phd dr and medical dr

“M.D.” vs. “Ph.D.” vs. “Dr.”: Are They Synonyms?

Quick: when you hear the word doctor , what do you picture?

Most would probably describe someone in a white lab coat with a stethoscope hanging around their neck or someone in medical scrubs—someone you would seek out if you have a deep cut that needed stitches.

That word doctor , however, is a title assigned to many who don’t come close to that description, many of whom you wouldn’t want stitching up that cut. Take your English professor, for instance. No offense, Dr. Barrett. 

It can all be a bit confusing, which is why it’s important to know who and why someone might be called a doctor , as well as what all those initials and abbreviations after their name mean. Here we break it all down.

What does Dr. mean?

Let’s start with doctor or D r . for short. While the first definition of the word is “ a person licensed to practice medicine,” that doesn’t mean you want to take medical advice from anyone who calls themselves a doctor . There are many looser definitions of the word that follow and, frankly, make things a bit confusing.

For example, the third definition is older slang for a “cook, as at a camp or on a ship,” while the seventh entry is “an eminent scholar and teacher.” Bugs Bunny didn’t help matters either by plying anyone and everyone with his famous greeting,“What’s up, doc?” 

The term doctor can be traced back to the late 1200s, and it stems from a Latin word meaning “to teach.” It wasn’t used to describe a licensed medical practitioner until about 1400, and it wasn’t used as such with regularity until the late 1600s. It replaced the former word used for medical doctors— leech , which is now considered archaic. 

WATCH: When Did The Word "Doctor" Become Medical?

Physician vs. doctor : are these synonyms.

While the term physician is a synonym for doctor , it’s typically used to refer to those who practice general medicine rather than those who perform surgery, aka surgeons . 

A quack , on the other hand, is defined as “ a fraudulent or ignorant pretender to medical skill.”

What does M.D. mean?

Moving on to initials that carry more weight than a nod from Bugs, let’s look at M.D.s .

M.D. , which can be used with or without the periods ( M.D. or MD )  is the designation for a medical doctor. This is earned by attending medical school (typically a four-year program after completing at least one undergraduate degree, plus a residency program), and learning to diagnose patients’ symptoms and offer treatment. 

The initials M and D stem from the Latin title  Medicīnae Doctor. There are many different types of doctors, with different specialties, but if you have a physical ailment, visiting a doctor with the initials M.D. is a good place to start.

Specialty doctors may add even more initials to their title, such as DCN (doctor of clinical nutrition), DDS (doctor of dental surgery), or countless others they acquire with additional training. To make things even more confusing, some may add abbreviations from medical associations they belong to, such as FAAEM (Fellow of the American Academy of Emergency Medicine). 

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What does Ph.D. mean?

As for Ph.D. , this stands for “doctor of philosophy.” It stems from the Latin term Philosophiae Doctor.

You can get a Ph.D. in any number of subjects, from anthropology to mythological studies. It’s not an easy feat, however, as to earn one, you must do original research and write a dissertation . 

Ph.D. vs. M.D .: are these synonyms?

There are two big differences between Ph.D. s and M.D .s. When it comes to medicine, M.D.s can prescribe medications, and Ph.D.s can’t. And yes, it’s possible to be both an M.D. and a Ph.D. In fact, some med schools offer programs in which you can achieve both simultaneously. 

You can also get a professional doctorate degree in a number of fields. For example, you might receive a doctorate of education, an  Ed.D . 

So, in a nutshell, both M.D.s and Ph.Ds can be referred to as doctors . If you’re looking for someone to treat what ails you physically, then you want at least an M.D. following their name. If you want to dig deep into a subject and get advice from someone who has done their own research and who likely knows the latest and greatest developments in a particular area, then you’re probably looking for a Ph.D. And if someone has both, even better—depending on your needs, it may be just what the doctor ordered.

Want more synonyms? Get Thesaurus.com’s sizzling synonyms right in your inbox! 

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Comparing the differences between MD vs. PhD vs. professional doctorate

By Michael Feder

This article has been vetted by University of Phoenix's editorial advisory committee.  Read more about our editorial process.

Reviewed by Marc Booker, PhD, Vice Provost, Strategy

At a glance

• MD is the abbreviation for Doctor of Medicine and PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy. These are two types of doctoral degrees in addition to professional doctorates. 
• An MD is a doctoral degree for medical professionals, while a PhD is an academic degree focused on original research. Somewhat similar to a PhD are professional doctorates, which focus on applying practical research to problems in workplaces or communities.   
• A professional or practice-based doctorate (EdD, DBA, etc.) can be medical, and others are for scholar-practitioners in disciplines like education, business or psychology.
• University of Phoenix does not offer MD or PhD programs, but students can earn a doctorate in business, nursing, education or healthcare that allows them to build upon their industry expertise. Learn more about the differences between these degree programs and if one of the  five doctoral programs  at University of Phoenix is right for you !

What is a doctorate? Breaking down the three types

Some people might confuse an  MD (Doctor of Medicine)  with a  PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) , and vice versa. While both an MD and a PhD are prestigious degrees near the top of the  academic ladder , they each have a different meaning and come with very  different requirements .

Different still from both of those degrees are professional doctorates, which allow industry professionals to translate their education and experience into credibility and leadership through research. Professional doctorates have similar requirements to PhDs, such as a dissertation and residency, but focus on the application of research and professional growth over original research.

Upon graduation, those who have earned any of these three degrees can call themselves a “doctor,” but the path to a degree, the purpose behind it and its applications vary based on the choice. MD graduates want to work in medicine and healthcare. PhDs want to bring new knowledge and research to the world. A practice-based doctoral graduate wants to grow in their professional expertise. (If the last one sounds like you, University of Phoenix can help!)

Keep reading to learn more about these doctoral programs and which is right for you.

What does MD stand for?

MD is an abbreviation for Doctor of Medicine and identifies a  medical practitioner  who has completed undergraduate studies and four years of medical school. An MD program teaches medical students about the human body and diseases through a combination of classroom instruction and hands-on clinical labs.

Several  types of physicians  might have this degree, depending on their area of study. For example, medical practitioners with an MD degree might become a medical doctor and potentially specialize in dermatology, cardiovascular disease, family medicine, oncology, pediatrics, neurology or preventive medicine. As you can see, this degree  can lead to a variety of career paths , depending on which specialty interests you and what your medical education is.

Learn more about online doctoral degrees at University of Phoenix. 

How to earn an MD

Becoming a Doctor of Medicine  requires a significant investment of time and money, but the reward can be well worth it. Before medical school, you’ll need to  take the Medical College Admission Test  (MCAT ® ) and earn a passing score. You’ll also need to build a portfolio of coursework and experience to help you gain admittance to medical school.

Medical school typically takes students four years to complete. You’ll learn the latest techniques and approaches for patient assessment, diagnosis and treatment. Medical schools commonly provide a combination of classroom,  research and clinical experience . You’ll work alongside peers and healthcare professionals as you develop skills in general medicine.

You’ll choose a field to specialize in during your final year of medical school. Students have more than 120 options to choose from when specializing, including  primary care,   pediatrics, geriatrics, emergency medicine and family medicine .

After graduating, you’ll complete residency training to further develop skills in your specialty. Residency typically lasts three to seven years, depending on the field you’ve selected. During the residency portion of your education, you’ll treat patients under the supervision of more experienced physicians.

Even after you begin to practice as an MD,  the educational portion of your career never stops . As practices change, patient needs evolve and research continues, MDs benefit from ongoing education to stay current.

What does PhD stand for?

A PhD, or  Doctor of Philosophy , is a doctoral degree that recognizes graduates who have completed a full postsecondary program. Students can earn a PhD in more fields than philosophy. After completing the necessary coursework, original research and hands-on experience, you can earn a PhD in fields like science, the humanities and engineering.

Earning a PhD can help unlock a wide range of potential career opportunities. Computer engineers, research scientists, statisticians, healthcare administrators, professors, chemists and other careers commonly require a PhD degree, in addition to appropriate undergraduate study.

How to earn a PhD

Becoming a PhD is also a  serious commitment  that requires an investment of  time, money and energy .

Here is what’s typically required to become a PhD:

• Complete a bachelor’s degree in your field
• Complete a master’s degree in an appropriate field
• Pass any program entrance exams
• Fulfill coursework, research and hands-on lab requirements in your program
• Finalize and defend your dissertation as a  doctoral candidate  (unless your program specifies otherwise)

It’s important to note that many PhD  programs have different requirements , prerequisites and parameters for students. Check with your preferred institution for a more detailed explanation of these requirements.

What is a professional doctorate?

While some professional or practice-based doctorate programs are medical,  others are designed for professionals in other fields . These programs are meant for  scholar-practitioners  in disciplines like education, business or psychology. One of the key differences between this degree and a PhD is the focus on applying research to a professional setting rather than conducting theoretical and research-focused studies. Often, programs are differentiated as academic versus professional.

Examples of doctoral degrees are Doctor of Education, Doctor of Nursing Practice and Doctor of Business Administration. Each of these programs focuses on a specific discipline and applying research in those areas to a professional setting.

How to earn a doctorate

While  practitioner doctoral programs  teach different skills, they all share common requirements. You’ll need to  complete a bachelor’s degree  in your field and sometimes a master’s degree, depending on program requirements.

After completing the necessary coursework and research, students also typically need to finish a supervised thesis and defend their dissertation or capstone project-specific coursework, research and hands-on labs alongside other students in the same field. However, this will depend on the specific program and its requirements.

What does the title “Dr.” really mean?

The term “doctor” or “Dr.” is commonly used today to describe a wide variety of occupations. Students who complete a doctoral degree can earn the title of “Dr.” even though they earned their credentials in a non-medical field like education or business management.

While a variety of professionals can earn a doctorate, the term is often still  reserved for medical practitioners . In conventional use,  doctors typically refer to medical physicians . However, it is appropriate to use “Dr.” if you graduated from any of the three programs discussed above.  

read similar articles

What is doctoral candidacy?

Practitioner doctoral degree programs at university of phoenix.

While University of Phoenix (UOPX)  does not have  MD or PhD programs, it does offer several professional doctoral degrees that can be earned completely online. Students might choose the UOPX programs because classes are flexible and offered online, and because of the University’s unique “ Scholar-Practitioner-Leader model .”

If you are curious about a doctoral degree, the following programs are available at UOPX:

• Doctor of Business Administration  — This doctorate can help you gain strategic vision and skills to position yourself as a business leader. It explores how to solve organizational problems, how to design and conduct research studies, how to introduce innovative business ideas to the industry and more.
• Doctor of Management   — This doctorate equips you with critical thinking skills to find creative solutions to complex problems.
• Doctor of Education  — This doctoral program prepares you to use analytical, critical and innovative thinking to improve performance and solve complex problems in education.
• Doctor of Health Administration  — If you’re a health professional who is seeking greater responsibility in shaping the future of the health sector, this doctorate can help you meet the challenges inherent to today’s healthcare landscape, including economic fluctuations, burgeoning patient needs and industry-changing legislation.
• Doctor of Nursing Practice  — This doctorate is designed for working nurses who require a doctorate for advanced practice or nurses who desire their terminal degree. It does not prepare students for professional certification or state licensure as a nurse or as an advanced practice nurse.

These doctoral studies are only some of the many options for professionals who want to gain the  highest academic credentials  in their fields. Doctoral programs offer significant benefits to program graduates, including  newly developed skills , insight into field trends, hands-on research opportunities and  leadership capabilities .

Completing a doctoral program is also a strong indication to employers that you’re serious about your career and your field. With so many options for advanced study, these programs are available for most major fields. Even if you have already completed a bachelor’s or master’s degree in your discipline, a doctorate lends further credibility to your reputation and  can help prepare you for a leadership position .

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Michael Feder is a content marketing specialist at University of Phoenix, where he researches and writes on a variety of topics, ranging from healthcare to IT. He is a graduate of the Johns Hopkins University Writing Seminars program and a New Jersey native!

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How to Correctly Use the Titles Dr. & PhD With a Name

How to Reference a Person With a PhD

When someone has earned a Doctor of Philosophy, or Ph.D., degree, that person is subsequently referred to as “doctor” in formal speech. The same is true of a person who is a medical doctor, psychologist, dentist or veterinarian. In formal speech, that person should be referred to as “doctor.” However, the rules are different in written form when addressing someone who is called “doctor” in formal speech. In written form, the titles “Dr.” and “Ph.D.” are not interchangeable.

Determine the Type of Doctor

First, you should identify what type of doctor you are addressing. Doctors of medicine and psychology, doctors of dentistry and doctors of veterinary medicine must be addressed differently in comparison to academic doctors who have earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree. Be advised that there are different types of doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Philosophy degree is just one kind of doctoral degree. There’s also, for example, a Doctor of Education doctoral degree and a Doctor of Psychology doctoral degree. The titles associated with the various doctoral degrees are not interchangeable. Only a person who has earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree should be addressed as Ph.D.

Addressing a Doctor in Writing

Place the title of “Dr.” before the name of a person who is a doctor of medicine or psychology, doctor of dentistry, or doctor of veterinary medicine. For example Dr. George Ross. Always write the word “doctor” in its abbreviated form when it goes before the person’s name. Never write, for example, Doctor George Ross. Do not combine the title of “Dr.” with any other title even if the person could appropriately be addressed by a different title. Never write, for example, “Dr. George Ross, Ph.D.,” even if the person is a medical doctor who has also earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree. Pick one title. Do not use the “Dr.” title when referring to someone who is solely an academic doctor.

Put a comma followed by the title “Ph.D.” after the name of a person who has earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree. For example Stacey Childs, Ph.D. Do not combine the title of “Ph.D.” with any other title even if the person could appropriately be addressed by a different title. For instance, even if the person being addressed is a doctor of medicine who has also earned a Ph.D., never write, for example, Dr. Stacey Childs, Ph.D. Pick one title. Do not use the “Ph.D.” title when referring to someone who not earned a Doctor of Philosophy doctoral degree.

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Maya Austen began freelance writing in 2009. She has written for many online publications on a wide variety of topics ranging from physical fitness to amateur astronomy. She's also an author and e-book publisher. Austen has a Bachelor of Arts in communications from the New England Institute of Art and currently lives in Boston, Mass.

• PhD vs MD – Differences explained
• Types of Doctorates

A MD is a Doctor of Medicine, whilst a PhD is a Doctor of Philosophy. A MD program focuses on the application of medicine to diagnose and treat patients. A PhD program research focuses on research (in any field) to expand knowledge.

Introduction

This article will outline the key differences between a MD and a PhD. If you are unsure of which degree is suitable for you, then read on to find out the focuses and typical career paths of both. Please note this article has been written for the perspective of a US audience.

What is a MD?

MD (also seen stylized as M.D and M.D.) comes from the Latin term Medicīnae Doctor and denotes a Doctor of Medicine.

MDs practice allopathic medicine (they use modern medicine to treat symptoms and diseases). A common example would be your physician, though there are numerous types of medical doctors, with different areas of speciality and as such may be referred to differently.

What is a PhD?

A PhD (sometimes seen stylized as Ph.D.) comes from the Latin term Philosophiae Doctor and denotes a Doctor of Philosophy.

A PhD can be awarded for carrying out original research in any field, not just medicine. In comparison to an MD, a PhD in a Medicinal field is focused on finding out new knowledge, as opposed to applying current knowledge.

A PhD in Medicine therefore does not require you to attend medical school or complete a residency program. Instead, you are required to produce a thesis (which summarizes your research findings) and defend your work in an oral examination.

What is the difference between a MD and a PhD?

Both are Doctoral Degrees, and someone with either degree can be referred to as a doctor. But for clarity, MDs are awarded to those with expertise in practicing medicine and are therefore more likely to be found in clinical environments. PhDs are awarded to researchers, and are therefore more likely to be found in academic environments.

This does not mean that MDs cannot pursue a research career, nor does it mean that a PhD cannot pursue clinical practice. It does mean, however, that PhDs are more suited to those who would wish to pursue a career in research, and that MDs are more suited to those who prefer the clinical aspects of medicine or aspire to become a practicing physician.

It should also be noted that a medical PhD doctorates possess transferable skills which make them desirable to various employers. Their familiarity with the scientific method and research experience makes them well suited to industry work beyond medical research.

Program structure and time

The standard MD program structure sees students undertake 2 years of coursework and classroom-based learning, before undertaking 2 years of rotational work in a clinical environment (such as a hospital). Getting an MD requires attending a medical school (accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education) and completing a residency program. Both of which prepare students to diagnose patients and practice clinical medicine.

The standard PhD program lasts 5 to 7 years and sees students undertake original research (monitored by a supervisor). Getting a PhD requires the contribution of novel findings, which leads to the advancement of knowledge within your field of research. With the exception of some clinical PhDs, a PhD alone is not enough to be able to prescribe medicine.

PhD doctorates are required to summarize the purpose, methodology, findings and significance of their research in a thesis. The final step is the ‘ Viva Voce ’ where the student must defend their thesis to a panel of examiners.

To summarize, a MD program usually lasts 4 years, whilst a PhD program lasts 5 to 7 years. Before being licensed to practice medicine, however, you must first complete a residency program which can last between 3 to 7 years.

What is a MD/PhD?

A MD/PhD is a dual doctoral degree. The program alternates between clinical focused learning and research focused work. This is ideal for those who are interested in both aspects of medicine. According to the Association of American Medical Colleges, an estimated 600 students matriculate into MD-PhD programs each year .

The typical length of a MD/PhD program is 7 to 8 years, almost twice the length of a MD alone. As with a MD, MD/PhDs are still required to attend medical school and must complete a residency program before being able to practice medicine.

In comparison to PhD and MD programs, MD/PhD positions in the United States are scarce and consequently more competitive. The tuition fees for MD/PhD positions are typically much lower than MD and PhD positions are sometimes waived completely.

Those who possess a MD/PhD are commonly referred to as medical scientists. The ability to combine their medical knowledge with research skills enables MD/PhDs to work in a wide range of positions from academia to industrial research.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

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Is a PhD a Doctor? [The full guide]

The term “Dr” is very prestigious and projects expertise and respect in those who use it. There is a long and complicated history with the doctor title and who should (and shouldn’t) use it. Medical doctors, lecturers, and other medical professionals use it, but where did it come from and is a PhD a doctor?

Yes, a person with a PhD is a Doctor and use the “Dr” title before their name. This is not to be confused with a medical doctor. There is a complex history with this term but is currently accepted for people who hold a PhD as well as a wide range of other professions.

I have a PhD in chemistry and I call myself Doctor Stapleton in professional settings and when I want to let certain entities know that I have been awarded a PhD. In my experience, other PhD holders mainly use their titles in a similar way.

This article will cover everything you need to know about the Dr title and who can and cannot use it.

There have been people who have argued that the term doctor should be reserved for people who have studied and are practising medicine so that there is little confusion about the people suitably qualified to make health care decisions for you.

However, as you will see through this article the doctor title has a very long history that has nothing to do with the medical field at all.

Where the term Doctor comes from

For those that love a little bit of word history:

The word doctor comes from the Latin verb ”docere” which means to teach or is used to refer to a scholar.

In history the doctor title was invented to signify that a person was an imminent scholar. The doctorates date as far back as the 1300s and those who were able to get the doctor title in front of their name were rewarded with a lot of respect and prestige.

These people were often the lecturers of their day and would therefore teach many students in their areas of expertise.

Therefore, I think it is reasonable to conclude that the original intended use of doctor was for academics and scholars.

As time went on, the doctor title was awarded to other professions that wanted to elicit the same level of respect and prestige.

Health professionals receive an undergraduate degree in medicine and can call themselves doctor. However, these are professional degrees (undergraduate qualifications) and not really considered doctorates in the true sense of the word – it is more of an honorary title.

I don’t think that anyone with a PhD really cares about who is using it and accept that the majority of the public think that anyone with a doctor title has a medical degree.

I know that I was very excited to receive my doctor title but the excitement soon wears off when you realise that it doesn’t really matter in everyday life – but it still makes you and your parents proud.

These days, the doctor title is used by a variety of non-academic professions and it can get a little bit confusing.

So let’s have a look at who can actually use the doctor title and where it came from.

Who can use “doctor”

Even though the original use of the doctor title was for imminent scholars, nowadays there are several different professional qualifications that can use the doctor title.

It’s no surprise that more professional qualifications want to use the doctor title as it indicates many years of study, status and makes parents very proud.

A 2016 peer-reviewed publication submitted to the Canadian Medical Association Journal asks who is entitled to the title of Doctor?

Exactly who can use this term is starting to get a little bit confusing for the public.

There are many honorific doctor titles, including those found in the table below.

The use of the doctor term for many healthcare-related qualifications can cause a fair bit of confusion about what qualification the person has achieved.

That is why the title of a person is only the second most important thing to look at.

If in doubt, have a look at the letters after their name to really understand what the doctor title is referring to.

There are some interesting deviations in the doctor title and interestingly, in the UK, surgeons do not refer to themselves as doctor but rather use the term Mr/Miss/Mrs/Ms etc. I had a family friend who was a brain surgeon who was a medical doctor and, after becoming a surgeon, changed back to Mr – a prestigious indicator in the medical field.

It’s strange to me how each field has its own customs to denote prestige.

There are arguments that in a professional and medical setting that the term doctor should be reserved for those who are medical doctors.

This can be difficult as many other healthcare professionals have also received doctorates in their specialisation and would want recognition for that effort and achievement.

In a 2011 article in the New York Times , physicians said that they were worried about losing control over the title of doctor because it could lead to a loss of control over the perception of the medical profession itself.

Anything that makes it more difficult for patients to make an informed decision about their healthcare could be very dangerous.

However, the fact that they are using this doctor title at all is a deviation from its original intention. Here is why the doctor title really is only meant for holders of a Doctor of Philosophy.

PhDs – the original doctors(?)

PhD stands for Doctor of Philosophy and, arguably, accounts for the only true use of the doctor title.

Being awarded a PhD means that you have completed postgraduate original and/or applied research that adds a significant contribution to the knowledge in a particular field.

It could be a PhD gained at a university or a professional doctorate but should signify that the owner of the title has completed the highest qualification obtainable in their field.

I talk about this in my short YouTube video:

You don’t necessarily have to use your doctor title after you have your PhD.

I know that there are many people who only use their Dr title in professional settings or as a way to stand out in other settings.

I only use my PhD title when I am in a setting where it is traditionally used. For example, I use my doctor title if I am giving a talk at a university or I am applying for funding within my field of expertise.

Some PhD holders find it a little bit awkward using their Dr title in everyday life whilst others use it on everything from rental applications to restaurant bookings.

How people use their Dr title once they have one is completely up to personal and individual choice. Initially, I was very excited to use my doctor title in as many situations as possible but quickly became wary of using it when it wasn’t required.

However, one of my guilty pleasures is seeing my doctor title on a plane ticket – I’m not quite sure why that is!

What you should call a PhD holder/your lecturers

One of the most common questions that I get asked when I am lecturing at a university is what students should call their lecturers.

Students can get confused with all of the formalities – especially if they have never been in a university before.

Professors, associate professors, doctors, lecturers, researchers – what does it all mean and how should you refer to academics?

Ultimately, it depends on the person.

Some PhD holders who lecture in a university want to be called by their official title and surname during every interaction.

Other lecturers and PhD holders are happy with students calling them by their first name. I certainly didn’t mind people calling me Andy during my workshops or lectures.

Also, some cultures are much more formal than others and wish to show respect by always using the official title of an academic.

Feel free to use whichever mode of interaction you wish – but, as a general rule, always err on the side of caution and use the more formal term for safety. Quite often, I have seen academics prompt students to use their first name as they also feel a little bit awkward being called their professional titles.

Doctor vs professor

When you graduate from a PhD you are entitled to call yourself by the doctor title.

All PhD holders are called Doctor in their professional setting. This can be on business cards, newsletters, websites, and other official documentation.

Universities in some countries also have a graduated career progression title system which denotes the expertise and seniority of the academic.

For example, in Australia the academic system is graduated like this:

• Senior lecturer
• Associate Professor

Therefore, in Australia it is not always appropriate to call someone in a university professor. Even if they are teaching your subject.

Professor is reserved for those who have achieved demonstrated expertise and outcomes in a variety of academic areas such as administration, teaching, research, and community outreach.

In other countries, however, you are automatically deemed a professor if you are teaching at a university. For example, in America your students will refer to you as a professor no matter your seniority in your university.

One of the first things you should do if you want to talk to your lecturer in a university setting is ask what their preference would be to be called.

Ask your lecturer about their preference

Whenever I gave a lecture, I would always start by saying that people can call me by my name (Andy), or they can choose to use Dr Stapleton if they feel that is more appropriate.

In my experience, most academics will not mind if you call them by their first name and, in countries like Australia, it seems to be the most common way for students to interact with their teachers.

It is not uncommon for the opposite to be true – and, like I have mentioned above, always start with the formal interactions. It is likely that you will be invited to call the PhD holder by their first name.

Outside of a formal setting most PhD holders really don’t mind how you talk to them.

The things a PhD student needs to do to become a doctor

The reason a PhD can call themselves doctor is because they have been awarded the highest qualification possible in their field.

A PhD requires you to perform research and produce a thesis or dissertation. The new information must contribute significantly to the field and report novel and new findings.

The PhD thesis is examined by other experts in the field (known as peers) and these other experts are responsible for telling the university whether or not you have satisfied the criteria to become a PhD.

There are other, more modern, ways of reporting your findings including peer-reviewed journals and professional doctoral reports.

Either way, admission to a PhD requires many years of hard work and dedication to answering a unique and unanswered question in your field.

I think that this satisfies the original use of the term doctor and is a great accomplishment for anyone.

It’s hard work but with the right guidance and dedication it is achievable by almost anyone.

Wrapping up

This article has covered everything you need to know about whether a PhD is a doctor.

The original term was introduced in the 1300s to denote an imminent scholar. This scholar would teach and pass on information to their students.

In modern times, the term doctor has been used as an honorary title for other professional careers in recognition of the hard work that they have put in to achieve their position.

However, there are fears that the doctor title is slowly becoming used for too many health professional areas leading to confusion around who is a medical doctor and who has other health-related qualifications such as dentistry, naturopathy, and others.

Nonetheless, people without an understanding of the convention can still get confused between medical doctors and holders of a higher degree PhD.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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What is the Real Difference between an MD and PhD?

Phds advance knowledge, whereas mds merely apply existing knowledge..

Posted March 7, 2011 | Reviewed by Kaja Perina

If you ask someone in the psychology world how people with PhDs (Doctor of Philosophy ) differ from those with MD (Doctor of Medicine) you may get an answer like "MDs can prescribe medication , whereas PhDs cannot." That is true. Another difference is that MDs generally make more money in the United States.

MDs are consider by many to be the "real doctors" because they can help with physiological medical problems. That too is true. I certainly don't refer to myself as "Dr. Kelly" in any context other than an academic setting, because people might get the false impression that I could jump in and help in the event of a broken foot or migraine headache.

All that sounds pretty bad for the PhD. But here's the most essential difference between the two degrees: PhDs advance knowledge, whereas MDs merely apply existing knowledge. Unlike the MD who does not need to produce any original research, the person earning a PhD must produce original research and write it up in a thesis or dissertation. Then a committee of experts must deem that thesis as offering an acceptable advancement of knowledge before the PhD is conferred. It typically takes a couple of years longer to earn a PhD than an MD. Part of the reason it takes so long is that the person earning the PhD is being trained on how to think critically about existing knowledge, and it can take a while to find one's niche and fill a gap in the knowledge base.

If you yourself want to make important scientific discoveries and then tell the world about them, you will be much better prepared by getting a PhD than an MD. You also will be much better prepared to criticize studies you read about in virtually any field because you will be trained in critical thinking and writing.

If you are deciding which degree is right for you, ask yourself if you will be content with applying the knowledge you learn (MD) from other people, or if you would like to get in on the action of making the discoveries yourself (PhD). For instance, would you like to be one of the scientists who are figuring out how to reverse the aging process (PhD)? Would you like to see if giving aging mice a particular the enzyme (one that you discover) makes their hair shiny again and restores their fertility (PhD)? Or would you be content giving your future medical patients the proper dose of the medications that arise from this research and then seeing the signs of youth return in your patients (MD)? These are the kinds of questions that college students everywhere should be asking themselves, and yet I have never seen them do so.

This difference in training also means that if you want to know what the cutting -edge knowledge is in a given field, you have to ask a PhD in that field, not an MD. So for instance, let's say you or your mate is having trouble getting pregnant . If you just ask your local obstetrician or gynecologist what the cutting edge discoveries are regarding fertility, that MD is not likely to know. That MD can give you fertility treatments that he or she has learned about and tried with other patients. It should be noted, however, that many MDs make an effort to remain abreast of scientific research long after their degree has been conferred.

The upshot of my message is this: We need both kinds of people, those who apply existing knowledge (such as the MD does in the medical field) and those who advance it (PhDs). But if you think a PhD is less qualified than an MD when it comes to having cutting-edge knowledge, you have that backwards.

Anita E. Kelly, Ph.D., is a Professor of Psychology at the University of Notre Dame. She is author of The Clever Student and The Psychology of Secrets.

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M.D. vs. PhD. Degrees: What Are the Differences? 

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Chances are, when you hear PhD and MD, you at least know that there is a difference between them. Since both are the titles of doctors, there’s still a lot of ambiguity as to what those specific differences are. In this article, we will look at how MDs and PhDs differ from one another and which one might be a better fit for you. Let’s jump in!  

Doctor of Medicine (MD)  

We’ll start by taking a separate look at MDs. An MD is a medical doctor. Their primary job is to work with patients in a variety of settings such as hospitals, clinics, and a variety of other places where having medical staff is necessary. 

School  

In order to become an MD, students must complete their undergraduate degree and then attend a four year medical school. Medical School is then followed by a residency, where a new doctor completes training under a senior physician. From start to finish, becoming a doctor takes around 8-12 years to finish undergrad, medical school, and residency.  

Area of study  

As a medical doctor, you will generally choose one area of medicine that you would like to focus on. Specialties can be based on a certain part of the body, such as cardiology, podiatry, or neurology. Aspiring medical doctors can also specialize in working with a select group of people, such as geriatrics or pediatrics, or finally, you can specialize in researching things like oncology. The possibilities are plentiful for MDs! 

Where they work  

Where you work will depend on what you choose to specialize in. Again, this could be in a hospital, a smaller clinic, or even across the globe with various organizations that work to provide medical care to underserved populations. Medical expertise is needed in many capacities, meaning that there is never a shortage of places that a medical degree could take you! 

A word about DOs  

Before we move on to PhDs, we have one more thing to clear up that you might have questions about. In addition to MDs, there is also another type of doctor called a DO, or a doctor of osteopathic medicine . DOs perform largely all the same functions as MDs, but with a more holistic approach. They attend undergrad just like MDs and then attend a four year DO program that is structured very similarly to a regular medical school.  

The only difference between these two is where they receive their medical school training and how they approach studying medicine and treating patients. If you are thinking about becoming a medical doctor, you should take some time to explore DOs and what they do!  

Doctorate of philosophy (PhD)  

Okay, now onto PhDs! A doctorate of philosophy, known also as a PhD , doesn’t actually have anything to do with philosophy in most cases. A PhD can be completed in pretty much any field and is the highest level of education that one can receive.  

In order to complete your PhD, you will need to first complete your undergrad, then a master’s program, and finally apply to PhD programs. Not all PhD programs require that you finish your masters. There are some schools that offer programs that allow you to complete both your masters and your doctorate at the same time.  

Generally, schooling for your PhD takes anywhere from four to eight years to complete. The first year or two of your PhD is spent on coursework, while the remaining years are spent doing research and completing your dissertation.  

There are endless areas of study that offer PhD programs. You can study everything from physical therapy, business management and psychology to health administration, engineering, social work, and so much more. The gist is pretty much that if you can think of a field of study, you can earn your PhD in it!  

Based on the examples of fields you can study, it’s safe to say that what you study will determine where you decide to work. PhD holders are highly educated people, meaning that finding a job when you hold a PhD in your field will look pretty good to most employers.  

Common places where you find a high concentration of PhDs are in hospitals, corporate offices, college campuses, and other educational institutions. Remember, though, that’s not a full list of where you could work–the list of places you could work is endless! 

Tuition and Costs  

It’s true, pursuing either one of these degrees is not the cheapest thing, but don’t let numbers scare you off! If anything in this article sounds like it is right for you, explore it thoroughly. There are lots of ways that you can pay for your education, including scholarships, organizations, and programs out there that want to help you do it!

Okay, so for some real talk, the price of either of these degrees can vary a lot. Medical school will generally cost between $45,000 – $65,000 a year, while PhD programs cost on average about $30,000 a year. But, again, this does not mean you have to be able to pay these costs out of pocket. There are a lot of programs for PhDs that work with you to help you pay for some of the costs. There are even some fully funded PhD programs !

Similarly, there are tons of medical scholarships and even tuition free medical schools that you can apply to help offset the costs of a medical degree. There are also options for student loans that you can take out as well. The point is, there are tons of ways to find your education. If a degree like this is right for you, it is possible to achieve with proper planning and determination.

Related: Top scholarships for graduate students

Shadowing  

Before jumping all the way in with either of these degrees, shadowing is a great tool that can help you explore your intended field or job. It’s highly encouraged that students who want to attend medical school shadow at least a few different MDs and DOs prior to applying to medical school.  

But the benefits of shadowing are not just for the medical world. You can ask to shadow just about anyone . Maybe you’d like to shadow a professor who you had during undergrad, a social worker, or someone you know of who works in business. There are no rules about who you can and can’t shadow, you simply have to ask and go from there!  

What is right for you  

Below are some basic questions to help you get your mind started thinking about whether an MD or PhD is right for you. The first set of questions pertains more to MD or DO degrees.  

If you’re thinking about an MD or DO degree…  

Questions to consider.

• Do you like working with people and helping them during difficult times?  
• Do you love studying biological sciences ?  
• Does working in a hospital or clinic sound like an environment you would enjoy? 

If you’re thinking about a PhD…  

• Is there a specific area or field you would like to study? 
• Do you have a specific job in mind that you would like, and does it require a PhD? 

The answers to these questions won’t instantly help you decide, but they should help you think a little deeper about these degrees. 

Key Takeaways

• Both MDs and PhD holders are highly educated in their field of study, holding the highest degrees that you can earn 
• The only way to become a practicing MD is to first obtain your bachelor’s degree, then attended a four year accredited medical school, and then successfully complete all the proper exams to practice medicine 
• To earn a PhD, you do not have to attend medical school, but you will need to attend a PhD program, complete your undergrad, and usually complete your master’s degree before doing so 
• There are lots of ways to fund both a PhD and an MD, including scholarships, grants, loans, and partially and fully funded programs for each 

Frequently asked questions about the differences between MD and PhDs  

Is a phd higher than an md, who gets paid more an md or a phd, is a phd harder than an md, scholarships360 recommended.

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How to Decide Between an M.D. and M.D.-Ph.D.

The two medical programs differ in several ways, including time, expense and purpose.

M.D. vs. M.D.-Ph.D. Programs

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While M.D. degree recipients typically go into some field of medical practice, M.D.-Ph.D. graduates tend to find jobs in medical research and academia.

Pursuing a medical degree is challenging and requires great familiarity and comfort with biomedical science. For those inclined to delve deeper into biomedical research, dual M.D.-Ph.D. programs offer an intriguing and unique pathway and should be carefully considered.

How Are M.D. and M.D.-Ph.D. Programs Different?

M.D.-Ph.D. programs differ from M.D.-only programs in several ways, including time, expense and purpose.

Time Commitment

While M.D. programs typically take four years to complete, M.D.-Ph.D. programs integrate heavy research training and last an average of four years longer than traditional medical school . This significant time commitment allows you to complete the requirements for a Ph.D. in a biological science, typically doing lab rotations before and during the first and second years of med school, followed by full-time lab work between the second and third years and culminating in thesis defense and awarding of the Ph.D. degree.

These joint programs typically are accelerated. Some medical students complete the Ph.D. requirements in three years, but most need four to five years. With the Ph.D. work done, the M.D. is earned upon completion of the third and fourth years of med school.

Cost Considerations

The average cost of medical school alone in the U.S. is $230,296, according to the Education Data Initiative, although it can range depending on the school and the student's state of residency.

Generally, M.D.-Ph.D. programs cost more because of the additional degree. However, the National Institutes of Health's dual M.D.-Ph.D. programs are divided into those that receive NIH Medical Scientist Training Program funding via a T32 research training grant for their students, and programs that don't. All MSTPs and many non-MSTPs waive med school tuition and provide stipends for M.D.-Ph.D. students.

Thus, many M.D.-Ph.D. students don't need to take out additional loans, which can be a significant advantage.  

M.D. degree recipients tend to go into some field of medical practice, while M.D.-Ph.D. graduates veer more toward medical research and academia.

Typically for M.D.-Ph.D. studies, MSTP programs are better organized and more productive than their non-MSTP counterparts, and more effectively prepare students to compete for independent faculty positions at academic medical centers.

The career goal of becoming a physician scientist who practices medicine and runs an NIH-funded research laboratory drives M.D.-Ph.D. students through a long and difficult training period, which is the primary purpose of such programs.  

What Is the M.D.-Ph.D. Application Process?

Applying to M.D.-Ph.D. programs, similar to M.D.-only programs, can be done through the American Medical College Application Service, known as AMCAS . The same application materials are required, plus two additional essays: an M.D.-Ph.D. essay detailing your motivation to apply and an essay describing your individual research experiences and accomplishments. 

Throughout your application, your thoughtful consideration of the M.D.-Ph.D. pathway and a genuine passion for research must be evident. This is commonly the No. 1 component that admissions committees look for – does this applicant truly love biomedical research and demonstrate the commitment to science that will keep them motivated and on track during the arduous training process?

Passion and commitment can be communicated through the essays, work and activities section, personal statement , interviews and, critically, letters of recommendation – hopefully from accomplished faculty in biomedical sciences. 

Significant research background is expected for M.D.-Ph.D. applicants, and it is extremely important to demonstrate high familiarity with research throughout the application.

A minimum of two years in a lab is generally considered significant research experience, and many applicants take one or more gap years to expand their research background and acquire further recommendation letters from scientists or doctors who can speak to both clinical and research potential. These recommendations take on added importance in the smaller biomedical research community.  

What About an M.D. With Research  vs. an M.D.-Ph.D.?

So, you’ve joined a lab as a premed and are enjoying research – at least more than you expected to. That’s great! At the very least, clinical medicine needs physicians with a strong background in scientific research.

But how do you know whether you should pursue an M.D.-Ph.D. program, with the goal of a lifelong career in research after graduation? Many med students, residents and attending physicians without a Ph.D. lead successful research endeavors, so pursuing an M.D. with research is feasible. 

If you’re weighing such a choice, ask yourself if science brings out enough passion in you to sustain a lengthy training period. If the thought of watching your peers graduate and rise in their professions while you remain in training is outweighed by the thrill of scientific discovery, an M.D.-Ph.D. program may be a wise decision. 

The benefits of a Ph.D. through a combined M.D.-Ph.D. program, compared to pursuing research later in your career as an M.D., are:

• Elevated familiarity with the methodology of basic science.
• More in-depth experience in carrying out experiments, compiling data, writing and publishing high-impact papers.
• Networking opportunities and the valuable connections they can create.

The protected research time of a Ph.D. is a rare and valuable commodity. Never in your career as a doctor will you have an opportunity to delve as deeply into a scientific subject as you will during Ph.D. studies. Although exceptions abound, researchers without a Ph.D. are frequently limited to clinical or translational science, and often do not feel comfortable enough with basic science methodologies to run a laboratory built around such techniques. With fewer publications and experience, the transition to an independently funded scientific career is typically harder.

Traditionally, this transition is accompanied by a K08 clinical investigator award, which provides funding for supervised research development as a final step before full independence, for example running a NIH R01-funded laboratory . K08 grants and other early-career funding opportunities are competitive, so it's a great benefit to have more publications and research experience.  

Should I Apply to Traditional M.D. Programs as a Backup?

M.D.-Ph.D. programs are highly competitive, as you must demonstrate to a medical school that you are worth significant time and financial investment. Admissions committees must feel that you are a worthwhile investment and will contribute significantly to biomedical research as a future alumnus. 

After deciding to apply to M.D.-Ph.D. programs, should you apply to traditional M.D.-only programs as a backup option? If you feel you have enough clinical experience to be competitive for M.D.-only programs and don't want to take a gap year, this is a realistic backup pathway. You can still pursue a meaningful research direction as an M.D., particularly if you dedicate several years to a postdoctoral position to learn research techniques. 

A cautionary word of advice: Honestly self-reflect and try to understand and maintain focus on your primary interest.

If you are more excited to practice clinical medicine than research, you should heavily consider applying only to traditional M.D. programs. You can still pursue collaborations with basic science researchers and participate in clinical trials without a Ph.D., with a flexible level of involvement in basic science. 

To make the right decision, consider your personal aspirations, long-term career goals and genuine level of commitment to biomedical research. Carefully evaluate these factors, as well as your qualifications.

Seek out mentorship from M.D.s and M.D.-Ph.D.s who know you and your application, and ask them whether you will be competitive for such programs. It can help to ask M.D.-Ph.D.s how they knew they wanted to apply, if they would make the same decision again and whether they can see you being fulfilled in a career using that degree. 

Premed students commonly describe their affinity for medicine with a variation of the words, “I can’t imagine a fulfilling career outside of medicine.” The decision-making process for an M.D.-Ph.D. versus a traditional M.D. can often be broken down similarly: Can you imagine a fulfilling career without scientific research?

If the answer is yes, an M.D.-Ph.D. probably doesn’t align with your career goals. If the answer is no, this long but rewarding training path may indeed be for you.

As you embark on this application journey , know that regardless of the path you choose, you have likely already developed an appreciation for the importance of scientific discovery in furthering advancements in clinical care. Successful completion of either program will allow you to make valuable contributions to biomedical science, and it is a privilege to have the opportunity to advance understanding of medicine in such a unique and meaningful way. 

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About Medical School Admissions Doctor

Need a guide through the murky medical school admissions process? Medical School Admissions Doctor offers a roundup of expert and student voices in the field to guide prospective students in their pursuit of a medical education. The blog is currently authored by Dr. Ali Loftizadeh, Dr. Azadeh Salek and Zach Grimmett at Admissions Helpers , a provider of medical school application services; Dr. Renee Marinelli at MedSchoolCoach , a premed and med school admissions consultancy; Dr. Rachel Rizal, co-founder and CEO of the Cracking Med School Admissions consultancy; Dr. Cassie Kosarec at Varsity Tutors , an advertiser with U.S. News & World Report; Dr. Kathleen Franco, a med school emeritus professor and psychiatrist; and Liana Meffert, a fourth-year medical student at the University of Iowa's Carver College of Medicine and a writer for Admissions Helpers. Got a question? Email [email protected] .

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Professional Title Etiquette: When to Use Your Dr. Title

Socially as well as professionally, medical doctors, dentists, and other professionals are addressed by, and introduced with, their titles. People who have earned a Ph.D. or any other academic, nonmedical doctoral degree have the choice of whether to use "Dr." both professionally and socially.  If, when meeting people with doctorates, you're unsure how to address them, "Dr." is always correct.  If they'd rather the title be dropped, they will let you know.

It's more common for women to use the title "Doctor" socially as well as professionally than in the past. When a married woman uses the title "Dr." (either medical or academic) socially, addressing social correspondence to the couple is a little trickier. If her husband is not a doctor, address letters to Dr. Sonia and Mr. Robert Harris. Her name comes first because her professional title "outranks" his social title. If her husband is also a doctor, the address is either The Drs. (Doctors) Harris or Drs. Sonia and Robert Harris (the order of the names doesn't matter).

The Reverend

In introductions and correspondence, many Protestant clergy are referred to as "The Reverend." While business correspondence is addressed to The Reverend James Norris, (D.D., if held), social correspondence is slightly different: The Reverend (Mr./Dr.) and Mrs. James Norris. In conversation, a clergyman or clergywoman is addressed as Dr./Mr./Mrs./Ms./Pastor/Rector/Reverend Norris.

Addressing a husband or wife who are both "Reverends" follows the same format as a husband and wife who are both doctors: The Reverends Norris or The Reverend Mrs./Ms. Patricia Norris and the Reverend Mr. James Norris. If either of the couple also has a doctorate degree, that person's name would go first: The Reverend Dr. James Norris and The Reverend Mrs./Ms. Patricia Norris.

Today "Esquire" is largely confined to business correspondence between attorneys and justices of the peace. An alternative is to write:

Mr. David Bowman

Attorney at Law

using two lines, no indent, and including the titles Mr. or Ms.

When "Esq." or "Esquire" is used, the name is never preceded by Mr., Ms., Mrs., or other titles such as Dr., and is written David Bowman, Esq. "Esquire" isn't used in introductions: "I'd like to introduce attorney David Bowman/Mr. David Bowman/David Bowman." It also isn't used for social correspondence, as when writing to a lawyer and his or her spouse or addressing a social invitation. Mr. and Mrs. David Bowman is the correct form.

Professional Designations

Professional designations such as CPA (Certified Public Accountant) or CLU (Certified Life Underwriter) are only used on business cards or business correspondence. They follow a person's name, and Mr. or Ms. isn't used: Martha Dawes, CPA; Phillip Olner, CLU. If a person has more than one designation, they're listed in the order received: Phillip Olner, CLU, CFP. Socially, use Mr., Ms., or Mrs. without the professional designation: Ms. Martha Dawes.

Other Titles

Every day we run into people who have an official title. The police officer at the desk is Sergeant Flynn; the head of the fire department is Chief Elmore; the club chef is Chef Rossi; the pilot on your plane is Captain Howe; and so forth. When on the job, such people are always addressed by their titles, just as they are when the matter at hand is related to their work. Socially, many don't use their titles, though they may. Sometimes a title sticks: A local judge, for example, who's been called by his title for a number of years, is usually addressed as "Judge" even after his retirement.

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In partnership with the  Johns Hopkins School of Medicine , the Bloomberg School offers students the opportunity to earn a Doctor of Medicine (MD) alongside a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) – a rigorous combination that prepares graduates for prestigious careers in academic medicine.

The long-lasting relationship between the School of Medicine and the Bloomberg School – both situated along the same city block here in Baltimore – fosters the ideal environment for this combined six or eight year program.

Students complete two years of medical school before devoting themselves full-time to their PhD studies. After completion of the PhD degree requirements, students then complete their MD degree.

Interested “physician-scientists” should contact the MD/PhD program administrator, Sharon Welling ( [email protected]  or 410-955-8008), and visit the  MD/PhD Program's website  for full details on admission requirements and application procedures.  

EDI Spotlight: Tammara Watts, MD, PhD

Frequently finding herself the only Black woman surgeon in certain spaces, Tammara Watts MD, PhD, has recognized the importance of making workplaces more inclusive for some time. However, it wasn’t until two years ago that she began working in equity, diversity, and inclusion in an official capacity.

Both in her roles as a head and neck cancer researcher and associate director of the Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion for Duke Cancer Institute, Watts has made it her mission to address cancer disparities and diversify the oncology workforce. In this month’s EDI Spotlight, she shares how a nearly $2 million grant she recently received from the National Institutes of Health will help her do just that. She also gives us a glimpse into some of the work her DCI colleagues are doing to advance health equity and reveals her love of riding horses. 

What is your official EDI-related title within the Duke Cancer Institute? What does this role entail, and how does it complement your other responsibilities as associate professor of head and neck surgery and communication sciences? 

In the DCI, I am the associate director of the Office of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion. As an NCI-designated comprehensive cancer center, I am charged with strategic planning and implementation of the DCI’s Plan to Enhance Diversity (PED). The PED is a new component for all NCI-designated cancer centers with the goal to design programs to support recruitment, retention, and career development of women and individuals underrepresented in the scientific workforce.

Tell us about some of the work DCI is doing to eliminate cancer disparities and advance health equity. 

There is a lot of work being done in this space. We can't be in an era of personalized cancer care if we don't take care of all of the patients and all of our communities. Advancing health equity is one of the pillars in the 2022-2027 DCI Strategic Plan. There are several DCI investigators whose work, both in the lab and at the bedside, is focused on eliminating cancer disparities.

Our Community Outreach, Equity, and Engagement Office did a community scientific round table where community members met with DCI scientists who are working in cancer disparities. My takeaway from that was how the community wants to know how their samples are being used and how their tissues are helping further science.

In addition to research in gastric, breast, endometrial, and prostate cancer focused on understanding the biology of cancer disparities, and evaluating outcomes from clinical trials, DCI created a program called Just Ask , which has been adopted nationally to raise awareness of how implicit basis affects patients of color in even being asked if they would like to participate in a clinical trial.

You recently were awarded a five-year, $1.9 million grant aimed at improving head and neck cancer outcomes and diversity in the oncology workforce. Can you tell us a little about the grant and who will benefit from this research?

I was fortunate to be one of the inaugural recipients of the NIH R01 called ReWARD . It was a new mechanism put in place by the NIH because a lot of investigators spend time working in the space of diversity, equity, and inclusion, but they don't get any funding or support.

The grant [titled Disparate Outcomes, Disparate Workforce: An Integrated Approach to Improving Head and Neck Cancer Outcomes and Diversity in the Oncology Workforce] has four aims. The first two aims are scientific. Black patients do very poorly with head and neck cancer, even if you control for socioeconomic factors. We want to use a genomics approach and see if we can understand if there are gene-related differences between Black and White patients with head and neck cancer that can inform additional studies to test whether these genetic differences are indeed impactful when it comes to outcomes, and then begin to design treatments around that.

The third aim supports a high school student coming from City of Medicine Academy in Durham to spend time in my lab or any of the labs of the co-investigators to learn about what it is like to conduct oncology-based research. They will come in the summer before they start their junior year and earn high school credit during the spring semester, with the goal of having them participate as a member of the research team to showcase in their college applications.

Fourth, we are partnering with Howard University to send one of their surgery residents for one to two years to do oncology-based research at Duke. The grant provides support for their training. They're not required to do head and neck cancer research. If they want to learn about breast, pancreatic, or gastric cancer, it doesn't matter. The grant is there to support them and help them with their interests. And if they stay for two years, we'll even help support their tuition if they want to get an advanced degree, like a master's degree.

We will also provide mentorship and incubator space for a junior faculty member who wants to start their own translational lab.

What inspired you to begin working to improve equity, diversity, and inclusion within Duke?

I wasn't really working in the cancer disparity space initially. As a Black woman, an MD-PhD surgeon, you're usually a party-of-one in these spaces. And so, you are always thinking about how to include people.

But I didn't get truly inspired with that conscious thought until I started working on the cancer disparities research two years ago. My colleague Dr. Nosa Osazuwa-Peters encouraged me to use my science background to explore head and neck cancer disparities. I became curious and with support with pilot funding from the DCI P20 Disparities SPORE and Dr. Steve Patierno , who's very passionate in this space, thus ignited my own passion. My role in the DCI has become one of my favorite jobs.

I was fortunate that I had the opportunity to get exposure to research early on. I don't know that a lot of our young folks see what research is like. So, one of the things I wanted to make sure on this NIH grant was to have a lot of mentors doing different kinds of research.

About 85% of the students at City of Medicine Academy are students of color. They're interested in the health professions, but I don't know if they know about the non-obvious ones, like molecular epidemiology, bioinformatics, and medical physics as examples of science disciplines that work within the context of cancer. Having that exposure early on as a means to help increase our workforce diversity is vital. I wanted these students to have a much earlier exposure, while in high school which they could carry with them as they enter college. I wanted there to be a broad group of mentors to draw on. And the same thing for the Howard University surgical resident who comes here; they'll get mentorship from surgeons here and develop their research skills with the hope that they choose Duke for their surgical oncology fellowship.

What passions or hobbies do you have outside of work?

I love to ride horses. I have been riding for over 30 years. I have fallen off, broken bones and always get back on the horse. The pandemic brought me the joy of Pilates and I'm an aspiring new golfer.

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Matthew Dale, MD, PhD

Assistant Professor, UNMC Department of Surgery, Division of General Surgery, MIS and Bariatric Surgery

Dr. Dale is a general surgeon focusing on gallbladder, appendix, hernia, small bowel, and colon issues, in addition to benign soft tissue and skin lesions.

Division of General Surgery, MIS and Bariatric Surgery University of Nebraska Medical Center 983280 Nebraska Medical Center Omaha, NE 68198-3280

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The Bioinformatics PhD Program is well established, with a long history of successful graduates in both academia and industry.  

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To apply for the Bioinformatics PhD Program, you must submit complete applications by December 1 for admission the following Fall term. Early applications are not allowed and will not be considered. 

Please visit the Rackham Graduate School web pages for additional information on applying. There you will also find information on how to respond to an offer of admission, plus tips and materials required for international applicants and incoming students.

If you are certain about pursuing a Bioinformatics PhD, then applications should be submitted directly to the Bioinformatics PhD Program ; there are more than 100 diverse affiliated faculty to choose from.

Applicants should be U.S. citizens or permanent residents. In addition, applicants with a background in quantitative sciences should consider applying directly. Separately, if you are transferring from another University of Michigan Program or have obtained an established University of Michigan mentor affiliated with the program, a direct application is most appropriate.

PIBS is an umbrella program that offers first-year PhD students flexibility in exploring opportunities in bioinformatics and thirteen other graduate programs. Through PIBS, students have the opportunity to rotate in, and potentially join the lab of a faculty mentor in another program; there are more than 500 diverse faculty to select from. PIBS students who list Bioinformatics as their primary choice must complete at least one rotation with a Bioinformatics-affiliated faculty member. After 10 months in PIBS, students officially join Bioinformatics (or one of the other programs). You can visit the PIBS website for more information.

Please note that reviewing admissions faculty for both PIBS and direct applications are the same. In addition, admitted applicants take the same Bioinformatics-specific courses and activities. See below for details on program diversity outreach, application materials, and funding.

Students who will have an MS in a relevant field (e.g. computer science, statistics, biostatistics, biology) from another university may request to have up to 6 credit-hours (two classes) waived. These classes may be used to help fulfill the core PhD requirements for biology (1 course), statistics (2 courses), and/or computing (1 course). To obtain approval, students need to send a detailed syllabus of the class(es) they took to the PhD directors along with their grade(s), which must be a B or better. The other PhD course requirements, including BIOINF-529 and two advanced bioinformatics courses, cannot be waived.

Most international Bioinformatics PhD applicants should apply through PIBS. However, some who are already embedded in a University of Michigan mentor lab affiliated with the program may be an appropriate fit for the direct Bioinformatics PhD program.

The TOEFL or IELTS exam is required unless Rackham Graduate School waiver requirements have been met. Criteria for English proficiency exemption can be found on the Rackham website . In addition, a list of required credentials from non-U.S. institutions for an application can be found here.

The Bioinformatics Graduate Program encourages applications from traditionally underrepresented minorities, students with disabilities, and those from disadvantaged backgrounds. There are numerous funding opportunities and resources on campus to contribute to students overall well-being while pursuing studies. Several resources available to students can be found on the Rackham Graduate School Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion website .

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All application materials should be submitted electronically when possible. Applicants must meet  Rackham's Minimum Requirements for Admission . The  online application form  can be found on the Rackham Admissions webpages. The application is available in early September through the deadline. 

• GPA, minimum 3.2/4.0 (exceptions may be made if deemed appropriate)
• Letters of recommendation (3 required): Please be aware that submitting only the Rackham Recommendation for Admission Form is insufficient; forms must be accompanied by a letter from the recommender. All letters are due by the application deadline. Without them, applications will not be considered complete or reviewed by the Program Admissions Committee.
• Statement of Purpose: The Statement of Purpose should be a concise, well-written statement about your academic and research background, your career goals, and how Michigan's graduate program will help you meet your career and educational objectives.
• Personal Statement: The Personal Statement should be a concise, well-written statement about how your personal background and life experiences, including social, cultural, familial, educational, or other opportunities or challenges, motivated your decision to pursue a graduate degree at the University of Michigan. This is not an Academic Statement of Purpose, but a discussion of the personal journey that has led to your decision to seek a graduate degree.
• Transcripts: Please submit unofficial transcripts electronically with your online application
• GRE scores are no longer included as part of admission
• Applicants whose native language is not English must demonstrate English proficiency via either the TOEFL or IELTS exam. The institution code is 1839. Other exams may not be substituted. Rackham Graduate School offers a full explanation of this requirement , including exemption criteria. Please contact Rackham directly ( [email protected] ) with questions.

Diversity is a key component of excellence, especially for solving the complex biomedical challenges that our field of computational medicine and bioinformatics faces. We believe that all people—regardless of background, race, religion, sexual/gender orientation, age or disability—deserve an equitable opportunity to pursue the education and career of their choice.

The Bioinformatics Graduate Program will provide tuition, healthcare coverage, and a stipend on a 12-month basis. This level of support will be maintained throughout a student's tenure in the Program, provided s/he remains in good academic standing and makes reasonable progress towards the degree as determined by the Graduate Directors, with faculty input. It is expected that the student will be supported directly by the mentor's laboratory, beginning in the second year. The expected time to degree is typically 5-6 years.

The U-M MS program is a terminal degree program. If you are interested in the Bioinformatics PhD Program, you must submit a new application. If you are a Bioinformatics MS student who is in good academic standing and has identified a Bioinformatics affiliated faculty mentor, you may apply for admission directly to the PhD Bioinformatics Program for the Winter term. Reviewing faculty take all application components into account and mentors are prepared to take both academic and financial responsibility for their trainees.

Eligibility: Only current or recently graduated University of Michigan Master’s students are eligible. Before applying, students must have completed more than half of all required courses, with at least six credits from the Bioinformatics Program.

Application deadline: October 1

The online application form can be found on the Rackham Admissions webpages. The application is available in early September through the deadline.

• Letters of recommendation: Please be aware that submitting only the Rackham Recommendation for Admission Form is insufficient; forms must be accompanied by a letter from the recommender. If you wish to include three letters from your original application, only one additional letter is needed. It must be from the DCMB faculty member who will serve as your primary mentor. The letter should state clearly that the mentor takes responsibility for your funding upon admission. Alternatively, you may wish to obtain three new letters of recommendation. The Admissions Committee strongly encourages you to include letters from those familiar with your research and coursework obtained while pursuing your Master’s degree. Of these, one must be from the faculty member who will serve as your primary mentor. The letter should state clearly that the mentor takes responsibility for your funding upon admission.
• Statement of Purpose: The Statement of Purpose should be a concise, well-written statement about your academic and research background, your career goals, and how the PhD Program will help you meet your career and educational objectives.
• Transcripts: Only a current, unofficial U-M transcript is necessary. You do not need to re-submit materials included with your Master’s application.
• TOEFL: If you submitted TOEFL scores when applying to the Master’s Program, additional test scores are not needed.

Bioinformatics consists of a mathematical and/or statistical analysis of a biomedical problem using computation. We define bioinformatics widely and include traditional bioinformatics areas such as for examples, systems biology, genomics, proteomics, plus statistical and evolutionary genetics, clinical informatics, and protein modeling.

As an interdisciplinary field, Bioinformatics attracts graduate students from mathematics, statistics, physics, computer science, biomedical engineering, chemistry, biochemistry and biology. Most incoming students have both a major in one and a minor in another discipline. In recent years students have entered with undergraduate training in bioinformatics or computational biology.

Each student obtains individual counseling by one of the two graduate program directors upon arrival and throughout their academic career. As Bioinformatics is still developing, new courses are added all the time. Current students are encouraged to contact the Program Directors about courses that may be relevant to their studies and are not listed on the website (esp. if they are new or infrequently offered).

In most cases, we recommend you apply to the PIBS program, as it provides flexibility in classes, funding, and a central admission for many biomedical programs. If you have no or very little biology background, please contact our Student Services Representative as to whether a direct application would be better. Current student who are considering transferring areas of study should also contact the Bioinformatics Graduate Office.

There is no need to apply both direct and through PIBS, as the same committee sees your applications.

For most students, thesis work includes computing, reading, and writing. A small group also participates in wet laboratory work. Please check both the research areas and student webpages for an overview of the varied subjects addressed in research and student theses.

Many of our graduate students obtain academic postdoctoral fellowships and go on to faculty positions. Quite a significant number of graduates go into non-academic professions such as small or large biotech companies. Some have founded their own business, and others apply their analytical skills in companies unrelated to bioinformatics. For a current list of graduate placement, please visit the alumni pages.

No. If you want to get a PhD, directly apply to the PhD Program.

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Welcome from the Chair

A welcome message from the chair of the Department of Medical Humanities and Ethics, Rita Charon, MD, PhD.

Narrative Medicine

Education and narrative medicine, workshops and events.

Learn more about and register for upcoming workshops and events in the Division of Narrative Medicine.

The 6th ELSI Congress

The 6th ELSI Congress will take place at Columbia University in New York City from June 10-12, 2024.

Social Medicine

Research and policy recommendations.

The Division of Social Medicine & Professionalism maintains that the principles of medical professionalism are vital to the health care system.

Interprofessional Education (IPE)

For one day, faculty and students join together for lecture presentations, experiential learning, and workshop sessions.

Ethics Grand Rounds | Equity in the Face of Climate Change: Confronting Global Health Challenges

Speakers : Darby Jack, PhD, Sabiha Essack, B. Pharm., M. Pharm., PhD, Laura Bothwell, PhD, MA.

Moderator : Alexis K. Walker, PhD

Global populations experiencing health inequities, such as life expectancy, infant mortality, infectious diseases, and chronic illness, are also more vulnerable to the harms of climate change. Climate change significantly impacts global health, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations. What health risks are being introduced by climate change, and how will existing challenges be exacerbated? By understanding who is most affected and how, this session will discuss practical solutions to stemming global disparities from climate change. Our expert panel will explore the health disparities arising from climate change, including the emergence of diseases in new areas and the exacerbation of existing health challenges.

• Clinical Physics
• Translational Physics
• Proton Engineers
• Physics Residents
• Information Technology
• Past Members

Certification

Therapeutic Physics, American Board of Radiology

AAPM Jack Fowler Junior Investigators Award, 2004

Publications in Radiation Oncology and Medical Physics

Yan S, Lu HM, Flanz J, Adams J, Trofimov A, Bortfeld T. Reassessment of the necessity of the proton gantry:  analysis of beam orientations from 4332 treatments at the F.H. Burr proton center over the past 10 years. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2016

Moteabbed M, Trofimov A, Sharp GC, Wang Y, Zietman AL, Efstathiou JA, Lu HM. A prospective comparison of the effects of interfractional variations on proton therapy and IMRT for prostate cancer. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2016

Patel AV, Lane AM, Morrison MA, Trofimov AV, Shih HA, Gragoudas ES, Kim IK. Visual Outcomes after Proton Beam Irradiation for Choroidal Melanomas Involving the Fovea. Ophthalmology 2015 

M oteabbed M, Sharp GC, Wang Y, Trofimov A, Efstathiou JA, Lu HM. Validation of a deformable image registration technique for cone beam CT-based dose verification. Medical Physics 2015;42:196-205

Cheney MD, Chen YL, Lim R, Winrich BK, Grosu AL, Trofimov AV, Depauw N, Shih HA, Schwab JH, Hornicek FJ, DeLaney TF. 18F-FMISO PET/CT visualization of tumor hypoxia in patients with chordoma of the mobile and sacrococcygeal spine. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2014

Safai S, Trofimov A, Adams JA, Engelsman M, Bortfeld T. The rationale for intensity-modulated proton therapy in geometrically challenging cases. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2013;58:6337-6353.

Giantsoudi D, Grassberger C, Craft D, Niemierko A, Trofimov A, Paganetti H. Linear energy transfer (LET)-Guided Optimization in intensity modulated proton therapy (IMPT): feasibility study and clinical potential. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2013;87:216-222.

Wang. Y, Efstathiou JE, Lu H, Sharp GC, Trofimov A. Hypofractionated proton therapy for prostate cancer: dose delivery uncertainty due to inter-fractional motion. Medical Physics 2013;40:071714

Zeng C, Giantsoudi D, Grassberger C, Goldberg S, Niemierko A, Paganetti H, Efstathiou JA, Trofimov A.  Maximizing the biological effect of proton dose delivered with scanned beams via inhomogeneous daily dose distributions. Medical Physics 2013;40:051708.

De Amorim Bernstein K, Sethi R, Trofimov A, Zeng C, Fullerton B, Yeap BY, Ebb D, Tarbell NJ, Yock TI, Macdonald SM. Early clinical outcomes using proton radiation for children with central nervous system atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumors. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2013;86:114-20.

Trofimov A, Unkelbach J, DeLaney TF, Bortfeld T. Visualization of a variety of possible dosimetric outcomes in radiation therapy using dose-volume histogram bands. Practical Radiation Oncology 2012;2:164-171. 

Chen W, Unkelbach J, Trofimov A, Madden T, Kooy H, Bortfeld T, Craft D. Including robustness in multi-criteria optimization for intensity-modulated proton therapy. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2012;57:591-608.

Wang Y, Efstathiou J, Sharp G, Lu HM, Ciernik IF, Trofimov A. Evaluation of the dosimetric impact of inter-fractional anatomical variations on prostate proton therapy using daily in-room CT images. Medical Physics 2011

Grassberger C, Trofimov A, Lomax A, Paganetti H. Variations in linear energy transfer within clinical proton therapy fields and the potential for biological treatment planning. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2011

Trofimov A, NguyenPL, EfstathiouJA, Wang Y, LuHM, EngelsmanM, MerrickS, ChengCW, WongJR, ZietmanAL. Interfractional variations in the set-up of pelvic bony anatomy and soft tissue, and their implication on the delivery of proton therapy for localized prostate cancer. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2011; 80:928-937.

Ding A, Gu J, Trofimov A, Xu XG.  Monte Carlo calculation of imaging doses from diagnostic multi-detector CT and kilovoltage cone-beam CT as part of prostate cancer treatment plans. Medical Physics 2010; 37:6199-6204.

MacDonald SM, Trofimov A, Safai S, Adams J, Fullerton B, Ebb D, Tarbell NJ, Yock T. Proton Radiotherapy for Pediatric Central Nervous System Germ Cell Tumors: Early Clinical Outcomes. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2011; 79:121-129

Nguyen PL, Chen RC, Hoffman KE, Trofimov A, Efstathiou JA, Coen JJ, Shipley WU, Zietman AL, Talcott JA. Rectal Dose-Volume Histogram Parameters Are Associated with Long-Term Patient-Reported Gastrointestinal Quality of Life After Conventional and High-Dose Radiation for Prostate Cancer: A Subgroup Analysis of a Randomized Trial. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2010; 78:1081-5

Suit H, Delaney T, Goldberg S, Paganetti H, Clasie B, Gerweck L, Niemierko A, Hall E, Flanz J, Hallman J, Trofimov A. Proton vs carbon ion beams in the definitive radiation treatment of cancer patients. Radiotherapy and Oncology 2010; 95:3-22.

Kooy HM, Clasie BM, Lu HM, Madden TM, Bentefour H, Depauw N, Adams JA, Trofimov AV, Demaret D, Delaney TF, Flanz JB. A case study in proton pencil-beam scanning delivery. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics. 2010; 76:624-30.

Efstathiou JA, Trofimov AV, Zietman AL. Life, liberty, and the pursuit of protons: an evidence-based review of the role of particle therapy in the treatment of prostate cancer. Cancer J. 2009; 15:312-8.

Seco J, Robinson D, Trofimov A, Paganetti H. Breathing interplay effects during proton beam scanning: simulation and statistical analysis. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2009; 54:N283-294.

Vrancic C, Trofimov A, Chan TCY, Sharp G, Bortfeld T. Experimental evaluation of a robust optimization method for IMRT of moving targets. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2009; 54: 2901-2914.

Bortfeld T, Chan TCY, Trofimov A, Tsitsiklis JN. Robust management of motion uncertainty in intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Operations Research 2008; 56:1461-1473

Nguyen PL, Trofimov A, Zietman AL. Proton beam or intensity-modulated therapy in the treatment of prostate cancer? Oncology 2008; 22:748-754.

Trofimov A, Vrancic C, Chan TCY, Sharp GC, Bortfeld T. Tumor trailing startegy for intensity-modulated radiation therapy of moving targets. Medical Physics 2008; 35:1718-1733

MacDonald SM, Safai S, Trofimov A, Wolfgang J, Fullerton B, Yeap BY, Bortfeld T, Tarbell NJ, Yock T. Proton radiotherapy for childhood ependymoma: initial clinical outcomes and dose comparisons. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2008; 71:979-987

Suit H, Kooy H,Trofimov A, Farr J, Munzenrider J, DeLaney T, Loeffler J, Clasie B, Safai S, Paganetti H. Should positive phase III clinical trial data be required before proton beam therapy is more widely adopted? No. Radiotherapy and Oncology 2008; 86:148-153.

Trofimov A, Nguyen PL, Coen JJ, Doppke KP, Schneider RJ, Adams JA, Bortfeld TR, Zietman AL, DeLaney TF, Shipley WU. Radiotherapy treatment of early stage prostate cancer with IMRT and protons: a treatment planning comparsion. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2007; 69:444-453 (follow-up: Letter to the Editor. In reply to Ms.Albertini et al. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2007; 69:1334-1335)

Sharp GC, Lu HM, Trofimov A, Tang X, Jiang SB, Turcotte J, Gierga DP, Chen GTY, Hong TS. Assessing residual motion for gated proton-beam radiotherapy.Journal of Radiation Research 2007; 48:A55-59.

Censor Y, Bortfeld T, Martin B, Trofimov A. A unified approach for inversion problems in intensity-modulated radiation therapy. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2006; 51:2353-65.

Trofimov A, Rietzel E, Lu H, Martin B, Jiang S, Chen G, Bortfeld T. Temporo-spatial IMRT optimization: Concepts, implementation and initial results. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2005; 50:2779-98.

Paganetti H, Jiang H, Trofimov A. 4D Monte Carlo simulation of proton beam scanning: modeling of variations in time and space to study the interplay between scanning pattern and time-dependent patient geometry. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2005; 50:983-90.

DeLaney TF, Trofimov AV, Engelsman M, Suit HD. Advanced-technology radiation therapy in the management of bone and soft tissue sarcomas. Cancer Control 2005; 12:27-35

Weber DC, Trofimov AV, Delaney TF, Bortfeld T. A treatment planning comparison of intensity modulated photon and proton therapy for paraspinal sarcomas. International Journal of Radiation Oncology Biology Physics 2004; 58:1596-606.

Suit H, Goldberg S, Niemierko A, Trofimov A, Adams J, Paganetti H, Chen GTY, Bortfeld T, Rosenthal S, Loeffler J, DeLaney T. Protons to Replace Photon Beams in Radical Dose Treatments. Acta Oncologica 2003; 42:800-8.

Trofimov A, Bortfeld T. Optimization of beam parameters and treatment planning for intensity modulated proton therapy. Technology in Cancer Research and Treatment 2003; 2:437-44.

Trofimov A, Bortfeld T. Beam delivery sequencing for intensity modulated proton therapy. Physics in Medicine and Biology 2003; 48:1321-31.

Publications in High-Energy Physics (with g-2 Collaboration, Brookhaven National Laboratory)

Bennett GW, et al. Improved limit on the muon electric dipole moment. Physical Review D 2009; 80:052008.

Bennett GW et al. Search for Lorentz and CPT violation effects in muon spin precession. Physical Review Letters 2008; 100:091602.

Bennett GW et al Statistical equations and methods applied to the precision muon (g-2) experiment at BNL. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 2007; 579:1096-1116.

Bennett GW et al. Final report of the E821 muon anomalous magnetic moment measurement at BNL. Physical Review D 2006; 73:072003.

Bennett GW et al. Measurement of the negative muon anomalous moment to 0.7 ppm. Physical Review Letters 2004; 92:161802.

Bennett GW et al. Measurement of the positive muon anomalous moment to 0.7 ppm. Physical Review Letters 2002; 89:101804.

Brown HN et al. Precise measurement of the positive muon anomalous magnetic moment. Physical Review Letters 2001; 86:2227-31.

Sedykh SA et al. Electromagnetic calorimeters for the BNL muon (g-2) experiment. Nuclear Instruments and Methods A 2000; 455:346-60.

Brown HN et al. Improved measurement of the positive muon anomalous magnetic moment. Physical Review D 2000; 62:091101.

Carey RM et al. New measurement of the anomalous magnetic moment of the positive muon. Physical Review Letters 1999; 82:1632-35.

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Guest Essay

Skepticism Is Healthy, but in Medicine, It Can Be Dangerous

By Daniela J. Lamas

Dr. Lamas, a contributing Opinion writer, is a pulmonary and critical-care physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston.

I arrived at the hospital one recent morning to find a team of doctors gathered just outside a patient room. The patient was struggling — his breaths too fast and too shallow. For days we had been trying to walk the line between treating the pain caused by his rapidly growing cancer and prolonging his life.

Overnight he had worsened. His family, wrestling with the inevitability of his death, had come to a tentative plan, and I needed to make sure that his wife understood what was ahead. I explained that if we inserted a breathing tube, as she had decided overnight, her husband would be sedated. When the rest of their family arrived in Boston, we would take out the tube and he would die. We would not be able to wake him up — to do so would only cause him to suffer.

At this, his wife stiffened. Why wouldn’t he be able to wake up? I explained that his cancer was so advanced that to wake him would be to give him the conscious awareness of drowning. I watched as she took me in, this doctor she had never met before, telling her something she did not want to hear. Her expression shifted. “Why should I believe you?” she asked me. And then, her voice toughening: “I don’t think that I do.”

The room was silent. My patient’s wife looked into her bag, rooting around for a tissue. I glanced down at my feet. Why should she believe me? I was wearing sneakers with my scrub pants, and I found myself wondering whether she would have trusted me without question if I appeared more professional, or if I were older or male. Perhaps, but there was so much more at play in that moment. This was not just about one doctor and one family member, but instead, about a public for whom the medical system is no longer an institution to be trusted.

We are at a crossroads in medicine when it comes to public trust. After a pandemic that twisted science for political gain, it is not surprising that confidence in medicine is eroding. In fact, trust in medical scientists has fallen to its lowest levels since January 2019. As a result, more people are seeking out less conventional voices of “authority” that hew closer to their beliefs. Robert F. Kennedy Jr., a longtime vaccine skeptic campaigning for the presidency, is finding double-digit support in some polls and has made medical freedom a recurring theme of his candidacy.

But our medical system relies on trust — in face-to-face meetings as well as public health bulletins. Distrust can lead doctors to burnout and can encourage avoidable negative outcomes for our patients. This is partly what is driving increasing rates of measles among unvaccinated children , failure to follow recommended cancer screening and refusal to take lifesaving preventive medications . There are no easy solutions here. But if we do not find ways to restore and strengthen trust with our patients, more lives will be lost.

This is relatively new terrain for American physicians. When I was in medical training, we did not talk much about trust. During my early years as a doctor, I barely trusted myself and in fact felt uncomfortable with the responsibility I had to keep my patients alive. Only recently have I found myself thinking about what happens when this ephemeral ingredient in the doctor-patient relationship is lost.

Medical skepticism is not the same as medical nihilism. The data behind the drugs doctors prescribe and the decisions we make need not be the purview of us alone; the public has the right to review the numbers and to make their own decisions about risk and benefit. But when that skepticism shifts into abject and irreparable disbelief, we see some patients make dangerous decisions. And when doctors respond with frustration, that only further separates us from those patients.

Trust can sometimes be repaired by clearly presenting facts and figures, but it is about more than explaining numbers. We tell patients things about the body that are unseen. We recommend lifestyle changes and medication to treat or to prevent problems that may not be felt. Surgeons refer to a profound version of trust called the surgical contract: the idea that when people go under the knife, they are allowing their surgeon to make them sicker — to cut them open — in order to make them better. That trust must be earned.

In emergencies, patients don’t have the luxury to choose whom to trust, and medical decisions must happen hastily, in minutes even. So part of our job is to build rapport quickly. That becomes harder, impossible even, when we enter into the climax of a medical crisis to find that whatever trust our patient may have once had long ago has been eroded. Many of our patients started their medical journeys wanting to believe in their doctors. But then the medical system that they wanted to trust failed them, in small ways and large, from haphazardly rescheduled appointments to real medical error. How do we begin the process of repair, both as a profession and as individuals, when time is short?

In medicine, we talk about the idea of shared decision-making, in which medical decisions are arrived at jointly by doctor and patient, in contrast to the paternalistic tone of years gone by. As doctors, we do not tell our patients what to do — instead we offer them the information necessary for them to choose the path that is right for them.

For all our training, our medical knowledge is useless if our patients are unwilling or unable to believe what we have to offer. And that isn’t a fault of our patients, no matter how bothered we might become. This is a fault of a system that does not deserve our patients’ blind faith, of a surrounding political milieu that has turned scientific fact into fiction in many people’s minds.

That is how I found myself in that room, early that one morning, with my patient’s wife, her disbelief and the weight of the decision hanging between us. I knew so little about her. I did not know her history or her interactions with the medical system. I did not know the story of her husband’s diagnosis and treatment, or whether he had struggled to find care for his cancer. In our fractured system, I was just meeting her that day. I had no way to make her trust me, except to sit with her, to give her what little time with her husband we could. And to hope that regardless of what came before, she would choose to believe what I was telling her.

I am not certain what she believed, but she chose against intubation. Her husband lived until the rest of his family came anyway. And when he died, they left without a word, carrying with them his bags of belongings and — I can only hope — faith that we had done the best we could.

Daniela Lamas is a contributing Opinion writer and a pulmonary and critical-care physician at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

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AAOS Now / Issue: March-April 2024 / youraaos06

Paul Tornetta III, MD, PhD, Named 92nd President of AAOS

AAOS announced Boston orthopaedic trauma surgeon Paul Tornetta III, MD, PhD, FAAOS, as its new president for 2024–2025. Dr. Tornetta takes this top leadership role in his third year of a 4-year term of volunteer service on the Board of Directors. He assumed the position following the AAOS 2024 Annual Meeting.

Dr. Tornetta serves as the director of orthopaedic trauma at Boston Medical Center as well as professor and chair of the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery at the Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine of Boston University. He describes himself as a “blue-collar surgeon” who takes pride in promoting a shared decision-making model with patients and fostering lifelong professional learning for surgeons.

Dr. Tornetta is a highly respected professor known for his passion for teaching and efforts to advance orthopaedic education, training, and surgical techniques. His reputation for fairness and transparency has earned him numerous recognitions. At Boston University, orthopaedic residents selected him four times to receive the annual Robert E. Leach, MD, Resident Teacher of the Year Award. He has earned distinction as a Castle Connolly Top Doctor every year since 1999 and a Boston Magazine Top Doc since 2006. He is past president of the Orthopaedic Trauma Association and served on the executive committee of the American Orthopaedic Association for more than a decade.

Among his many AAOS volunteer positions, he previously served as a member-at-large on the Board of Directors, chaired the Education Council for 4 years, and was past chair of the Annual Meeting Committee and former Evaluations Committee. In 2022, his leadership in the collaboration among AAOS, the American Board of Orthopaedic Surgery, the Council of Orthopaedic Residency Directors, and the AAOS Resident Assembly was instrumental in launching the AAOS Resident Orthopaedic Core Knowledge (ROCK) curriculum.

Dr. Tornetta has published more than 350 peer-reviewed papers and leads the Orthopaedic Trauma Research Consortium. The consortium focuses on large-scale studies to improve surgical best practices for some of the most common musculoskeletal diseases. He has been a steering committee member for trials that were recognized with the Orthopaedic Research and Education Foundation Clinical Research Award (2010) and the AAOS Kappa Delta Ann Doner Vaughn Award (2020, 2023). He is also the recipient of multiple Bovill Awards, given to the top paper at the Orthopaedic Trauma Association annual meeting.

Dr. Tornetta earned his medical degree and completed his internship and orthopaedic residency training at the State University of New York Health Science Center in Brooklyn, New York. After a fellowship at Hospital of the Good Samaritan in Los Angeles, he was appointed director of orthopaedic trauma at Kings County Hospital Center and the University Hospital of Brooklyn before moving to Boston Medical Center.