problem solving and are developed during the fourth stage

Piaget’s Stages: 4 Stages of Cognitive Development & Theory

You’re trying to explain something to a child, and even though it seems so obvious to you, the child just doesn’t seem to understand.

They repeat the same mistake, over and over, and you become increasingly frustrated.

Well, guess what?

• The child is not naughty.
• They’re also not stupid.
• But their lack of understanding is not your fault either.

Their cognitive development limits their ability to understand certain concepts. Specifically, they’re not capable right now of understanding what you’re trying to explain.

In this post, we’ll learn more about Jean Piaget, a famous psychologist whose ideas about cognitive development in children were extremely influential. We’ll cover quite a lot in this post, so make sure you have a cup of coffee and you’re sitting somewhere comfortable.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

Who was jean piaget in psychology, piaget’s cognitive development theory, 1. the sensorimotor stage, 2. the preoperational stage, 3. the concrete operational stage, 4. the formal operational stage, piaget’s theory vs erikson’s, 5 important concepts in piaget’s work, applications in education (+3 classroom games), positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who contributed greatly to the understanding of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

He was born in 1896 and originally trained as a biologist and philosopher. Although he is well known for his work as a psychologist, he also published research on sparrows and mollusks (Burman, 2012; Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Piaget’s contribution to psychology was mainly through his observations of children’s cognitive development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Early in his career, Piaget scored the IQ tests that Alfred Binet administered to children.

Piaget noticed that children of certain ages tended to give the same types of incorrect answers. From these observations and follow-up interviews with children about these mistakes, he developed a theory of how children’s cognitive processes developed (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

One of the most important implications of his work is that children are not born with the same cognitive processes as adults (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Instead, children’s cognitive processes:

• develop over time,
• develop in response to their environment, and
• are updated with exposure to new information.

Piaget also influenced psychology in other ways. For example, he emphasized other methods of conducting research, such as the clinical method (Papalia & Feldman, 2011; Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He relied upon the following research methods:

• Naturalistic observation of play and conversation between children (including his own)
• Interviewing children

Additionally, he was the first psychologist to study ‘theory of mind’ in children (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Theory of mind is the understanding or basic sense that each of us has our own consciousness and thoughts.

Specifically, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the next, their behavior also changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.

The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only occurs after the one before it.

These stages are:

• Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years old)
• Preoperational stage (2–7 years old)
• Concrete operational stage (7–11 years old)
• Formal operational stage (11 years old through adulthood)

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The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor activities.

The sensorimotor stage comprises six substages, where children’s behavior moves from being reflex driven to more abstract. Each substage is described briefly.

1. Use of reflexes (0–2 months)

During this stage, children typically use their reflexes. They cannot consolidate information from their sensory organs into a single, unified concept.

2. Primary circular reactions (1–4 months)

Children start to consolidate information from different sensory organs. They start to engage in behavior that satisfies the way their body feels or their needs. For example, they repeat pleasurable behaviors, and they adapt their behavior to feed from different objects. They turn to respond to sounds and sights in their environment.

3. Secondary circular reactions (4–8 months)

Children’s behaviors become more intentional, and the types of behaviors that they repeat expand to include those that result in interesting responses external to their body. For example, they might push buttons on a toy. Children also start to take more interest in their environment. They repeat behaviors that generate interesting responses.

4. Coordination of secondary schemes (8–12 months)

At this point, children’s behaviors become more goal oriented, and they can combine different behaviors to achieve goals.

5. Tertiary circular reactions (12–18 months)

Instead of performing the same actions, children try new behaviors and actions to achieve different results. These behaviors are not spontaneous or by accident, but are purposeful. Unlike primary and secondary reactions, children can combine more complicated behaviors and even perform a behavior similarly but not the same to get the desired result.

6. Mental combinations (18–24 months)

Children start to rely on mental abstractions to solve problems, use gestures and words to communicate, and can pretend. Instead of relying on numerous attempts to solve problems/puzzles, children can deliberate and carefully choose their actions.

At the age of two, children enter the preoperational stage, where their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people, improves greatly.

Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking about events that happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.

Other interesting cognitive advances occur during this phase. For example, children understand causality. Children also understand identities, where items and people remain the same even if they look different. For example, at some point during this stage, a caregiver dressing up as Santa Claus might not be as convincing.

In this stage, children also learn more about categorization. They can classify items based on similarities or differences. They also start to understand numbers and quantity (e.g., concepts such as ‘more’ or ‘bigger’).

Although abstract thought advances quickly in the preoperational stage, other cognitive processes develop more slowly.

For example:

• Children tend to consider their own viewpoint and perspective.
• Children fail to understand that two things can be the same, even if they appear different (more about this in the next section on Conservation).
• Children struggle to take someone else’s point of view.

The next phase is the concrete operational stage, which begins around the age of seven. During this stage, children are more capable of solving problems because they can consider numerous outcomes and perspectives. All of their cognitive abilities are better developed in this stage.

• Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension, understand that categories have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other through a third object.
• Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated mathematical operations.
• Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance. They can read maps and describe how to navigate from one location to another.

Conservation

During this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a result, are better at solving conservation problems. Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look different.

An example would be a cup of water poured into two glasses. One glass is tall and thin, while the other is short and wide. Recognizing that both glasses contain the same amount of water shows an understanding of conservation.

Children in the preoperational stage struggle with problems of conservation. For example, they struggle with tasks where the following is conserved even it appears different:

• Number of items (e.g., two sets of 10 items arranged differently)
• The volume of liquid (e.g., the same volume of liquid in two differently shaped glasses)

Children struggle with conservation because they can only focus on one dimension at a time; this is known as centering. For example, with the volume of liquid, they can only consider the shape of the glass, but not the shape of the glass and the volume of water.

They also do not yet understand reversibility. Irreversibility refers to a child’s inability to reverse the steps of an action in their mind, returning an object to its previous state. For example, pouring the water out of the glass back into the original cup would demonstrate the volume of the water, but children in the preoperational stage cannot understand this.

In contrast, children in the concrete operational stage can solve conservation problems. This is because children now have the following cognitive abilities:

• They understand reversibility (i.e., items can be returned to original states).
• They can decenter (i.e., concentrate on multiple dimensions of items, rather than just one).
• They better understand identity (i.e., an item remains the same even if it looks different).

Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not limited to a current time, person, or situation.

They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations that don’t exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical.

During this stage, children are capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows them to test hypotheses and draw conclusions from the results. Unlike younger children who haphazardly approach problems, children in the formal operational stage can apply their reasoning skills to apply more complicated problems in a systematic, logical manner.

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Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is one of several theories about how children develop. Other contrasting theories include Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, and importantly for this post, Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development.

Differences

Unlike Piaget, who focused on cognitive development, Erikson emphasized healthy ego development (Papalia & Feldman, 2011). Healthy egos are developed when people resolve specific personality issues at set periods in their lives.

Specifically, each developmental stage is characterized by two conflicting personality traits, one positive and one negative. Successful resolution occurs when the positive trait is more emphasized than the other, resulting in the development of a virtue, which aids healthy resolution of subsequent stages.

As an example, between 12 and 18 months, children experience two feelings: trust and mistrust. If they resolve this crisis by balancing a healthy level of trust with mistrust, then they develop the virtue of ‘hope.’

Overall, Erikson proposed eight personality crises, five of which occur before the age of 18:

• Basic trust versus mistrust ( 0–12/18 months)
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt (12/18 months–3 years)
• Initiative versus guilt (3–6 years)
• Industry versus inferiority (6 years–puberty)
• Identity versus identity confusion (puberty–young adulthood)

Not all of the developmental stages in Erikson’s theory correspond to the cognitive stages proposed by Piaget. For example, Piaget’s preoperational stages overlap with the second and third stages in Erikson’s theories.

Similarities

Like Piaget, Erikson also emphasized that children’s development occurs through interacting with the external environment, but Erikson’s stages focus more on societal influences. Both Piaget and Erikson emphasized that children are active participants in their world and that development occurs in stages.

Schemas and constructivism

Piaget argued that children learn about the world by interacting with it. This notion of gaining knowledge about the world is known as constructivism (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).

Through their interactions, children construct schemas – or cognitive patterns – about how the world works (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). These schemas come about through organization, which is how categories are formed, organizing items together based on common characteristics.

According to Piaget schemas can then be repeated and tested. For example, an infant has a schema about a rattle: shake it, and it makes a noise.

Importantly, schemas are not static, and they can be improved and updated with new information. When children learn new information, they do not disregard their previous schemas; instead, they build upon them. As a result, children’s cognitive development happens in stages as schemas are continuously updated with new information.

Adaptation describes how children update their current cognitive organizations and schemas with new information. Adaptation takes place in two ways: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation

Assimilation describes how children incorporate new information into existing schemas. For example, a child refers to dogs as ‘woofs.’ When they see a cat for the first time, they refer to the cat as a ‘woof’ too.

Accommodation

Accommodation describes how children adapt their cognitive structures to match new information in the world. Continuing with the previous example, the child realizes that dogs and cats are different. The child updates their cognitive schema of the world, and now refers to cats as ‘cats’ and dogs as ‘woofs’.

Equilibrium

Piaget’s background as a biologist influenced some of his work, notably the concept of ‘equilibrium,’ which resembles homeostasis (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017). He posited that children’s cognitive processes are aimed toward equilibrium. When children learn new information that is at odds with their current schemas, they are in an undesirable state of disequilibrium.

To achieve equilibrium, children adapt their mental instructions by:

• Assimilating new information
• Accommodating new information by updating their cognitive schemas

By achieving equilibrium, children learn new information.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

One premise of constructivism is that knowledge about the world is gained and made sense of through active participation. In other words, children are not passive recipients of knowledge. They’re not empty vessels waiting to be filled with knowledge. Instead, children’s knowledge is generated when they interact with the world (Yilmaz, 2008).

Some of the education implications of this concept are that children cannot be expected to ‘just sit down and learn’ and that teaching methods that emphasize passive learning are discouraged.

An example of passive learning is reading a text without engaging with it, debating with it, or trying to connect it to real life. Instead, teaching rooted in Piaget’s theories emphasizes that children learn by interacting. Here are some examples:

• Physical interaction (e.g., seeing and touching insects when learning about them)
• Verbal interaction (e.g., talking about how new learning material connects to everyday experiences)
• Abstract interaction (e.g., thinking about new ideas, wrestling with difficult or challenging topics, imitating or acting out concepts/ideas/people)

Play theory

Piaget (1951) argued that play is vital for children’s learning. Play is an example of assimilation, and imitation is an example of accommodation.

He argued that there are three types of games that children can play based on their cognitive development:

• Practice games
• Symbolic games
• Games with rules

Practice games include the repetition of a particular set of actions for pure enjoyment. Although it might not seem like much, these practice games are very important for cognitive development.

Symbolic games involve make-believe scenarios and characters, and appear during the preoperational stage.

Rule-based games appear later during the concrete operational stage. As well as abstract elements, these games also include rules and consequences for violating them.

Classroom games

It’s important to tailor classroom games to match the overall development stage of the children.

For very young children in the sensorimotor stage, classroom games that rely on repetition and interesting results are best. In these games, the child repeatedly demonstrates a new skill or behavior that they have learned, reinforcing the behavior . Examples include splashing water, kicking leaves, shaking a rattle or toys, and playing with music instruments.

For children in the preoperational stage, classroom games that involve imitation are useful ways to teach new concepts. For example, children can learn about animals by pretending to be different animals (e.g., ‘roar like a lion,’ ‘jump like a frog’).

Children can also learn about social skills and social interactions by acting out certain social situations, like pretending to be a shopkeeper. Symbolic games are also used when children pretend one item is something else; for example, pretending that a stick is a lightsaber.

Rule-based games are more suitable for older children. These games can teach concepts like theory of mind, because they encourage decentering (DeVries & Kamii, 1975).

For example, in ‘Simon Says,’ children learn to watch the teacher and know that if they don’t follow the teacher, they are out. Typically, young children don’t understand rule-based games and are not good at counting or numbers.

This is why, for example, very young children don’t understand that there is a penalty for one child in ‘Musical Chairs’ (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). Young children will enjoy the game if the penalty is removed and the chairs stay the same.

Other ways that games can facilitate learning is by allowing children to make up the rules (DeVries & Kamii, 1975). New toys related to the concepts that they’re learning about should be available when children engage in unstructured play without the assistance of the teacher.

For more on this, we recommend reading our article How to Promote Cognitive Development: 23 Activities & Games .

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At PositivePsychology.com, you’ll find lots of exercises, tasks, and activities that you can use in the classroom. We’ve highlighted these two as examples.

The Nice Things tool is useful in teaching children compassion. Children are encouraged to recall something ‘nice.’ It could be something nice that happened to them or something nice that they did. Children are also encouraged to share these nice things with each other and the class.

Since this task requires that children have mental/abstract representations of other people and things, it is more applicable for children in the preoperational and concrete operational stages.

In the Shuffle game, children learn how to resolve conflict. In this game, the play area is marked out with a set of items. Each child starts at one item, and an extra player is in the middle. At the start of the game, children have to move to another item.

However, if two children reach the same item simultaneously, they resolve this by playing Rock–Paper–Scissors. Since this is a rule-based game, it is best suited to children in the concrete operational stage; younger children will not understand the consequences of losing Rock–Paper–Scissors.

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Knowing that children’s learning and understanding are limited by their cognitive development, what can you do the next time you explain something?

• Use simple, age-appropriate examples.
• Explain concepts simply, considering the limitations of each cognitive stage.
• Encourage discussion and creativity so that they create meaningful interactions and memories.

Most importantly, remember that children are not born as ‘mini-adults.’ They do not have adult cognitive abilities, and they do not have the lifetime of experiences for these abilities to develop.

Instead, to learn, they need to participate actively with their world and the people in it. They must be exposed to new experiences and information for learning to occur, and importantly, they must have the opportunities to make mistakes.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Burman, J. T. (2012). Jean Piaget: Images of a life and his factory. History of Psychology , 15 (3), 283–288.
• DeVries, R., & Kamii, C. (1975). Why group games? A Piagetian perspective . ERIC Clearinghouse.
• Papalia, D. E., & Feldman, R. D. (2011). A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence  (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
• Piaget, J. (1951). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood (vol. 25). Routledge.
• Waite-Stupiansky, S. (2017). Jean Piaget’s constructivist theory of learning. In L. E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (Eds.), Theories of early childhood education: Developmental, behaviorist, and critical (pp. 3–17). Routledge.
• Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its theoretical underpinnings, variations, and implications for classroom instruction. Educational Horizons , 86 (3), 161–172.

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Cognitive Development Theory: What Are the Stages?

Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, formal operational stage.

Cognitive development is the process by which we come to acquire, understand, organize, and learn to use information in various ways. Cognitive development helps a child obtain the skills needed to live a productive life and function as an independent adult.

The late Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was a major figure in the study of cognitive development theory in children. He believed that it occurs in four stages—sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

This article discusses Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, including important concepts and principles.

FatCamera / Getty Images

History of Cognitive Development

During the 1920s, the psychologist Jean Piaget was given the task of translating English intelligence tests into French. During this process, he observed that children think differently than adults do and have a different view of the world. He began to study children from birth through the teenage years—observing children who were too young to talk, and interviewing older children while he also observed their development.

Piaget published his theory of cognitive development in 1936. This theory is based on the idea that a child’s intelligence changes throughout childhood and cognitive skills—including memory, attention, thinking, problem-solving, logical reasoning, reading, listening, and more—are learned as a child grows and interacts with their environment.

Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory suggests that cognitive development occurs in four stages as a child ages. These stages are always completed in order, but last longer for some children than others. Each stage builds on the skills learned in the previous stage.

The four stages of cognitive development include:

• Sensorimotor
• Preoperational
• Concrete operational
• Formal operational

The sensorimotor stage begins at birth and lasts until 18 to 24 months of age. During the sensorimotor stage, children are physically exploring their environment and absorbing information through their senses of smell, sight, touch, taste, and sound.

The most important skill gained in the sensorimotor stage is object permanence, which means that the child knows that an object still exists even when they can't see it anymore. For example, if a toy is covered up by a blanket, the child will know the toy is still there and will look for it. Without this skill, the child thinks that the toy has simply disappeared.

Language skills also begin to develop during the sensorimotor stage.

Activities to Try During the Sensorimotor Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the sensorimotor stage include:

• Playing peek-a-boo
• Reading books
• Providing toys with a variety of textures
• Singing songs
• Playing with musical instruments
• Rolling a ball back and forth

The preoperational stage of Piaget's theory of cognitive development occurs between ages 2 and 7 years. Early on in this stage, children learn the skill of symbolic representation. This means that an object or word can stand for something else. For example, a child might play "house" with a cardboard box.

At this stage, children assume that other people see the world and experience emotions the same way they do, and their main focus is on themselves. This is called egocentrism .

Centrism is another characteristic of the preoperational stage. This means that a child is only able to focus on one aspect of a problem or situation. For example, a child might become upset that a friend has more pieces of candy than they do, even if their pieces are bigger.

During this stage, children will often play next to each other—called parallel play—but not with each other. They also believe that inanimate objects, such as toys, have human lives and feelings.

Activities to Try During the Preoperational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the preoperational stage include:

• Playing "house" or "school"
• Building a fort
• Playing with Play-Doh
• Building with blocks
• Playing charades

The concrete operational stage occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years. During this stage, a child develops the ability to think logically and problem-solve but can only apply these skills to objects they can physically see—things that are "concrete."

Six main concrete operations develop in this stage. These include:

• Conservation : This skill means that a child understands that the amount of something or the number of a particular object stays the same, even when it looks different. For example, a cup of milk in a tall glass looks different than the same amount of milk in a short glass—but the amount did not change.
• Classification : This skill is the ability to sort items by specific classes, such as color, shape, or size.
• Seriation : This skill involves arranging objects in a series, or a logical order. For example, the child could arrange blocks in order from smallest to largest.
• Reversibility : This skill is the understanding that a process can be reversed. For example, a balloon can be blown up with air and then deflated back to the way it started.
• Decentering : This skill allows a child to focus on more than one aspect of a problem or situation at the same time. For example, two candy bars might look the same on the outside, but the child knows that they have different flavors on the inside.
• Transitivity : This skill provides an understanding of how things relate to each other. For example, if John is older than Susan, and Susan is older than Joey, then John is older than Joey.

Activities to Try During the Concrete Operational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the concrete operational stage include:

• Using measuring cups (for example, demonstrate how one cup of water fills two half-cups)
• Solving simple logic problems
• Practicing basic math
• Doing crossword puzzles
• Playing board games

The last stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development occurs during the teenage years into adulthood. During this stage, a person learns abstract thinking and hypothetical problem-solving skills.

Deductive reasoning—or the ability to make a conclusion based on information gained from a person's environment—is also learned in this stage. This means, for example, that a person can identify the differences between dogs of various breeds, instead of putting them all in a general category of "dogs."

Activities to Try During the Formal Operational Stage

Appropriate activities to do during the formal operational stage include:

• Learning to cook
• Solving crossword and logic puzzles
• Exploring hobbies
• Playing a musical instrument

Piaget's theory of cognitive development is based on the belief that a child gains thinking skills in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. These stages roughly correspond to specific ages, from birth to adulthood. Children progress through these stages at different paces, but according to Piaget, they are always completed in order.

National Library of Medicine. Cognitive testing . MedlinePlus.

Oklahoma State University. Cognitive development: The theory of Jean Piaget .

SUNY Cortland. Sensorimotor stage .

Marwaha S, Goswami M, Vashist B. Prevalence of principles of Piaget’s theory among 4-7-year-old children and their correlation with IQ . J Clin Diagn Res. 2017;11(8):ZC111-ZC115. doi:10.7860%2FJCDR%2F2017%2F28435.10513

Börnert-Ringleb M, Wilbert J. The association of strategy use and concrete-operational thinking in primary school . Front Educ. 2018;0. doi:10.3389/feduc.2018.00038

By Aubrey Bailey, PT, DPT, CHT Dr, Bailey is a Virginia-based physical therapist and professor of anatomy and physiology with over a decade of experience.

Piaget Learning Theory: Stages Of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s stages of cognitive development include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stage.

by TeachThought Staff

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist and one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology.

Piaget is best known for his pioneering work on the cognitive development of children. His research revolutionized our understanding of how children learn and grow intellectually. He proposed that children actively construct their knowledge through stages, each characterized by distinct ways of thinking and understanding the world.

His theory, ‘Piaget’s stages of cognitive development,’ has profoundly impacted formal education, emphasizing the importance of tailoring teaching methods to a child’s cognitive developmental stage rather than expecting all children to learn similarly.

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development outlines a series of developmental stages that children progress through as they grow and mature. This theory suggests that children actively construct their understanding of the world and distinct cognitive abilities and ways of thinking characterize these stages. The four main stages are the sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years), the preoperational stage (2 to 7 years), the concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years), and the formal operational stage (11 years and beyond).

See also Levels Of Integration Of Critical Thinking

A Quick Summary Of Piaget’s Stages Of Cognitive Development

In the sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers learn about the world through their senses and actions, gradually developing object permanence. The preoperational stage is marked by the emergence of symbolic thought and the use of language, although logical thinking is limited. The concrete operational stage sees children begin to think more logically about concrete events and objects.

Finally, in the formal operational stage, adolescents and adults can think abstractly and hypothetically, allowing for more complex problem-solving and reasoning. Piaget’s theory has influenced teaching methods that align with students’ cognitive development at different ages and stages of intellectual growth.

Piaget’s Four Stages Of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Stage 1: Sensorimotor

Piaget’s sensorimotor stage is the initial developmental stage, typically occurring from birth to around two years of age, during which infants and toddlers primarily learn about the world through their senses and physical actions.

Key features of this stage include the development of object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not visible, and the gradual formation of simple mental representations. Initially, infants engage in reflexive behaviors, but as they progress through this stage, they begin to intentionally coordinate their sensory perceptions and motor skills, exploring and manipulating their environment. This stage is marked by significant cognitive growth as children transition from purely instinctual reactions to more purposeful and coordinated interactions with their surroundings.

One example of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage is when a baby plays peek-a-boo with a caregiver. In the early months, an infant lacks a sense of object permanence. When an object, like the caregiver’s face, disappears from their view, they may act as if it no longer exists. So, when the caregiver covers their face with their hands during a peek-a-boo game, the baby might respond with surprise or mild distress.

As the baby progresses through the sensorimotor stage, typically around 8 to 12 months, they begin to develop object permanence. When the caregiver hides their face, the baby understands that the caregiver’s face still exists, even though it’s temporarily out of sight. The baby may react with anticipation and excitement when the caregiver uncovers their face, demonstrating their evolving ability to form mental representations and grasp the concept of object permanence.

This progression in understanding is a key feature of the sensorimotor stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Piaget’s Stage 2: Preoperational

Piaget’s preoperational stage is the second stage of cognitive development, typically occurring from around 2 to 7 years of age, where children begin to develop symbolic thinking and language skills. During this stage, children can represent objects and ideas using words, images, and symbols, enabling them to engage in pretend play and communicate more effectively.

However, their thinking is characterized by egocentrism, where they struggle to consider other people’s perspectives, and they exhibit animistic thinking, attributing human qualities to inanimate objects. They also lack the ability for concrete logic and struggle with tasks that require understanding conservation, such as recognizing that the volume of a liquid remains the same when poured into different containers.

The Preoperational stage represents a significant shift in cognitive development as children transition from basic sensorimotor responses to more advanced symbolic and representational thought.

One example of Piaget’s preoperational stage is a child’s understanding of ‘conservation.’

Imagine you have two glasses, one tall and narrow and the other short and wide. You pour the same amount of liquid into both glasses to contain the same volume of liquid. A child in the preoperational stage, when asked whether the amount of liquid is the same in both glasses, might say that the taller glass has more liquid because it looks taller. This demonstrates the child’s inability to understand the principle of conservation, which is the idea that even if the appearance of an object changes (in this case, the shape of the glass), the quantity remains the same.

In the preoperational stage, children are often focused on the most prominent perceptual aspects of a situation and struggle with more abstract or logical thinking, making it difficult for them to grasp conservation concepts.

Piaget’s Stage 3: Concrete Operational

Piaget’s Concrete Operational stage is the third stage of cognitive development, typically occurring from around 7 to 11 years of age, where children demonstrate improved logical thinking and problem-solving abilities, particularly in relation to concrete, tangible experiences.

During this stage, they can understand concepts such as conservation (e.g., recognizing that the volume of liquid remains the same when poured into different containers), and reversibility (e.g., understanding that an action can be undone). They can perform basic mental operations like addition and subtraction. They become more capable of considering different perspectives, are less egocentric, and can engage in more structured and organized thought processes. Yet, they may still struggle with abstract or hypothetical reasoning, a skill that emerges in the subsequent formal operational stage.

Imagine two identical containers filled with the same amount of water. You pour the water from one of the containers into a taller, narrower glass and pour the water from the other into a shorter, wider glass. A child in the concrete operational stage would be able to recognize that the two glasses still contain the same amount of water despite their different shapes. Children can understand that the physical appearance of the containers (tall and narrow vs. short and wide) doesn’t change the quantity of the liquid.

This ability to grasp the concept of conservation is a hallmark of concrete operational thinking, as children become more adept at logical thought related to real, concrete situations.

Stage 4: The Formal Operational Stage

Piaget’s Formal Operational stage is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development, typically emerging around 11 years and continuing into adulthood. During this stage, individuals gain the capacity for abstract and hypothetical thinking. They can solve complex problems, think critically, and reason about concepts and ideas unrelated to concrete experiences. They can engage in deductive reasoning, considering multiple possibilities and potential outcomes.

This stage allows for advanced cognitive abilities like understanding scientific principles, planning for the future, and contemplating moral and ethical dilemmas. It represents a significant shift from concrete to abstract thinking, enabling individuals to explore and understand the world more comprehensively and imaginatively.

An Example Of The Formal Operation Stage

One example of Piaget’s Formal Operational stage involves a teenager’s ability to think abstractly and hypothetically.

Imagine presenting a teenager with a classic moral dilemma, such as the ‘trolley problem.’ In this scenario, they are asked to consider whether it’s morally acceptable to pull a lever to divert a trolley away from a track where it would hit five people, but in doing so, it would then hit one person on another track. A teenager in the formal operational stage can engage in abstract moral reasoning, considering various ethical principles and potential consequences, without relying solely on concrete, personal experiences.

They might ponder utilitarianism, deontology, or other ethical frameworks, and they can think about the hypothetical outcomes of their decisions.

This abstract and hypothetical thinking is a hallmark of the formal operational stage, demonstrating the capacity to reason and reflect on complex, non-concrete issues.

How Teachers Can Use Piaget’s Stages Of Development in The Classroom

1. Individual Differences

Understand that children in a classroom may be at different stages of development. Tailor your teaching to accommodate these differences. Provide a variety of activities and approaches to cater to various cognitive levels.

2. Constructivism

Recognize that Piaget’s theory is rooted in constructivism, meaning children actively build their knowledge through experiences. Encourage hands-on learning and exploration, as this aligns with Piaget’s emphasis on learning through interaction with the environment.

3. Scaffolding

Be prepared to scaffold instruction. Students in the earlier stages (sensorimotor and preoperational) may need more guidance and support. As they progress to concrete and formal operational stages, gradually increase the complexity of tasks and give them more independence.

4. Concrete Examples

Students benefit from concrete examples and real-world applications in the concrete operational stage. Use concrete materials and practical problems to help them grasp abstract concepts. 

5. Active Learning

Promote active learning. Encourage students to think critically, solve problems, and make connections. Use open-ended questions and encourage discussions that help students move from concrete thinking to abstract reasoning in the formal operational stage.

6. Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

Ensure that your curriculum aligns with the students’ cognitive abilities. Introduce abstract concepts progressively and link new learning to previous knowledge. 

7. Respect for Differences

Be patient and respectful of individual differences in development. Some students may grasp concepts earlier or later than others, and that’s entirely normal.

8. Assessment

Develop assessment strategies that match the students’ developmental stages. Assess their understanding using methods that are appropriate to their cognitive abilities.

9. Professional Development

Teachers can stay updated on the latest child development and education research by attending professional development workshops and collaborating with colleagues to continually refine their teaching practices.

TeachThought is an organization dedicated to innovation in education through the growth of outstanding teachers.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Categories Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children progress through a series of stages of mental development. The theory outlines four distinct stages from birth through adolescence, focusing on how children acquire knowledge, reasoning, language, morals, and memory.

Piaget’s stages of development are:

Table of Contents

An Overview of Jean Piaget’s Theory

The theory was the work of Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist who became the first to conduct systematic research on children’s cognitive development. This theory had a tremendous impact on the fields of developmental psychology and education.

What made Piaget’s stages so unique and revolutionary?

• Piaget was one of the first to suggest that the way children think is fundamentally different than that of adults. Prior to Piaget, the prevailing belief was that children were smaller versions of adults and that their thinking was simply less competent than that of adults. Piaget’s work demonstrated that children think about the world differently than adults do.
• Piaget’s stages suggest that kids actively participate and construct their knowledge. Rather than believing that children passively take in what they observe, Piaget believed that kids play an active role in learning about the world around them.
• Each of Piaget’s stages is marked by distinctive shifts in how kids think. His theory describes four stages of cognitive development that children go through as they learn more about the world.
• During the earliest stages of development, children learn about the world primarily through their senses. As development progresses, children’s intellectual abilities become increasingly sophisticated, eventually allowing them to think and reason about abstract concepts and problems.

How Did Jean Piaget’s Theory Develop?

Piaget’s fascination with science began early in life, with his initial interests lying in the natural sciences. Born in the late 1800s, Piaget was a child prodigy. He published his first scientific paper on mollusks when he was just 11 years old. He went on to earn a Ph.D. in Zoology. After spending a semester studying with Carl Jung , Piaget developed a stronger interest in psychology.

It was through his work in Alfred Binet’s laboratory in Paris that Piaget developed an interest in children’s cognitive development. Charged with interpreting the results of the standardized intelligence tests that Binet had developed for the French government, Piaget was interested in why children answered questions incorrectly. Upon questioning kids about their answers, he realized that how they responded depended upon their level of intellectual development.

His observations of his young nephew and later his own children added to his growing theory of childhood cognitive development.

Piaget’s theory focused on three critical components:

• Schemas , or the mental frameworks that make up knowledge
• The ways that this knowledge is acquired or altered ( assimilation , equilibration, and accommodation )
• The stages of mental development that children go through as they obtain and create knowledge.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

In Jean Piaget’s theory, he proposed that children progress through four distinct stages of intellectual development. Each stage is marked by changes in how kids think about and relate to the people and objects in their environment.

1. The Sensorimotor Stage (ages 0-2)

• Children learn about the world via their senses
• Basic activities such as sucking, rooting, listening, grasping objects, and sucking on things are how infants learn about the world
• As they progress through this stage, they eventually learn object permanence, or that things continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen

During the first two years of life, a child’s knowledge of the world stems from motor actions and sensory information. A remarkable amount of learning takes place during this relatively brief period.

One of the critical events of the sensorimotor stage is the development of object permanence or the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

The physical milestones of this stage also contribute to cognitive development as children explore the world through reaching, grasping, rolling, crawling, and eventually walking. The earliest foundations of language development are established during this stage as well.

During the sensorimotor stage, infants learn about the world around them through their senses, perceptions, and motor skills. Infants are limited in terms of their ability to independently explore, so every interaction they have with people and the environment serves as an important learning opportunity.

Babies and toddler rely on the basic abilities they were born with, such as rooting, sucking, chewing, and looking, to learn more about themselves, the people around them, and the environment they live in.

Looking at a very young child, you might question just how much they really are able to generate knowledge from their actions. The truth is that babies can acquire a tremendous amount of information just by utilizing their sensory systems and motor skills. Sights, sounds, movements, tastes, smells, and textures provide valuable information that helps infants discover the world.

6 Sensorimotor Substages

Piaget believed that the events of this stage were so dramatic that he divided the sensorimotor stage further into six distinct substages.

1. Reflexive Activities (0 to 1 month): The infant gains knowledge of the world through their inborn reflexes at this substage. At this point, an infant’s actions involve performing reflexive actions such as sucking at a nipple or chewing on a toy.

Through these actions, new objects are assimilated, and reflexes are accommodated to respond to new objects. While these actions seem very basic, they serve as an important stepping stone in intellectual development.

2. Primary Circular Reactions (1 to 4 months): Infants begin to repeat reflexive actions that are related to their own bodies and that they find pleasurable. For example, a baby might suck her thumb or kick her legs against a soft blanket. Babies also begin to notice when objects disappear.

3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4 to 8 months): Babies continue to repeat actions that they find enjoyable, but they also begin to perform actions that involve manipulating objects. For example, a baby might shake a toy in order to hear the sound that it makes.

4. Coordination of Reactions (8 to 12 months): During this stage infant begin to perform more goal-directed actions. Rather than simply repeating pleasurable actions, they will intentionally seek out actions or objects in the environment that they want to play with. For example, a child might push aside unwanted object to get to an interesting toy.

5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12 to 18 months): During this substage, infants begin to experiment with new ways of solving problems. Babies now display intentional reactions that they have learned during the earlier substages. For example, a child might take a stack of blocks apart and will now try to figure out how to put it back together again. Babies also explore trial-and-error processes in order to see what happens or what sort of reaction they will get.

6. Early Representational Thought (18 to 24 months): During this final sensorimotor stage, children begin to show signs of symbolic thought. Babies now possess mental representations of objects, which means they are also able to think about things that are not there.

Object Permanence During the Sensorimotor Stage

One of the hallmarks of the sensorimotor period in Piaget’s stages of development is the presence of egocentrism . Children at this stage of development cannot take other people’s perspective.

In addition to being unable to see things from other people’s perspectives, children at this stage also develop object permanence or the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. During the early sub-stages of the sensorimotor stage, children lack any sense of object permanence. If an object cannot be seen, it simply no longer exists in their view.

As children progress through this stage, they begin to learn more about the objects around them and the fact that things can exist even though they may be hidden. During the first month of life, a baby may track an object with its eyes but ignore the objects sudden disappearance. From about 1 to 4 months, an infant will stare at the spot where an object vanished.

It is during the age from around 4 to 8 months that children start to search for an object that is partially concealed, and from 8 to 12 months a clear understanding of object concepts begins to emerge.

If you have ever played peek-a-boo with an infant, you can see the development of object permanence in action. A very young infant might not search for a hidden object and will be very surprised when it pops out from a hidden spot. On the other hand, a child with an emerging sense of object permanence will actively search for the hidden object.

The sensorimotor stage of development serves as an important building block for future cognitive growth. While children may be limited to learning through their senses and motor actions, this does not mean that this is an uneventful stage of development. A tremendous amount of growth takes place during the sensorimotor stage, laying the foundation for the upcoming preoperational stage of development.

 2. The Preoperational Stage (ages 2 to 7)

• Egocentrism is a common characteristic of this stage, since children struggle to see things from other’s point of view
• Children begin to think symbolically and are able to understand that symbols and words represent objects in the real world

The early part of this stage of cognitive development is marked by the emergence of language. Why is this an important part of Piaget’s stages? Because it suggests that children are capable of symbolic thought. Children utilize language to symbolically represent objects, people, and ideas.

While their thinking is becoming increasingly sophisticated, kids at this stage of cognitive development struggle with logic and mentally transforming information.

Piaget’s experiments demonstrated, for example, that kids in the preoperational stage have difficulty with conservation.  For example, kids are shown two glasses containing the same amount of liquid. The liquid is then poured into two different containers – a short, wide glass and a tall skinny glass. While they saw that the two amounts were equal, children in the preoperational stage will invariably select the tall skinny glass as containing more.

This period of cognitive development is also marked by an inability to take another person’s perspective, which Piaget called egocentrism.

In his experiments, Piaget found that when children were asked to select an image depicting another person’s view of a scene, they would simply select their own view because they could not imagine the scene from the other individual’s perspective.

 3. The Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7 to 11)

• Children begin to utilize logical and organized in their thinking, but they tend to think about things in very concrete terms
• They struggle to think about abstract ideas or concepts
• They learn conservation, or the idea that the total amount of something such as a glass of water remains the same even if it is divided into smaller parts

The concrete operational stage of cognitive development is marked by the emergence of logical thought. Kids become much more capable at applying logic, but they also tend to be very concrete, literal thinkers. At this point, they still struggle with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.

In addition to thinking more logically, kids also become less egocentric and capable of conservation. At this stage of cognitive development, children can better consider other people’s perspectives and understand that other people do not see things the same way they do.

 4. The Formal Operational Stage (age 11 to adulthood)

• Children at this stage of cognitive development are beginning to utilize abstract thinking when they consider problems
• As they consider complex problems about the world, including social and moral issues, they become better at considering theoretical and abstract ideas

The fourth and final stage in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development is characterized by the emergence of abstract thought. Instead of simply relying on their own experiences, kids begin to imagine multiple possible ways of solving problems.

Whereas younger kids typically rely on trial and error when solving problems, those who have reached the formal operational stage can systematically solve problems using logic. Trial-and-error may still come in to play, but it involves a more methodical and organized approach rather than the haphazard style that younger kids use.

In Jean Piaget’s theory, he did not identify exact ages when these stages occur. However, most explanations of the theory identify a typical range during which the stage often occurs.

While Piaget believed that these stages were universal, not all individuals reach the later stages. Not everyone, for example, reaches formal operations and becomes skilled at deductive reasoning and abstract thinking.

The Impact of Jean Piaget’s Theory

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development had a lasting impact on the fields of psychology and education. Most educational programs today are based around the idea that instruction should be geared towards a child’s developmental level. Strategies such as peer-led instruction and social facilitation are also rooted in the tenets of Piaget’s stages.

While influential, Piaget’s theory has not been without criticism. Many note that development does not necessarily align to a series of distinct stages, a fact that even Piaget himself observed.

Others suggest that his stages may have been too broad, vague, and not clear on how children’s learning actually occurs.

Researchers also suggest that Piaget underestimated children’s abilities. For example, the understanding of object permanence is thought to occur much earlier than what Piaget believed.

Nevertheless, Piaget’s theory of cognitive development had a powerful impact on our understanding of the intellectual abilities and growth of children.

Fischer KW, Bullock D.  Cognitive development in school-age children: Conclusions and new directions . In:  Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve.  National Academies Press.

Hugar SM, Kukreja P, Assudani HG, Gokhale N. Evaluation of the relevance of Piaget’s cognitive principles among parented and orphan children in Belagavi City, Karnataka, India: A comparative study . Int J Clin Pediatr Dent . 2017;10(4):346-350. doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1463

Phillips, J.L. (1975). The Origins of Intellect: Piaget’s Theory. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Company.

Piaget, J. (1977). Gruber, H.E.; Voneche, J.J. eds. The Essential Piaget. New York: Basic Books.

Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget’s theory. In P. Mussen (ed). Handbook of Child Psychology. 4th edition. Vol. 1. New York: Wiley.

Schaffer, D.R. & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental Psychology: Childhood & Adolescence. Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.

[…] each phase of development. References https://www.explorepsychology.com/child-development-theories/ https://www.explorepsychology.com/piagets-theory-cognitive-development/ […]

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Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development Explained

Background and Key Concepts of Piaget's Theory

Important Cognitive Development Concepts

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• Next in Stages of Cognitive Development Guide The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. Piaget's stages are:

• Sensorimotor stage : Birth to 2 years
• Preoperational stage : Ages 2 to 7
• Concrete operational stage : Ages 7 to 11
• Formal operational stage : Ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.

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History of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test .

Piaget vs. Vygotsky

Piaget's theory differs in important ways from those of Lev Vygotsky , another influential figure in the field of child development. Vygotsky acknowledged the roles that curiosity and active involvement play in learning, but placed greater emphasis on society and culture.

Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within, while Vygotsky believed that external factors (such as culture) and people (such as parents, caregivers, and peers) play a more significant role.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.

Until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different from the way adults think.

Piaget proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults—they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the  cognitive development of children . Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.

The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

Birth to 2 Years

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:

• Know the world through movements and sensations
• Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
• Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen ( object permanence )
• Realize that they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them

During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they continually make new discoveries about how the world works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down into substages. Early representational thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor stage.

Piaget believed that developing  object permanence  or object constancy, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.

2 to 7 Years

• Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects
• Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others
• Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think in very concrete terms

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet they continue to think very concretely about the world around them. 

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat shape  looks  larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.

The Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using logic.   The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

7 to 11 Years

• Begin to think logically about concrete events
• Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

Age 12 and Up

Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:

• Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
• Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage. 

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.

Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four stages. At age 7, children don't just have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in  how  they think about the world.

Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.

In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light of new information; this process is known as accommodation. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration

As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation).

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.

One of the main points of Piaget's theory is that creating knowledge and intelligence is an inherently  active  process.

"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of reality," Piaget wrote. "I believe that knowing an object means acting upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can be carried out on or with this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."

Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our understanding of children's intellectual growth. It also stressed that children were not merely passive recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids are constantly investigating and experimenting as they build their understanding of how the world works.

Hugar SM, Kukreja P, Assudani HG, Gokhale N. Evaluation of the relevance of Piaget's cognitive principles among parented and orphan children in Belagavi City, Karnataka, India: A comparative study . I nt J Clin Pediatr Dent. 2017;10(4):346-350. doi:10.5005/jp-journals-10005-1463

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Fischer KW, Bullock D. Cognitive development in school-age children: Conclusions and new directions . In: Development During Middle Childhood: The Years From Six to Twelve. National Academies Press.

Sobel AA, Resick PA, Rabalais AE. The effect of cognitive processing therapy on cognitions: impact statement coding . J Trauma Stress. 2009;22(3):205-11. doi:10.1002/jts.20408

Piaget J. The Essential Piaget. Gruber HE, Voneche JJ. eds. Basic Books.

Fancher RE, Rutherford A. Pioneers of Psychology: A History . W.W. Norton.

Santrock JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development (8th ed.) . McGraw-Hill.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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A Teacher's Guide to Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

• brightwheel
• Child development

In the 20th century, children were believed to think just like adults. Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget developed an alternate theory that claimed that children's minds are fundamentally different from adult minds and that everyone moves through four stages of cognitive development from birth to adolescence.

Early childhood educators can use Piaget's theory to gain insight into how children learn at different stages of their development. These insights can help you develop a curriculum informed by how children understand their environment during each developmental stage.

Read on to learn more about Piaget's four stages of cognitive development and how you can apply this theory in an early education setting.

What is Piaget's theory?

Piaget’s theory centers on how children learn and gradually develop logical thinking. His theory states that children's understanding of their environment gradually increases over time, and their cognitive development occurs in four stages from birth to adolescence:

• Stage 1: The sensorimotor stage (from birth to two years old)
• Stage 2: The preoperational stage (from two to seven years old)
• Stage 3: The concrete operational stage (from seven to eleven years old)
• Stage 4: The formal operational stage (twelve years old and up)

Piaget’s cognitive development theory provides early childhood educators with a roadmap that they can use to track children’s cognitive development. Piaget’s theory includes milestones that children should be able to accomplish at each stage of their development.

By tracking children’s progress in each stage, early childhood educators can assess their children’s cognitive development and adjust their curriculum to provide extra support to children struggling to reach certain cognitive development milestones.

The four stages of Piaget's cognitive development theory

Piaget's cognitive development stages roughly correlate with childhood age periods. Piaget believed that the developmental stages always happen in the same order , and no stage is ever skipped. Each stage builds upon the stages that come before it. 

Sensorimotor stage (birth to two years)

The first stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory is the sensorimotor stage. This stage lasts from birth until a child is about two years old. In this stage, children depend on their senses to learn about the world. The main goal of the sensorimotor stage is for children to develop  object permanence .

Major characteristics and developmental changes of the sensorimotor stage:

• Children learn things about themselves and their environment by seeing, touching, sucking, and feeling.
• Children learn the concept of cause and effect.
• Children realize that they’re separate from the people and objects around them.
• Children learn object permanence, or the idea that things continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

The sensorimotor stage has  six sub-stages :

• Reflex actions:  Within the first month of an infant's life, they develop reflex actions, such as sucking and grasping. These instinctive actions help infants survive, and they gradually disappear with time as the child matures and gains more control over their muscles.
• Primary circular reactions:  Within the first four months of an infant's life, they begin to intentionally wiggle their fingers, kick their legs, and suck their thumbs.  
• Secondary circular reactions:  From four to eight months old, an infant will begin to interact with the external world and perform actions with objects that give them pleasure, such as continuously shaking a rattle to hear the sound it makes. 
• Coordinating secondary schemes:  From eight months to a year old, infants begin to show interest in objects and use acquired knowledge to reach their goals. For example, they may move an object that is in the way of an object they want.
• Tertiary circular reactions:  From 12 to 18 months old, young toddlers begin to explore the world using trial and error and experimentation. For example, they may make messes by taking things apart and putting them back together repeatedly in a quest to know what happens every time.
• Symbolic thought: In the last sub-stage, from 18 months to two years old, imaginative play typically begins, and young toddlers' vocabulary develops significantly. They might ask short questions and make requests with one or two words. In this stage, they also begin to understand that symbols can represent objects and realize that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen.

Preoperational stage (two to seven years)

The second stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory is the preoperational stage. This stage lasts from age two to seven. During the preoperational stage, children develop language and abstract thought. However, they haven't begun to use logic to manipulate information at this stage. By the end of the preoperational stage, children can use their imagination and play make-believe.

Major characteristics and developmental changes of the preoperational stage:

• Children can't see a situation from another person's point of view.
• Children have difficulty thinking about multiple aspects of a situation simultaneously.
• At five years old, children begin to understand conservation, the concept that a quantity stays the same even if you change the size, shape, or container it's in.
• At the beginning of this stage, children engage in  parallel play . They play alongside other children but don’t interact with them.
• Once children move on from the parallel play stage, they begin including other children in games and engaging in pretend play . Pretend play helps children solidify concepts.
• Children believe that people manufacture certain aspects of the environment, such as clouds and rain.
• Children can't reverse the direction of a sequence of events to their starting point.

The preoperational stage has  two sub-stages :

• Symbolic function:  Children's symbolic thinking improves from age two to four. They can mentally represent objects that aren’t present and depend on perception to solve problems.
• Intuitive thought:  From age four to seven, children begin to think intuitively rather than relying on perception. They also ask many questions as they try to understand the world around them.

Concrete operational stage (seven to eleven years)

The third stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory is the concrete operational stage. This stage lasts from age seven to age eleven. Children begin to think logically and rationally about physical objects during the concrete operational stage. By the end of the concrete operational stage, children can use inductive reasoning to solve problems related to their experiences but have not developed the ability to solve hypothetical or abstract problems .

Major characteristics and developmental changes of the concrete operational stage:

• Children can identify the properties of categories, relate categories to one another, and use categorical information to solve problems. They also understand that categories can contain sub-categories.
• Children realize that something can stay the same in quantity even though its appearance changes. For example, when water is transferred from a tall glass to a shallow dish, the amount of water has not changed.
• Children can concentrate on many aspects of a situation at the same time.
• Children understand that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state. For example, water can be frozen to create ice, and ice can be melted to create water again.
• Children can mentally arrange a group of items into a sequence, such as organizing items from tallest to shortest or thinnest to widest.
• Children can understand that other people have their own thoughts and unique perspectives, but they might not be able to guess exactly how or what other people are experiencing.
• Children can follow instructions with multiple steps.

Formal operational stage (12 years and up)

The final stage of Piaget's cognitive development theory is the formal operational stage . This stage starts at age twelve and lasts until adulthood. During the formal operational stage, children begin to think abstractly and use deductive reasoning to devise creative solutions to problems.

Major characteristics and developmental changes of the formal operational stage:

• Children can develop solutions to problems using logic and general principles.
• Children can approach problems systematically.
• Children can consider possible outcomes and develop efficient, logical approaches to solving problems.
• Children can think about hypotheticals and formulate various solutions to solve them.

Application of Piaget's theory in early childhood education settings

Children who attend early childhood education programs are in the sensorimotor and preoperational stages of cognitive development. You can use information about Piaget's stages of cognitive development to create lessons and activities that help to guide your children through each developmental stage.

Infants and young toddlers (sensorimotor stage)

Children in the sensorimotor stage of development rely on their senses to learn about the world. You can guide children through this stage by developing a curriculum of lessons and activities that engage their senses and help them develop object permanence.

Activities for children in the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development:

• Peek-a-boo : This activity helps children develop object permanence.
• Container play : Have the children put objects into containers and dump them out. This activity helps children develop object permanence and encourages cause-and-effect thinking.
• Stacking blocks : This activity provides visual and tactile stimulation, helps children develop motor skills, and encourages persistence, problem-solving, and interactive play.

Toddlers and preschoolers (preoperational stage)

Children in the preoperational stage of development start to use abstract thinking. You can guide children through this stage by developing a curriculum of lessons and activities that encourage parallel play and engage their imaginations.

Activities for children in the preoperational stage of cognitive development:

• Dress-up and role play : Pretend play can help children overcome egocentrism by allowing them to see the world from other people's perspectives. Keep a box of costume items handy, so your children can dress up and pretend to be someone else and learn to put themselves in other people's shoes.
• Sorting : Have your children sort objects such as buttons, game pieces, or blocks. This activity helps children begin to develop logical thought. Have your children separate a group of similar objects based on their differences, such as by color or size. This will teach them to group items based on shared characteristics rather than putting everything together because they’re all the same type of object.
• Drawing family portraits : Ask your children to bring a photo of their families and use it as a reference to help them draw family portraits. Look at a family picture together and discuss the characteristics of each person in the photo to encourage the children’s observational skills.

Criticisms of Piaget's theory

Piaget's theory of cognitive development has faced criticisms:

• Contemporary psychologists claim that children meet developmental milestones sooner than Piaget laid out in his cognitive development stages.
• Piaget assumed children unable to perform various cognitive tasks lacked the underlying cognitive structure needed to complete the tasks. In addition, his studies neglected to consider the effects that social and cultural factors have on children's cognitive development.
• Piaget studied his own children, and when studying other children, he used small sample sizes . Both of these circumstances do not meet rigorous scientific study protocols.

Despite the criticisms of Piaget's theory, it remains an influential theory in the field of psychology and early childhood education. Its framework has provided a useful tool for understanding how children think and learn, and its insights continue to be relevant today.

Final thoughts

Despite its flaws, Piaget's cognitive development theory provides insight into how children think, learn, and adapt their knowledge. A general understanding of Piaget’s stages can help inform your program’s curriculum and support children’s cognitive development at various stages.

Activities Across Developmental Domains

Developmentally-appropriate activity ideas for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers.

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Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could positively or negatively affect personality development.

For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.

Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.  These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

Stage 1. Trust vs. Mistrust

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.

Here’s the conflict:

Trust : If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust, believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate.

This sense of trust allows the child to feel secure even when threatened and extends into their other relationships, maintaining their sense of security amidst potential threats.

Mistrust : Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity . 

This could lead to a belief in an inconsistent and unpredictable world, fostering a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety.

Under such circumstances, the child may lack confidence in their ability to influence events, viewing the world with apprehension.

Infant Feeding

Feeding is a critical activity during this stage. It’s one of infants’ first and most basic ways to learn whether they can trust the world around them.

It sets the stage for their perspective on the world as being either a safe, dependable place or a place where their needs may not be met.

This consistent, dependable care helps the child feel a sense of security and trust in the caregiver and their environment.

They understand that when they have a need, such as hunger, someone will be there to provide for that need.

These negative experiences can lead to a sense of mistrust in their environment and caregivers.

They may start to believe that their needs may not be met, creating anxiety and insecurity.

Success and Failure In Stage One

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope . By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there as a source of support.

Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear. This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over-feeling mistrust in the world around them.

Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early attachment experience can affect relationships with others in later life.

The balance between trust and mistrust allows the infant to learn that while there may be moments of discomfort or distress, they can rely on their caregiver to provide support.

This helps the infant to build resilience and the ability to cope with stress or adversity in the future.

Stage 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Autonomy : If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident and secure in their ability to survive.

They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.

Shame and Doubt : On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of their autonomy and doubt their abilities.

This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy about their self-control abilities.

What Happens During This Stage?

The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc.

Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy.

For example, during this stage, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

Toilet Training 

This is when children start to exert their independence, taking control over their bodily functions, which can greatly influence their sense of autonomy or shame and doubt.

Autonomy : When parents approach toilet training in a patient, supportive manner, allowing the child to learn at their own pace, the child may feel a sense of accomplishment and autonomy.

They understand they have control over their own bodies and can take responsibility for their actions. This boosts their confidence, instilling a sense of autonomy and a belief in their ability to manage personal tasks.

Shame and Doubt : Conversely, if the process is rushed, if there’s too much pressure, or if parents respond with anger or disappointment to accidents, the child may feel shame and start doubting their abilities.

They may feel bad about their mistakes, and this can lead to feelings of shame, self-doubt, and a lack of confidence in their autonomy.

Success and Failure In Stage Two

Erikson states parents must allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will . If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.

The infant develops a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.

Suppose children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves. In that case, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem , and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their abilities.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Control?

Success leads to feelings of autonomy, and failure results in shame and doubt.

Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment that is tolerant of failure.

For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes, a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.

So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.

A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task, they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).

The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

The balance between autonomy and shame and doubt allows the child to understand that while they can’t always control their environment, they can exercise control over their actions and decisions, thus developing self-confidence and resilience.

Stage 3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing play and other social interaction.

Initiative : When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative, they can start planning activities, accomplish tasks, and face challenges.

The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment.

They can begin to think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense of purpose.

Guilt : If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize their efforts, children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.

This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive.”

During this period, the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it allows children to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.

The child begins to assert control and power over their environment by planning activities, accomplishing tasks, and facing challenges.

Exploration

Here’s why exploration is important:

Developing Initiative : Exploration allows children to assert their power and control over their environment. Through exploration, children engage with their surroundings, ask questions, and discover new things.

This active engagement allows them to take the initiative and make independent choices, contributing to their autonomy and confidence.

Learning from Mistakes : Exploration also means making mistakes, and these provide crucial learning opportunities. Even if a child’s efforts lead to mistakes or failures, they learn to understand cause and effect and their role in influencing outcomes.

Building Self-Confidence : When caregivers support and encourage a child’s explorations and initiatives, it bolsters their self-confidence. They feel their actions are valuable and significant, which encourages them to take more initiative in the future.

Mitigating Guilt : If caregivers respect the child’s need for exploration and do not overly criticize their mistakes, it helps prevent feelings of guilt. Instead, the child learns it’s okay to try new things and perfectly fine to make mistakes.

Success and Failure In Stage Three

Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Success at this stage leads to the virtue of purpose .

Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt . The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiative too much.

It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance, or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening, the child may feel guilty for “being a nuisance”.

Too much guilt can slow the child’s interaction with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.

A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important.

The balance between initiative and guilt during this stage can help children understand that it’s acceptable to take charge and make their own decisions, but there will also be times when they must follow the rules or guidelines set by others. Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of purpose.

How Can Parents Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, caregivers must provide a safe and supportive environment that allows children to explore freely. This nurtures their initiative, helps them develop problem-solving skills, and builds confidence and resilience.

By understanding the importance of exploration and providing the right support, caregivers can help children navigate this stage successfully and minimize feelings of guilt.

Stage 4. Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson’s fourth psychosocial crisis, involving industry (competence) vs. Inferiority occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities and worth.

Industry : If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop skills, they gain a sense of industry—a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.

They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that they can use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to achieve goals.

Inferiority : On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not allowed to demonstrate their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.

They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts aren’t valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.

The child is coping with new learning and social demands.

Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, and to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach specific skills.

At this stage, the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and become a major source of the child’s self-esteem.

The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies valued by society and develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.

This stage typically occurs during the elementary school years, from approximately ages 6 to 11, and the experiences children have in school can significantly influence their development.

Here’s why:

Development of Industry : At school, children are given numerous opportunities to learn, achieve, and demonstrate their competencies. They work on various projects, participate in different activities, and collaborate with their peers.

These experiences allow children to develop a sense of industry, reinforcing their confidence in their abilities to accomplish tasks and contribute effectively.

Social Comparison : School provides a context where children can compare themselves to their peers.

They gauge their abilities and achievements against those of their classmates, which can either help build their sense of industry or lead to feelings of inferiority, depending on their experiences and perceptions.

Feedback and Reinforcement : Teachers play a crucial role during this stage. Their feedback can either reinforce the child’s sense of industry or trigger feelings of inferiority.

Encouraging feedback enhances the child’s belief in their skills, while persistent negative feedback can lead to a sense of inferiority.

Building Life Skills : School also provides opportunities for children to develop crucial life skills, like problem-solving, teamwork, and time management. Successfully acquiring and utilizing these skills promotes a sense of industry.

Dealing with Failure : School is where children may encounter academic difficulties or fail for the first time.

How they learn to cope with these situations— and how teachers and parents guide them through these challenges—can influence whether they develop a sense of industry or inferiority.

Success and Failure In Stage Four

Success leads to the virtue of competence , while failure results in feelings of inferiority .

If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious (competence) and confident in their ability to achieve goals.

If this initiative is not encouraged, if parents or teacher restricts it, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities, and therefore may not reach his or her potential.

If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society demands (e.g., being athletic), they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary.

The balance between industry and inferiority allows children to recognize their skills and understand that they have the ability to work toward and achieve their goals, even if they face challenges along the way.

How Can Parents & Teachers Encourage a Sense of Exploration?

In this stage, teachers and parents need to provide consistent, constructive feedback and encourage effort, not just achievement.

This approach helps foster a sense of industry, competence, and confidence in children, reducing feelings of inferiority.

Stage 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.

Identity : If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the freedom to explore different roles, they are likely to emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.

This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps them form their own unique identity.

Role Confusion : If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore or find the process too overwhelming or distressing, they may experience role confusion.

This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future direction. They may struggle to identify their purpose or path, leading to confusion about their personal identity.

During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent and looking at the future regarding careers, relationships, families, housing, etc.

The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in.

Teenagers explore who they are as individuals, seek to establish a sense of self, and may experiment with different roles, activities, and behaviors.

According to Erikson, this is important to forming a strong identity and developing a sense of direction in life.

The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, between the morality learned by the child and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245).

This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. During this stage, the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is.

Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.

Social Relationships

Given the importance of social relationships during this stage, it’s crucial for adolescents to have supportive social networks that encourage healthy exploration of identity.

It’s also important for parents, teachers, and mentors to provide guidance as adolescents navigate their social relationships and roles.

Formation of Identity : Social relationships provide a context within which adolescents explore different aspects of their identity.

They try on different roles within their peer groups, allowing them to discover their interests, beliefs, values, and goals. This exploration is key to forming their own unique identity.

Peer Influence : Peer groups often become a significant influence during this stage. Adolescents often start to place more value on the opinions of their friends than their parents.

How an adolescent’s peer group perceives them can impact their sense of self and identity formation.

Social Acceptance and Belonging : Feeling accepted and fitting in with peers can significantly affect an adolescent’s self-esteem and sense of identity.

They are more likely to develop a strong, positive identity if they feel accepted and valued. Feeling excluded or marginalized may lead to role confusion and a struggle with identity formation.

Experiencing Diversity : Interacting with a diverse range of people allows adolescents to broaden their perspectives, challenge their beliefs, and shape their values.

This diversity of experiences can also influence the formation of their identity.

Conflict and Resolution : Social relationships often involve conflict and the need for resolution, providing adolescents with opportunities to explore different roles and behaviors.

Learning to navigate these conflicts aids in the development of their identity and the social skills needed in adulthood.

Success and Failure In Stage Five

According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage, the body image of the adolescent changes.

Erikson claims adolescents may feel uncomfortable about their bodies until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity .

Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.

During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based on the outcome of their explorations.

Adolescents who establish a strong sense of identity can maintain consistent loyalties and values, even amidst societal shifts and changes.

Erikson described 3 forms of identity crisis:

• severe (identity confusion overwhelms personal identity)
• prolonged (realignment of childhood identifications over an extended time)
• aggravated (repeated unsuccessful attempts at resolution)

Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion.

However, if adolescents don’t have the support, time, or emotional capacity to explore their identity, they may be left with unresolved identity issues, feeling unsure about their roles and uncertain about their future.

This could potentially lead to a weak sense of self, role confusion, and lack of direction in adulthood.

Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.

In response to role confusion or identity crisis , an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g., work, education, or political activities).

Also, pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.

Stage 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

Intimacy versus isolation is the sixth stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.

Intimacy : Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate, reciprocal relationships with others.

They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.

Isolation : If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.

Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.

Success and Failure In Stage Six

Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of love . Individuals who develop this virtue have the ability to form deep and committed relationships based on mutual trust and respect.

During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other than a family member.

Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.

However, if individuals struggle during this stage and are unable to form close relationships, they may feel isolated and alone. This could potentially lead to a sense of disconnection and estrangement in adulthood.

Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. 

Stage 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

Generativity versus stagnation is the seventh of eight stages of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs). During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers, families, and contributions to society.

Generativity : If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of generativity.

Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations, often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to society.

Stagnation : If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.

Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of growth, and feelings of emptiness.

Psychologically, generativity refers to “making your mark” on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual.

During middle age, individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.

We give back to society by raising our children, being productive at work, and participating in community activities and organizations. We develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture through generativity.

Work & Parenthood

Both work and parenthood are important in this stage as they provide opportunities for adults to extend their personal and societal influence.

Work : In this stage, individuals often focus heavily on their careers. Meaningful work is a way that adults can feel productive and gain a sense of contributing to the world.

It allows them to feel that they are part of a larger community and that their efforts can benefit future generations. If they feel accomplished and valued in their work, they experience a sense of generativity.

However, if they’re unsatisfied with their career or feel unproductive, they may face feelings of stagnation.

Parenthood : Raising children is another significant aspect of this stage. Adults can derive a sense of generativity from nurturing the next generation, guiding their development, and imparting their values.

Through parenthood, adults can feel they’re making a meaningful contribution to the future.

On the other hand, individuals who choose not to have children or those who cannot have children can also achieve generativity through other nurturing behaviors, such as mentoring or engaging in activities that positively impact the younger generation.

Success and Failure In Stage Seven

If adults can find satisfaction and a sense of contribution through these roles, they are more likely to develop a sense of generativity, leading to feelings of productivity and fulfillment.

Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of care . Individuals who develop this virtue feel a sense of contribution to the world, typically through family and work, and feel satisfied that they are making a difference.

Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

We become stagnant and feel unproductive by failing to find a way to contribute. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole. 

This could potentially lead to feelings of restlessness and unproductiveness in later life.

Stage 8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair

Ego integrity versus despair is the eighth and final stage of Erik Erikson’s stage theory of psychosocial development. This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.

Ego Integrity : If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they will experience ego integrity.

This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find coherence and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.

Despair : On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.

Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life, and a fear of impending death.

This stage takes place after age 65 and involves reflecting on one’s life and either moving into feeling satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling a deep sense of regret.

Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity and explore life as retired people.

Success and Failure In Stage Eight

Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom . Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.

Individuals who reflect on their lives and regret not achieving their goals will experience bitterness and despair.

Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.

This could potentially lead to feelings of fear and dread about their mortality.

A continuous state of ego integrity does not characterize wise people, but they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by integrity and despair as alternating states that must be balanced.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson’s Theory

By extending the notion of personality development across the lifespan, Erikson outlines a more realistic perspective of personality development, filling a major gap in Freud’s emphasis on childhood.  (McAdams, 2001).

• Based on Erikson’s ideas, psychology has reconceptualized how the later periods of life are viewed. Middle and late adulthood are no longer viewed as irrelevant, because of Erikson, they are now considered active and significant times of personal growth.
• Erikson’s theory has good face validity . Many people find they can relate to his theories about various life cycle stages through their own experiences.

Indeed, Erikson (1964) acknowledges his theory is more a descriptive overview of human social and emotional development that does not adequately explain how or why this development occurs.

For example, Erikson does not explicitly explain how the outcome of one psychosocial stage influences personality at a later stage.

Erikson also does not explain what propels the individual forward into the next stage once a crisis is resolved. His stage model implies strict sequential progression tied to age, but does not address variations in timing or the complexity of human development.

However, Erikson stressed his work was a ‘tool to think with rather than a factual analysis.’ Its purpose then is to provide a framework within which development can be considered rather than testable theory.

The lack of elucidation of the dynamics makes it challenging to test Erikson’s stage progression hypotheses empirically. Contemporary researchers have struggled to operationalize the stages and validate their universal sequence and age ranges.

Erikson based his theory of psychosocial development primarily on observations of middle-class White children and families in the United States and Europe. This Western cultural perspective may limit the universality of the stages he proposed.

The conflicts emphasized in each stage reflect values like independence, autonomy, and productivity, which are deeply ingrained in Western individualistic cultures. However, the theory may not translate well to more collectivistic cultures that value interdependence, social harmony, and shared responsibility.

For example, the autonomy vs. shame and doubt crisis in early childhood may play out differently in cultures where obedience and conformity to elders is prioritized over individual choice. Likewise, the identity crisis of adolescence may be less pronounced in collectivist cultures.

As an illustration, the identity crisis experienced in adolescence often resurfaces as adults transition into retirement (Logan, 1986). Although the context differs, managing similar emotional tensions promotes self-awareness and comprehension of lifelong developmental dynamics.

Applications

Retirees can gain insight into retirement challenges by recognizing the parallels between current struggles and earlier psychosocial conflicts.

Retirees often revisit identity issues faced earlier in life when adjusting to retirement. Although the contexts differ, managing similar emotional tensions can increase self-awareness and understanding of lifelong psychodynamics.

Cultural sensitivity can increase patient self-awareness during counseling. For example, nurses could use the model to help adolescents tackle identity exploration or guide older adults in finding purpose and integrity.

Recent research shows the ongoing relevance of Erikson’s theory across the lifespan. A 2016 study found a correlation between middle-aged adults’ sense of generativity and their cognitive health, emotional resilience, and executive function.

Interprofessional teams could collaborate to create stage-appropriate, strengths-based care plans. For instance, occupational therapists could engage nursery home residents in reminiscence therapy to increase ego integrity.

Specific tools allow clinicians to identify patients’ current psychosocial stage. Nurses might use Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Inventory (EPSI) to reveal trust, autonomy, purpose, or despair struggles.

With this insight, providers can deliver targeted interventions to resolve conflicts and support developmental advancement. For example, building autonomy after a major health crisis or fostering generativity by teaching parenting skills.

• By understanding which stage a client is in and the associated challenges, social workers can tailor their interventions and support to address the client’s specific needs. For example, a social worker helping a teenager grappling with identity formation (Erikson’s fifth stage) might focus on fostering self-exploration and providing a safe environment for experimenting with different roles.

Erikson vs Maslow

How does Maslow’s hierarchy of needs differ from Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development?

Erikson vs Freud

Freud (1905) proposed a five-stage model of psychosexual development spanning infancy to puberty, focused on the maturation of sexual drives. While groundbreaking, Freud’s theory had limitations Erikson (1958, 1963) aimed to overcome.

• Erikson expanded the timeline through the full lifespan, while Freud focused only on the first few years of life. This more holistic perspective reflected the ongoing social challenges confronted into adulthood and old age.
• Whereas Freud highlighted biological, pleasure-seeking drives, Erikson incorporated the influence of social relationships, culture, and identity formation on personality growth. This broader psychosocial view enhanced realism.
• Erikson focused on the ego’s growth rather than the primacy of the id. He saw personality developing through negotiation of social conflicts rather than only frustration/gratification of innate drives.
• Erikson organized the stages around psychosocial crises tied to ego maturation rather than psychosexual erogenous zones. This reformulation felt more relevant to personal experiences many could identify with.
• Finally, Erikson emphasized healthy progression through the stages rather than psychopathology stemming from fixation. He took a strengths-based perspective focused on human potential.

Summary Table

Like Freud and many others, Erik Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order, and builds upon each previous stage. This is called the epigenetic principle.

Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development include:

Bee, H. L. (1992). The developing child . London: HarperCollins.

Brown, C., & Lowis, M. J. (2003). Psychosocial development in the elderly: An investigation into Erikson’s ninth stage.  Journal of Aging Studies, 17 (4), 415–426.

Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society . New York: Norton.

Erickson, E. H. (1958). Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and history . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge . New York: Basic books.

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Insight and responsibility . New York: Norton.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis . New York: Norton.

Erikson E. H . (1982). The life cycle completed . New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Erikson, E. H. (1959). Psychological issues . New York, NY: International University Press

Fadjukoff, P., Pulkkinen, L., & Kokko, K. (2016). Identity formation in adulthood: A longitudinal study from age 27 to 50.  Identity ,  16 (1), 8-23.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality.  Standard Edition 7 : 123- 246.

Freud, S. (1923). The ego and the id . SE, 19: 1-66.

Gross, R. D., & Humphreys, P. (1992). Psychology: The science of mind and behavior . London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Logan , R.D . ( 1986 ). A reconceptualization of Erikson’s theory: The repetition of existential and instrumental themes. Human Development, 29 , 125 – 136.

Malone, J. C., Liu, S. R., Vaillant, G. E., Rentz, D. M., & Waldinger, R. J. (2016). Midlife Eriksonian psychosocial development: Setting the stage for late-life cognitive and emotional health.  Developmental Psychology ,  52 (3), 496.

McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories . Review of General Psychology , 5(2), 100.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa Jr, P. T. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal . American Psychologist, 52(5) , 509.

Meeus, W., van de Schoot, R., Keijsers, L., & Branje, S. (2012). Identity statuses as developmental trajectories: A five-wave longitudinal study in early-to-middle and middle-to-late adolescents.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence ,  41 , 1008-1021.

Osborne, J. W. (2009). Commentary on retirement, identity, and Erikson’s developmental stage model.  Canadian Journal on Aging/La Revue canadienne du vieillissement ,  28 (4), 295-301.

Rosenthal, D. A., Gurney, R. M., & Moore, S. M. (1981). From trust on intimacy: A new inventory for examining Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.  Journal of Youth and Adolescence ,  10 (6), 525-537.

Sica, L. S., Aleni Sestito, L., Syed, M., & McLean, K. (2018). I became adult when… Pathways of identity resolution and adulthood transition in Italian freshmen’s narratives.  Identity ,  18 (3), 159-177.

Vogel-Scibilia, S. E., McNulty, K. C., Baxter, B., Miller, S., Dine, M., & Frese, F. J. (2009). The recovery process utilizing Erikson’s stages of human development.  Community Mental Health Journal ,  45 , 405-414.

What is Erikson’s main theory?

Erikson said that we all want to be good at certain things in our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we go through eight developmental stages as we grow up, from being a baby to an old person. In each stage, we have a challenge to overcome.

If we do well in these challenges, we feel confident, our personality grows healthily, and we feel competent. But if we don’t do well, we might feel like we’re not good enough, leading to feelings of inadequacy.

What is an example of Erikson’s psychosocial theory?

Throughout primary school (ages 6-12), children encounter the challenge of balancing industry and inferiority. During this period, they start comparing themselves to their classmates to evaluate their own standing.

As a result, they may either cultivate a feeling of pride and achievement in their academics, sports, social engagements, and family life or experience a sense of inadequacy if they fall short.

Parents and educators can implement various strategies and techniques to support children in fostering a sense of competence and self-confidence.

Formal Operational Stage – Piaget’s 4th Stage (Examples)

Would you say that you think abstractly? Do you think about the “bigger picture?” I don’t mean thinking about your life 10 years in the future. I mean thinking about the purpose of existence and why humans have evolved as we have. We’re not tackling all of these questions today, but we will talk about how we came to ask them and how we answer them.

Children in elementary or middle school typically do not possess these skills. Until children reach the formal operational stage in Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development, they go through three concrete development stages that only allow them to think concretely. They can follow the rules of how the world works but are limited by these concrete concepts.

What Is the Formal Operational Stage?

Once children reach adolescence, they enter the Formal Operational Stage. This is the last stage in Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development. The Formal Operational Stage doesn’t end - there are ways that you can heighten your abstract problem-solving skills from age 12 to age 112! 

The formal operational stage begins between around 11-12. Children are usually in grade school around this time. They can take on more responsibilities than they did in earlier stages of development, but they are still considered young children. Health organizations still categorize ages 11 and 12 as "middle childhood."

Entering the Formal Operational Stage

Children ages 11 and 12 have just finished the concrete operational stage. This stage lasts from ages 6-11. By the time a child enters the formal operational stage, they should be able to:

• Arrange items in a logical order
• Build friendships based on empathy
• Understand that 5mL of water in one glass is the same amount as 5mL of water in a separate glass
• Recognize that a ball of pizza dough is the same as flattened pizza dough

Playing games and doing science experiments with children is much more fun at this age. They understand so much more!

During this stage, individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and solve problems in a systematic manner. Here are 14 examples of behaviors and thought processes that are characteristic of the formal operational stage:

• Hypothetical Thinking : The ability to consider hypothetical situations and possibilities. For instance, a teenager might ponder, "What would happen if the sun never rose?"
• Abstract Thought : Thinking about concepts not directly tied to concrete experiences, such as justice, love, or morality.
• Systematic Problem Solving : When faced with a problem, individuals can systematically test potential solutions. For example, if a science experiment doesn't produce the expected result, a student might change one variable at a time to determine which one is responsible.
• Metacognition : The ability to think about one's own thought processes. Students might reflect on how they study best or recognize when they do not understand a concept.
• Moral Reasoning : Moving beyond black-and-white thinking to consider the nuances of moral dilemmas. For instance, understanding that stealing is generally wrong but pondering whether it's justified if someone is stealing food to feed their starving family.
• Scientific Reasoning : Formulating hypotheses and conducting experiments in a methodical manner to test them.
• Understanding Sarcasm and Metaphors : Recognizing that the phrase "It's raining cats and dogs" doesn't mean animals are falling from the sky.
• Planning for the Future : Considering future possibilities and making plans based on them, such as choosing college courses based on a desired future career.
• Evaluating the Quality of Information : Recognizing the difference between opinion and fact or understanding that just because something is on the internet doesn't make it true.
• Logical Thought : Thinking logically and methodically, even about abstract concepts. For example, if all roses are flowers and some flowers fade quickly, then some roses fade quickly.
• Considering Multiple Perspectives : Understanding that others might have a different point of view and trying to see things from their perspective.
• Propositional Thought : Understanding that a statement can be logical based solely on the information provided, even if it's untrue. For instance, "If all dogs can fly and Fido is a dog, then Fido can fly" is logically sound, even though we know dogs can't fly.
• Complex Classification : Classifying objects based on multiple characteristics. For example, organizing books by both genre and author.
• Understanding Abstract Relationships : Recognizing relationships like "If A is greater than B, and B is greater than C, then A is greater than C."

What Characterizes the Formal Operational Stage?

Four specific skills are signs that a child is in the formal operational stage:

Deductive Reasoning

Abstract thought, problem-solving.

• Metacognition

The child learns to apply logic to certain situations during the Concrete Operational Stage . But they are limited to inductive reasoning. In the Formal Operational Stage, they start to learn (and learn the limits of) deductive reasoning.

Inductive reasoning uses observations to make a conclusion. Say a student has six teachers throughout their life, all strict. They are likely to conclude that all teachers are strict. They may find that later in life, they will change their conclusion, but until they observe a teacher who is not strict, this is the conclusion they will come to.

Deductive reasoning works differently. It uses facts and lessons to create a conclusion. The child will be presented with two facts:

“All teachers are strict.”

“Mr. Johnson is a teacher.”

Using deductive reasoning, the child can conclude that Mr. Johnson is strict.

Throughout the child’s development, they start to expand their world. In the sensorimotor stage, their world consists of only what is directly in front of them. If something is out of sight or earshot, it no longer exists.

As they develop object permanence, they understand that the world exists beyond what they can physically see, hear, or touch. In the concrete operational stage, children begin to apply the rules of logic to things and rules they know exist.

In this final stage, they begin to expand their worldview further. They begin to develop abstract thought. They can apply logic to situations that don’t follow the rules of the physical world.

Piaget's Third Eye Question: The Difference Between Concrete Operational and Formal Operational Stages

One of the ways that Piaget tested this skill was to ask the children questions. Here’s an example of a question that Piaget asked children:

“If you had a third eye, where would you put it?” 

Children in the Concrete Operational Stage were limited to answering that they would put the eye on their forehead or face. They were typically only exposed to animals and humans with eyes on their faces. But children in the Formal Operational Stage were likelier to branch out and think of more useful and abstract answers. They considered putting the eye on their hand, back, or elsewhere where it would serve a greater purpose.

These skills make solving problems a whole lot easier. Children can only solve problems through trial and error in the Concrete Operational Stage and earlier stages. As they enter the Formal Operational Stage, they can look back at the problem, use past experience and reasoning to form a hypothesis, and test out what they believe will happen. This can save them a lot of time.

To determine when children had developed these skills, Piaget used another testing method. He gave them a scale with a set of weights and asked them to balance the scale with the weights. But simply putting the same amount of weight on each side wasn’t enough. The children had to determine that the distance between the weights and the scale's center also impacted the balance.

Children under the age of 10 heavily struggled with the task because they could not understand the concept of balance (if they were in the Preoperational Stage) or could not grasp that the center of balance is also important. (These children were in the early stages of the Concrete Operational Stage.) At age 10, the children could solve the problem, but at a much slower pace due to their process of trial and error.

It wasn’t until age 11 or 12 that children could look at the problem from a distance and use logic to use both the distance and size of the weights to balance the scale.

MetaCognition

Not all of these thought processes are perfect the first time around. You know that I know that, and children in the Formal Operational Stage are just starting to discover that. By using MetaCognition, they are more likely to assess their thinking and transform it into a more effective form of problem-solving.

MetaCognition is simply “thinking about thinking.” It is the ability to run through your own thought process, figure out how you developed that process, and maybe unwind some things that aren’t logical or can be disproven. This can help you “rebuild” your thought process as if it were building blocks, creating a more solid structure for you to solve problems.

Piaget did not actually coin this term while developing his theory on the Formal Operational Stage. John Flavell, an American psychologist, actually proposed the theory on MetaCognition in the late 1970s.

We’ve seen throughout these videos that the Theory of Cognitive Development has continued to grow and change with additional input and studies. Our minds can also change their thought processes and begin to notice imperfections and flawed logic as they come up. But this often requires going back and asking yourself how you built certain thought processes and where you could have made flawed conclusions.

How to Support a Child in the Formal Operational Stage

Children in the formal operational stage (typically 12 years and older) begin thinking more abstractly and logically, engaging in hypothetical reasoning and considering multiple variables in problem-solving. To best support and nurture their cognitive development outside of school, consider these activity suggestions:

• Play Strategic Board Games: Introduce games that require planning, strategizing, and critical thinking. Games like chess, Risk, Settlers of Catan, and Ticket to Ride can enhance their deductive reasoning and promote patience. These games also often require players to predict opponents' moves, honing their skills in understanding perspectives.
• Engage in Thought Experiments: Stimulate abstract thinking by posing hypothetical questions. Asking imaginative yet thought-provoking questions like, "If you could invent a new school subject, what would it be and why?" or "How would our lives change if we had no electricity for a year?" can spark interesting discussions and foster creativity.
• Encourage Scientific Experiments: Let them set up a mini-lab at home. Whether it's a simple vinegar and baking soda reaction or a more complex examination of plant growth under different conditions, hands-on experiments can solidify their understanding of cause and effect.
• Delve into Philosophy and Ethics: Discuss moral dilemmas or philosophical conundrums suitable for their age. Questions like, "Is it ever okay to lie?" or "What makes something 'right' or 'wrong'?" can challenge them to consider multiple viewpoints and refine their moral reasoning.
• Read and Analyze Stories Together: Choose books or movies with deeper themes or complex characters. Discuss the motives, the plot's implications, or any symbolism. This improves their comprehension skills and teaches them to think critically about media.
• Involve Them in Real-Life Problem-Solving: Whether planning a family trip, budgeting for a big purchase, or deciding on the best route for a journey, including them in the process can provide practical applications for their developing logical reasoning skills.
• Respect and Respond to Their Queries: Children at this stage are brimming with questions, many of which can be profound or reflective. When they approach you with a query, respond with patience and logic. If you don't know the answer, consider researching it together. This collaborative approach provides them with information and models a proactive attitude toward learning.

By actively engaging with children in these ways, parents and caregivers can provide invaluable support as they navigate the challenges and opportunities of the formal operational stage.

Formal Operational Stage vs. Other Stages of Development

Jean Piaget is not the only psychologist to create stages of development. Other psychologists have offered their theories on how a child develops social skills and how their experiences during each stage impact their relationships and behavior. Some theories, like Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, last for the span of the person's life. Other theories, like Piaget's, only cover childhood and early adolescence. When we compare Piaget's theory to other theories, we see some overlap and other perspectives on what makes a child the person they grow up to be.

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

At ages 11-12, a child exits the Industry vs. Inferiority stage and enters the Identity vs. Role Confusion stage. The child should be aware that they are responsible for their own decisions and how they affect others. They also start to see that they are different from other children. They will successfully exit these stages if they feel confident that they can advocate for themselves and live the way they want. Otherwise, they may develop insecurities. Erikson coined the term "identity crisis." This crisis could take place in the identity vs. role confusion stage!

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

During the ages of 11-12, a child is in the latent stage of psychosexual development and may be entering the genital stage. The change in stages all depends on when the child goes through puberty. Freud's controversial stages focused on a child's erogenous zones and sexual interests. As the child discovers sexual interests in the latent stage, they must learn to channel their energy into intellectual activities. The child can form healthy relationships by letting the superego tame the id. In the genital stage, teenagers and adults learn to explore their maturing sexual interests.

Which Theory is "Right?"

All these theories can play out simultaneously, but remember, these are just theories. Some ideas, like Freud's Oedipal Complex that occurred in earlier stages of development, have been discredited and largely rejected by today's psychologists. We continue to learn about Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and other psychologists to understand how psychology developed into the field we know today.

Thanks for checking out these pages on the Theory of Cognitive Development! I hope these will allow you to look at your own thinking and build a stronger foundation for solving problems and understanding the world around you - no matter how old you are!

Piaget's Influence on Modern Educational Practices

Jean Piaget's groundbreaking theories on cognitive development have left an indelible mark on the realm of education. Even today, educators worldwide employ strategies rooted in Piaget's insights. Here's how Piaget’s theories continue to shape contemporary educational practices:

• Active Learning: Piaget emphasized the importance of active learning. He believed children learn best when interacting with their environment and manipulating objects. This belief has shifted from passive rote memorization to hands-on, experiential learning. Schools often incorporate field trips, lab experiments, and interactive activities to facilitate this.
• Developmentally Appropriate Practices: Recognizing that children progress through specific stages of cognitive development, educators design curricula tailored to these stages. For instance, in the pre-operational stage (2-7 years), children benefit from using concrete objects and visuals. Meanwhile, older children in the formal operational stage (12 years and up) are more equipped for abstract thinking and can engage in more complex problem-solving tasks.
• Focus on the Process, Not Just the Outcome: Piaget believed that the process of thinking and the journey of arriving at an answer are just as necessary as the answer itself. This philosophy has encouraged educators to value and assess how students approach problems, not just the correctness of their answers.
• Peer Interaction: Piaget felt that peer interaction is crucial for cognitive development. He observed that children often learn best when discussing, debating, and collaborating with classmates. Group work, cooperative learning, and classroom discussions are now staples in many classrooms, promoting social interaction as a valuable learning tool.
• Incorporating Real-life Situations: To make learning meaningful, Piaget suggested relating it to real-life situations. This has led to problem-based learning and the inclusion of real-world issues in the curriculum, ensuring that students see the relevance and applicability of their learning.
• Role of the Teacher: In line with Piaget's theories, the teacher's role has evolved from the traditional "sage on the stage" to more of a "guide on the side." Teachers now often act as facilitators, providing resources, posing guiding questions, and helping students make their discoveries.
• Assessment Practices: Piaget's emphasis on stages of cognitive development has led to more nuanced and stage-sensitive assessment methods. Teachers are more attuned to the developmental readiness of their students, ensuring that assessments are appropriate for their cognitive level.
• Constructivist Classrooms: Stemming from Piaget's idea that learners construct knowledge based on their experiences, many modern classrooms adopt a constructivist approach. Here, students are encouraged to construct their understanding and knowledge of the world by experiencing and reflecting on those experiences.

While educational practices have evolved and integrated various theories, Piaget's influence is unmistakably prevalent. His focus on the child as an active learner, the stages of cognitive development, and the significance of hands-on, relevant learning continues to shape how education is delivered in the 21st century.

Related posts:

• Concrete Operational Stage (3rd Cognitive Development)
• Piaget's Theory of Moral Development (4 Stages + Examples)
• Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory
• The Psychology of Long Distance Relationships

Reference this article:

About The Author

Developmental Psychology:

Developmental Psychology

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Trust vs Mistrust

Autonomy vs Shame

Initiative vs Guilt

Industry vs inferiority

Identity vs Confusion

Intimacy vs Isolation

Generativity vs Stagnation

Integrity vs Despair

Attachment Styles

Avoidant Attachment

Anxious Attachment

Secure Attachment

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Piaget's Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage

Object Permanence

Preoperational Stage

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Unconditional Positive Regard

Birth Order

Zone of Proximal Development

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In his theory of cognitive development , Jean Piaget stated that there are four stages that each individual goes through . The fourth and last stage of cognitive development is called the Formal Operational Stage. This period takes place at around 12 years old and lasts well into adulthood.

What Happens During the Formal Operational Stage?

This is the time when thinking skills become advanced and more sophisticated. Those in this stage can think about abstract and theoretical concepts and can use logic to come up with solutions to problems.

Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning are developed during this time.

Developing the Idea: Piaget’s Research

Jean Piaget conducted tests to support his theory of cognitive development. For the Formal Operational Stage, he came up with two: (1) physical conceptualization and (2) abstraction of thought.

For physical conceptualization, he used the concept of balance. Children from different age groups were asked to balance a scale. He found that those in the Formal Operational Stage (approximately 13 years old) made a hypothesis about where to place the weights to achieve balance. 10-year-old subjects used the trial-and-error method, while 7-year-olds placed weights on each side of the scale but did not consider the placement of the weights. Subjects younger than 7 years old were not able to complete the task because they did not understand the concept of balance. 

In the second test, which had to do with the abstraction of thought, children were asked to think of where to put a third eye if they could have one. Most of the younger children stated that they wanted to place the third eye in the middle of the forehead, while those in the Formal Operational Stage suggested more creative answers like putting it behind the head to see what’s happening behind them.

Creative ideas such as the answers provided by the children in the Formal Operational Stage are indicative of the use of abstract and hypothetical thought.  

Notable Skills

The skills listed below are indicators of the Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development:

1.                  Deductive Logic – this has to do with being able to think in broader terms. Children at this stage can come up with solutions to problems using logic and general principles. This skill is useful in Science and Math. 

2.                  Abstract Thought – has to do with being able to think about abstract ideas. They consider possible outcomes, which include out-of-the-box ideas to solve problems. This skill is useful for long term planning.

3.                  Problem Solving – is the ability to plan an efficient and logical approach to solve a problem.

4.                  Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning – children at this age think about what-ifs and attempt to formulate various solutions to solve them.

The Formal Operational Stage is the last of four stages of cognitive development posited by Jean Piaget. Formal operational thinkers can think of different solutions to solve a problem, including those that are creative and abstract. Individuals in this stage think carefully before they act. 

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Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development

In Piaget’s formal operational stage, which begins at around the age of 11 and continues until later teenage years, children undergo a crucial mental transformation. They acquire the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically , enabling them to explore complex ideas, engage in propositional thought, and employ advanced problem-solving. They can now understand such abstract constructs as justice, happiness, love, freedom, and tradition.

Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage Of Cognitive Development

• Piaget’s Preoperational Stage Of Cognitive Development
• Concrete Operational Stage Of Cognitive Development

This newfound capacity for hypothetical-deductive reasoning allows them to formulate and test abstract theories. Additionally, they develop a heightened awareness of their own thinking processes, known as metacognition , and learn to critique arguments and engage in debates. Given these developments, the formal operational stage is extremely significant, as it equips individuals with the essential cognitive tools for success in various academic pursuits and beyond.

Abstract Thought

As previously mentioned, the formal operational stage represents a significant cognitive transition following the concrete operational stage. In the concrete operational stage , which precedes it and is common during middle childhood, thinking remains concrete, firmly tethered to observable objects and actions. At this stage, abstract thinking, as well as handling hypothetical situations, can be challenging.

However, as a child progresses into the formal operational stage, they undergo a transformative shift from this concrete thinking mode into abstract thought. This equips them with the capacity to transcend immediate sensory experiences and engage with abstract concepts and hypothetical scenarios, marking a significant milestone in cognitive development. For instance, they may now contemplate complex philosophical questions like the nature of reality or the existence of extra-terrestrial life.

Scientific Reasoning

Scientific reasoning, within Piaget’s framework, becomes prominent during the formal operational stage and contrasts significantly with cognitive processes seen in the concrete operational stage. Scientific reasoning involves approaching problems systematically, logically, and empirically.

The ability to do this generally emerging during early adolescence, when individuals develop the capacity to think abstractly, engage in hypothetical-deductive reasoning, and manipulate abstract concepts, all of which are vital for scientific inquiry. For example, let us consider a scenario where a child hypothesizes that practicing a musical instrument for longer durations leads to better performance. They then informally design an experiment to explore this idea, carry out the experiment, and subsequently comprehend and explain the results, reformulating their beliefs in the process.

Hypothetical-Deductive reasoning

Related to the above-described skill of scientific reasoning, hypothetical-deductive reasoning is a cognitive process that involves the exploration of hypothetical scenarios and the systematic testing of hypotheses. It is characterized by the ability to consider “what-if” situations and to devise logical deductions based on these hypothetical premises.

In this type of reasoning, individuals mentally manipulate abstract ideas and variables that may not necessarily reflect reality, which can allow them to explore various possibilities, evaluate potential outcomes, and deduce logical consequences. For example, at this stage young people should learn to consider questions such as “What if humans had never invented the wheel?” or “What if electricity was never discovered?”. The ability to consider these types of scenarios is a crucial skill in scientific and mathematical problem-solving.

Additionally, students possessing the ability to engage in hypothetical thinking enjoy an advantage across various academic tasks, as they typically require fewer external aids to solve problems. This inherent self-direction aligns with the preferences of most educators and education systems. However, it is essential to recognize that formal operational thinking, while valuable, is not a comprehensive solution for all academic challenges. For instance, it does not guarantee motivation or good behavior, nor does it ensure proficiency in areas like sports, music, or art.

Piaget’s fourth developmental stage primarily relates to a specific form of formal thinking, one connected to solving scientific problems and devising experiments. Given that most individuals do not regularly encounter such challenges in their everyday lives, it is unsurprising that research indicates many people may not fully or consistently employ formal thinking, often limiting its application to familiar areas of expertise (3).

Metacognition

Metacognition plays a vital role as young people gain the ability to think about their own thinking processes. This cognitive development allows for introspection, reflective thinking, and the capacity to monitor, plan, and evaluate one’s own thoughts and problem-solving strategies. Young people in this stage learn to set goals, self-regulate their cognitive activities, detect and correct errors, and transfer knowledge from one context to another. An example is a child’s recognition that they perform better on mathematical problems when they break them down into smaller steps and plan their approach in advance. They may realize that this strategy helps them avoid errors and improve their problem-solving skills. As a result, they consciously choose to use this approach when faced with complex math tasks, demonstrating metacognitive awareness and self-regulation of their cognitive processes (1).

Problem-Solving

Furthermore, a child’s problem solving advances significantly and is characterized by systematic, logical, abstract, and hypothetical thinking, as previously described. As an example, imagine a 14-year-old who encounters a challenge: her computer will not start, and she has an important school project to complete. In the formal operational stage, she engages her problem-solving skills by assessing the situation, considering potential solutions (restart, check cables, seek online help using her smartphone), and then chooses to first check the cables. Using both scientific and hypothetico-deductive reasoning, she examines the connections and identifies a loose power cable. After securely connecting it, her systematic and logical problem-solving in the formal operational stage has enabled her to get the computer running and complete the project on time (2).

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

In earlier development stages, children have generally learned to employ deductive reasoning. This involves drawing specific conclusions from general principles. For instance, based on the general principle that “all living things require water,” someone in this stage can deduce that “if a plant is not watered, it will eventually die.” However, they now learn to utilize deductive reasoning, too (5). This consists of forming general principles based on specific observations. For example, after observing that multiple species of birds in a region have similar nesting habits, a person in the formal operational stage might conclude that “many birds in this region share nesting behaviors.”

Adolescent Egocentrism

As described above, a critical shift marked by the ability to grasp abstract thoughts and hypothetical possibilities occurs in the operational stage of development. However, this cognitive advancement also gives rise to a phenomenon known as egocentrism, where self-focus intensifies. This egocentrism is rooted in the ways that adolescents attribute significant power to their own thoughts, a belief that Piaget suggested is only fully grasped when adolescents assume adult roles (4).

Furthermore, the physiological changes that accompany adolescence contribute to a notable shift in focus. Adolescents often become predominantly self-concerned, which is exacerbated by their inability to distinguish their own thoughts about themselves from those of others. This cognitive fusion results in the creation of an “ imaginary audience ” within their minds, a virtual audience that keenly observes and evaluates their behavior and appearance. This imaginary audience fosters the self-consciousness commonly experienced during early adolescence, which, in turn, drives the desire for privacy and a reluctance to divulge personal information. This emerges as a reaction to the constant perceived observation by this imaginary audience.

Another element of adolescent egocentrism is the heightening of the “ personal fable “, which began in earlier development stages. To differing extents, adolescents begin to more firmly believe that they are unique, special, and impervious to harm. This idea can arise from their perception that others hold them in equally high regard as special and unique individuals.

Adolescents can become convinced that their emotional experiences are unparalleled, making them incomprehensible to others. This sense of uniqueness can further bolster their belief in their own invulnerability, especially concerning the concept of death. Consequently, adolescents might engage in risky behavior, which they may look back on later in life with regret (6).

It is noteworthy that adolescent egocentrism is most pronounced during early adolescence but tends to diminish as individuals progress into middle adolescence. During this cognitive evolution, they often gradually come to understand the limits of their thoughts and move away from the self-centered worldview that characterizes the earlier stages of their developmental journey.

In the context of Piaget’s framework, the formal operational stage, occurring approximately from the age of 11 until the end period of adolescence, serves as the culmination of a child’s cognitive development journey. It is significant not only in isolation, but also in its deep connections to the preceding stages.

As children progress from sensory exploration to symbolic thinking and concrete problem-solving, they gradually ascend to the formal operational stage. Here, abstract thought and advanced reasoning take center stage, building upon the foundations laid in earlier phases. This bridges the gap between childhood curiosity and adult-like cognition, which represents the peak of cognitive development, and synthesizes the knowledge and skills acquired throughout the earlier stages.

• Piaget, J. (1970). Science of education and the psychology of the child. Trans. D. Coltman.
• Schaffer, H. R. (1988). Child Psychology: the future. In S. Chess & A. Thomas (eds), Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development. NY: Brunner/Mazel.
• Siegler, R. S. & Richards, D. (1979). Development of time, speed and distance concepts. Developmental Psychology, 15, 288-298.
• Schwartz, P. D., Maynard, A. M., & Uzelac, S. M. (2008). Adolescent egocentrism: A contemporary view. Adolescence, 43(171), 441–448.
• Crain, W. (2005) Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications. Pearson, New Jersey.
• Dolgin, K. Gale, & Rice, F. Philip. (2011). The adolescent : development, relationships, and culture. 13th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Education.

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Piaget's stages of cognitive development

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• 1. Multiple Choice Edit 1 minute 1 pt How many stages are in Piaget's theory? 5 9 4 2
• 2. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt The process of taking in new information and adding it to what the child already knows is called __________ accommodation schemata assimilation all of the above

Problem solving and ______ are developed during the fourth stage, formal operational.

questioning

• 4. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt Piaget's theory of development focuses on predictable _____ stages. consecutive cognitive followed none of the above

__ are mental representations or concepts.

• 6. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt The first stage of development is the _____ stage. adaptation assimilation accommodation sensorimotor
• 7. Multiple Choice Edit 30 seconds 1 pt During the preoperational stage children a very _________ independent loud egocentric self centered
• 8. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt ____ is adjusting what is already known to fit the new information. schemata assimilation accommodation Really?

According to Piaget a child acts like this sort of scientist

associative

• 10. Multiple Choice Edit 45 seconds 1 pt Cindy understands her world primarily by grasping and sucking easily available objects. Cindy is clearly in Piaget's ________ stage preoperational concrete operational sensorimotor formal operational
• 12. Multiple Choice Edit 20 seconds 1 pt The inability of young children to see the world through someone else's view is termed: Centration Irreversibility Conservation Egocentrism
• 13. Multiple Choice Edit 20 seconds 1 pt Peek-a-boo works on children in what stage? Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete Operational Formal Operational
• 14. Multiple Choice Edit 20 seconds 1 pt The ability to use deductive logic, think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges during the: Concrete Operational Stage Sensorimotor Stage Formal Operational Stage  Preoperational State 
• 15. Multiple Choice Edit 20 seconds 1 pt In which of the following stages will children learn the concept of conservation? preoperational concrete operational sensorimotor formal operational

According to Piaget, children are ______ in constructing their understanding of the world.

Two containers hold the same amount, but Vincent thinks that the taller, skinnier glass holds more. This is known as:

Accommodation

False belief

Egocentrism

Conservation

Piaget believed that children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty with:

Perspective-taking

Inductive logic

Deductive logic

How Well Do You Know Piaget's Stages of Development?

Primary Circular Reactions

Secondary Circular Reactions

Tertiary Circular Reactions

Early Representational Thought

The ability to think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges during the:

Concrete Operational Stage

Formal Operational Stage

Sensorimotor Stage

Preoperational Stage

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Module 3: Lifespan Development

Cognitive development, learning objectives.

• Give examples of behavior and key vocabulary in each of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Cognitive Theory of Development

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is another stage theorist who studied childhood development (Figure 1). Instead of approaching development from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on children’s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive. However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults (Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.

Figure 1. Jean Piaget spent over 50 years studying children and how their minds develop.

Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the world. Schemata are concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation. First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their current schemata: assimilation is when they take in information that is comparable to what they already know. Accommodation describes when they change their schemata based on new information. This process continues as children interact with their environment.

For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his picture books, he says, “Look mommy, dog!” Thus, he has assimilated them into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time and says, “Look mommy, dog!” Having a basic schema that a dog is an animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. When Blake’s mom tells him that the animal he sees is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to include more information based on his new experiences. Blake’s schema for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.

Link to Learning

Watch this short clip to review the concepts of schema, assimilation and accommodation.

Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this stage, children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they make sounds. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence , which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, & Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants’ reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed, whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear confused.

In Piaget’s view, around the same time children develop object permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an existing schema; therefore, she can’t predict what her experience with that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.

Piaget’s second stage is the preoperational stage , which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children at this stage are considered to be pre -operational). Children’s logic is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny. Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of conservation , which is the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.

During this stage, we also expect children to display egocentrism , which means that the child is not able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let’s look at Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko’s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. At some point during this stage and typically between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as theory-of-mind (TOM).

Piaget’s third stage is the concrete operational stage , which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?

Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle of reversibility , which means that objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition. Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have the same amount (minus a couple of drops).

The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory is the formal operational stage , which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.

Beyond Formal Operational Thought

As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of Piaget’s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages (Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes (Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010).

According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old. However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget, suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues.

It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics (Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems. Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a disagreement with a significant other.

Think It Over

Explain how you would use your understanding of one of the major developmental theories (psychosexual, psychosocial, or cognitive) to deal with each of the difficulties listed below:

• Your infant daughter puts everything in her mouth, including the dog’s food.
• Your eight-year-old son is failing math; all he cares about is baseball.
• Your two-year-old daughter refuses to wear the clothes you pick for her every morning, which makes getting dressed a twenty-minute battle.
• Your sixty-eight-year-old neighbor is chronically depressed and feels she has wasted her life.
• Your 18-year-old daughter has decided not to go to college. Instead she’s moving to Colorado to become a ski instructor.
• Your 11-year-old son is the class bully.
• Modification and adaptation, addition of video link. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Lifespan Theories. Authored by : OpenStax. Located at : http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected]:Edod3PQm@5/Lifespan-Theories . License : CC BY: Attribution . License Terms : Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11629/latest/.
• Piaget - Stage 1 - Sensorimotor stage : Object Permanence. Authored by : Geert Stienissen. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NCdLNuP7OA8 . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• A typical child on Piaget's conservation tasks. Authored by : munakatay. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnArvcWaH6I . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Piaget's Mountains Task. Authored by : UofMNCYFC. Located at : https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4oYOjVDgo0 . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License

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