3 UK 2:2 degree: 60%; or GPA 2.7 out of 4.3

Georgia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 91 out of 100; or 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 81 out of 100; or 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 71 out of 100; or 3.5 out of 5

Germany We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 1.5 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: 2.5 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5.0

Ghana We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: First Class UK 2:1 degree: Second Class (Upper Division) UK 2:2 degree: Second Class (Lower Division)

Greece We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Degrees from recognised selected institutions in the University sector or Degrees (awarded after 2003) from recognised Technological Educational Institutes. UK 1st class degree: 8 out of 10*; or 9 out of 10** UK 2:1 degree: 7 out of 10*; or 7.5 out of 10** UK 2:2 degree: 6 out of 10*; or 6.8 out of 10**

*Relates to degrees from the University Sector. **Relates to degrees from Technological Educational Institutes.

Grenada We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from the University of West Indies. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours

Guatemala We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licenciado / Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90% UK 2:1 degree: 80% UK 2:2 degree: 70%

The above grades assumes that the pass mark is 61% or less.

Guinea We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Master; Maitrise; Diplome d'Etudes Superieures; or Diplome d'Etudes Approfondies from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Guyana We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Graduate Diploma (Postgraduate) or Masters degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Honduras We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado/a / Grado Academico de Licenciatura (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90%; or 4.7 out of 5; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 80%; or 4.0 out of 5; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70%; or 3.5 out of 5; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Hong Kong We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours

Hungary We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor degree (Alapfokozat) or University Diploma (Egyetemi Oklevel) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.75 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5

Iceland We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor degree (Baccalaureus or Bakkalarprof) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8.25 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 7.25 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6.5 out of 10

India We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 75% to 80% UK 2:1 degree: 60% to 70% UK 2:2 degree: 50% to 60%

Offer conditions will vary depending on the institution you are applying from.  For some institutions/degrees we will ask for different grades to above, so this is only a guide.  

For India, offers may be made on the GPA scale.

We do not consider the Bachelor of Vocation (B. Voc.) for Masters entry.

Indonesia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Sarjna I (S1) Bachelor Degree or Diploma IV (D4) (minimum 4 years) from selected degree programmes and institutions. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.6 to 3.8 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 to 3.2 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.67 to 2.8 out of 4.0

Offer conditions will vary depending on the institution you are applying from and the degree that you study.

Iran We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 17.5 to 18.5 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 15 to 16 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 13.5 to 14 out of 20

Iraq We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 85 out of 100 UK 2:1 degree: 75 out of 100 UK 2:2 degree: 60 out of 100

Ireland We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Honours Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours UK 2:1 degree: Second Class Honours Grade I UK 2:2 degree: Second Class Honours Grade II

Israel We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90% UK 2:1 degree: 80% UK 2:2 degree: 65%

Italy We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Laurea (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 110 out of 110 UK 2:1 degree: 105 out of 110 UK 2:2 degree: 94 out of 110

Cote D’ivoire (Ivory Coast) We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diplome d'Ingenieur; Doctorat en Medicine; Maitrise; Master; Diplome d'Etudes Approfondies; or Diplome d'Etudes Superieures Specialisees from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Jamaica We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from the University of West Indies (UWI) or a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0; or First Class Honours from the UWI UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0; or Upper Second Class Honours from the UWI UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0; or Lower Second Class Honours from the UWI

Japan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: S overall* or A overall**; or 90%; or GPA 3.70 out of 4.00 UK 2:1 degree: A overall* or B overall**; or 80%; or GPA 3.00 out of 4.00 UK 2:2 degree: B overall* or C overall**; or 70%; or GPA 2.3 out of 4.00

*Overall mark is from the grading scale: S, A, B, C (S is highest mark) **Overall mark is from the grading scale: A, B, C, D (A is highest mark)

Jordan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 85%; or GPA of 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 75%; or GPA of 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70%; or GPA of 2.5 out of 4.0

Kazakhstan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 3.8 out of 4.0/4.33; or 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 3.33 out of 4.0/4.33; or 4.0 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 2.67 out of 4.0/4.33; or 3.5 out of 5

Kenya We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours; or GPA 3.6 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: Second Class Honours Upper Division; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: Second Class Honours Lower Division; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Kosovo We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7.5 out of 10

Kuwait We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.67 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.67 out of 4.0

Kyrgyzstan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.7 out of 5; or GPA 3.7 out of 4 UK 2:1 degree: 4.0 out of 5; or GPA 3.0 out of 4 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5; or GPA 2.4 out of 4

Laos We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Latvia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (awarded after 2002) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 7.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6 out of 10

Lebanon We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree; Licence; or Maitrise from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90% or Grade A; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0; or 16 out of 20 (French system) UK 2:1 degree: 80% or Grade B; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0; or 13 out of 20 (French system) UK 2:2 degree: 70% or Grade C; or GPA 2.5 out of 4.0; or 12 out of 20 (French system)

Lesotho We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours Degree (minimum 5 years total HE study); Masters Degree or Postgraduate Diploma from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 80% UK 2:1 degree: 70% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

Liberia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90% or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 80% or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70% or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Libya We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 85%; or 3.7 out of 4.0 GPA UK 2:1 degree: 75%; or 3.0 out of 4.0 GPA UK 2:2 degree: 65%; or 2.6 out of 4.0 GPA

Liechtenstein We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 5.6 out of 6.0 UK 2:1 degree: 5.0 out of 6.0 UK 2:2 degree: 4.4 out of 6.0

Lithuania We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7 out of 10

Luxembourg We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Macau We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (Licenciatura) (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Macedonia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diploma of Completed Higher Education - Level VII/1 or Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7 out of 10

Madagascar We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Maîtrise; Diplome d'Ingenieur; Diplôme d'Etat de Docteur en Médecine; Diplôme d’Etat de Docteur en Chirurgie Dentaire; Diplôme d'Études Approfondies; Diplôme de Magistère (Première Partie) – also known as Master 1; or Diplôme de Master – also known as Master 2 from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Malawi We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 80% or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 70% or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 60% or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Malaysia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: Class 1; or 3.7 out of 4.0 CGPA UK 2:1 degree: Class 2 division 1; or 3.0 out of 4.0 CGPA UK 2:2 degree: Class 2 division 2; or 2.6 out of 4.0 CGPA

Maldives We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (awarded from 2000) from the Maldives National University. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Malta We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Bachelor Honours Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: First Class Honours; or Category I UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class Honours; or Category IIA UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours; or Category IIB

Mauritius We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: Class I; or 70% UK 2:1 degree: Class II division I; or 60% UK 2:2 degree: Class II division II; or 50%

Offer conditions will vary depending on the grading scale used by your institution.

Mexico We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado/ Titulo (Profesional) de [subject area] from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.0 to 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8.0 to 8.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7.0 to 7.5 out of 10

Offer conditions will vary depending on the grading scale your institution uses.

Moldova We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (Diploma de Licenta) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6.5 out of 10

Monaco We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Mongolia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.6 out of 4.0; or 90%; or grade A UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.2 out of 4.0; or 80%; or grade B UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.8 out of 4.0; or 70%; or grade C

Montenegro We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diploma of Completed Academic Undergraduate Studies; Diploma of Professional Undergraduate Studies; or Advanced Diploma of Higher Education from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8.5 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7 out of 10

Morocco We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Diplome d'Ecoles Nationales de Commerce et de Gestion; Diplome de Docteur Veterinaire; Doctorat en Medecine; Docteur en Medecine Dentaire; Licence; Diplome d'Inegeniuer d'Etat; Diplome de Doctorat en Pharmacie; or Maitrise from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 13 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 11 out of 20

Mozambique We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Grau de Licenciado (minimum 4 years) or Grau de Mestre from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Myanmar We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80% or GPA of 4.7 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: 70% or GPA of 4.0 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: 60% or GPA of 3.5 out of 5.0

Namibia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours Degree or Professional Bachelor Degree (NQF level 8 qualifications) - these to be awarded after 2008 from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80% UK 2:1 degree: 70% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

Nepal We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 80%; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 65%; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 55%; or GPA of 2.4 out of 4.0

Bachelor in Nursing Science are not considered equivalent to UK Bachelor degrees.

Netherlands We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 7 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 6 out of 10

New Zealand We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) or Bachelor Honours Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: A-*; or First Class Honours** UK 2:1 degree: B*; or Second Class (Division 1) Honours** UK 2:2 degree: C+*; or Second Class (Division 2) Honours**

*from a Bachelor degree **from a Bachelor Honours degree

Nigeria We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.50 out of 5.00; or GPA 6.0 out of 7.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.50 out of 5.00; or GPA 4.6 out of 7.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.80 out of 5.00; or GPA 3.0 out of 7.0

Norway We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: Overall B grade with at least 75 ECTS (of 180 ECTS min overall) at grade A or above. UK 2:1 degree: Overall B grade UK 2:2 degree: Overall C grade

Oman We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Pakistan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.0 to 3.8 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 2.6 to 3.6 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.0 to 3.0 out of 4.0

Palestine, State of We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90% or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 80% or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70% or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Panama We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licenciado / Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 91% UK 2:1 degree: 81% UK 2:2 degree: 71%

Papua New Guinea We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: Class I UK 2:1 degree: Class II, division A UK 2:2 degree: Class II, division B

Paraguay We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado / Titulo de [professional title] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out fo 5

Peru We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Grado Academico de Bachiller or Titulo de Licenciado/ Titulo (Professional) de [subject area] from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 17 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Philippines We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from selected institutions or Juris Doctor; Bachelor of Laws; Doctor of Medicine; Doctor of Dentistry/ Optometry/ Veterinary Medicine; or Masters Degree from recognised institutions. UK 1st class degree: 3.6 out of 4.0; or 94%; or 1.25 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 3.0 out of 4.0; or 86%; or 1.75 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 2.5 out of 4.0; or 80%; or 2.5 out of 5

The above 'out of 5' scale assumes  1 is highest mark and 3 is the pass mark.

Poland We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licencjat or Inzynier (minimum 3 years) - these must be awarded after 2001 from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.8 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: 4.5 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: 3.8 out of 5.0

The above grades are based on the 2 to 5 scale, where 3 is the pass mark and 5 is the highest mark.

Portugal We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licenciado (minimum 180 ECTS credits) or Diploma de Estudos Superiores Especializados (DESE) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 14 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 12 out of 20

Puerto Rico We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90/100 or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 80/100 or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 70/100 or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Qatar We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0; or GPA 4.4 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0; or GPA 3.6 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0; or GPA 2.8 out of 5.0

Romania We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.75 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8.0 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7.0 out of 10

Russia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4.0 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5

Rwanda We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours Degree (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 85%; or 17 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 70%; or 15 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 60%; or 13 out of 20

Saudi Arabia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.75 out of 5.0; or GPA 3.75 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.75 out of 5.0; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 5.0; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Senegal We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Maîtrise; Master II; Diplôme d'Études Approfondies (DEA); Diplôme d'Études Supérieures Specialisées (DESS); Diplôme d'État de Docteur en Médecine; Diplôme d'Ingénieur; Diplôme de Docteur en Chirurgie Dentaire; or Diplôme de Pharmacien from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16/20 UK 2:1 degree: 14/20 UK 2:2 degree: 12/20

Serbia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Advanced Diploma of Higher Education from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7 out of 10

Sierra Leone We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (Honours) or a Masters degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: First Class honours; or GPA 4.7 out of 5; or GPA 3.75 out of 4 UK 2:1 degree: Upper Second Class honours; or GPA 4 out of 5; or GPA 3.25 out of 4 UK 2:2 degree: Lower Second Class Honours; or GPA 3.4 out of 5; or GPA 2.75 out of 4

Singapore We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) or Bachelor Honours degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.3 out of 5.0; or GPA 3.6 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.8 out of 5.0; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 3.3 out of 5.0; or GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Slovakia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (180 ECTS credits) (minimum 3 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 93%; or 1 overall (on 1 to 4 scale, where 1 is highest mark) UK 2:1 degree: 86%; or 1.5 overall (on 1 to 4 scale, where 1 is highest mark) UK 2:2 degree: 72%; or 2.5 overall (on 1 to 4 scale, where 1 is highest mark)

Slovenia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Univerzitetni Diplomant (180 ECTS credits) (minimum 3 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 9.5 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 7 out of 10

Somalia Bachelor degrees from Somalia are not considered for direct entry to our postgraduate taught programmes. Holders of Bachelor degrees from Somali National University can be considered for our Pre-Masters programmes on a case by case basis.

South Africa We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: NQF Level 8 qualifications such as Bachelor Honours degrees or Professional Bachelor degrees from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 75% UK 2:1 degree: 70% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

South Korea We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.2 out of 4.5; or GPA 4.0 out of 4.3; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.5 out of 4.5; or GPA 3.3 out of 4.3; or GPA 3.2 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.5; or GPA 2.8 out of 4.3; or GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Spain We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo Universitario Oficial de Graduado en [subject area] (Grado) or Titulo Universitario Oficial de Licenciado en [subject area] (Licenciatura) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8.0 out of 10; or 2.5 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 7.0 out of 10; or 2.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 6.0 out of 10; or 1.5 out of 4.0

Sri Lanka We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (Special or Honours) or Bachelor Degree (Professional) (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.5 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Sudan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Honours degree from a recognised institution or Bachelor degree in one of the following Professional subjects: Architecture; Dentistry; Engineering; Medicine/Surgery from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 80% UK 2:1 degree: 65% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

Sweden We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (Kandidatexamen) or Professional Bachelor Degree (Yrkesexamenfrom) (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: Overall B grade with at least 75 ECTS at grade A or above (180 ECTS minimum overall); or at least 65% of credits graded at VG overall UK 2:1 degree: Overall B grade (180 ECTS minimum overall); or at least 50% of credits graded at VG overall UK 2:2 degree: Overall C grade (180 ECTS minimum overall); or at least 20% of credits graded at VG overall.

Switzerland We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor degree (180 ECTS credits) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 5.5 out of 6; or 9 out of 10 UK 2:1 degree: 5 out of 6; or 8 out of 10 UK 2:2 degree: 4.25 out of 6; or 7 out of 10

Syria We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 85% UK 2:1 degree: 75% UK 2:2 degree: 65%

Taiwan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from selected institutions. UK 1st class degree: 85 to 90% UK 2:1 degree: 70 to 75% UK 2:2 degree: 65 to 70%

Tajikistan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Specialist Diploma or Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4.0 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5

Tanzania We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.4 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.5 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.7 out of 5.0

Thailand We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.40 to 3.60 out of 4.00 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.00 to 3.20 out of 4.00 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.40 to 2.60 out of 4.00

Offer conditions will vary depending on the institution you are applying from.

Trinidad and Tobago We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0; or First Class Honours from the University of West Indies UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0; or Upper Second Class Honours from the University of West Indies UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.4 out of 4.0; or Lower Second Class Honours from the University of West Indies

Tunisia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Licence; Diplome National d'Architecture; Maitrise; Diplome National d'Ingeniuer; or Doctorat en Medecine / Veterinaire from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 16 out of 20 UK 2:1 degree: 13 out of 20 UK 2:2 degree: 11 out of 20

Turkey We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.40 to 3.60 out of 4.00 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 2.80 to 3.00 out of 4.00 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.30 to 2.50 out of 4.00

Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.60 out of 4.00 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.00 out of 4.00 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.50 out of 4.00

Turkmenistan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Diploma of Higher Education (awarded after 2007) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 4.0 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 3.5 out of 5

Turks and Caicos Islands We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (accredited by the Council of Community Colleges of Jamaica) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0; or 80% UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.3 out of 4.0; or 75% UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.7 out of 4.0; or 65%

Uganda We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 3 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 4.4 out of 5.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 4.0 out of 5.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 5.0

Ukraine We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree or Specialist Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 10 out of 12; or 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 8 out of 12; or 4.0 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 6 out of 12; or 3.5 out of 5

United Arab Emirates We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

United States of America We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: GPA 3.2 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: GPA 2.5 out of 4.0

Uruguay We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado/ Titulo de [subject area] (minimum 4 years) from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 10 to 11 out of 12 UK 2:1 degree: 7 to 9 out of 12 UK 2:2 degree: 6 to 7 out of 12

Uzbekistan We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) or Specialist Diploma from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90%; or 4.7 out of 5 UK 2:1 degree: 80%; or 4.0 out of 5 UK 2:2 degree: 71%; or 3.5 out of 5

Venezuela We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Titulo de Licenciado/ Titulo de [subject area] from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 81% UK 2:1 degree: 71% UK 2:2 degree: 61%

Non-percentage grading scales, for example scales out of 20, 10, 9 or 5, will have different requirements. 

Vietnam We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 8.0 out of 10; or GPA 3.7 out of 4 UK 2:1 degree: 7.0 out of 10; or GPA 3.0 out of 4 UK 2:2 degree: 5.7 out of 10; or GPA 2.4 out of 4

Yemen We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters (Majister) degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 90% UK 2:1 degree: 80% UK 2:2 degree: 65%

Bachelor Degrees from Lebanese International University (in Yemen) can be considered for entry to postgraduate taught programmes - please see Lebanon for guidance on grade requirements for this.

Zambia We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Masters Degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 75%; or GPA 3.7 out of 4.0 UK 2:1 degree: 65%; or GPA 3.0 out of 4.0 UK 2:2 degree: 55%; or GPA 2.4 out of 4.0

Zimbabwe We normally consider the following qualifications for entry to our postgraduate taught programmes: Bachelor Degree (minimum 4 years) or Bachelor Honours degree from a recognised institution. UK 1st class degree: 75% UK 2:1 degree: 65% UK 2:2 degree: 60%

English language requirements

If you got your degree in an English speaking country or if it was taught in English, and you studied within the last five years, you might not need an English language qualification - find out more .

The minimum English Language requirements for entry to postgraduate degree programmes within the School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences are:

6.5 overall including 6.0 in Writing and 5.5 in Reading, Listening and Speaking.

MSc Psychology: Mental Health Sciences and MSc Psychology (Conversion)  require 7.0 overall including 6.5 in Writing and 5.5 in Reading, Listening and Speaking.     

92 overall including 21 in Writing, 18 in Reading, 17 in Listening and 20 in Speaking.

MSc Psychology: Mental Health Sciences and MSc Psychology (Conversion)  require 100 overall including 24 in Writing and 18 in Reading, 17 in Listening and 20 in Speaking. 

71 overall including 65 in Writing and 59 in Reading, Listening and Speaking.

MSc Psychology: Mental Health Sciences and MSc Psychology (Conversion) require 76 overall including 71 in Writing and 59 in Reading, Listening and Speaking. 

Trinity College London, Integrated Skills in English (ISE) II with Distinction in Writing, Reading, Listening and Speaking, or Trinity College London, Integrated Skills in English (ISE) III with at least Pass in Writing, Reading, Listening and Speaking.

MSc Psychology: Mental Health Sciences and MSc Psychology (Conversion) require Trinity ISE III with at least Merit in Writing, Reading, Listening & Speaking.

176 overall including 169 in Writing, and 162 in Reading, Listening and Speaking.

MSc Psychology: Mental Health Sciences and MSc Psychology (Conversion)  require 185 overall including 176 in Writing, and 162 in Reading, Listening and Speaking .

MSc Psychology: Mental Health Sciences and MSc Psychology (Conversion)  require 185   overall  including 176 in Writing, and 162 in Reading, Listening and Speaking.

Visas and immigration

Find out how to apply for a student visa .

Postgraduate Admissions

Newcastle Fungal Group

We use fungi to study key aspects of cell biology and disease.  our work encompasses model yeast systems as well as human and plant pathogenic fungi., areas of interest include:, carbohydrate utilisation, cellular stress responses, chromatin & epigenetics, dna damage responses, high-throughput screening, nutrient sensing & acquisition, pathogenesis & infection, rna processing & quality control, telomere function, bms annual scientific meeting 2023.

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Registration is OPEN for Candida & Candidiasis 2023

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Heterochromatin in the phytopathogen, Zymoseptoria tritici

New Publication from the Quinn Lab

Polyphosphate mobilization & the virulence of Candida albicans

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Fungal genomics articles from across Nature Portfolio

Fungal genomics is a scientific discipline that concerns the genome, encompassing the entire hereditary information, of fungi. Fungal genomics can, for example, be used to study fungal evolution or outbreaks of fungal infections.

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Complete telomere-to-telomere genomes uncover virulence evolution conferred by chromosome fusion in oomycete plant pathogens

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An omics-based characterization of Wolfiporia cocos reveals three CYP450 members involved in the biosynthetic pathway of pachymic acid

This study reports sequencing, assembly, and characterization of the genome and transcriptome of Wolfiporia cocos . In addition, Three CYP450s were identified to be involved in the biosynthesis of its active component, pachymic acid.

• Naliang Jing

Genomic and morphological characterization of Knufia obscura isolated from the Mars 2020 spacecraft assembly facility

• Atul Munish Chander
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A minimal Fanconi Anemia complex in early diverging fungi

• Drishtee Barua
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The transcription factor STE12 influences growth on several carbon sources and production of dehydroacetic acid (DHAA) in Trichoderma reesei

• Miriam Schalamun
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First telomere-to-telomere gapless assembly of the rice blast fungus Pyricularia oryzae

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News and Comment

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This study shows that healthy individuals are reservoirs for genotypically and phenotypically diverse Candida albicans strains that retain their capacity to cause disease.

• Andrea Du Toit

An ancestral Matryoshka doll

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• Esther Singer

Copy-number variation

This study reports that extensive copy number variations occur in the presence of azole antifungal drugs in Candida albicans , which might cause phenotypic and population-level heterogeneity observed in clinical isolates.

When two fungi become one

This study reports the discovery of human-pathogenic filamentous Aspergillus latus allodiploid hybrids that are phenotypically distinct from the parental species.

• Ashley York

Yeasts and how they came to be

This month’s Genome Watch highlights a large-scale sequencing project that enriches our understanding of yeast evolution and diversity.

• Sara Calhoun
• Stephen J. Mondo
• Igor V. Grigoriev

An expanding fungal tree of life

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The future of fungi: threats and opportunities

Nicola t case.

Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada

Judith Berman

Shmunis School of Biomedical and Cancer Research, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel

David S Blehert

U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA

Robert A Cramer

Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA

Christina Cuomo

Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA

Cameron R Currie

Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

Iuliana V Ene

Department of Mycology, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, Paris 75015, France

Matthew C Fisher

MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College, London W2 1PG, UK

Lillian K Fritz-Laylin

Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA

Aleeza C Gerstein

Department of Microbiology and Department of Statistics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada

N Louise Glass

Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

Neil A R Gow

Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK

Sarah J Gurr

Chris todd hittinger.

Laboratory of Genetics, Center for Genomic Science Innovation, J.F. Crow Institute for the Study of Evolution, DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA

Tobias M Hohl

Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, and Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY 10065, USA

Iliyan D Iliev

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA

Timothy Y James

Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA

Hailing Jin

Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, CA 92507, USA

Bruce S Klein

Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

James W Kronstad

Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada

Jeffrey M Lorch

Victoria mcgovern.

Burroughs Wellcome Fund, Durham, NC 13901, USA

Aaron P Mitchell

Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA

Julia A Segre

Microbial Genomics Section, Translational and Functional Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA

Rebecca S Shapiro

Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada

Donald C Sheppard

McGill Interdisciplinary Initiative in Infection and Immunology, Departments of Medicine, Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada

Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA

Jason E Stajich

Eva e stukenbrock.

Max Planck Fellow Group Environmental Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön 24306, Germany

Environmental Genomics, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel 24118, Germany

John W Taylor

Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California—Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

Dawn Thompson

LifeMine Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA 02140, USA

Gerard D Wright

M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada

Joseph Heitman

Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Medicine, and Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA

Leah E Cowen

Associated data.

There are no new data associated with this article.

The fungal kingdom represents an extraordinary diversity of organisms with profound impacts across animal, plant, and ecosystem health. Fungi simultaneously support life, by forming beneficial symbioses with plants and producing life-saving medicines, and bring death, by causing devastating diseases in humans, plants, and animals. With climate change, increased antimicrobial resistance, global trade, environmental degradation, and novel viruses altering the impact of fungi on health and disease, developing new approaches is now more crucial than ever to combat the threats posed by fungi and to harness their extraordinary potential for applications in human health, food supply, and environmental remediation. To address this aim, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR) and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund convened a workshop to unite leading experts on fungal biology from academia and industry to strategize innovative solutions to global challenges and fungal threats. This report provides recommendations to accelerate fungal research and highlights the major research advances and ideas discussed at the meeting pertaining to 5 major topics: (1) Connections between fungi and climate change and ways to avert climate catastrophe; (2) Fungal threats to humans and ways to mitigate them; (3) Fungal threats to agriculture and food security and approaches to ensure a robust global food supply; (4) Fungal threats to animals and approaches to avoid species collapse and extinction; and (5) Opportunities presented by the fungal kingdom, including novel medicines and enzymes.

Workshop Participants

Alan Bernstein, PhD , CIFAR President & CEO

Kate Geddie, PhD , CIFAR Senior Director, Research

Louis Muglia, MD, PhD , Burroughs Wellcome Fund President & CEO

Victoria McGovern, PhD , Burroughs Wellcome Fund Senior Program Officer

Leah Cowen, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Co-Director, University of Toronto

Joseph Heitman, MD, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Co-Director, Duke University

Neil Gow, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Advisory Committee Member, University of Exeter

John Taylor, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Advisory Committee Member, University of California, Berkeley

David Blehert, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, U.S. Geological Survey

Christina Cuomo, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, Broad Institute

Cameron Currie, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of Wisconsin-Madison

Matthew Fisher, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, Imperial College London

Lillian Fritz-Laylin, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of Massachusetts Amherst

Sarah Gurr, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of Exeter

Timothy James, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of Michigan

Hailing Jin, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of California, Riverside

Bruce Klein, MD, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of Wisconsin-Madison

James Kronstad, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of British Columbia

Don Sheppard, MD, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, McGill University

Jason Stajich, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, University of California, Riverside

Eva Stukenbrock, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, Kiel University and Max Planck Institute of Evolutionary Biology

Gerard Wright, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Fellow, McMaster University

Iuliana Ene, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Azrieli Global Scholar, Institut Pasteur

Aleeza Gerstein, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Azrieli Global Scholar, University of Manitoba

Rebecca Shapiro, PhD , CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Azrieli Global Scholar, University of Guelph

Nicola Case, CIFAR Fungal Kingdom Meeting Reporter, University of Toronto

Judith Berman, PhD , Tel Aviv University

Robert Cramer, PhD , Dartmouth

N. Louise Glass, PhD , University of California, Berkeley

Chris Todd Hittinger, PhD , University of Wisconsin-Madison

Tobias Hohl, MD, PhD , Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center

Iliyan Iliev, PhD , Weill Cornell Medical College

Jeffrey Lorch, PhD , U.S. Geological Survey

Aaron Mitchell, PhD , University of Georgia

Julie Segre, PhD , National Human Genome Research Institute

Anita Sil, MD, PhD , University of California San Francisco

Dawn Thompson, PhD , LifeMine Therapeutics, Vice President, Head of Microbiology and Automation

Introduction

Despite their perception as something found in the forest or served up on a dinner plate, fungi are more than just mushrooms. They span an impressive range of sizes, from microscopic cells to among the largest organisms on Earth ( Sipos et al. 2018 ), and have a major impact on human health, agriculture, biodiversity, ecology, manufacturing, and biomedical research. Fungi are key members of aquatic ( Grossart et al. 2019 ) and terrestrial ecosystems, both as the Earth's preeminent degraders of organic matter and by forming beneficial symbioses with 90% of land plants ( Willis 2018 ), producing mycorrhizal networks that have come to be known as the “Wood-Wide Web” ( Simard et al. 1997 ). Fungal secondary metabolites have revolutionized modern medicine, as exemplified by penicillin, the world's first natural product antibiotic, and immunosuppressive drugs, like cyclosporin that enables organ transplantation, as well as anticancer and cholesterol-lowering drugs ( Keller 2019 ). From bioremediation to biofuels and beer to bread, the applications for which we employ these organisms and their products seem only limited by imagination. For example, there has been an increasing number of patent applications for fungal-based biomaterials with utility in the packaging, textile, leather, housing, and automotive industries ( Cerimi et al. 2019 ). While the fungal kingdom clearly presents enormous opportunities, it also poses major threats. Fungi can cause life-threatening bloodstream infections in humans, resulting in at least as many deaths per year as tuberculosis or malaria ( Brown, Denning, Gow et al. 2012 ; Brown, Denning, and Levitz 2012 ). The landscape of these infections continues to change with climate warming, with increases in extreme weather events such as tornados exacerbating human fungal disease ( Weinhold 2013 ). In parallel, fungi are responsible for devastating losses to staple crops that feed billions, jeopardize food security, and cause species declines and extinctions in bat and amphibian species that threaten biodiversity and ecosystem function ( Fisher et al. 2016 , 2020 ).

Inspired by colloquia held by the American Academy of Microbiology (AAM) in 2007 ( Buckley 2007 ) and 2017 ( American Academy of Microbiology 2019 ) and a long-standing partnership between the Burroughs Wellcome Fund and the mycology community, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR) held a workshop in November 2021 to help chart the future challenges and opportunities presented by the fungal kingdom. Attended by members of the CIFAR Fungal Kingdom: Threats & Opportunities research program ( Case et al. 2020 ), the Burroughs Wellcome Fund, and by leading experts on fungal biology from academia and industry, participants convened to strategize on and address questions pertaining to (1) Connections between fungi and climate change and ways to avert climate catastrophe; (2) Fungal threats to humans and ways to mitigate them; (3) Fungal threats to agriculture and food security and approaches to ensure a robust global food supply; (4) Fungal threats to animals and approaches to avoid species collapse and extinction; and (5) Opportunities presented by the fungal kingdom including novel medicines and enzymes. In addition, building on the previous AAM colloquia, participants revisited the recommendations outlined in 2007 ( Buckley 2007 ) and 2017 ( American Academy of Microbiology 2019 ) reports to provide updated suggestions for accelerating fungal research.

Connections between fungi and climate change and ways to avert climate catastrophe

How can we alter plant microbiomes to enhance co 2 sequestration.

The anthropogenic production of greenhouse gases, such as CO 2 , is expected to raise global temperatures by 2–5°C in the coming decades ( Pachauri and Reisinger 2007 ). Restoring carbon balance by reducing and offsetting emissions is a major environmental sustainability goal ( Arora and Mishra 2019 ) in which vegetation, soils, and oceans play an important role by sequestering carbon, thereby removing it from the atmosphere ( Sabine et al. 2004 ; Lal 2005 ). Mycorrhizal fungi, which form symbioses with plant roots, have a remarkable impact on soil carbon sequestration ( Adamczyk 2021 ), wherein forest ecosystems dominated by different types of mycorrhizal fungi have vastly different carbon storage capabilities ( Averill et al. 2014 ). Building on this knowledge, participants suggested enhanced research in precision forest mycobiome engineering as a strategy to augment carbon sequestration by forests. In addition to contributing to carbon sequestration ( Clemmensen et al. 2013 ), fungi respire CO 2 and can cause considerable soil carbon losses ( Cheng et al. 2012 ), as well as release CO 2 from dead organic matter by contributing to its decomposition. Thus, as highlighted recently ( Tiedje et al. 2022 ), the impact of mycobiome engineering on both greenhouse gas sequestration and release would need to be assessed.

Reforestation after clear-cutting for timber harvest, tree planting to offset carbon emission, and crop farming were highlighted as existing practices where engineered mycobiomes could be applied to enhance carbon sequestration. In addition, the group suggested further investigation of the mycobiomes of seaweeds ( Suryanarayanan 2012 ), whose aquatic farming is the fastest-growing component of global food production ( Duarte et al. 2017 ). Seaweeds function as important marine CO 2 sinks ( Krause-Jensen and Duarte 2016 ) and thus understanding how fungi impact the ability of seaweed to fix CO 2 , and whether seaweed-associated fungi can be manipulated to enhance this process, are important to address. Despite the potential of these strategies to enhance CO 2 sequestration, participants identified several challenges. The importance of understanding local ecology to inform decisions on the type and combination of fungi was emphasized, as each environment has its own distinct set of biotic and abiotic factors that are likely to affect the longevity and function of the applied fungal community. Furthermore, the impact of introducing designer fungal communities on native microbes, and other potential ecological consequences, would need to be carefully considered.

How can we identify new fungal pathogens of crops and existing fungal pathogens whose geographic range is expanding due to climate change?

While fungal symbionts of plants hold promise to enhance carbon capture, fungal plant pathogens are responsible for staggering reductions in absorbed CO 2 by causing disease ( Fisher et al. 2012 ). Even more concerning is evidence that fungal pathogens of crops are moving poleward as the global climate warms ( Bebber et al. 2013 ), facilitating the interactions of pathogens with naïve hosts and environments ( Chaloner et al. 2021 ). Participants discussed increased surveillance efforts to detect and monitor fungal pathogens of crops as a proactive strategy to improve responsiveness to emerging threats. Efforts would ideally take the form of a global monitoring program, wherein widespread metagenomic sequencing of fungal communities could facilitate the identification of novel pathogens, as well as the movement of known pathogens into new areas. Recognizing the scale of such a program, the group suggested that engaging farmers in citizen science initiatives to aid with sample collection or capturing the interest of industry partners would be beneficial. In all cases, promoting open science and sharing of crop pathogen surveillance and sequencing data as they become available, such as through OpenRiceBlast and OpenWheatBlast ( Kamoun et al. 2019 ), would be empowering. In concert with increased local monitoring for crop pathogens, participants emphasized the benefits of enhanced surveillance of internationally transported plants, given the ability of global trade to exacerbate the spread of fungal pathogens ( Fisher et al. 2020 ).

How do fungi respond and adapt to climate change and increasing temperatures?

In addition to expanding the habitat of fungal pathogens, climate warming has the potential to select for environmental fungi adapted for growth at temperatures approaching that of the human body ( Garcia-Solache and Casadevall 2010 ). This poses a major problem because mammalian body temperature acts as a restrictive barrier to fungal infection given that most fungi thrive within the range of 12–30°C ( Robert and Casadevall 2009 ). Thus, if environmental fungi that are currently unable to cause infections in humans evolve increased temperature tolerance, many additional species may become pathogenic ( Garcia-Solache and Casadevall 2010 ). Previous work drawing on archived culture collection data identified fungal genera with a disproportionate number of thermotolerant species, highlighting these genera as potential sources of emerging pathogenic fungi given their propensity for adaptation to higher temperature growth ( Robert and Casadevall 2009 ). Although this study offers a starting point, participants suggested that a large survey of fungal temperature tolerance could be conducted to identify species with the greatest likelihood of overcoming the mammalian thermal barrier. In tandem, the characterization of fungal species that are close relatives to known pathogens, but currently lack thermotolerance, would be beneficial ( Garcia-Solache and Casadevall 2010 ). Such surveys are of increasing importance given the recent report that human body temperatures have decreased over the past century ( Protsiv et al. 2020 ), further narrowing the thermal barrier.

Fungal threats to humans and ways to mitigate these threats

How did candida auris emerge to cause disease globally and where is it present in the environment.

Candida auris is hypothesized to be the first human fungal pathogen to emerge due to thermal adaptation in response to climate change ( Casadevall et al. 2019 ); however, its origin is still a mystery. Initially detected in 2009 ( Satoh et al. 2009 ), C. auris emerged near-simultaneously on 3 continents ( Lockhart et al. 2017 ) and has since spread across the globe ( Chakrabarti and Sood 2021 ). C.auris poses a major new threat to human health due to its high rate of antifungal resistance, ability to persist on hospital surfaces, and rising number of cases ( Chakrabarti and Sood 2021 ). Recently, C. auris was isolated environmentally from a salt marsh and sandy beach on the Andaman Islands in India, suggesting it may be associated with the marine ecosystem ( Arora et al. 2021 ). Some participants postulated that prior to its emergence as a human fungal pathogen, C. auris may have transiently colonized human skin several times before being carried into a hospital environment and exposed to a susceptible host, leading to amplification and outbreaks. In partial alignment with this hypothesis, screening for C. auris skin colonization of patients in a nursing facility identified multiple skin sites including nares, fingers, and toe webs as frequently colonized body sites ( Proctor et al. 2021 ). The group suggested that additional environmental sampling for C. auris in conjunction with studies of the human skin mycobiome would be beneficial, especially in areas where C. auris is endemic.

Are agricultural practices driving antifungal drug resistance in species beyond Aspergillus ?

Azoles are widely deployed in agriculture as fungicides but are also used as therapeutics to treat fungal infections in humans and animals ( Fisher et al. 2018 ). The dual use of azoles in agriculture and in the clinic has led to the global emergence of azole resistance in the major human fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus ( Meis et al. 2016 ; Fisher et al. 2018 ). As a result, azoles are losing utility as a frontline antifungal therapy, leading to increases in patient mortality ( Meis et al. 2016 ). Azole resistance is also exceedingly common in isolates of C. auris ( Chow et al. 2020 ), raising the question of whether the extensive use of azoles in agriculture also promoted the development of resistance in this emergent fungal pathogen. In addition, participants highlighted that consumption of azole-treated foods may impact resistance in commensal fungi, including those with the potential to be pathogenic. The identification of azole resistance in multiple fungal pathogens underscores the timeliness for application of a ‘One Health’ perspective to antifungal drug deployment, which recognizes that human, plant, and animal health are interconnected ( American Academy of Microbiology 2019 ; Fisher and Murray 2021 ). Applying a ‘One Health’ approach recognizes stewardship of existing compounds as well as new methods for treating and preventing fungal infections in plants and humans ( Fisher et al. 2018 ; American Academy of Microbiology 2019 ). Strategies for curbing resistance to antifungals could include retaining newly developed therapies for use in either agriculture or medicine. However, limiting antifungals with broad utility for clinical use alone would likely require the implementation of government regulations or incentives given the larger market for use in agriculture.

How can we accelerate fungal vaccine development and promote the development of newer antifungals and their approval?

New strategies are needed to combat human fungal pathogens given the rising resistance to currently available antifungals and ever-changing landscape of human disease, with novel viruses like SARS-CoV2 producing new patient populations that are vulnerable to fungal infections ( Gangneux et al. 2022 ; Hoenigl et al. 2022 ). Despite the substantial health burden posed by fungal pathogens and numerous efficacious vaccines against bacteria and viruses, there are no clinically approved vaccines or monoclonal antibodies to protect against fungal infections ( Oliveira et al. 2021 ). Although several fungal vaccines ( Oliveira et al. 2021 ), immunotherapies ( Da Glória Sousa et al. 2011 ), and monoclonal antibodies ( Rudkin et al. 2018 ) are in development and some have reached clinical trials, challenges pose barriers to the fungal vaccine pipeline, recently reviewed in Oliveira et al. (2021) . Gut commensal fungi can induce germinal center B-cell expansion and systemic antibodies that are protective against disseminated Candida albicans or C. auris infections, highlighting new opportunities for exploration of the natural human antibody repertoire against gut mycobiota for development purposes ( Doron et al. 2021 ). Major advances in mRNA vaccine technology, largely fueled by the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic ( Chaudhary et al. 2021 ), present an opportunity for the development of novel fungal vaccines. In all cases, it would be prudent to explore the biological and immunological implications of fungal vaccines on commensal fungi, fungi consumed as food, and fungal allergens, which are currently unknown. In the development of fungal vaccines, immunotherapies, and antifungals, the group highlighted major regulatory, licensing, and distribution barriers, as well as a lack of financial incentives, as roadblocks. Many of the same problems have been identified in the antibiotics pipeline, which led the United Kingdom to trial a model wherein antibiotics are paid for through a subscription, rather than on a per-pill basis ( Glover et al. 2019 ; Mahase 2020 ). A similar pilot program, the Pioneering Antibiotic Subscriptions to End Upsurging Resistance (PASTEUR) Act, was introduced to the United States Congress in 2021 ( Outterson 2021 ). Some participants thought the antifungal pipeline could also benefit from governments buying into a “subscription model” for antifungals, which would decouple revenue from the volume of drugs sold to help encourage new development by offsetting costs.

Fungal threats to agriculture and food security and approaches to ensure a robust global food supply

Are there ways to breed crops for resistance or new fungicides to deploy such as those based on rna.

Genetically modifying crops to enhance resistance to microbial infection offers an alternative to chemical agents ( Dong and Ronald 2019 ). However, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are banned in a number of countries, including many in the European Union, necessitating alternative approaches for crop protection ( Turnbull et al. 2021 ). A promising avenue is the use of RNA interference, a cellular process whereby gene transcript expression is reduced in a sequence-specific manner without modifying the genome ( Hernández-Soto and Chacón-Cerdas 2021 ), thereby circumventing the regulatory processes that limit GMOs. In a method known as spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS), RNAs targeting pathways essential for growth or virulence of the pathogen are sprayed on the plant ( Hernández-Soto and Chacón-Cerdas 2021 ). These RNAs are subsequently taken up by the pathogen, where they act inside the cell to inhibit growth or virulence, thereby protecting the plant from infection ( Hernández-Soto and Chacón-Cerdas 2021 ). Although SIGS may offer a versatile, effective, safe, and eco-friendly approach for crop protection, the group highlighted the need to explore potential off-target effects of SIGS on fungal symbionts of plants, like endophytes and mycorrhizae. Research on the evolution of resistance to RNA uptake was also emphasized as an important area for future research, given that the effectiveness of SIGS for fungal disease control is dependent on the efficiency of RNA uptake by the pathogen ( Qiao et al. 2021 ). In addition, some participants highlighted mycoviruses, which are viruses that infect fungi, as potential biological control agents for crop fungal disease ( Nuss 2005 ; Xie and Jiang 2014 ). Although mycoviruses have been identified to cause reduced virulence in some fungal crop pathogens ( Cho et al. 2013 ; Pearson and Bailey 2013 ), relatively little is known about mycoviruses, underscoring that additional sampling and sequencing to detect mycoviruses, as well as assays to determine their phenotypic effects on different fungal species would be valuable.

Can we modify the plant mycobiome to enhance resistance to pathogens?

Fungal endophytes, which live within plant tissues, have been widely reported to protect their host plants against herbivore pests ( Bamisile et al. 2018 ). Less well studied is the ability of fungal endophytes to protect plants against fungal plant pathogens, although some cases have been reported ( Bamisile et al. 2018 ). Despite the promise of fungal endophytes to act as biological control agents against plant fungal pathogens, the group identified 3 major challenges to overcome. First, more insight into the mechanisms by which fungal endophytes confer protection, whether it be directly, through microbial competition or secretion of compounds with antifungal activity, or indirectly, through priming the host immune system, would be beneficial. Second, the best method and location (roots, stem, leaves, or soil) for applying beneficial symbionts would need further investigation. Last, a plant-, pathogen-, and environment-specific approach would be valuable to identify endophyte combinations that lead to stable colonization and effective, long-term protection. Thus, a “look locally first” strategy could be applied, where beneficial endophytes are identified within the local environment, then reapplied in combinations to the host plant. Such a strategy would limit the transport of fungi into non-native ecosystems and ensure endophyte cocktails are adapted to the environment in which they are applied, promoting longevity.

How do we protect crops from postharvest fungal damage?

While microbial pathogens cause approximately 15% losses in yield by damage to crops in the field ( Oerke 2006 ), the destruction caused by postharvest disease amounts to an additional 20–25% reduction, depending on the country ( Sharma et al. 2009 ). Current postharvest disease mitigation strategies rely heavily on chemicals, which pose a threat to human health and the environment. Similar to its utility in protecting preharvest crops, SIGS has been identified as a method for safe and powerful plant protection of postharvest products ( Wang et al. 2017 ). In addition, plant ( Utama et al. 2002 ) and bacterial ( Gao et al. 2018 ; Carter-House et al. 2020 ) volatiles are being investigated for their ability to suppress the growth of fungal pathogens that commonly cause postharvest decay. Some members of the group proposed that microbes that produce fungal growth-inhibiting volatiles could be applied to the packaging of postharvest products to provide a continuous source of volatiles to suppress fungal growth. Padding is already routinely included in the packaging of many fruits to absorb moisture and provide cushioning to prevent damage, thus microbes could readily be applied to these pads to provide a natural solution to postharvest decay caused by fungi. However, care would be needed to ensure the applied microbes cannot cause decay themselves or readily adapt to do so and do not pose a threat to human health.

Fungal threats to animals and approaches to avoid species collapse and extinction

Are there ways to protect frogs and salamanders from chytrid pathogens.

The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis, caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans , has driven global declines and extinctions in over 500 species of amphibians, amounting to the greatest recorded loss of biodiversity attributable to a pathogen ( Scheele et al. 2019 ). International trade in amphibians has been linked to the spread of chytrid pathogens and their introduction into naïve hosts, resulting in disease outbreaks ( O’Hanlon et al. 2018 ). Strengthening of transcontinental biosecurity, such as restrictions on salamander import, have helped mitigate disease transmission ( Klocke et al. 2017 ), but continued precautions and strategies for supporting the recovery of endangered populations are needed. Participants emphasized that domestic amphibian breeding programs could be implemented to provide a supply of disease-free animals to the pet trade. Domestic breeding programs would prevent large-scale mining of amphibians from the wild, thereby enabling more stringent import regulations to limit the continued global spread of chytrid pathogens.

Strategies for mitigating the impact of chytridiomycosis on wild amphibian populations would also be valuable. Diverse avenues have been explored, such as antifungal treatment of tadpoles coupled with environmental disinfection ( Bosch et al. 2015 ), and probiotic therapy through bioaugmentation of microbes that confer defense against chytrids ( Bletz et al. 2013 ; Kearns et al. 2017 ; Woodhams et al. 2020 ); but the broad applicability and scalability of these methods have yet to be determined. Additional strategies discussed by the group included biological control using mycoviruses, which has been applied against the fungal agent responsible for chestnut blight ( Rigling and Prospero 2018 ), and the introduction of nonpathogenic chytrid lineages to outcompete virulent lineages. However, more research into the potential impacts of introducing novel mycoviruses or less pathogenic chytrid strains warrant careful study before implementation.

How can we reduce the impact of bat white-nose syndrome on bat populations and ecosystems?

Bats play a crucial role in maintaining ecosystem health as seed dispersers, pollinators, and controllers of insect pests ( Ramírez-Fráncel et al. 2022 ). White-nose syndrome (WNS) is a devastating disease affecting North American hibernating bat populations that is caused by the fungus Pseudogymnoascus destructans ( Lorch et al. 2011 ). Introduced to North America by humans in 2006 ( Blehert et al. 2009 ), P. destructans is spreading across the continent, resulting in declines of more than 90% in some bat populations ( Turner et al. 2011 ). One strategy for controlling WNS involves vaccinating bats with P. destructans antigens to elicit a protective immune response ( Rocke et al. 2019 ). Vaccine administration was successful at reducing P. destructans infection of bats in a laboratory trial ( Rocke et al. 2019 ) and is currently being explored in field trials; however, additional funding would be needed to enable vaccination of afflicted populations. The group suggested raising public awareness of WNS through events such as Bat Week, and attracting companies interested in aging research, given the exceptional longevity of bats ( Brunet-Rossinni and Austad 2004 ), as strategies for garnering financial support. Raising public awareness would also be important to mitigate the spread of WNS by people exploring caves where bats live. The additional methods for managing WNS were discussed, including the use of immune receptor agonists to boost the bat antifungal response to P. destructans and sterilization or modification of bat hibernacula sediments, which are a known reservoir of P. destructans ( Verant et al. 2018 ), to remove the pathogen or suppress its growth with antagonistic microbes.

How can we increase awareness of other fungal pathogens of animals and the dangers they pose?

In addition to causing devastating disease in amphibians and bats, emerging fungal diseases have been identified in wild snakes ( Lorch et al. 2015 ), sea turtles ( Sarmiento-Ramírez et al. 2014 ), lizards ( Peterson et al. 2020 ), dolphins and porpoises ( Teman et al. 2021 ), and birds ( Arné et al. 2021 ). Despite this, fungi are often overlooked as sources of emerging infectious disease, compounding their threat to wildlife and ecosystem health ( Fisher et al. 2020 ). Given the impact of human movement on spreading infectious diseases of wildlife, participants suggested that developing communication strategies to increase public awareness of the threats fungi pose to wildlife, for use in venues such as schools and national parks, would be beneficial. Public involvement through citizen science and other nationally coordinated programs to report dead wildlife was also proposed as a strategy, which could aid in identifying trends that may indicate the emergence of infectious disease in wildlife populations. As wildlife diseases are inherently difficult to treat, the group highlighted the possible need for a paradigm shift in wildlife disease management from reactive to proactive strategies. A proactive strategy could center on managing wildlife populations for health, which would entail identifying underlying drivers of wildlife infectious diseases and mitigating these factors to prevent disease emergence. It would also involve supporting ecosystem health to help wildlife populations build resilience in the face of disease and enable recovery. Such a strategy may prove effective given the potential for wildlife populations to evolve resistance and recover from disease without human intervention, as has been predicted in bat populations affected by WNS ( Auteri and Knowles 2020 ) and documented in amphibian populations afflicted with chytridiomycosis ( Scheele et al. 2014 ).

Opportunities presented by the fungal kingdom including novel medicines and enzymes

How can we accelerate discovery of the biological activities of fungal natural products.

Fungi produce an astounding array of natural products, some of which have been developed into drugs that have revolutionized patient care ( Keller 2019 ). The fungal kingdom is exceptionally diverse, home to an estimated 2.2–3.8 million species, the majority of which have yet to be identified ( Hawksworth and Lücking 2017 ). However, progress has been slow in identifying new fungal metabolites that can be advanced into the clinic, partly owing to rediscovery of known molecules. The group discussed using CRISPR genome engineering to minimize rediscovery by inactivating biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) needed to make commonly identified antimicrobials in strains of interest ( Culp et al. 2019 ) and posited that this approach could be applied on a large scale to existing strain collections or environmental samples to augment the discovery of new natural products. Investigating the molecules produced by animal-associated microbes was also proposed as a strategy to accelerate the pace of drug discovery, given that these microbes appear to be enriched in compounds with low toxicity to animals ( Chevrette et al. 2019 ). In addition, genomics was highlighted as an invaluable tool for fungal natural product discovery as genes involved in the biosynthesis of fungal secondary metabolites are often arranged in BGCs, which can be predicted by algorithms ( Keller 2019 ). Thus, the sequencing of fungal genomes can provide insight into the molecules that fungi have the potential to produce, and when coupled with synthetic biology can enable BGCs from unculturable fungi to be expressed in heterologous microbial hosts ( Clevenger et al. 2017 ). Lastly, participants underscored the benefit of supporting and sustaining fungal culture collections and databases given their value in enabling natural product discovery and fungal research more broadly.

Can we harness fungi to develop clean fuels that help avert climate catastrophe?

Fungi have phenomenal potential for applications in bioremediation ( Harms et al. 2011 ; Kumar and Chandra 2020 ) and in the production of sustainable energy sources, such as in the biofuel industry and advanced biorefineries ( Hong and Nielsen 2012 ; Srivastava et al. 2018 ; Keasling et al. 2021 ). Fungi and fungal enzymes are being explored for their ability to convert renewable lignocellulosic materials (plant dry matter) into biofuels, providing environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives to fossil-derived fuels and chemicals ( Srivastava et al. 2018 ; Lillington et al. 2021 ). Moreover, fungi possess the biochemical and ecological capacity to degrade environmental pollutants, such as toxic chemicals generated during textile and pulp production, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and crude oil ( Harms et al. 2011 ; Zeghal et al. 2021 ). Thus, fungi harbor key enzymes and are key bioconversion chassis both for use in fuel production and its cleanup. The group emphasized the importance of industry-academia partnerships to enable the exploitation of fungi for biofuel production and bioremediation, as well as in general to make broad utilization of fungal enzymes in biotechnology and fungal natural products in drug discovery. Consulting and participation in scientific advisory boards were highlighted as avenues for building industry-academia collaborations, which can promote sharing of expertise and resources to accelerate innovation and application of fungal-derived products. Moreover, participants discussed the value of an increase in initiatives to promote these partnerships, such as programs offering funding to graduate students and postdoctoral fellows, to enable joint industrial-academic research projects.

Recommendations

The 2007 ( Buckley 2007 ) and 2017 ( American Academy of Microbiology 2019 ) AAM colloquia reports on the fungal kingdom provided recommendations to promote advances in fungal research. These recommendations were revisited during the meeting hosted by CIFAR and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund and updated to reflect the current state of the world’s fungi and to provide suggestions for accelerating the development of novel strategies to combat the threats posed by fungi and harness their extraordinary potential ( Fig. 1 ). These recommendations have been proposed within the context of relevant background information in the main text and are further distilled in a succinct format below.

Recommendations to promote advances in fungal research. Created with BioRender.com.

• Develop Facilities to Bring Diverse Mycologists Together . An interdisciplinary approach is crucial to mitigating fungal threats and identifying fungal-based solutions to global challenges. Mycology Centers of Excellence would be valuable to coordinate multidisciplinary work between mycologists that focus on fungi that infect humans, plants, and wildlife. Mycology Centers could be modeled after National Institutes of Health (NIH) Cancer Centers and would enable efficient growth and translation of scientific knowledge for application in medicine, agriculture, and ecosystem conservation.
• Enhance and Sustain Training in Fungal Biology. There is a clear benefit to training more individuals to address the diverse facets of fungal biology and the impact of fungi on human, plant, and animal health. In particular, enhanced training in medical mycology, especially in areas where mycoses are endemic, would improve accurate diagnosis and informed treatment of patients. Moreover, the development of programs to train domestic animal and wildlife veterinarians, and to include them in discussions on managing fungal diseases of livestock and wild animals, would serve to further mitigate the impacts of fungi on animal health.
• Develop and Sustain Public Education and Outreach Programs to Increase Awareness of Fungal Diseases. Fungi are not widely regarded as major agents of infectious disease, despite the substantial burden they pose to human, plant, and animal health. Programs could be developed for implementation in schools and national parks to increase public awareness of the threats posed by fungal pathogens and the actions by which humans contribute to their spread.
• Develop Programs to Promote Partnerships Between Industry and Academia. Programs offering financial support, such as funding of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows, would promote collaboration between industry and academia. In addition, these partnerships would enable sharing of resources and expertise, as well as recruit talent to work in industry, ultimately accelerating the pace of innovation.
• Support and Sustain Fungal Genome Databases. Fungal genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and other “omics” methods, as well as an increasing number of fungal genome sequences, have generated abundant and rich datasets. Compiling, storing, and annotating these data in an integrated format that is accessible to the community is critical to informing research and promoting advances. Developing and implementing unified taxonomy and standardized pipelines for next-generation sequencing methods would be beneficial.
• Support and Sustain Fungal Specimen and Culture Collections. Fungal specimen and culture collections are critical resources for understanding fungal biology, genetic variation, and evolution. These collections are likely to become increasingly important for examining the impact of climate change on fungi, tracking invasive species, and preserving fungal diversity. Moreover, fungal culture collections represent a rich source of chemical diversity for the identification of natural products that can be developed for clinical use. The long-term availability of these existing and new collections would be valuable in enabling fungal research.
• Report and Track Fungi That Cause Disease in Humans, Plants, and Animals. Documenting the global burden of fungal disease would enable increased understanding of disease emergence, range expansion, and the impact of drug resistance. To achieve this objective, public, domestic animal, and wildlife health agencies could implement programs to transparently report cases of fungal disease, and crop monitoring services could report fungal disease surveillance data to publicly accessible databases.
• Limit the Global Transport of Living Plants and Animals. Global trade can promote the spread of plant and animal fungal pathogens ( Fisher et al. 2020 ). Enhanced pathogen surveillance of internationally transported plants and animals coupled with stringent import regulations could limit the introduction of potential pathogens to naïve populations. Locally maintained, disease-free nursery and animal stocks would reduce the need for global import and help prevent the spread of fungal pathogens.
• Explore Strategies to Manage Wildlife Populations for Health. Management of wildlife infectious diseases has historically been reactive despite these diseases being difficult to treat. A paradigm shift toward proactive strategies that act to or are predicted to support ecosystem health and enable wildlife populations to build resilience and recover in the face of disease would be beneficial.
• Identify Fungal Threats and Opportunities That Have Emerged as a Result of the COVID-19 Global Pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic has produced new patient populations that are vulnerable to fungal infection ( Baddley et al. 2021 ). Further research would be important to understand COVID-19-associated fungal diseases, such as mucormycosis ( Baddley et al. 2021 ). Concurrently, a Global Virome Project has been launched to discover zoonotic viral threats and stop future pandemics, which will entail sampling of bats and other animals to identify viruses ( Carroll et al. 2018 ). This initiative presents both an opportunity, to sample wildlife for fungi in tandem with viruses, and a threat, as human movement during sampling has the potential to spread disease between wildlife populations.

Conclusions and outlook

The fungal kingdom presents enormous opportunities for applications in medicine, biotechnology, and environmental sustainability, while also posing devastating threats to human, plant, and animal health. Moreover, the breadth of fungal diversity remains relatively underexplored and the impact of climate change and emergent infectious diseases like COVID-19 on fungi have yet to be appreciated. Novel approaches would be beneficial to harness fungi to avert climate catastrophe, support plant health, mitigate wildlife disease, and identify new medicines. The goal of this report is to raise awareness on the diverse ways fungi impact health and disease, to spark innovative solutions to global challenges and fungal threats, and to provide suggestions for advancing the field of fungal biology. As highlighted in the recommendations herein, developing and sustaining infrastructure to support fungal research would catalyze the development of new strategies to mitigate the threats posed by fungi and harness their extraordinary potential.

Acknowledgments

We thank CIFAR and the Burroughs Wellcome Fund for their support and for hosting the “Future of Fungi” workshop. LEC and JH are Co-Directors and Fellows of the CIFAR program Fungal Kingdom: Threats & Opportunities . NARG and JWT are Advisory Committee Members of the CIFAR program Fungal Kingdom: Threats & Opportunities . DSB, CAC, CRC, MCF, LKF-L, SJG, TYJ, HJ, BSK, JWK, DCS, JES, EES, and GDW are Fellows of the CIFAR program Fungal Kingdom: Threats & Opportunities . IVE, ACG, and RSS are CIFAR Azrieli Global Scholars of the CIFAR program Fungal Kingdom: Threats & Opportunities . Any use of trade, firm, or product names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government.

NTC is supported by a CIHR Canadian Graduate Scholarships—Doctoral award. JH is supported by NIH R01 grants AI39115-24, AI50113-17, and AI133654-05. LEC is supported by CIHR Foundation grant FDN-154288, NIH R01 grants AI127375 and AI120958, and a Canada Research Chair (Tier 1) in Microbial Genomics & Infectious Disease. LKF-L is supported by NIH R35 grant GM143039, NSF CAREER award 2143464, Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation grant #9337, an Excellence in Biomedical Science award from the Smith Family Foundation, and a Pew Scholar award from the Pew Charitable Trust. AS is supported by NIH grants R01AI136735, R37AI066224, R01AI146584, and U19AI166798. CTH is supported by NSF grants DEB-1442148 and DEB-2110403, in part by the DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (DOE Office of Science BER DE-FC02-07ER64494), the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture (Hatch project 1003258), and an H. I. Romnes Faculty Fellowship from the Office of the Vice Chancellor for Research and Graduate Education with funding from the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation. MCF is supported by the Wellcome Trust 219551/Z/19/Z, NERC grant NE/S000844/, and MRC grant MR/R015600/1. RSS is supported by an NSERC Discovery Grant (RGPIN-2018-4914) and a CIHR Project Grant (PJT 162195). TMH is supported by NIH grants R37AI093808, R01AI139632, R21AI156157, and by P30CA008748 (to Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center).

Conflicts of interest

LEC is a cofounder of and shareholder in Bright Angel Therapeutics, a platform company for the development of novel antifungal therapeutics, and a Science Advisor for Kapoose Creek, a company that harnesses the therapeutic potential of fungi. NLG is a member of the Scientific Advisory Board for MycoWorks, a biotechnology company that produces materials from fungal mycelium. JES is a paid consultant for Sincarne, Inc.

Contributor Information

Nicola T Case, Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada.

Judith Berman, Shmunis School of Biomedical and Cancer Research, The George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.

David S Blehert, U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.

Robert A Cramer, Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.

Christina Cuomo, Infectious Disease and Microbiome Program, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.

Cameron R Currie, Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.

Iuliana V Ene, Department of Mycology, Institut Pasteur, Université de Paris, Paris 75015, France.

Matthew C Fisher, MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis, Imperial College, London W2 1PG, UK.

Lillian K Fritz-Laylin, Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.

Aleeza C Gerstein, Department of Microbiology and Department of Statistics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.

N Louise Glass, Plant and Microbial Biology Department, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.

Neil A R Gow, Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK.

Sarah J Gurr, Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QD, UK.

Chris Todd Hittinger, Laboratory of Genetics, Center for Genomic Science Innovation, J.F. Crow Institute for the Study of Evolution, DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53726, USA.

Tobias M Hohl, Infectious Disease Service, Department of Medicine, and Immunology Program, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY 10065, USA.

Iliyan D Iliev, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA.

Timothy Y James, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA.

Hailing Jin, Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, CA 92507, USA.

Bruce S Klein, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA. Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA. Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin—Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.

James W Kronstad, Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.

Jeffrey M Lorch, U.S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Madison, WI 53711, USA.

Victoria McGovern, Burroughs Wellcome Fund, Durham, NC 13901, USA.

Aaron P Mitchell, Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.

Julia A Segre, Microbial Genomics Section, Translational and Functional Genomics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.

Rebecca S Shapiro, Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.

Donald C Sheppard, McGill Interdisciplinary Initiative in Infection and Immunology, Departments of Medicine, Microbiology & Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 0G4, Canada.

Anita Sil, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94117, USA.

Jason E Stajich, Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Center for Plant Cell Biology, Institute for Integrative Genome Biology, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, CA 92507, USA.

Eva E Stukenbrock, Max Planck Fellow Group Environmental Genomics, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Plön 24306, Germany. Environmental Genomics, Christian-Albrechts University, Kiel 24118, Germany.

John W Taylor, Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California—Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.

Dawn Thompson, LifeMine Therapeutics, Cambridge, MA 02140, USA.

Gerard D Wright, M.G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, DeGroote School of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada.

Joseph Heitman, Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Medicine, and Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.

Leah E Cowen, Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5G 1M1, Canada.

Data Availability

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Research , Press Releases

June 5, 2024

Because the infections can be confused for other skin conditions, they may go without proper treatment for months.

Credit: Christoph Burgstedt/Getty

H ealthcare providers should watch out for new and highly contagious forms of ringworm or jock itch, which are emerging as a potential public health threat, according to a pair of reports.

In the first of the studies, experts at NYU Langone Health who focus on the spread of contagious rashes document the first reported case in the United States of a sexually transmitted fungal infection that can take months to clear up, even with treatment. In the second report, NYU Langone physicians partnered with authorities at the New York State Department of Health to describe the largest group of patients in the country with a similar fungal strain that resists standard therapies.

Both species of fungi are among a group that causes skin rashes, or tinea, which easily spread on the face and limbs (ringworm), groin (jock itch), and feet (athlete’s foot). However, the tinea explored in the new reports can look very different from the neat, regular circles seen in most forms of ringworm. They may instead be confused for lesions caused by eczema and can therefore go without proper treatment for months.

The first report, which published online on June 5 in the journal JAMA Dermatology , describes a man in his 30s who developed tinea on his penis, buttocks, and limbs after returning home to New York City from a trip to England, Greece, and California. Genetic tests of fungal samples collected from the patient’s rashes revealed that the infection was caused by the species Trichophyton mentagrophytes type VII (TMVII). This sexually transmitted form of ringworm has been increasingly diagnosed throughout Europe, with 13 instances reported in France in 2023, mostly in men who have sex with men. Notably, the man in the current study said he had sex with multiple male partners during his travels, none of whom reported similar skin issues.

“Healthcare providers should be aware that Trichophyton mentagrophytes type VII is the latest in a group of severe skin infections to have now reached the United States,” said study lead author and dermatologist Avrom S. Caplan, MD . Dr. Caplan is an assistant professor in the Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology at NYU Grossman School of Medicine.

“Since patients are often reluctant to discuss genital problems, physicians need to directly ask about rashes around the groin and buttocks, especially for those who are sexually active, have recently traveled abroad, and report itchy areas elsewhere on the body,” added study senior author John G. Zampella, MD .

Dr. Zampella, an associate professor in the Ronald O. Perelman Department of Dermatology, says that while infections caused by TMVII are difficult to treat and can take months to clear up, they so far appear to respond to standard antifungal therapies, such as terbinafine.

Meanwhile, Dr. Caplan says the new skin condition explored in his other new report presents a greater challenge for dermatologists. The study results, published online in May in JAMA Dermatology , center on Trichophyton indotineae , which is widespread in India and is now reported globally. First confirmed in the United States last year, the infection causes itchy and contagious rashes similar to those of TMVII, but it often resists terbinafine treatment.

To better understand how T. indotineae can evade antifungal drugs, the researchers collected clinical and laboratory data from 11 men and women treated for ringworm in New York City hospitals between May 2022 and May 2023. Their tinea was confirmed to have been caused by T. indotineae . Seven of the patients had received standard doses of terbinafine for anywhere from 14 days (the usual duration for most forms of ringworm) to 42 days, yet their rashes did not improve.

Analyzing the fungal samples’ DNA, the team reported several variations in the genetic code (mutations) that prevent terbinafine from hooking onto fungal cells and poking holes in their protective membranes. According to the study authors, these mutations might help explain why the therapy often failed in some cases to fight the infections.

The results also showed that when seven patients were treated with another antifungal called itraconazole, three recovered entirely and two improved. The problem with this therapy, Dr. Caplan says, is that while effective, the drug can interfere with many medications and can cause nausea, diarrhea, and other side effects that make it hard to use for long periods.

“These findings offer new insight into how some of the fungal skin infections spreading from South Asia can evade our go-to therapies,” said Dr. Caplan. “Beyond learning to recognize their misleading signs, physicians will need to ensure their treatment addresses each patient’s quality of life needs.”

Dr. Caplan adds that he plans to work with leading fungi experts around the United States and internationally over the next few months to expand research efforts and track emerging cases.

The researchers caution that while dermatologists should be on the alert for signs of TMVII and T. indotineae in their patients, rates so far remain low in the United States.

Study funding was provided by NYU Langone.

In addition to Dr. Caplan and Dr. Zampella, other NYU Langone investigators involved in the TMVII study are Michelle Sikora, BS; Arianna Strome, MD; Christine Akoh, MD, PhD; and Caitlin Otto, PhD . Other study authors include Sudha Chaturvedi, PhD, at the New York State Department of Health in Albany.

Besides Dr. Caplan, other NYU Langone researchers involved in the T. indotineae study are Michelle Sikora, BS, and Christine Akoh, MD, PhD. Other study authors include Gabrielle Todd, PhD; YanChun Zhu, MS; Swati Manjari, PhD; and Nilesh Banavali, PhD; at the New York State Department of Health in Albany; and Jeannette Jakus, MD, MBA; Shari Lipner, MD, PhD; Kayla Babbush, MD; Karen Acker, MD; Ayana Morales, MD; Rebecca Marrero Rolon, MD; Lars Westblade, PhD; Maira Fonseca, MD; and Abigail Cline, MD, PhD; at Weill Cornell Medicine in New York City.

Further study authors were Jeremy Gold, MD, MS; Shawn Lockhart, PhD; Dallas Smith, PharmD; and Tom Chiller, MD, at the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta; and William Greendyke, MD, at the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Sudha Chaturvedi, PhD, served as study senior author.

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• Could a Fungal Infection Cause a Future Pandemic?

Fernando Fuentes, MD

May 29, 2024

The principle of resilience and survival is crucial for medically significant fungi. These microorganisms are far from creating the postapocalyptic scenario depicted in TV series like The Last of Us,  and   much work is necessary to learn more about them. Accurate statistics on fungal infections, accompanied by clinical histories, simple laboratory tests, new antifungals, and a necessary One Health approach are lacking. 

The entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps unilateralis was made notorious by the TV series, but for now, it only manages to control the brains of some ants at will. Luckily, there are no signs that fungi affecting humans are inclined to create zombies.

What is clear is that the world belongs to the kingdom of fungi and that fungi are everywhere. There are already close to 150,000 described species, but millions remain to be discovered. They abound in decomposing organic matter, soil, or animal excrement, including that of bats and pigeons. Some fungi have even managed to find a home in hospitals. Lastly, we must not forget those that establish themselves in the human microbiome.

Given such diversity, it is legitimate to ask whether any of them could be capable of generating new pandemics. Could the forgotten Cryptococcus neoformans , Aspergillus fumigatus , or Histoplasma species, among others, trigger new health emergencies on the scale of the one generated by SARS-CoV-2?

We cannot forget that a coronavirus has already confirmed that reality can surpass fiction. However, Edith Sánchez Paredes, a biologist, doctor in biomedical sciences, and specialist in medical mycology, provided a reassuring response to Medscape Spanish Edition on this point.

"That would be very difficult to see because the way fungal infections are acquired is not from person to person, in most cases," commented Sánchez Paredes, from the Mycology Unit of the Faculty of Medicine at the National Autonomous University of Mexico.

Close to 300 species have already been classified as pathogenic in humans. Although the numbers are not precise and are increasing, it is estimated that around 1,500,000 people worldwide die each year of systemic fungal infections.

"However, it is important to emphasize that establishment of an infection depends not only on the causal agent. A crucial factor is the host, in this case, the human. Generally, these types of infections will develop in individuals with some deficiency in their immune system. The more deficient the immune response, the more likely a fungal infection may occur," stated Sánchez Paredes.

The possibility of a pandemic like the one experienced with SARS-CoV-2 in the short term is remote, but the threat posed by fungal infections persists.

In 2022, the World Health Organization (WHO) defined a priority list of pathogenic fungi , with the aim of guiding actions to control them. It is mentioned there that invasive fungal diseases are on the rise worldwide, particularly in immunocompromised populations.

"Despite the growing concern, fungal infections receive very little attention and resources, leading to a paucity of quality data on fungal disease distribution and antifungal resistance patterns. Consequently, it is impossible to estimate their exact burden," as stated in the document.

In line with this, an article published in Mycoses in 2022 concluded that fungal infections are neglected diseases in Latin America. Among other difficulties, deficiencies in access to tests such as polymerase chain reaction or serum detection of beta-1,3-D-glucan have been reported there.

In terms of treatments, most countries encounter problems with access to liposomal amphotericin B and new azoles, such as posaconazole and isavuconazole .

"Unfortunately, in Latin America, we suffer from a poor infrastructure for diagnosing fungal infections; likewise, we have limited access to antifungals available in the global market. What's more, we lack reliable data on the epidemiology of fungal infections in the region, so many times governments are unaware of the true extent of the problem," said Rogelio de Jesús Treviño Rangel, PhD, a medical microbiologist and expert in clinical mycology, professor, and researcher at the Faculty of Medicine of the Autonomous University of Nuevo León in Mexico.

Need for More Medical Mycology Training

Dr Fernando Messina is a medical mycologist with the Mycology Unit of the Francisco Javier Muñiz Infectious Diseases Hospital in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He has noted an increase in the number of cases of cryptococcosis , histoplasmosis , and aspergillosis in his daily practice.

"Particularly, pulmonary aspergillosis is steadily increasing. This is because many patients have structural lung alterations that favor the appearance of this mycosis. This is related to the increase in cases of tuberculosis and the rise in life expectancy of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or other pulmonary or systemic diseases," Messina stated.

For Messina, the main obstacle in current clinical practice is the low level of awareness among nonspecialist physicians regarding the presence of systemic fungal infections, and because these infections are more common than realized, it is vital to consider fungal etiology before starting empirical antibiotic therapy.

"Health professionals usually do not think about mycoses because mycology occupies a very small space in medical education at universities. As the Venezuelan mycologist Gioconda Cunto de San Blas once said, 'Mycology is the Cinderella of microbiology.' To change this, we need to give more space to mycoses in undergraduate and postgraduate studies," Messina asserted.

He added, "The main challenge is to train professionals with an emphasis on the clinical interpretation of cases. Current medicine has a strong trend toward molecular biology and the use of rapid diagnostic methods, without considering the clinical symptoms or the patient's history. Determinations are very useful, but it is necessary to interpret the results."

Messina sees it as unlikely in the short term for a pandemic to be caused by fungi, but if it were to occur, he believes it would happen in healthcare systems in regions that are not prepared in terms of infrastructure. However, as seen in the health emergency resulting from SARS-CoV-2, he thinks the impact would be mitigated by the performance of healthcare professionals.

"In general, we have the ability to adapt to any adverse situation or change — although it is clear that we need more doctors, biochemists, and microbiologists trained in mycology," emphasized Messina.

More than 40 interns pass through Muñiz Hospital each year. They are doctors and biochemists from Argentina, other countries in the region, or even Europe, seeking to enhance their training in mycology. Regarding fungal infection laboratory work, the interest lies in learning to use traditional techniques and innovative molecular methods.

"Rapid diagnostic methods, especially the detection of circulating antigens, have marked a change in the prognosis of deep mycosis in immunocompromised hosts. The possibility of screening and monitoring in this group of patients is very important and has a great benefit," said Gabriela Santiso, PhD, a biochemist and head of the Mycology Unit of the Francisco Javier Muñiz Infectious Diseases Hospital.

According to Santiso, the current landscape includes the ability to identify genus and species, which can help in understanding resistance to antifungals. Furthermore, conducting sensitivity tests to these drugs, using standardized commercial methods, also provides timely information for treatment.

But Santiso warns that Latin America is a vast region with great disparity in human and technological resources. Although most countries in the region have networks facilitating access to timely diagnosis, resources are generally more available in major urban centers.

This often clashes with the epidemiology of most fungal infections. "Let's not forget that many fungal pathologies affect low-income people who have difficulties accessing health centers, which sometimes turns them into chronic diseases that are hard to treat," Santiso pointed out.

In mycology laboratories, the biggest cost is incurred by new diagnostic tests, such as those allowing molecular identification. Conventional methods are not usually expensive, but they require time and effort to train human resources to handle them.

Because new methodologies are not always available or easily accessible throughout the region, Santiso recommended not neglecting traditional mycological techniques. "Molecular methods, rapid diagnostic methods, and conventional mycology techniques are complementary and not mutually exclusive tests. Continuous training and updating are needed in this area," she emphasized.

Why Are Resistant Fungal Infections Becoming Increasingly Common?

The first barrier for fungi to cause infection in humans is body temperature; most of them cannot withstand 37 °C. However, they also struggle to evade the immune response that is activated when they try to enter the body. 

"We are normally exposed to many of these fungi, almost all the time, but if our immune system is adequate, it may not go beyond a mild infection, in most cases subclinical, which will resolve quickly," Sánchez Paredes stated.

However, according to Sánchez Paredes, if the immune response is weak, "the fungus will have no trouble establishing itself in our organs. Some are even part of our microbiota, such as Candida albicans , which in the face of an imbalance or immunocompromise, can lead to serious infections."

It is clear that the population at risk for immunosuppression has increased. According to the WHO, this is due to the high prevalence of such diseases as tuberculosis, cancer, and HIV infection , among others.

But the WHO also believes that the increase in fungal infections is related to greater population access to critical care units, invasive procedures, chemotherapy, or immunotherapy treatments.

Furthermore, factors related to the fungus itself and the environment play a role. "These organisms have enzymes, proteins, and other molecules that allow them to survive in the environment in which they normally inhabit. When they face a new and stressful one, they must express other molecules that will allow them to survive. All of this helps them evade elements of the immune system, antifungals, and, of course, body temperature," according to Sánchez Paredes.

It is possible that climate change is also behind the noticeable increase in fungal infections and that this crisis may have an even greater impact in the future. The temperature of the environment has increased, and fungi will have to adapt to the planet's temperature, to the point where body temperature may no longer be a significant barrier for them.

Environmental changes would also be responsible for modifications in the distribution of endemic mycoses, and it is believed that fungi will more frequently find new ecological niches, be able to survive in other environments, and alter distribution zones.

This is what is happening between Mexico and the United States with coccidioidomycosis , or valley fever . "We will begin to see cases of some mycoses where they were not normally seen, so we will have to conduct more studies to confirm that the fungus is inhabiting these new areas or is simply appearing in new sites owing to migration and the great mobility of populations," Sánchez Paredes said.

Finally, exposure to environmental factors would partly be responsible for the increasing resistance to first-line antifungals observed in these microorganisms. This seems to be the case with A fumigatus when exposed to azoles used as fungicides in agriculture.

One Health in Fungal Infections

The increasing resistance to antifungals is a clear testament that human, animal, and environmental health are interconnected. This is why a multidisciplinary approach that adopts the perspective of One Health is necessary for its management.

"The use of fungicides in agriculture, structurally similar to the azoles used in clinics, generates resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus found in the environment. These fungi in humans can be associated with infections that do not respond to first-line treatment," explained Dr Carlos Arturo Álvarez, an infectious diseases physician and professor at the Faculty of Medicine at the National University of Colombia.

According to Álvarez, the approach to control them should not only focus on the search for diagnostic methods that allow early detection of antifungal resistance or research on new antifungal treatments. He believes that progress must also be made with strategies that allow for the proper use of antifungals in agriculture.

"Unfortunately, the One Health approach is not yet well implemented in the region, and in my view, there is a lack of articulation in the different sectors. That is, there is a need for true coordination between government offices of agriculture, animal and human health, academia, and international organizations. This is not happening yet, and I believe we are in the initial stage of visibility," Álvarez opined.

Veterinary public health is another pillar of the aforementioned approach. For various reasons, animals experience a higher frequency of fungal infections. A few carry and transmit true zoonoses that affect human health, but most often, animals act only as sentinels indicating a potential source of transmission.

Carolina Segundo Zaragoza, PhD, has worked in veterinary mycology for 30 years. She currently heads the veterinary mycology laboratory at the Animal Production Teaching, Research, and Extension Center in Altiplano, under the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. Because she has frequent contact with specialists in human mycology, during her professional career she has received several patient consultations, most of which were for cutaneous mycoses.

"They detect some dermatomycosis and realize that the common factor is owning a companion animal or a production animal with which the patient has contact. Both animals and humans present the same type of lesions, and then comes the question: Who infected whom? I remind them that the main source of infection is the soil and that animals should not be blamed in the first instance," Segundo Zaragoza clarified.

Segundo Zaragoza is currently collaborating on a research project analyzing the presence of Coccidioides immitis in the soil. This pathogen is responsible for coccidioidomycosis in dogs and humans, and she sees with satisfaction how these types of initiatives, which include some components of the One Health vision, are becoming more common in Mexico.

"Fortunately, human mycologists are increasingly providing more space for the dissemination of veterinary mycology. So I have had the opportunity to be invited to different forums on medical mycology to present the clinical cases we can have in animals and talk about the research projects we carry out. I have more and more opportunities to conduct joint research with human mycologists and veterinary doctors," she said.

Segundo Zaragoza believes that to better implement the One Health vision, standardizing the criteria for detecting, diagnosing, and treating mycoses is necessary. She considers that teamwork will be key to achieving the common goal of safeguarding the well-being and health of humans and animals.

Alarms Sound for Candida auris

The WHO included the yeast Candida auris in its group of pathogens with critical priority, and since 2009, it has raised alarm owing to the ease with which it grows in hospitals. In that setting, C auris is known for its high transmissibility, its ability to cause outbreaks, and the high mortality rate from disseminated infections.

"It has been a concern for the mycological community because it shows resistance to most antifungals used clinically, mainly azoles, but also for causing epidemic outbreaks," emphasized Sánchez Paredes.

Its mode of transmission is not very clear, but it has been documented to be present on the skin and persist in hospital materials and furniture. It causes nosocomial infections in critically ill patients, such as those in intensive care, and those with cancer or who have received a transplant.

Risk factors for its development include renal insufficiency, hospital stays of more than 15 days, mechanical ventilation , central lines, use of parenteral nutrition, and presence of sepsis .

As for other mycoses, there are no precise studies reporting global incidence rates, but the trend indicates an increase in the detection of outbreaks in various countries lately — something that began to be visible during the COVID-19 pandemic.

In Mexico, Treviño Rangel and colleagues from Nuevo León reported the first case of candidemia caused by this agent. It occurred in May 2020 and involved a 58-year-old woman with a history of severe endometriosis and multiple complications in the gastrointestinal tract. The patient's condition improved favorably thanks to antifungal therapy with caspofungin and liposomal amphotericin B.

However, 3 months after that episode, the group reported an outbreak of C auris at the same hospital in 12 critically ill patients co-infected with SARS-CoV-2. All were on mechanical ventilation, had peripherally inserted central catheters and urinary catheters, and had a prolonged hospital stay (20-70 days). The mortality in patients with candidemia in this cohort was 83.3%.

Open Ending

As seen in some science fiction series, fungal infections in the region still have an open ending, and Global Action For Fungal Infections (GAFFI) has estimated that with better diagnostics and treatments, deaths caused by fungi could decrease to less than 750,000 per year worldwide.

But if everything continues as is, some aspects of what is to come may resemble the dystopia depicted in The Last of Us . No zombies, but emerging and reemerging fungi in a chaotic distribution, and resistant to all established treatments.

"The risk factors of patients and their immune status, combined with the behavior of mycoses, bring a complicated scenario. But therapeutic failure resulting from multidrug resistance to antifungals could make it catastrophic," Sánchez Paredes summarized.

At the moment, there are only four families of drugs capable of counteracting fungal infections — and as mentioned, some are already scarce in Latin America's hospital pharmacies.

"Historically, fungal infections have been given less importance than those caused by viruses or bacteria. Even in some developed countries, the true extent of morbidity and mortality they present is unknown. This results in less investment in the development of new antifungal molecules because knowledge is lacking about the incidence and prevalence of these diseases," Treviño Rangel pointed out.

He added that the main limitation for the development of new drugs is economic. "Unfortunately, not many pharmaceutical companies are willing to invest in the development of new antifungals, and there are no government programs specifically promoting and supporting research into new therapeutic options against these neglected diseases," he asserted.

Development of vaccines to prevent fungal infections faces the same barriers. Although, according to Treviño Rangel, the difficulties are compounded by the great similarity between fungal cells and human cells. This makes it possible for harmful cross-reactivity to occur. In addition, because most severe fungal infections occur in individuals with immunosuppression, a vaccine would need to trigger an adequate immune response despite this issue.

Meanwhile, fungi quietly continue to do what they do best: resist and survive. For millions of years, they have mutated and adapted to new environments. Some theories even blame them for the extinction of dinosaurs and the subsequent rise of mammals. They exist on the edge of life and death, decomposing and creating. There is consensus that at the moment, it does not seem feasible for them to generate a pandemic like the one due to SARS-CoV-2, given their transmission mechanism. But who is willing to rule out that this may not happen in the long or medium term?

Sánchez Paredes, Treviño Rangel, Messina, Santiso, Álvarez, and Segundo Zaragoza have declared no relevant financial conflicts of interest. 

This story was translated from Medscape Spanish Edition using several editorial tools, including AI, as part of the process. Human editors reviewed this content before publication.

Send comments and news tips to [email protected] .

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Effects of climate change on fungal infections

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliation Mycotic Diseases Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America

Roles Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing

Roles Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Division of Foodborne, Waterborne, and Environmental Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America

• Samantha L. Williams, 
• Mitsuru Toda, 
• Tom Chiller, 
• Joan M. Brunkard, 
• Anastasia P. Litvintseva

Published: May 30, 2024

• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1012219
• Reader Comments

Citation: Williams SL, Toda M, Chiller T, Brunkard JM, Litvintseva AP (2024) Effects of climate change on fungal infections. PLoS Pathog 20(5): e1012219. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1012219

Editor: Anuradha Chowdhary, Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, INDIA

This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Climate change significantly impacts atmospheric, ecological, agricultural, and societal systems. Documented increases in global temperature, extreme precipitation, and the frequency and intensity of severe weather events have been linked to a variety of adverse health outcomes, and conditions are expected to worsen [ 1 ]. Fungi are particularly susceptible to the effects of climate change because the highest diversity and biomass of fungi are found in the top layer of soil, at the forefront of environmental changes. Fungal diseases cause a wide spectrum of illness, ranging from mild skin and mucosal infections to severe respiratory illness and life-threatening disseminated disease. Evidence suggests that evolving weather patterns have contributed to expanded geographic ranges of endemic fungi, emergence of new pathogens, and increased antifungal resistance [ 2 , 3 ]. This review presents an introduction to and discussion of some of the most important potential climate-related mechanisms associated with the proliferation of pathogenic fungi and associated fungal diseases ( Fig 1 ) that could impact human and animal health.

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• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1012219.g001

Expanding geographic distribution of pathogenic fungi

The known geographical distribution of endemic fungal diseases is expanding. For example, fungi from genus Coccidioides that cause coccidioidomycosis have historically been found in soil in hot and dry areas in the southwestern United States and parts of Central and South America. Because Coccidioides spp. are affected by rainfall and drought cycles, warming temperatures and changing precipitation patterns are extending areas for fungal growth as well as subsequent dispersal and aerosolization [ 4 ]. The fungus has now been detected as far north as Washington [ 5 ]. Climate niche modeling based on rising temperatures and rainfall dynamics predicts that Coccidioides could extend as far north and east as Minnesota by the end of the century [ 6 ].

In addition to temperature and precipitation, habitat suitability for fungi is influenced by soil characteristics such as pH levels, minerals, and organic content, all of which are impacted by climate change. Suitability maps for the fungus Histoplasma , the causative agent of histoplasmosis, showed that favorable soil environments have expanded beyond traditionally recognized areas in the Ohio and Mississippi River Valleys [ 7 , 8 ].

Fungi from Cryptococcus gattii species complex that cause cryptococcosis were restricted to tropical or subtropical climates until the 1990s, when strains of C . gattii VGII molecular type were detected in the US Pacific Northwest and British Columbia in Canada, indicating a potential shift in the ecological niche [ 9 ]. C . gattii currently lives along the Mediterranean coast, and niche modeling based on temperature and precipitation predicts that the distribution will extend toward inland regions of Europe in the next decade [ 10 ].

While climate change can directly impact fungal habitat suitability, its effects on wildlife migration patterns may also influence the geographic spread of certain fungal pathogens. Spatial movement or relocation of birds and bats, which help spread Histoplasma and Cryptococcus neoformans , and small mammals (e.g., rodents), which may serve as reservoirs for Coccidioides and other pathogens, can potentially expand areas where these fungi live in the environment, though the extent to which climate change has altered migratory trends is unclear [ 11 – 13 ].

Impact of extreme weather on fungal growth, dispersal, and disease transmission

Scientists predict that the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events will continue to increase as average global temperatures rise [ 1 ]. Severe weather can produce both immediate and long-lasting effects on fungal habitat and risk of exposure and subsequent infection. Environmental disruptions from severe weather events such as dust storms, tornadoes, and wildfires can aerosolize fungal spores, increasing risk of airborne exposure [ 14 , 15 ]. In the southwestern US, the incidence of coccidioidomycosis increased while the number of dust storms doubled from 1988 to 2011 [ 16 ]. Although the consistency and extent of the association between dust storms and coccidioidomycosis is unclear, many investigators agree that dust storms pose a risk of Coccidioides infection and can transport arthroconidia to new locations [ 17 ].

The intensity of hurricanes is expected to increase [ 1 ]; flooding from heavy precipitation results in excessive moisture suitable for mold growth, particularly in indoor settings. Mold exposure can lead to a wide range of health effects, including upper respiratory tract symptoms; it may also lead to invasive infection among immunocompromised populations [ 18 – 22 ].

Inhalation of and cutaneous exposure to fungal spores are the most common means of disaster-related fungal infections. Flooding and drowning or near-drowning events increase the risk of fungal spore aspiration or cutaneous exposure to fungal-contaminated water [ 14 ]. Skin and soft tissue fungal infections may occur postdisaster, particularly if wounds are exposed to water, soil, or debris containing infectious agents. For example, a cluster of 13 necrotizing mucormycosis cases was detected following a 2011 tornado in Joplin, Missouri, and infection was associated with penetrating trauma [ 15 ]. Disasters may also compound infection risk if physical damages (e.g., power outages, building destruction) impede access to healthcare services to properly treat wounds and injuries.

Climate refugees, people displaced due to climate change, are often subjected to overcrowded, poor living conditions in hot and humid climates. These conditions are ideal for dermatophyte transmission through direct contact with affected people, animals, or through fomites [ 23 ]. There is growing concern regarding the spread of dermatophytes as emerging pathogens, such as Trichophyton indotineae , which can cause extensive skin lesions and have developed resistance to antifungal treatments [ 24 ].

Evolutionary traits as a potential result of climate change?

Of nearly 144,000 species of fungi described, less than a few hundred are capable of infecting humans, and only a handful can infect people without underlying immunocompromising conditions [ 25 ]. It is hypothesized that this limited ability to infect humans is in part due to the inability of most fungi to survive at mammalian and some avian body temperatures (37 °C/98.6 °F and 40 °C/104 °F, respectively) [ 26 ]. However, rising temperatures may cause more fungal species to become pathogenic to humans as they adapt to live and replicate at higher heat, narrowing the thermal restrictive barrier between ambient and human body temperatures [ 27 ].

The multidrug-resistant yeast Candida auris is the first fungal pathogen proposed to have emerged as a result of adaptation to climate change [ 28 ]. Some researchers posit that global warming contributed to the simultaneous emergence of distinct clades of the species on 3 separate continents from 2012 to 2015 based on the fact that C . auris can grow at higher temperatures compared with closely related species [ 28 ]. This suggests that its acquisition of thermal tolerance and consequent transition from environmental fungus to human pathogen may have been relatively recent [ 28 ]. Concern is growing that other fungi may similarly adapt.

Recent studies found that heat stress was associated with accelerated genetic mutations of the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus deneoformans [ 29 , 30 ]. Under laboratory conditions, temperature increases promoted resistance to antifungal drugs in vitro due to transposon mobilization [ 30 ], and transposable DNA elements or “jumping genes” demonstrated 5 times more movement at 37 °C compared to 30 °C [ 29 ]. Genetic changes may contribute to greater thermotolerance, virulence, or drug resistance, although further study is needed to better understand the effects of heat-stimulated mutations and their relation to pathogenic characteristics.

Indirect effect of global warming on antifungal resistance

Healthcare providers rely on just 3 main classes of antifungal medications (azoles, echinocandins, andpolyenes) to treat systemic fungal infections, limiting clinical options when first-line treatment fails. Strains of pathogens such as Aspergillus fumigatus , C . auris , and others showing resistance to one or more classes of antifungal drugs have been detected worldwide, signaling a global health threat.

Although the mechanisms of antifungal resistance are multifaceted, there is evidence that agricultural fungicides played a key role in the development of azole-resistant A . fumigatus , given their chemical similarity to antifungal medications used in clinical care. Inhalation of resistant strains from the environment can result in human infections resistant to antifungal treatment. Use of triazole fungicides in the US increased 4-fold from 2006 to 2016, and trends in azole fungicide use correlated with the sharp increase of azole-resistant A . fumigatus infections in humans [ 31 ]. Fungicide use is expected to grow as a result of climate change and the ensuing need for more concentrated and frequent applications to compensate for productivity loss due extreme weather [ 32 – 34 ]. This could lead soil fungi, some of which are opportunistic human pathogens, to develop and select for resistance to fungicides.

Mechanisms of cross-resistance between agricultural and clinical antifungals have been described for medications other than azoles, including a novel antifungal medication, olorofim, which is currently undergoing clinical trials with initial results demonstrating high potency against azole-resistant A . fumigatus and other difficult-to-treat fungal infections. At the same time, a novel fungicide with the same mode of action has already been approved for agricultural use, raising serious concerns about development of resistance to olorofim in the environment [ 3 ]. Growth inhibition studies showed that in vitro exposure of the fungicide to A . fumigatus can select for strains that are resistant to olorofim [ 35 ]. Similarly, fosmanogepix, an antifungal therapy in clinical trials for treatment of invasive fungal infections caused by Candida , Aspergillus , and other rare molds targets the same enzyme as another in-development fungicide, which may increase the risk of cross-resistance [ 3 ].

Conclusions and future perspectives

Fungi are environmental organisms affected by shifts in climate over time, though the exact impact of these changes on fungal pathogens is not well understood and can be challenging to distinguish from other factors. While the potential effects of climate change have been studied for certain fungi, such as Coccidioides , the impact on other mycoses is less clear. Fungal infections that typically occur in tropical or subtropical climates, such as chromoblastomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis, and eumycetoma, may experience a similar expansion in geographic distribution, but existing data are limited. Similarly, more frequent rainfall could lead to increased incidence of talaromycosis, which has been shown to peak during rainy seasons [ 36 , 37 ].

Notably, the risk of fungal infection may be exacerbated for certain populations based on the interaction between climate change and social determinants of health. People who are more likely to experience adverse health outcomes as a result of underlying social and economic factors are often those most impacted by environmental hazards, including those resulting from climate change [ 1 ]. These populations are not only limited in their ability to recover from the growing number of natural disasters and extreme weather events, but may also be at greater risk of chronic conditions, food insecurity and subsequent malnutrition, and poor living conditions as a result of displacement, all of which can be predisposing factors for fungal infections [ 1 , 38 ].

Expanded surveillance, environmental sampling, and molecular analyses are critical to better understand the potential effects of climate change on the spatiotemporal trends of mycotic diseases and offer insights into the emergence of new fungal pathogens. The heavy interdependence of fungi and their surrounding ecosystems underscores the importance of recognizing the possibility of both direct and indirect impacts of climate change on fungal infections. Further exploration to assess the potential alterations to fungal pathogens and their impact on human disease caused by changes in the environment is essential to increase awareness and inform public health action.

• 1. Fifth National Climate Assessment [Internet]. [cited 2023 Dec 4]. https://nca2023.globalchange.gov/ .
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• 18. Basic Facts about Mold and Dampness. Mold. CDC; 2022 [cited 2023 Jan 6]. https://www.cdc.gov/mold/faqs.htm .

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What you need to know about fungal infections

Fungal infections, such as athlete’s foot and ringworm, occur when one type of fungal microbe becomes too prevalent in one area of the body so that the immune system cannot defeat it.

Quick links

Athlete’s foot, yeast infection.

Like many microbes, there are helpful fungi and harmful fungi. When harmful fungi invade the body, they can be difficult to kill, as they can survive in the environment and re-infect the person trying to get better.

In this article, we take a look at who is most at risk of getting a fungal infection and what the symptoms and treatment options are for some common types.

Changes in the appearance of skin and itching are common symptoms of many fungal infections.

The symptoms of a fungal infection will depend on the type, but common symptoms include the following:

• skin changes, including cracking or peeling skin

Read on to find out more about some common types of fungal infections, their symptoms, and the treatment options.

The following conditions are all common types of fungal infections.

Tinea pedis or athlete’s foot is a common fungal infection that affects the foot.

Athlete’s foot is commonly associated with sports and athletes because the fungus grows perfectly in warm, moist environments, such as socks and shoes, sports equipment, and locker rooms.

In reality, anyone may be affected by athlete’s foot. It is most common in warmer climates and summer months, where it can quickly multiply.

Athlete’s foot is a common infection where the fungus grows in warm and moist environments.

The symptoms of athlete’s foot may vary slightly from person to person and can look red on lighter skin tones but appear dark brown on darker skin tones. Classic symptoms include:

• discoloration and blisters on the affected area
• the infected skin may be soft, or layers may start to break down
• peeling or cracking skin
• the skin may scale and peel away
• itching, stinging, or burning sensations in the infected area

Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention

Not all itchy feet are the result athlete’s foot. Doctors usually diagnose the infection by scraping scaling skin off of a person and inspecting it under a microscope for evidence of any fungus.

There are a few different fungi that can cause athlete’s foot. The infection may behave differently depending on the specific fungus that is infecting the skin.

Athlete’s foot is often treated with topical antifungal ointments, which are available to purchase over-the-counter or online. Severe infections can require additional oral medications as well. The feet will also need to be cared for and kept dry to help kill the fungus.

Prevention methods include allowing the feet plenty of air to breathe and keeping them clean and dry. It is a good idea to wear sandals in public showers or locker rooms.

Vaginal yeast infections are a common form of Candida overgrowth in women, usually caused by Candida albicans .

An overgrowth of Candida disrupts the normal balance of the bacteria and yeast in the vagina. This imbalance of bacteria may be due to antibiotics , stress , hormone imbalances , or poor eating habits, among other things.

Candida infections can also commonly cause fungal toenail infections and diaper rash.

Symptoms A yeast infection may commonly cause fungal toenail infections.

Symptoms of a yeast infection include:

• itching and swelling around the vagina
• burning sensations or pain during urination or intercourse
• redness and soreness on and surrounding the vagina
• unusual vaginal discharge, such as gray clumps that resemble cottage cheese or a very watery discharge

A rash may develop over time in some cases. Yeast infections should be treated quickly, as the symptoms may become severe if left untreated.

The classic symptoms of a yeast infection make them easy to diagnose. Doctors may ask about the person’s medical history, such as any previous yeast infections or sexually transmitted infections (STIs). They may also ask whether the person was recently taking antibiotics.

Doctors will then examine the vaginal walls and cervix for signs of infection, taking cells from the vagina if necessary for proper diagnosis.

Treatment of yeast infections depends on their severity. Standard treatments include creams, tablets, or suppositories, which are available via prescription, over-the-counter, or online. Complicated infections may require complex treatments.

Avoiding yeast infections begins with a balanced diet and proper hygiene. Wearing loose-fitting clothing made from natural fibers may also help prevent infection. Washing underwear in very hot water and changing feminine products often can also help prevent fungal growth.

Tinea cruris, commonly known as jock itch , is another common fungal skin infection.

These fungi love warm and damp environments and thrive in moist areas of the body, such as the groin, buttocks, and inner thighs. Jock itch may be more common in summer or in warm, humid areas of the world.

Jock itch is mildly contagious and is often spread through direct contact with an infected person or an object that is carrying the fungus.

Symptoms Thrush can affect the genital area in men as well as women.

Jock itch appears on the body as an itchy, rash that often has a circular shape to it. Symptoms include:

• groin, buttocks, or thighs can be red, flaky, or scaly, and on darker skin, the rash may appear gray or brown
• chafing, irritation, itching, or burning in the infected area
• a rash with a circular shape and raised edges
• cracking, flaking, or dry peeling of the skin in the infected area

Jock itch has a very particular look and can usually be identified based on its appearance. If doctors are uncertain, they may take a skin sample to inspect and confirm their diagnosis.

Treating jock itch usually involves topical antifungal ointments and proper hygiene. Many cases of jock itch are improved by over-the-counter medications, though some require prescription medications. Cleaning the affected area and keeping it dry can also help kill the fungus.

Jock itch can be prevented by wearing loose-fitting natural fibers, such as cotton underwear which is available to buy online. Avoiding contact with others who have the infection is also important. Avoiding shared items, such as towels and sporting equipment may also help.

Tinea corporis or ringworm is a skin infection caused by a fungus that lives on dead tissues, such as the skin, hair, and nails. Ringworm is a fungus that causes both jock itch and athlete’s foot. When it appears anywhere else on the body, the infection is just called ringworm.

Ringworm is a skin infection that causes jock itch and athlete’s foot.

Ringworm is usually easy to notice because of its shape. A patch that may itch or be scaly will often turn into a raised, ring-shaped patch of skin over time. It may even spread out into several rings.

The outside of this ring may appear red on light skin and gray or brown on skin of color, and may also appear raised or bumpy, while the inside of the ring will appear clear and healthy and the edges of the ring may spread outward.

Ringworm is highly contagious, and it can be transmitted by skin-to-skin contact, or from contact with pets, such as dogs. The fungus may also survive on objects, such as towels, clothes, and brushes.

The ringworm fungus also infects soil and mud, so people who play or work in infected dirt may catch ringworm as well.

Other skin conditions may look like ringworm, so doctors will sometimes want to take a skin sample to inspect for the fungus.

After confirming a diagnosis, doctors will recommend a treatment, depending on how severe the symptoms are.

Creams and medicated ointments are often sufficient to treat many cases of ringworm and may be purchased over-the-counter or online. Ringworm of the scalp or severe ringworm may require a prescription.

Basic hygiene can help treat and prevent ringworm as well. Keeping the skin clean and dry can help avoid infection.

Safety in public includes wearing sandals into public showers or locker rooms and avoiding shared items and towels.

Risk factors

Fungal infections are common in humans and are usually not very serious if they are treated quickly and correctly.

Anyone with a weakened immune system may be more likely to contract a fungal infection, as well as anyone who is taking antibiotics.

Cancer treatment and diabetes may also make a person more prone to fungal infections.

Most fungal infections can be prevented by keeping skin clean and dry and keeping up with basic hygiene.

Avoid sharing personal items like towels, sports equipment, and unclean clothing.

Wearing breathable fabrics that keep you dry may also help prevent fungal infections.

Frequently asked questions

What is the main cause of fungal infection.

When the body comes into contact with certain fungi and the immune system is weakened or compromised, there is a chance that a person may develop a fungal infection. Many fungal infections are also caused by an overgrowth of fungus that naturally lives on our skin.

Fungal infections are very common, and most people may get one at some point.

How long does a fungal infection take to heal?

The symptoms of a fungal infection, such as itchiness, may go away after a few days of treatment. Skin discoloration and scaliness may take up to a few weeks to completely heal.

Will fungal infection go away on its own?

Fungal infections usually don’t go away if left untreated. In fact, leaving them untreated may cause them to spread or worsen.

Most fungal skin infections can be treated with over-the-counter or prescription creams. Severe infections may require additional methods.

Taking preventive action can go a long way towards avoiding fungal skin infections as well.

It is always best to notify a doctor at the first sign of infection to avoid possible serious complications. By working directly with a doctor, most cases of fungal skin infections can be easily treated.

Last medically reviewed on July 5, 2022

• Dermatology
• Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses
• Sexual Health / STDs

How we reviewed this article:

• El-Gohary M, et al . (2014). Topical antifungal treatments for tinea cruris and tinea corporis.  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009992.pub2/full#abstract
• Genital/vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). (2021) https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/genital/index.html
• Nigam P, et al. (2021). Tinea pedis. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470421/
• Ringworm. (2020). https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/ringworm/index.html

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The world's most powerful anti-fungal chemistries cause fungal pathogens to self-destruct

by University of Exeter

Scientists have discovered that the most widely-used class of antifungals in the world causes pathogens to self-destruct. The University of Exeter-led research could help improve ways to protect food security and human lives.

Fungal diseases account for the loss of up to a quarter of the world's crops. They also pose a risk to humans and can be fatal for those with weakened immune systems.

Our strongest weapons against fungal plant diseases are azole fungicides. These chemical products account for up to a quarter of the world agricultural fungicide market, worth more than $3.8 billion per year. Antifungal azoles are also widely used as a treatment against pathogenic fungi which can be fatal to humans, which adds to their importance in our attempt to control fungal disease.

Azoles target enzymes in the pathogen cell that produce cholesterol-like molecules, named ergosterol. Ergosterol is an important component of cellular bio-membranes. Azoles deplete ergosterol, which results in killing of the pathogen cell. However, despite the importance of azoles, scientists know little about the actual cause of pathogen death.

In a new study published in Nature Communications , University of Exeter scientists have uncovered the cellular mechanism by which azoles kill pathogenic fungi. The paper is titled "Azoles activate type I and type II programmed cell death pathways in crop pathogenic fungi ." Co-authors are Dr. Martin Schuster and Dr. Sreedhar Kilaru at the University of Exeter.

The team of researchers, led by Professor Gero Steinberg, combined live-cell imaging approaches and molecular genetics to understand why the inhibition of ergosterol synthesis results in cell death in the crop pathogenic fungus Zymoseptoria tritic (Z. tritici). This fungus causes septoria leaf blotch in wheat, a serious disease in temperate climates, estimated to cause more than $300 million per year in costs in the UK alone due to harvest loss and fungicide spraying.

The Exeter team observed living Z. tritici cells, treated them with agricultural azoles and analyzed the cellular response. They showed that the previously-accepted idea that azoles kill the pathogen cell by causing perforation of the outer cell membrane does not apply. Instead, they found that azole-induced reduction of ergosterol increases the activity of cellular mitochondria, the "powerhouse" of the cell, required to produce the cellular fuel that drives all metabolic processes in the pathogen cell.

While producing more "fuel" is not harmful in itself, the process leads to the formation of more toxic by-products. These by-products initiate a "suicide" program in the pathogen cell, named apoptosis. In addition, reduced ergosterol levels also trigger a second "self-destruct" pathway, which causes the cell to eat its own nuclei and other vital organelles—a process known as macroautophagy. The authors show that both cell death pathways underpin the lethal activity of azoles. They conclude that azoles drive the fungal pathogen into "suicide" by initiating self-destruction.

The authors found the same mechanism azoles killing pathogen cells in the rice-blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae. The disease caused by this fungus kills up to 30% of rice, an essential food crop for more than 3.5 billion people across the world. The team also tested other clinically relevant anti-fungal drugs that target ergosterol biosynthesis, including terbinafine, tolfonate and fluconazole. All initiated the same responses in the pathogen cell, suggesting that cell suicide is a general consequence of ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors.

Lead author Professor Gero Steinberg, who holds a Chair in Cell Biology and is Director of the Bioimaging Centre at the University of Exeter, said, "Our findings rewrite common understanding of how azoles kill fungal pathogens. We show that azoles trigger cellular 'suicide' programs, which result in the pathogen self-destructing. This cellular reaction occurs after two days of treatment, suggesting that cells reach a 'point of no return' after some time of exposure to azoles. Unfortunately, this gives the pathogen time to develop resistance against azoles, which explains why azole resistance is advancing in fungal pathogens, meaning they are more likely to fail to kill the disease in crops and humans.

"Our work sheds light on the activity of our most widely used chemical control agents in crop and human pathogens across the world. We hope that our results prove to be useful to optimize control strategies that could save lives and secure food security for the future."

Journal information: Nature Communications

Provided by University of Exeter

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What Can You Do With a Psychology Degree? Jobs and More

Find out how earning your undergraduate or graduate degree in psychology can prepare you for numerous career fields.

A bachelor’s degree in psychology teaches the fundamentals of human behavior and mental processes—knowledge that can help qualify you for a wide variety of jobs. Earning a master's degree in psychology is a step toward working as a licensed psychologist or therapist .

Looking for a job that uses your knowledge of the human mind? In this article, you'll learn the jobs that you're uniquely qualified for with either a bachelor's or a graduate degree in psychology.

What can you do with a bachelor’s in psychology?

Psychology ranked among the most popular undergraduate majors in the US in 2021 [ 1 ]. Since the Bachelor of Psychology serves as a generalist degree (it doesn’t specifically qualify you for a given job), it’s a good choice if you’d like to explore your interests while keeping your career options open. While broadly applicable, the knowledge and skills you develop as a psychology major may be particularly useful in these industries.

Learn more: What You Should Know About Social Science Majors

1. Counseling

Counselors help people suffering from addiction and other behavioral disorders by offering treatment and advice. You might work in a community health center, juvenile detention facility, employee assistance program, or detox center, depending on your specialty.

How to get started in counseling: Requirements vary by state, but it’s possible to get started as a substance abuse or behavioral health counselor with a bachelor’s degree. Some states require certification and licensure. Check with your state’s regulating board for specific educational requirements.  

2. Social services

Knowledge of human behavior, motivations, interviewing, and data analysis —skills common in psychology degree programs—translate well into the field of social work. Help people cope with the struggles of their everyday lives in a role as a case manager , social services assistant, or child welfare specialist. 

How to get started in social work: While a bachelor’s degree in social work is the most common requirement for entry-level administrative roles, many employers also consider applicants with a psychology or sociology degree. If you decide you want to further your career in social work, consider going to graduate school for social work (a requirement for licensure as a social worker).

3. Education

Aside from teaching, educators are often tasked with encouraging and empathizing with students, handling misbehavior, and intervening in cases of mental health issues. A background in psychology can help day-to-day in the classroom from pre-K to high school.

How to get started in education: Teachers at every grade level typically need at least a bachelor’s degree. If you’d like to teach in a public school, you’ll need to get licensed or certified from your state as well. Complement your psychology coursework by enrolling in a teacher preparation program. 

4. Human resources

Human resource (HR) professionals oversee much of the employee lifecycle. In this role, you’ll be tasked with making hiring and firing decisions, managing disputes, and promoting employee welfare. An understanding of how people think can boost your effectiveness across all these areas.

How to get started in HR: Most entry-level HR positions require a bachelor’s degree. Supplement your psychology degree coursework by taking classes in business, management, and accounting. Boost your resume with a certification from the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) or the HR Certification Institute (HRCI).

5. Marketing and advertising

Selling a product or service often means tapping into the deep desires of the target customer base. The science of persuasion, part of the greater study of social psychology, plays a significant role in effective advertisements and marketing campaigns.

How to get started in marketing and advertising: Many companies prefer at least a bachelor’s degree for roles in marketing and advertising. While your psychology coursework can help you evaluate consumer behavior, consider taking classes in market research, sales, or communications as well. Entry-level jobs in sales and public relations can serve as an entryway into this field.

Learn more: Marketing Careers: 6 Areas to Explore

6. User experience (UX) design

As a UX designer , you can use your knowledge of how people think to help create solutions to common, everyday problems. UX focuses on how people interact with products and systems. By analyzing people’s needs and frustrations, you can design solutions that make products (including apps and websites) easier to use.

How to get started in UX design: You’ll find multiple paths to a career in UX design (and a psychology degree is a good start). If you’re interested in this emerging field, take some courses in human factor psychology, design, and research methodology. Consider an internship while you’re in school to begin building a portfolio of work.

7. Criminal justice

Many aspects of criminal justice deal with understanding human behavior, from why criminals commit crimes to how these crimes impact victims. A career in law enforcement and criminal justice might take the form of case management, victim advocacy, or working as a parole or probation officer. 

How to get started in criminal justice: Most roles in law enforcement require completing a state or federal training program and certification test. If you’re considering a career in criminal justice, prepare with courses on criminal psychology, addiction, abnormal behavior, and behavioral statistics.

Graduate psychology degree jobs: 5 careers in psychology

Psychology graduates often go on to earn a higher-level psychology degree as the first step toward becoming a professional psychologist. In most states, you’ll have to get licensed to call yourself a psychologist. Licensure requirements generally include a master’s or PhD in psychology. As you pursue a higher education degree, consider these fields as possible specialties.

1. Clinical psychology

Clinical psychologists provide behavioral and mental health care for individuals and families. In this field, you’ll provide clinical or counseling services to help treat a range of emotional, mental, and behavioral disorders. Clinical psychology is one of the largest specialties in the field and what most people think of when they think “psychologist.”

In most states, working as a clinical psychologist requires earning a doctorate in psychology and one or two years of supervised clinical experience, as well as passing the Examination for Professional Practice in Psychology.

2. Forensic psychology

Forensic psychologists use their knowledge of human behavior in several ways within the criminal justice system. Working in this field might involve developing criminal psychological profiles, providing testimony in court, assessing witness credibility, or determining whether a defendant is mentally competent to stand trial.

Practicing forensic psychologists need a doctoral degree in most states, though a Master of Psychology might qualify you for research-related roles.

3. Industrial organizational psychology

Industrial organizational psychologists (also known as I/O psychologists) focus on human behavior of employees in the workplace. In this role, you’ll seek to enhance the work environment at companies and organizations by improving hiring practices, internal communications, training programs, and management techniques.

Most I/O psychologists have at least a master’s degree in psychology. Earning your PhD can help you gain a competitive edge when seeking higher-paying positions.

Read more: What Is Organizational Behavior: Jobs, Salaries, Education

4. Sports & exercise psychology

Sports psychologists use their knowledge of human behavior to assist athletes in achieving maximum performance and treat mental health issues specific to the sports industry. You might work with a variety of athletes, from youth and parents in recreational programs to Olympic and pro athletes (and their coaches).

In most cases, you’ll need a doctoral degree in psychology and a license to practice as a sports psychologist. Some graduate programs offer a sports psychology concentration. Alternatively, you can consider a double major in psychology and exercise science .

5. Educational psychology

Working as an educational psychologist means studying how we learn and retain knowledge. As a psychologist in this field, you’ll study various approaches to learning and develop approaches to make learning more effective. This might include testing methods, classroom environments, learning disabilities, and behavioral issues that could impede the learning process.

While a Master of Psychology is the minimum requirement for a career in educational psychology, you should consider earning your PhD to boost your opportunities in this research-heavy field.

Get started in psychology

Experience a university-level psychology course for yourself to see if psychology might be a good fit for you.

Study the fundamentals in the Introduction to Psychology from Yale, learn about human behavior in Social Psychology from Wesleyan, or browse a variety of popular psychology online courses . If you’re thinking about furthering your education, explore a certificate in Foundations of Positive Psychology from the University of Pennsylvania—all available on Coursera.

Frequently asked questions (FAQ)

What’s the difference between a phd and a psyd in psychology ‎.

A Doctor of Psychology (PsyD) is the highest-level degree you can get for clinical work in psychology. A Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in psychology is a more academic-focused terminal degree. It’s a better option for those interested in conducting research or teaching at the university level. ‎

Can I earn a psychology degree online? ‎

As you pursue higher education in psychology, you’ll find online programs for bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees in the field. These degrees often have the same curriculum as more traditional on-campus programs but often with greater scheduling flexibility and (often) lower tuition. ‎

How long does it take to get a psychology degree? ‎

A Bachelor of Psychology typically takes four years of full-time study. If you want to become a licensed psychologist, you’ll need a master’s (two to four years) or doctorate degree (four to seven years) as well. Plan for another year or two of supervised professional experience to qualify for a license. ‎

What can you do with an associate’s degree in psychology? ‎

Earning an associate degree in psychology typically takes two years of full-time study at a community college or university. While many learners use an associate’s degree as a step toward completing a bachelor’s, the degree may help qualify you for entry-level positions like:

• Psychiatric aide
• Psychiatric technician
• Administrative assistant
• Human services assistant
• Home care aide
• Childcare assistant
• Youth counselor
• Police officer ‎

Article sources

1. National Center for Education Statistics. " Most popular majors , https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=37." Accessed December 21, 2023.

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Coursera staff.

Editorial Team

Coursera’s editorial team is comprised of highly experienced professional editors, writers, and fact...

This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

We have 26 fungi PhD Projects, Programmes & Scholarships in the UK

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fungi PhD Projects, Programmes & Scholarships in the UK

Use of fungi as a means of producing concrete-like construction materials, phd research project.

PhD Research Projects are advertised opportunities to examine a pre-defined topic or answer a stated research question. Some projects may also provide scope for you to propose your own ideas and approaches.

Self-Funded PhD Students Only

This project does not have funding attached. You will need to have your own means of paying fees and living costs and / or seek separate funding from student finance, charities or trusts.

Biology and genetics of reproduction in filamentous fungi

Interactions between introduced tree species and native mycorrhizal fungi in the uk, breaking the cell wall barrier to find new drugs for antimicrobial resistant fungi, competition funded phd project (uk students only).

This research project is one of a number of projects at this institution. It is in competition for funding with one or more of these projects. Usually the project which receives the best applicant will be awarded the funding. The funding is only available to UK citizens or those who have been resident in the UK for a period of 3 years or more. Some projects, which are funded by charities or by the universities themselves may have more stringent restrictions.

4-year PhD Studentship: A novel, bacterial quorum sensor-infused nanocarrier drug delivery system to tackle antimicrobial resistant fungi

Msc by research / phd: farm to food to amr: how do agriculture and food preservation practices affect fungal antimicrobial resistance, self funded phd in biology: exploring novel protein families for sustainable crop protection, evolution of virulence in the human fungal pathogen cryptococcus neoformans in response to extreme weather events, competition funded phd project (students worldwide).

This project is in competition for funding with other projects. Usually the project which receives the best applicant will be successful. Unsuccessful projects may still go ahead as self-funded opportunities. Applications for the project are welcome from all suitably qualified candidates, but potential funding may be restricted to a limited set of nationalities. You should check the project and department details for more information.

CRISPR/Cas9 probing of virulence factors in dermatophytes

Landscape phylogenomics and epidemiology of parasites in pollinators, funded phd project (uk students only).

This research project has funding attached. It is only available to UK citizens or those who have been resident in the UK for a period of 3 years or more. Some projects, which are funded by charities or by the universities themselves may have more stringent restrictions.

Computational Design of Small Molecules to Prevent the Early Formation of Multispecies Biofilms

Epsrc supported engd. the effects of cleansing on skin microbiota, untangling the role of beta-1,3 glucan polymers in intercellular communication, self-funded phd- the genomic basis of major evolutionary transitions, self-funded phd in biology: engineering gene regulatory networks to enhance crop disease resistance.

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More and more doctorate recipients are leaving academia to find work. Here’s what detailed data show.

As it becomes increasingly difficult for doctorate recipients to find employment in the job-scarce world of academia, a growing number of these scholars are securing work elsewhere, according to the latest data from the Survey of Earned Doctorates. It’s an outlook confronting thousands of doctorates graduating from the many colleges and universities in Massachusetts.

Each year, around 3,000 people in Massachusetts graduate with doctorate degrees. Many of them grapple with whether the additional years of study were worth the investment as they navigate uncertain job prospects.

The share of doctorates flocking to jobs in business or industry has been steadily growing, reaching 48.1 percent of all recipients who had committed to a non-postdoc job in 2022, survey data showed, up from just 20.9 percent in 1992. The survey, published by the National Science Foundation, is an annual census of people who have received research doctorate degrees from accredited US institutions, according to its website .

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This upward trend is particularly notable in the humanities and the arts, where graduates have historically stayed in academia at the highest rates. SED data show about 11 percent of humanities and arts doctorates committed to jobs outside academia in 2022, up from 4.7 percent 20 years prior.

Meanwhile, only about a third of doctorate recipients who had committed to a non-postdoc job after graduation reported that they would be staying in academia for employment in 2022, compared to over half of recipients in 2002, per the SED . The physical, biological, and biomedical sciences have seen especially large drop-offs.

The shift is a marked change from decades past when professorship was typically considered the default pipeline for doctorate recipients, said Jennifer Polk, a Toronto-based career coach who runs From PhD to Life , which helps scholars find jobs outside academia. Though some recipients leave academia by choice, to pursue other passions, many today are leaving out of necessity, she said.

“There are the forces that are pushing people out of employment in academia, in colleges and universities,” she said, “and then there are the forces that are drawing people toward other things.”

One of the likeliest factors is pay. In every field that the SED examined, the median annual salary for doctorates committed to employment in industry or business was higher — often by many tens of thousands of dollars — than those committed to jobs in academia or a postdoc, which are research positions common for those in STEM fields.

Nowhere is this financial gap more pronounced than in STEM fields, such as computer and information sciences or mathematics and statistics, where a job outside higher education could get a doctorate recipient a salary well into the six-figure range.

Meanwhile, those who are staying in academia, Polk said, are likely being hired as adjuncts — faculty who work on contract and receive lower pay than tenure or tenure-track professors.

“For a lot of people, the opportunities that they see existing elsewhere, so outside of academia, are better than they maybe have been in decades past,” Polk said. “What ‘better’ means can include pay, but also other things, like the ability to work from home, remotely.”

Employment outcomes for doctorates are also highly dependent on broader changes in higher education, said Karen Kelsky, founder and CEO of The Professor Is In , another service that helps academics navigate their professional lives.

For example, even though the majority of doctorate recipients in the humanities and arts fields not pursuing postdocs are still choosing to stay in higher education after they graduate — 63.1 percent in 2022, according to the SED — they are facing an ever-narrowing pool of options as colleges scale back their liberal arts offerings, said Kelsky. Last year, for example, Lasell University in Newton announced it would cut majors such as sociology, English, and history.

“Universities are closing down their departments of English, philosophy, anthropology, cinema studies, all the humanities, and some of the social sciences,” Kelsky said. “They’re evaporating.”

So when doctorate recipients in these fields leave academia for jobs in industry or business, it “isn’t because they want to,” Kelsky said. “It’s because they have finally got the message: There are literally no jobs.”

Indeed, at its core, Polk said, the shift in doctorate employment outcomes is a simple case of supply and demand. “There are always going to be more people who want those jobs than there are available jobs,” she said.

And that reality shows no signs of changing: Both in the US and Massachusetts, aside from a pandemic-related dip, the number of doctorate recipients continues to grow. In 2022, nearly 58,000 people received doctorates from a US institution, with about 3,200 of those from a Massachusetts institution.

Will the bleak academic job market eventually affect the number of people choosing to embark on the arduous journey of earning a doctorate degree? Only time will tell, Polk said.

“Is the culture changing? What about people that are enrolling in these programs, do they think differently than folks in previous generations?” Polk said. “I don’t know the answer.”

Dana Gerber can be reached at [email protected] . Follow her @danagerber6 . Yoohyun Jung can be reached at [email protected] .