alternative chicken feeds research paper

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• Published: 20 October 2020

Alternative feed ingredients in the finisher diets for sustainable broiler production

• Ahmed A. El-Deek 1 ,
• Ahmed A. A. Abdel-Wareth 2 ,
• Mona Osman 1 ,
• Mohammed El-Shafey 3 ,
• Ayman M. Khalifah 4 ,
• Alaa E. Elkomy 4 , 5 &
• Jayant Lohakare 6  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  17743 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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• Biological techniques
• Developmental biology
• Environmental sciences
• Microbiology
• Systems biology

The main objective of this study was to evaluate the utilization of alternative protein feed ingredients including sunflower meal (SFM), corn gluten meal (CGM), and dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS) as a mixture in a partial replacement of soybean meal (SBM) in broiler finisher diets with different protein levels and also to evaluate their effect on birds’ performance, environmental aspects of litter, cecal microbes, and economic prospects. A total of 576 (19 days old) Cobb 500 broiler chicks were fed eight finisher diets consisting of 4 control (CTL) diets based on SBM with different crude protein (CP) levels (CTL21, CTL20, CTL19, and CTL18, containing 21%, 20%, 19%, and 18% CP, respectively) and 4 test diets with alternative protein sources (APS21, APS20, APS19, and APS18, containing 21%, 20%, 19%, and 18% CP, respectively) using a 15% combination of alternative protein sources (2.5% CGM, 5% SFM, and 7.5% DDGS) until 35 days of age. The results indicated that birds fed test diets APS21 and APS20 recorded the highest ( P  < 0.05) body weight compared to other treatments, but it was not different than the CTL diets fed at these CP levels. The birds fed CTL18 or APS18 recorded the worst feed conversion ratio (FCR) compared to other treatments. Moreover, birds fed test diet containing APS21 recorded better ( P  < 0.05) European performance efficiency factor and better economic efficiency when compared to other treatments, but it was not different than CTL21. In addition, birds fed diets APS21 and CTL19 showed significantly increased litter Lactobacillus spp. ( P  < 0.05) compared to other treatments. Cecal Lactobacillus spp. and Escherichia coli ( E . coli ) were not affected by CTL or APS diets. The counts of cecal Salmonella spp . increased in the CTL21 group compared to other groups. In conclusion, alternative feed ingredients (protein sources) in broiler finisher diets have positive effects in a sustainable way on the productive performance, litter and cecal microbial counts, and improved economic efficiency when compared to CTL diets.

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Introduction.

The globalization of the food value chain is increasing rapidly, and it is necessary to address the challenges associated with it in a sustainable way. To overcome the challenges, the poultry sector will have to focus more on the sustainability of production and cheap protein sources. The animal production efficiency could be improved by reducing the output of nutrients as waste to the environment 1 . The production of broiler chickens must achieve the objective of sustainability, as climate change concerns have major effects on its future growth performance 2 .

Feed cost represents approximately 65–75% and is considered the major cost of poultry production 3 . Many attempts have been made to decrease the cost of feeding to the minimum levels. These attempts include replacing the expensive feedstuffs by cheaper and more abundant by-products to support the sustainability of poultry production 4 . Soybean meal (SBM) is often the major dietary plant protein source in broiler diets, and other protein sources other than SBM are used occasionally at competitive prices 4 , 5 . However, there is a range of possible alternative feed ingredients that can partially or fully replace SBM in poultry diets 6 .

From a nutritional point of view, the current nutritional strategy is to meet the nutrient requirements of broiler chickens and to improve the feed efficiency, which may decrease the nutrient excreted in manure 1 . Poultry farmers are typically reducing the protein and increasing the energy contents throughout the finisher period of broiler chickens 7 . The cost of feed generally declines as the protein content is reduced, and the optimum time for changing diet densities is of economic importance. Due to feeding and genetic improvements, the time required to reach market weights has been reduced, leading to shorter durations of feeding various diets 8 .

The plant-based protein sources used for broilers in the poultry industry, especially SBM, had a shortage since 2005 9 , so other protein sources are expected to be included at high inclusion levels for optimum production. Several studies have been conducted using different plant protein sources to replace the SBM in animal feed such as canola meal (CNM), sunflower meal (SFM), rapeseed meal (RSM), cottonseed meal (CSM), corn gluten meal (CGM), and dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS) 10 , 11 . DDGS and SFM are new feed ingredients and may be used as an alternative source of protein in animal and poultry diets. Thus, coming up with alternative protein sources such as DDGS, CGM, and SFM that are cheap and locally available could improve broiler production and at the same time improve the economic status of the poultry industry. Therefore, the aim of this study was to formulate sustainable finisher diets containing a mixture of DDGS, CGM, and SFM as a partial alternative protein source (APS) for SBM at different crude protein (CP) levels (21%, 20%, 19%, and 18% CP, respectively) and to study their effect on the growth performance, litter content, and economic efficiency of Cobb 500 broiler chicks. We tested these CP levels in the finisher diets of broilers because the finisher diets in commercial broiler formulations worldwide use these CP levels in the diet.

Materials and methods

The experiment was conducted at Ismailia/Misr Company for poultry production, Sarapium district, Ismailia, Egypt. The laboratory analyses of this study were done at the Poultry Research Center, Faculty of Agriculture, Alexandria University, and the laboratory of Livestock Research Department, Arid Land Cultivating Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications, New Borg El Arab, Egypt.

Experimental design and diets

A total of 576 unsexed 1-day-old Cobb 500 chicks were procured from a commercial hatchery of Ismailia/Misr Company. All chicks were fed a starter diet with 23% crude protein (CP) from 1 to 18 days of age. From the 19th day, birds were fed finisher diets until 35 days of age. Broiler chicks were distributed into 24 floor pens (8 treatments × 3 pens per treatment × 24 chicks per pen). The eight treatments consist of 4 control (CTL) diets (CTL21, CTL20, CTL19, and CTL18, containing 21%, 20%, 19%, and 18% CP, respectively) and 4 test diets with alternative protein sources (APS21, APS20, APS19, and APS18, containing 21%, 20%, 19%, and 18% CP, respectively).

The test diets of the finisher phase were based on a combination of APS (2.5% corn gluten meal, 5% sunflower meal, and 7.5% dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS)) as a fixed entity (15%) for all levels of protein studied. The percentage of inclusion of alternative ingredients to replace SBM was selected to formulate diets to keep the replacement level of APS constant across diets of different CP levels. Experimental diets were formulated to contain 3100 kcal of ME/kg for starter and finisher diets in either CTL or APS test groups. All diets contained additives such as phytase, coccidiostats, and multienzymes. The multienzyme called COMBO Enzyme Blend consists of the following: cellulase, 75,000 CU units/kg; fungal amylase, 30,000 SKB units/kg; fungal protease, 1,000,000 HUT units/kg; neutral protease, 100,000 PC units/kg; alkaline protease, 1.2 Anson units/kg; xylanase, 20,000 × U units/kg; beta-glucanase, 20,000 BG units/kg; hemicellulase, 20,000 HCU units/kg; and lipase, 75,000 FIP units/kg. Ingredients and calculated analysis of broiler diets used in the experiment are shown in Table 1 .

The chemical analysis of SBM and APS including CGM, SFM, and DDGS is presented in Table 2 .

Birds, housing, and management

The Institutional Animal Ethics Committee of Alexandria University approved the field experiment, and all the methods were performed in accordance with the guidelines of the Egyptian Research Ethics Committee and the guidelines contained in the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Broiler chicks were kept on clean and fumigated floor pens in a controlled environmental room under similar management conditions. The pen size was 200 cm × 150 cm × 100 cm (L × B × H), and the wood shaving was used as a litter material. Chicks were provided with 24-h artificial lighting daily during the whole experimental period. The gas heater was used to provide the chicks with the heat needed for brooding. Finisher diets were provided in the form of pellets of 3 mm. An ambient temperature program was maintained at 33 °C from placement until 4 days of age, 32 °C from 5 to 9 days of age, 29 °C from 10 to 14 days of age, 27 °C from 15 to 23 days of age, 25 °C from 24 to 28 days of age, and 23 °C from 28 to 35 days of age. Experimental diets and water were offered for ad libitum consumption throughout the experimental phases. The assembly of each pen included a bell drinker and a tube feeder.

Determination of productive performances

Data on body weight (BW) and feed intake (FI) were determined at the initial and end of each phase. From these data, body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were computed. The FCR was determined as the ratio between total FI and the total BWG per bird per replicate. Livability was monitored daily by recording and collecting the number of broilers that died, which were then taken for postmortem examination. Livability percentage was then calculated by using the formula ((total number of live birds after the experiment/Initial total number of birds) × 100). The economic efficiency of the dietary inclusion of alternative protein sources was calculated as the total costs needed to obtain one-kilogram BWG according to Kalia et al 12 . The European performance efficiency factor (EPEF) was calculated at the end of the experimental period. The following equation was applied to obtain the EPEF 13 :

Determination of Lactobacillus , E. coli , and Salmonella/Shigella

At the end of the experiment, 15 birds from each group (5 birds/pen) were selected representing the pen and were decapitated by cervical dislocation, and exsanguination by severing the jugular vein. The carcasses were subsequently opened, and the entire gut tract was removed aseptically. The gut tract was then divided into sections that were ligated with light twine before being separated. The ceca were collected and sealed in sterile bags filled with 50 mL of ice-cold cryoprotective broth (i.e., pre-reduced sterile brain heart infusion broth containing 20% vol/vol glycerol) suitable to maintain the viability of intestinal bacteria 14 and were immediately stored at − 80 °C for subsequent analyses. For all analytical procedures, deep-frozen ceca per bird were thawed for 20 min and removed from storage bags. Cecal digesta contents were then aseptically emptied in a new sterile bag and were immediately diluted tenfold (i.e., 10% wt/vol) with sterile ice-cold anoxic PBS (0.1 M, pH 7.0) and subsequently homogenized for 3 min. Digesta slurries were then processed as follows. Each cecal digesta homogenate in PBS (1 mL) was serially diluted from 10 –1 to 10 –7 . Dilutions were subsequently plated on duplicate selective agar media for the enumeration of target bacterial groups. In particular, Lactobacillus spp., E. coli , and Salmonella spp. were enumerated using MRS agar, MacConkey agar, and Salmonella agar, respectively 15 . Plates were then incubated at 39 °C for 24–72 h, and colonies were counted. Results were expressed as base-10 logarithm colony forming units per gram of cecal digesta. The following selective culture media were used: MRS agar (Merck) for Lactobacillus spp., RAMBACH (Merck) for the Salmonella sp., CHROMOCULT (Merck) for E. coli .

Determination of litter compositions

Litter (wood shaving) was sampled (15 samples) from each treatment at the end of the experiment. Each sample corresponded to subsamples taken from 15 random places in a zigzag pattern, and they were obtained from the full depth of the litter (away from the feeders and drinkers). The random litter subsamples were thoroughly mixed and homogenized, and 250 g was weighed and delivered to the laboratory for further processing. A fraction of each sample was immediately dried at 80 °C for 48 h, while the rest of the sample was ground to pass through a 2 mm sieve and frozen at − 20 °C in airtight containers until further analysis. Litter moisture content was determined as loss in weight after oven drying for 48 h at 65 °C, and pH was measured using deionized water to litter ratio of 5:1 (wt:wt). Total nitrogen was determined according to AOAC 16 . Bacterial enumeration for Lactobacillus spp., E. coli, and Salmonella spp. was done for litter samples with the same method of cecal digesta on freshly collected samples.

Statistical analysis

The model used was one-way ANOVA to study the effect of different dietary treatments. The statistical model was as follows:

where Y ij is the observed value of the dependent variable, µ is the overall mean, T is the effect of dietary treatments, and e ij is the experimental random error.

Analysis of variance of obtained data was computed using the general linear model (GLM) and one-way ANOVA procedures according to SPSS 17 . Significant differences among means were evaluated using Duncan’s multiple range test 18 when significant P values were obtained. Pen was the experimental unit for all analyses.

Production performance

The performance results showed that birds fed CTL21 diet recorded the highest ( P  < 0.05) BW (1809.22 g), and this value did not differ significantly from the values of birds fed test diet APS21, CTL20 and test diet APS20 since they recorded 1763.48 g, 1765.12 g, and 1748.35 g, of BW respectively (Table 3 ). On the other hand, groups fed CTL21 and CTL20 diets had a higher ( P  < 0.01) BW compared with birds fed CTL19, APS19, CTL18, and APS18 since they recorded 1568.47 g, 1678.25 g, 1520.78 g, and 1544.84 g BW, respectively, but the group supplied with test diet APS19 was statistically equal to the group fed test diet APS20. Likewise, the results showed that birds fed CTL21 and CTL20 diets recorded the significant highest BWG (1260 g and 1237 g, respectively) during the finisher phase (19–35 days), and these values did not differ from the values of the birds fed test diets APS21 and APS20, since they recorded 1216 g and 1220 g, respectively. On the other hand, groups fed CTL21 and CTL20 diets had a higher BWG ( P  < 0.01) compared with birds in groups APS19, CTL19, APS18, and CTL18 as they recorded 1142 g, 1038 g, 1023 g, and 1002 g, respectively. However, the group supplied with test diet APS19 showed significantly higher BW, BWG, and FI than the CTL19 group.

Concerning FI, the results showed that birds in groups APS20, CTL20, APS21, and APS18 recorded the highest ( P  < 0.05) FI (2117 g, 2098 g, 2097 g, and 2093 g, respectively) during the finisher phase. Birds in groups CTL18 and APS18 showed the worst FCR as they recorded 2.05 and 2.04 kg feed consumption/kg gain compared to other groups. However, the opposite was true for birds in groups CTL21, APS21, CTL20, APS20, CTL19, and APS18 as no differences were detected in the FCR (Table 3 ). Results showed that incorporating 15% combination of SFM, CGM, and DDGS in the diets during finisher phase in APS21 group required less SBM supplementation and could be used for sustainable broiler production.

Livability, economic efficiency, and European performance efficiency factor

Results of livability were not significantly affected by finisher diets or dietary treatments (Table 4 ). A highly significant difference ( P  < 0.01) was observed in the EPEF among different groups; birds fed finisher diets CTL21 recorded the highest EPEF (329.87%) which was statistically equal to birds fed test diet APS21 and CTL20 diet (305.86% and 303.48%, respectively) but was different from birds fed APS20, APS19, CTL19, CTL18, and APS18 with EPEF values as 296.04%, 288.50%, 266.91%, 231.62%, and 230.14%, respectively.

Birds fed test diets with APS and CTL diets at 21, 20, and 19% CP levels showed better economic efficiency than the diets at 18% CP level (Table 5 ). Birds fed test diet APS21 showed the best economic efficiency compared to other groups.

Environment aspects and litter composition

Mean values of litter content including moisture, pH, total nitrogen, and ash percentage were statistically similar as they were not affected by CTL or APS finisher diets at different protein levels (Table 5 ). The overall mean of moisture was 27.28%, pH was 7.00, total N was 3.46%, and ash was 12.31%. The count of litter Lactobacillus spp. was significantly ( P  < 0.01) influenced by CTL or APS finisher diets (Table 6 ); results showed that birds fed CTL19 diet recorded the highest value of litter Lactobacilli count with a value of 6.24 log CFU/g compared with other groups.

The results of the litter E. coli count were not influenced by CTL or APS diets. The overall mean of litter E. coli count was 1.68 log CFU/g (Table 6 ). The counts of litter Salmonella spp. were significantly ( P  < 0.01) affected by CTL and APS diets, and this showed that litter Salmonella spp. counts increased with APS diets compared to CTL diets at 21%, 20%, and 19% CP levels but it was absent in CTL18 and APS18 groups (Table 6 ).

Caecum bacteria count

Cecal Lactobacillus spp. and E. coli counts were not influenced by CTL and the APS dietary treatments as the overall mean of the cecal Lactobacillus spp. count was 5.85 log CFU/mL and the overall mean of the cecal E. coli count was 5.85 log CFU/mL (Table 6 ). The cecal Salmonella spp. count increased with CTL diet at the level of 21% CP compared to other groups with the absence of cecal Salmonella spp. at the level of 18% CP in CTL or APS diet.

The growth performance data including BW, BWG, FI, and FCR revealed that incorporation of SFM, CGM, and DDGS at 15% level by replacing SBM in the diets containing 21% and 20% CP showed no negative effects on performance and could be used for sustainable broiler production during the finisher period (19–35 days of age). The growth performance was higher in the APS19 group than the CTR19 showing positive effects of APS supplementation. It is apparent from the growth performance data in the current study that sufficient CP was present to support adequate levels of indispensable amino acid synthesis, even in birds fed protein levels at 19% and 18% in the CTR and APS diets. These results agree with Gajana et al. 19 , which showed that birds fed finisher diets at 16 to 35 days resulted in improved body weight of broiler chickens. The growth performance of broilers is significantly increased with decreased levels of crude protein in the finisher period 20 . However, in the current study, the higher level of protein (21% and 20% CP) performed better than the lower levels of protein (19% and 18%) in both control and APS diets. The current study shows that plant protein levels in finisher diets significantly affected the FCR of broilers. FCR of broilers can be significantly affected by the amounts of the dietary protein or energy sources21. On the other hand, increasing the dietary energy levels for broilers has significantly improved FCR 21 , 22 .

No reports were found regarding the effect of combinations of APS including CGM, DDGS, and SFM in broiler diets but other combinations were done 10 , 11 , 23 , 24 . It was observed that the SBM diet decreased FI of broilers as compared to APS diet at each respective CP level in this study. This may possibly be due to differences in feed texture between CTL and APS diets. The overall mean of livability rate recorded in this study for the Cobb 500 strain was 95.51% which is acceptable according to Cobb recommendations.

Our findings clearly indicate that replacing SBM with a combination of SFM, CGM, and DDGS at 15% level of feeding in broiler finisher diets did not adversely affect production responses and caused an insignificant difference in growth and FCR compared to CTR. Previous studies used 15% DDGS as an APS in broiler diets without negative effects on productive performances which are in agreement with other reports 11 , 23 , 24 . Likewise, Damron et al. 10 found that the substitution of CGM for wheat-based products significantly improves growth performance of broiler chickens. However, the combinations of DDGS and canola may adversely affect the percentage of fines and thus influence performance 11 . Drastic reduction of proteins in nutrition program resulted in a significant decrease of body weight and unfavorable FCR, in line with our results that showed a significant decrease in body weight, and FCR in Cobb 500 strain when birds fed 18% protein in CTL or APS diets and 19% protein in CTL diets.

In the current study, the overall mean of total nitrogen (litter and excreta) of broilers was 3.46%. When broilers are fed diets containing low CP digestibility and unbalanced AA profile, more nitrogen will be excreted in the manure 25 , 26 . The factor which is important to reduce nitrogen losses from manure is to decrease the amount of CP in the diet.

While formulating finisher diets for broilers, the mixing efficiency of feed ingredients must be taken into considerations to optimize the protein levels and excretion of nitrogen and thereby increase the productive performance of chickens. Since the cost of feed represents more than 75% of poultry production 27 , our study focused more on the production efficiency during the finisher dietary phase by changing feed composition. Birds fed test diet with alternative protein sources showed better economic efficiency and EPEF in the APS21 group compared to other APS groups, and in CTL21 group than other CTL groups. The success in the poultry industry depends on the ability of producers to control broiler feed costs. The results of the current experiment agreed with other studies 19 , 27 , 28 . It is a great financial advantage to the poultry producer to cut and replace the starter period with the finisher period 6 . Optimizing protein levels during the finisher feeding phase of broilers improves production performances 29 . However, Tavernari et al. 30 showed that feeding broiler chickens SBM resulted in the highest economic efficiency compared to the broilers receiving diets containing sunflower meal. It could be concluded that changing the dietary starter phase with sustained finisher diets containing APS at different protein levels during 19–35 days of age improved economic return and EPEF.

DDGS supplementation up to 20% 31 and SFM supplementation up to 14% 32 can be used in broiler diets without adverse effects on the performance and economic efficiency. Kim et al. 31 reported that the availability of DDGS as bioprocessed products, combined with their low cost, has made their application as feed sources for broiler chickens more economical. Feeding broilers combination of SFM, CGM, and DDGS in finisher diets or SBM diets did not alter cecal Lactobacillus spp., and E. coli , and litter E. coli counts . On the other hand, the cecal Salmonella spp. count increased with CTL diet at the level of 21% CP compared to other groups. The Salmonella spp. were not detected in CTR18 and APS18 groups either in litter or cecal contents. High litter Salmonella counts were observed in the APS groups than their respective counterparts in the CTL at 21–19% CP levels. Similarly, cecal Salmonella load was higher in all finisher dietary CP groups except at 18% CP level and the reasons remained obscure. The risk of Salmonella contamination on processed broiler carcasses is reduced when carcasses originate from farms with low detectable levels of Salmonella 33 . Śliżewska et al. 34 reported that the quantitative and qualitative composition of microbiota in the broiler gut tract may change due to the effect of feed composition. However, it remains poorly understood how feed compositions affects development and composition of chicken gut microbiota 31 , 35 . There are different effects of CTL and APS diet compositions on Lactobacillus spp., E. coli , and Salmonella spp. in litter and ceca of broilers, but the values are within the normal bacteriological range 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 . Feeding broilers, a combination of SFM, CGM, and DDGS as APS in finisher diets or SBM in CTL diets improved gut microbiota. The balance of the gut microbiota is an important factor improving digestion, healthy gut, and, therefore, optimum performances.

Based on the results, the inclusion of the combination of SFM, CGM, and DDGS at 15% in finisher diets of broilers with 21% and 20% CP levels is desirable for Cobb 500 strain from the growth performance aspects. Interestingly, incorporating a combination of SFM, CGM, and DDGS as APS into diets required less SBM supplementation and could be used for sustainable broiler production; moreover, it improves the economics of broiler production. However, further studies with different protein sources and higher levels of inclusion are needed to promote the use of the mixture of APS including CGM, SFM, and DDGS in broiler diets.

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Supported in part by USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture Project No. 2019-69012-29905 (to Jayant Lohakare).

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Ahmed A. El-Deek & Mona Osman

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El-Deek, A.A., Abdel-Wareth, A.A.A., Osman, M. et al. Alternative feed ingredients in the finisher diets for sustainable broiler production. Sci Rep 10 , 17743 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-74950-9

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Insect meal as a feed ingredient for poultry

Usman elahi.

1 Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, National Engineering Research Center of Biological Feed, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China

2 Institute of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Faculty of Animal Husbandry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan

Chang-chun Xu

Shu-geng wu, hai-jun zhang, guang-hai qi.

Shortage of protein feed resources is the major challenge to the world farm animal industry. Insects are known as an alternative protein source for poultry. A wide range of insects are available for use in poultry diets. Insect larvae thrive in manure, and organic waste, and produce antimicrobial peptides to protect themselves from microbial infections, and additionally these peptides might also be functional in poultry feed. The feed containing antimicrobial peptides can improve the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, intestinal health, and immune function in poultry. Insect meal contains a higher amount of essential amino acids compared to conventional feedstuffs. Black soldier fly, mealworm, housefly, cricket/Grasshopper/Locust ( Orthoptera ), silkworm, and earthworm are the commonly used insect meals in broiler and laying hen diets. This paper summarizes the nutrient profiles of the insect meals and reviews their efficacy when included in poultry diets. Due to the differences in insect meal products, and breeds of poultry, inconsistent results were noticed among studies. The main challenge for proper utilization, and the promising prospect of insect meal in poultry diet are also addressed in the paper. To fully exploit insect meal as an alternative protein resource, and exert their functional effects, modes of action need to be understood. With the emergence of more accurate and reliable studies, insect meals will undoubtedly play more important role in poultry feed industry.

INTRODUCTION

Fish meal and soybean meal are the conventional protein sources in poultry feed. In poultry production, feed cost is approximately 60% to 80% of the total cost. A possible solution to reduce poultry feed costs is finding available, efficient, and inexpensive alternative feed sources. Insects are natural foods for poultry. Chickens can be found picking worms, and larvae from the grass, soil, and litter where they walk.

Insects are capable of consuming animal manure, and food wastes, and reducing pollution, and providing protein (larvae), and fertilizer (frass). Insects convert waste into proteins, and reduce total nitrogen excretion, odors, and methane emission, thus reduce up to 80% of waste mass [ 1 – 3 ].

The use of insects in poultry feed is a potential solution to improve the sustainability of poultry diets. A wide range of insects are available for use in poultry diets [ 4 ]. Insect meal contains a greater amount of essential amino acids compared to conventional feedstuffs [ 4 ]. The insects can be used as a live (fresh), dried, and paste form for poultry diets [ 5 , 6 ]. A dried insect is considered suitable for poultry diet because the water content in fresh or live insect stimulates the degradation, antimicrobial activity, and Millard reaction [ 6 , 7 ].

The exoskeleton of insects mainly consists of chitin, which improves the immune system of chicken [ 4 ]; however, chicken cannot synthesize the chitin [ 8 ]. Chitin and chitin derivatives can stimulate the innate immune cells [ 9 ]. Chitin contains about 5% nitrogen [ 10 , 11 ]. Broiler chickens fed the diet containing mealworm meal (MWM) have better disease resistance, and immune response due to prebiotic effect of chitin [ 12 ]. Chitin in diet also halts the growth of Escherichia coli , Salmonella , and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in broiler chickens [ 13 , 14 ]. Furthermore, hypolipidaemic and hypocholesterolaemic properties of chitin produce leaner meat by decreasing body fat in broiler chickens [ 8 ]. However, insects are recognized as disease carriers and there is a threat that insect borne diseases could transfer to poultry, and humans [ 15 ]. Black soldier fly (BSF; Hermetia illucens ) does not carry any disease-causing agent; however, housefly (HF; Musca domestica ) is a carrier of Entomophthora spp. fungus, house cricket ( Acheta domesticus ) is a carrier of Metarhizium sp. fungus and cricket paralysis virus, and mealworm ( Tenebrio molitor ) is a carrier of Beauveria bassiana fungus [ 16 ]. Insect larvae produce antimicrobial peptides to protect themselves from microbial infections as well as these peptides could also be functional in poultry [ 3 , 17 ]. Moreover, proper processing of insects could reduce the chemical risks and makes it gluten free [ 18 , 19 ]. Insects also contain antimicrobial peptides that are active against microbial resistant, bacteria, viruses, fungi and parasites as well as being used in medicines for wounds, infections, cancer, flatulence, phlegm, spasms and anticoagulation [ 17 ]. Antimicrobial peptide P5 is antibiotic alternative which acts as a growth promoter [ 20 ]. In addition, antimicrobial peptides improve the growth performance, nutrient digestibility, gut health and immune functioning [ 21 ]. Furthermore, the dark color of insect cuticle is due to the bioactive phenolic compound melanin having antibacterial and antifungal activity as well as prevents and treats hepatic diseases, stress and tumors [ 22 – 24 ]. In addition, insects are enriched in fatty acids that have antimicrobial properties. One of which, Lauric acid, is known for antibacterial and antiviral activity [ 25 ].

Insect meal in poultry diets increases the palatability for chickens and chickens fed on insect meal are highly preferable by consumers [ 4 ]. Insect meal enhances immune system and reduces antibiotic use thus, promoting animal health [ 8 ]. Moreover, feeding grasshoppers to chickens improved the shelf life of the meat [ 26 ]. Using insect meal in diet reduces feed cost, and enhances the performance and health of broiler chickens [ 27 ]. Thus, insect meal is an acceptable, inexpensive, and preferable source of protein for poultry.

BLACK SOLDIER FLY ( Hermetia illucens ) MEAL

Black soldier fly meal (BSFM) is a good source of protein, and energy, enriched with essential, and nonessential amino acids, saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), vitamins, and minerals [ 10 , 28 , 29 ]. The concentration of crude protein (CP) in BSFM ranged from 35% to 61%. Reported values for CP are, 34.97% [ 10 ], 36.94% [ 30 ], 36.9% [ 31 ], 40% [ 32 ], 42.6% CP [ 33 ], 43.9% [ 34 ], 55.3% [ 11 ], 55.3% [ 35 ], 56.1% [ 36 ], and 60.8% [ 37 – 40 ]. Black soldier fly contains higher concentrations of lauric acid and palmitic acid [ 41 ]. The concentration of crude fat in BSFM ranged from 7% to 42%. Reported values for crude fat are, 6.84% [ 36 ], 14.1% [ 37 – 40 ], 18% [ 11 , 35 ], 29.4% [ 34 ], 32.5% [ 32 ], 34.3% [ 31 ], 35.49% [ 10 ], 36.9% [ 33 ], and 42.27% [ 30 ]. Methionine content in BSFM ranged from 0.08% to 0.90%. Reported values for methionine are, 0.08% [ 39 ], 0.50% [ 10 ], 0.60% [ 30 ], 0.64% [ 11 ], 0.75% [ 37 , 38 , 40 ], 0.80% [ 34 ], and 0.90% [ 31 , 36 ], however, methionine + cysteine is 1.30% [ 36 ]. The concentration of lysine ranged from 0.34% to 3.30%, and threonine ranged from 0.22% to 2.26%. Reported values for lysine are, 0.34% [ 39 ], 2.10% [ 10 , 11 ], 2.15% [ 30 ], 2.23% [ 31 ], 2.81% [ 34 ], 3.22% [ 36 ], and 3.29% [ 37 , 38 ], 3.30% [ 37 , 38 , 40 ], and, reported values of threonine are 0.22% [ 39 ], 1.52% [ 31 ], 1.63% [ 34 ], 1.72% [ 11 ], 2.17% [ 37 , 38 , 40 ], and 2.26% [ 36 ]. And reported concentration of valine in BSFM is 0.33% [ 39 ], 2.20% [ 31 ], 2.50% [ 34 ], 2.72% [ 11 ], 3.25% [ 37 , 38 ], 3.26% [ 37 , 38 , 40 ], and 3.38% [ 36 ]. Black soldier fly larvae contain 3 to 10 times higher calcium and magnesium content than other insects [ 42 ]. The concentrations of calcium and phosphorus in BSFM are ranged from 1.21% to 4.39%, and 0.74% to 0.95% respectively. Reported values for calcium are 1.21% [ 36 ], 2.46% [ 30 ], 4.39% [ 10 ], and for phosphorus are 0.74% [ 30 ], 0.83% [ 10 ], and 0.95% [ 36 ].

In addition, BSF larvae reduces manure mass by 50%, and total nitrogen concentration by 62% [ 43 ]. The rapid consumption of the substrate reduces odors and therefore presumably methane formation and off-gassing. Moreover, rearing BSF larvae on animal manure could help to reduce feed cost, HF population (by repelling ovi-position), pathogenicity (by producing certain enzymes) and odor [ 3 , 44 , 45 ].

Considerable studies showed that BSFM is the superior insect protein to improve growth performance, carcass composition, and meat quality in broiler chickens. Diet containing 2.6% BSFM with extended amino acids supply in the diet of Ross 308 broiler chickens improved the growth performance and nitrogen balance in starter phase [ 37 ]. Cobb broiler chickens fed diet containing 5% BSFM had improved feed efficiency, and 7.5% BSFM increased the thigh weight and reduced meat pH, and 10% BSFM still resulted in better growth [ 46 ]. Diet containing 20% BSFM fed to Ross 308 male broiler chickens improved the meat quality by increasing concentrations of lauric acid, myristic acid, and eicosapentaenoic fatty acid; however, partly reduced the total PUFA [ 32 ]. In another study, diet containing 5% BSFM fed to Ross 708 male broiler chickens improved the cecal microbiota population and preservation, and increased villi mucin; however, chickens fed on 15% BSFM had reduced cecal microbiota population and preservation [ 35 ]. Diet containing 5% BSFM fed to broiler chickens reduced the abdominal fat percentage; 10% BSFM increased the carcass weight and breast percentage, and 15% BSFM increased the body weight, abdominal fat percentage, meat redness, meat protein percentage, breast meat monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and reduced breast meat PUFA [ 47 ]. Diet containing 5% or 10% BSFM fed to Ross 308 broiler chickens led to improved growth performance; however, 15% BSFM in diet decreased the feed efficiency, and resulted in the increase of crypt depth and reduction of villus height, and villus height crypt depth ratio [ 48 ]. Cobb 500 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 2% BSFM had decreased abdominal fat weight; diet containing 6% BSFM increased the protein digestibility and reduced the excreta Enterobacteriaceae count; 8% BSFM had better growth performance, and 10% BSFM increased drip loss, and decreased the gizzard weight [ 49 ]. Indigenous Ardennaise chickens fed on 8% fresh BSF exhibited higher body weight [ 41 ]. Diet containing (3% or 6%) BSFM fed to Ross 308 broiler chickens increased the breast meat yield and feed efficiency; however, reduced the weight gain [ 20 ]. BSFM at the dosage of 3% exhibited immunomodulatory effects, as evidenced by the increase of the CD3+CD4+ T lymphocytes, cell proliferation, lysozyme, survivability against Salmonella Gallinarum , and decrease of the bacteria count in the tissues of liver, spleen, bursa, and cecum [ 50 ].

The effects of BSFM on broiler chicken were affected by the dietary ratio between methionine and cysteine. Ross 308 male broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 23%/21% BSFM (starter/grower phase) with 50:50 methionine cysteine ratio improved feed efficiency, increased net protein utilization and body crude fat deposition; diet with 40:60 methionine cysteine ratio reduced the growth performance, methionine precaecal digestibility, and net protein utilization; diet containing 60:40 methionine cysteine ratio increased amino acids (methionine, threonine, arginine, leucine and valine) precaecal digestibility; however, diet with 55:45 methionine cysteine ratio only increased the cysteine precaecal digestibility [ 39 ].

Black soldier fly meal can be used to replace fish meal and/or soybean meal or even soybean oil in broiler diet. Fish meal was successfully replaced by BSFM up to 15% in the diet of domestic chickens [ 51 ]. Cobb 500 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 33% BSFM (4% in diet) as a replacement of fish meal resulted in increased dressing percentage and protein deposition in meat [ 52 ]. Ross 308 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 50% or 100% BSFM with an ideal amino acid ratio as a replacement of soybean meal improved the growth performance, while diet containing 100% BSFM with deficient methionine level reduced the feed intake, protein and energy conversion ratio [ 40 ]. Cobb 500 broiler chickens fed diet containing 5% BSFM as replacement of soybean meal and fish meal, had better growth performance, and higher gizzard weight; and 10% BSFM increased the breast weight, and overall acceptability of cooked pectoral muscle; while 15% BSFM reduced the aroma, and taste of cooked pectoral muscle, total feed cost, and increased gross profit margin [ 34 ]. Ross 308 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 75%/50% BSFM (75% for starter phase and 50% for grower phase), or 50% or 100% BSFM with extended amino acids supply as replacement of soybean meal improved growth performance and CP deposition; further, 50% BSFM and 100% BSFM with extended amino acids supply, yielded superior protein quality model parameter and net protein utilization [ 38 ]. BSFM was successfully included at 15% in the diet of Cobb 500 broiler chickens [ 53 ] and soybean oil was successfully replaced with 100% BSF fat for Ross 308 male broiler chickens [ 54 ]. Diet containing 100% BSFM as a replacement of soybean oil exhibited increased proportion of saturated fatty acids and reduced proportion of PUFAs of breast meat, and did not affect the growth performance, hematological parameters, carcass, and meat quality [ 55 ]. Black soldier fly fat could be used to replace 50% of soybean oil and reduced cholesterol in the breast meat in Ross 708 broiler chickens; while 100% BSF fat increased the total saturated fatty acids and reduced the MUFA, PUFA in breast and leg meat [ 56 ]. Ross 308 male broiler chickens fed diet containing 2.5% partially defatted BSFM resulted in increased digestibility of crude fat, and apparent metabolizable energy compared to chickens fed 2.5% full defatted BSFM [ 11 ]. BSFM included in the diet of Ross 708 broilers at 25% resulted in increased coefficient of total track apparent digestibility for ether extract compared to the chickens fed on 25% MWM diet [ 31 ]. BSFM could be used at 7.8% in combination with 5.2% alfalfa meal as a replacement of soybean cake to improve growth performance, carcass composition and meat redness in Hubbard S757 broilers [ 57 ].

There were few studies regarding the effects of BSFM in laying hens, and variable results were observed. Hy-Line Brown laying hens fed on 3% BSFM improved the growth performance, apparent digestibility of CP and crude fat, immunoglobulin A and glutathione peroxidase [ 10 ]. Laying hens (Julia) fed on the diet containing 10% BSFM increased the egg weight, albumin weight, egg shell thickness, albumin height, plasma calcium; furthermore, diet containing 10% BSF larvae meal significantly improved the egg yolk color score [ 28 ]. Lohman brown classic laying hens fed on diet containing 15% defatted BSFM and fat improved egg weight, egg mass, nitrogen, and energy metabolizability [ 58 ]. Xuefeng black-bone laying hens fed on 3% BSFM diet improved the egg weight, Haugh unit, egg shell weight, yolk C14:00, C17:00, C20:2 fatty acids, yolk amino acids (glutamic acid, methionine, phenylalanine and leucine), plasma total superoxide dismutase, and plasma avian influenza virus antibody, and decreased the egg shell thickness, and plasma interleukin-2; still, hens fed on 5% BSFM diet improved egg production, and feed efficiency, and decreased plasma malondialdehyde [ 30 ]. Diet containing 7.5% BSFM fed to Shaver white leghorn hens increased the feed intake, body weight (27 week), yolk color score, and shell thickness; however, 5% BSFM in diet increased body weight (23 week) and shank breaking strength but reduced the hen day egg production, egg weight, egg mass, and feed intake [ 36 ]. Lohman Brown Classic laying hens fed on the diet containing 17% BSFM to fully replace soybean meal resulted in poor growth, and production percentage, decreased blood lipids, blood chloride, and blood creatine; however, increased percentage of small, medium, and extra-large size eggs, blood globulin and blood calcium [ 59 ]. Diet containing 24% BSFM as replacement of soybean cake fed to Lohmann selected leghorn classic laying hens exhibited increases of the fecal dry matter [ 60 ].

MEALWORM ( Tenebrio molitor ) MEAL

Mealworms are the brown worm-like larvae of the darkling beetles. Mealworms can be found throughout most of the world where they prefer warm, dark, and damp places like under decaying logs and leaves. Mealworms are designed for burrowing and eating and will feast upon the grains, vegetation, spoiled food, and many other types of fresh or decaying organic matter.

The concentration of CP in MWM ranged from 27% to 54%, and fat ranged from 4% to 34%. Reported values for CP concentration in MWM are 46.44% [ 61 ], 51.93% [ 12 ], 52.89% [ 6 ], 53.83% [ 62 ], 47% [ 63 ], 53% [ 64 ], 27.26% [ 65 ], 27.15% for super MWM [ 65 ], 45.83% [ 66 ], and 52.4% [ 31 ]. Reported values for crude fat in MWM are 21.27% [ 12 ], 30.05% [ 6 ], 28% [ 31 ], 28.03% [ 62 ], 29.6% [ 63 ], 3.6% [ 64 ], 11.50% [ 65 ], 8.70% for super MWM [ 65 ], and 34.2% [ 66 ]. Broiler chickens fed on the diet containing MWM have better disease resistance and immune responses due to prebiotic effect of chitin [ 12 ].

Arbor Acres broiler chickens fed on diet containing 2.5% MWM improved the weight gain (1 to 10 d) and reduced the albumen globulin ratio; however, 5% MWM reduced the albumen globulin ratio and intestinal Escherichia coli count [ 62 ]. Diet containing 4% MWM fed to Ross 308 male broiler chickens improved the body weight, average daily gain, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) in the starter phase [ 6 ]. Mealworm meal in diet of Ross 308 broiler chickens at the rate of 0.3% increased the weight gain, feed intake, blood total protein, blood total cholesterol, serum interleukin-2 and serum tumor necrosis factor α [ 63 ] and increased the cecal α-glucosidase [ 67 ]. Higher level of MWM (10% to 15%) in the diet of Ross 708 broiler chickens resulted in reduced firmicutes Bacteroidetes ratio and mucin synthesis [ 68 ]. Label Hubbard hybrid free range chickens fed on 7.5% MWM as a replacement of corn gluten meal in diet increased the oleic acid percentage and α-linolenic acid percentage, and reduced the atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indexes of breast meat [ 69 ]. Shaver brown male broiler chickens fed on diet containing MWM exhibited higher amount of volatile fatty acids of cecal content [ 70 ]. Ross 708 male broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 15% MWM as a replacement of soybean meal, corn gluten meal and soybean oil resulted in increased body weight (12 d), feed intake, FCR (25 to 53 d), and crypt depth, and reduced villus height, and villus height crypt depth ratio; however, body weight at 25 d was increased by 10% MWM and body weight at 53 d was increased by 5% MWM [ 71 ]. Diet containing 8% MWM fed to Ross 308 broiler chickens resulted in increased body weight, meat tenderness, and juiciness; however, decreased feed intake, and FCR [ 64 ]. Ross 708 female broiler chickens fed on diet containing 15% full fat MWM as a replacement of soybean meal, corn gluten meal and soybean oil exhibited increased body weight (12 d), and weight gain at 12 d, feed intake (1 to 12 d), thigh weight and abdominal fat weight; however, 5% MWM increased the body weight at 40 d, feed intake (12 to 25 d), and carcass weight [ 72 ]. In addition, 10% MWM increased the abdominal fat percentage and red blood cells; however, reduced the blood albumin and blood gamma glutamyl transferase [ 72 ]. Chickens fed a 3% MWM in diet exhibited increased weight gain, dressing percentage, feed cost, total expenses, gross return, and net profit [ 66 ]. Ross 308 male broiler chickens infected with Salmonella enteritidis and Escherichia coli , fed on the diet containing 0.4% MWM resulted in increased feed intake, serum IgA, and reduced mortality and cecal Escherichia coli ; however, 0.4% super MWM increased the body weight, weight gain, serum immunoglobulin G, and reduced FCR, bursa of fabricius percentage, cecal Salmonella spp. [ 65 ].

Corn gluten meal in diets of female label Hubbard hybrid free-range chickens, was successfully replaced by 7.5% MWM without any effect [ 73 ]. Diet containing 29.65% MWM as a replacement of soybean meal with hulls in the diet of Shaver brown broiler chickens improved the FCR, ileal digestibility, and spleen weight [ 74 ]. Shaver brown male broiler chickens fed on diet containing 29.65% MWM showed improved FCR, protein efficiency ratio (PER), European efficiency factor, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase; however, reduced feed intake (46 to 62 d), albumin globulin ratio and uric acid [ 12 ]. Diet containing 25% MWM fed to the Ross 708 broiler chickens increased apparent ileal digestibility coefficient for isoleucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, valine, alanine, aspartic acid, glycine, glutamic acid, and tyrosine compared to the chickens fed on the diet containing 25% BSFM diet [ 31 ]. Mealworm meal can also regulate the meat quality of poultry. The MWM sloth at 1% dosage reduced meat color redness, meat color yellowness, meat palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, linoleic acid and saturated fatty acids, and increased meat oleic acid and unsaturated fatty acids [ 75 ]. Broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 1% MWM increased the body weight, weight gain; in addition, diet containing 2% MWM increased the carcass yield, slaughter weight, dressed weight, eviscerated weight, and reduced the abdominal fat weight; however, diet containing 10% MWM decreased the feed efficiency [ 76 ].

HOUSEFLY ( Musca domestica ) MEAL

The HF can be found in all countries and in any climates. It is commonly associated with animal feces and can be found feeding on animal manure and food wastes. The concentration of CP in HF meal (HFM) ranged from 40% to 64%, and crude fat in HFM ranged from 2.5% to 28%. HFM contains about 53.3% CP [ 77 ], 54.36% CP and 16.90% crude fat [ 78 ], 55.1% CP and 20.7% crude fat [ 79 ], 55.6% CP and 27.9% crude fat [ 80 ], 59.48% CP and 6.66% crude fat [ 81 ], 63.99% CP and 24.31% crude fat [ 82 ], 61.25% CP [ 83 ], 44.44% CP and 9.76% crude fat [ 84 ], 48.4% CP and 20% crude fat [ 85 ], 62.98% CP and 5.58% crude fat [ 86 ], 40.12% CP and 6.88% crude fat [ 87 ], 50% CP and 2.7% crude fat [ 64 ]. The older HF larvae contain less CP and more lipids than young HF larvae [ 88 , 89 ]. The amino acid profile of HFM is comparable to fish meal, most limiting amino acids, lysine, and methionine are in higher concentration. Insect processing method could also influence the nutritional profile of the insect meal. Sun drying reduces CP and increases lipids compared to oven drying [ 89 ].

Housefly meal can be used as a substitute for fish meal or soybean meal, and HFM can improve the production performance [ 84 , 86 , 90 – 92 ] and meat quality of broilers [ 80 , 93 , 94 ] at different concentrations. Diet containing 20% HFM as a replacement of fish meal fed to Anak broiler chickens increased the body weight, feed intake, FCR and gizzard percentage; however, diet containing 40% HFM increased weight gain, dressing percentage and inguinal fat percentage [ 84 ]. Ross 308 male broiler chickens fed 4% HFM diet had better growth performance, while dietary 8% HFM addition harmed the growth of starter [ 86 ]. Broiler chickens fed on the 60% HFM as replacement of soybean meal in diet, improved the body weight, FCR, dressing percentage, apparent metabolizable energy, nutrient digestibility and reduced the feed intake [ 90 ]. Yellow dwarf male chickens fed on 4.44% HFM as a replacement of fish meal in diet improved the weight gain and feed intake [ 91 ]. Diet containing 10% HFM fed to Ross 308 broiler chickens exhibited improved body weight (28 to 35 d), feed intake (28 to 35 d), weigh gain, FCR, European production efficiency factor (EPEF) and PER; however, diet containing 50% HFM reduced body weight (21 to 35 d), feed intake (21 to 35 d), weight gain, FCR, EPEF, and PER [ 92 ]. However, the HFM at the rate of 20%, 40%, and 60% was successfully replaced with fish meal in the diet of Ross 308 male broiler chickens without any significant effect [ 77 ]. Cobb 500 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 5%q HFM for starter phase and, 4% HFM for grower and finisher phase, improved the body weight, weight gain, feed intake, FCR, meat flavor, meat aroma, meat desirability; moreover, 10% HFM increased the meat juiciness and flavor, and 20% HFM increased the meat tenderness and flavor [ 80 ]. Ross 308 broiler chickens fed on 10% HFM increased the body weight, carcass weight, breast muscle yield, juiciness, water holding capacity, and reduced the thawing loss and cooking loss [ 93 ]. Housefly live larvae was reported to have the potential to improve the reproductivity of free range chicken, as evidenced by the increased clutch size and hatchability [ 95 ]. Furthermore, 50% replacement of fish meal with HFM improved the hen day egg production in Isa brown and Nera black layer hens [ 96 ]. Table 1 summarizes the representative data of housefly meal application in broilers.

Application of housefly meal with different addition levels in broilers

HFM, housefly meal; FCR, feed conversion ratio.

Everything has pros and cons. There are opinions that using maggot meal in poultry diets can enhance the risk of disease transmission. Houseflies are recognized as a carrier of diseases; they carry disease causing agents on their legs and hairs that cover their bodies. But the maggot itself doesn’t contain any disease-causing agent because maggot therapy has been used for decades for the treatment of septic injuries.

CRICKET/GRASSHOPPER/LOCUST ( Orthoptera ) MEAL

Cricket/Grasshopper/Locust (Orthoptera) meal (OTM) is a rich source of protein, amino acids, fatty acids, minerals, and vitamins [ 97 , 98 ]. The concentration of CP ranged from 48% to 65% and crude fat ranged from 3% to 21%. Short horned grasshopper ( Oxya hyla hyla ) contains about 64.67% CP, 2.58% crude fat [ 97 ], reared African grasshopper ( Acanthacris ruficornis ) contains about 50.5% CP and 18.8% crude fat, desert locust ( Schistocerca gregaria ) contains about 50.9% CP and 20.5% crude fat, and wild edible grasshopper ( Ruspolia nitidual ) contains about 52% CP and 21.4% crude fat [ 99 ]. However, ( Ornithacris cavroisi ) grasshopper contains about 47.73% CP and 12.23% crude fat [ 100 ]. Chinese grasshopper ( Acrida cinerea ) contains about 65.4% CP and 8.3% crude fat [ 98 ]. Grasshopper contains about 52.50% CP and 27.1% crude fat [ 101 ].

Arbor Acres broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 50% (5% in diet) or 100% (10% in diet) grasshopper meal as fish meal replacer exhibited improved growth [ 100 ]. Grasshopper meal completely and successfully replaced fish meal in the diet of Anak 2000 broiler chickens without any effect [ 102 ] ( Table 2 ). Qinjiaoma broiler chicken fed on the grasshoppers in pasture system resulted in increased heme iron, nonheme iron, total iron and α-tocopherol contents, and activities of glutathione peroxidase and superoxidase dismutase of breast and leg muscle compared to broiler chickens fed on control diet in cage system [ 103 ]. Isa Brown laying hens fed on diet containing 25% grasshopper ( Ornithacris cavroisi ) meal as a replacement for fish meal had improve Haugh unit, and diet containing 75% grasshopper ( Ornithacris cavroisi ) meal improved the egg yolk color [ 100 ]. Live grasshoppers fed to free range Qinjiaoma broiler chickens improved live weight, carcass composition, and total lipid, phospholipids, and anti-oxidative potential of meat [ 26 ]. Indigenous chicken fed on diet containing 50% wild edible grasshopper ( Ruspolia nitidual ) meal as replacement for fish meal improved the FCR and EE apparent digestibility, and diet containing 100% wild edible grasshopper ( Ruspolia nitidual ) meal improved the CP apparent digestibility; However, diet containing higher levels (above than 25%) of wild edible grasshopper ( Ruspolia nitidual ) meal as a replacement of fish meal resulted in reduced feed intake in indigenous chickens [ 99 ].

Application of Orthoptera meal with different addition levels in broilers

However, chitin and chitosan in OTM are not easily absorbed and utilized. Cobb 500 male broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 0.05% cricket chitosan or 0.05% cricket chitin displayed a negatively affected intestinal morphology and a downregulated mRNA expression of some nutrient transporters (PepT1, EAAT3, SGLT1, and SGLT5) [ 104 ].

SILKWORM MEAL

The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of a moth. The larvae spins the silk to make a cocoon where it pupates to the adult moth. Silkworms eat mulberry leaves and were native to northern China. The culture of silkworms is called sericulture. Silkworm meal is a good source of protein, fatty acids, amino acids, minerals and vitamins [ 105 – 107 ]. Silkworm contains about 71.9% CP [ 107 ] 45.87% for spun silkworm pupae and 50.31% for reeling silkworm pupae [ 108 ]. Silkworm chitin which is a component of exoskeleton, contains approximately 25% CP, it does not contain amino acids and is not digestible [ 107 ]. The reported values for fat are 20.1% for silkworm pupae meal [ 107 ], 7.94% for spun silkworm pupae and 25.76% for reeling silkworm pupae [ 108 ], 54% CP and 2.5% crude fat [ 64 ].

Different content of silkworm meal (SWM) can be used in poultry feed to replace fish meal or soybean meal. Silkworm meal successfully substituted for fish meal or soybean meal in the diet of broiler chickens with no significant effect [ 107 – 109 ]. Soybean meal was successfully and completely replaced by SWM in the diet of white leg horn hens without any effect [ 110 ].

Sonali chickens fed on the diet containing 25% SWM as replacement of soybean meal increased the weight gain, feed intake, heart percentage, breast meat yield, and reduced breast meat protein percentage and ash percentage; 50% SWM increased the meat pH, and n-3 PUFAs, and reduced the n-6 PUFAs of breast meat [ 111 ]. In addition, diet containing 75% SWM as replacement of soybean meal fed to Ross 308 broiler chicken resulted in increased body weight, feed intake, gross return/bird and profit/kg meat, and reduced cost/kg meat; 100% SWM has the opposite effect, and 25% SWM in diet reduced the feed intake and increased the cost/kg meat; 50% SWM reduced profit/kg meat [ 112 ] Table 3 lists the typical results of silkworm meal application in broilers.

Application of silkworm meal with different addition levels in broilers

SWM, silkworm meal; RIR, Rhode Island red; FCR, feed conversion ratio.

EARTHWORM MEAL AND VERMI-HUMUS

Earthworm meal (EWM) is rich source of protein, energy, and amino acids [ 113 – 115 ]. The concentration of CP in EWM ranged from 41% to 66%, and crude fat ranged from 3.5% to 18%. Reported values for CP are 63.06% [ 115 ], 65.68% for ( Eisenia foetida ) [ 116 , 118 ], 7.27% for vermi-humus [ 118 ], 55.87% [ 113 ], 57.85% [ 117 ], and 41.42% [ 114 ], and reported values for crude fat are 18.5% [ 115 ], 16.39% [ 113 ], 9.2% [ 114 ], and 3.5% [ 117 ]. Fresh earthworm (EW; Lumbricus rubellus ) contains 6.89% CP and 2.25% crude fat [ 114 ]. It is generally believed that the CP content in earthworms is between 50% and 70%, and the crude fat content is less than 20%, and its content is related to the freshness and dryness of the earthworms. In addition, EW products are often used in poultry feed in the form of EWM or a mixture of EWM and vermi-humus.

Feeding broilers with feed supplemented with 1% EWM and 1% vermi-humus has a negative impact on the growth performance of broilers, although the immune functions were improved [ 118 ]. But the feed supplemented with 3% EWM and 1% vermi-humus can improve the performance of broilers and increase relative weight of immune organs, intestinal length, and intestinal lactic acid bacteria count [ 116 ]. Hybro G female broiler chickens fed on fresh EW ( Lumbricus rubellus ) diet improved the quality of meat for thigh and breast; in addition, diet containing 100% EWM (8% for 1 to 21 d, 5% for 22 to 35 d) as a replacement for fish meal reduced the fat content of breast, and thigh meat, and exhibited the higher acceptability of drumsticks [ 114 ]. Ningdu yellow female broiler chickens fed on diet containing 5% EWM had improved growth performance and antioxidant capacity [ 117 ].

Diet containing 3% EWM ( Eudrilus eugeniae ) improved the body weight gain, and diet containing 5% EWM improved the FCR and increased meat pH; and diet containing 7% EWM improved aroma, juiciness, residues, and flavor of the meat in Cobb 500 broiler chickens [ 119 ]. Ross 308 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 2%, 4%, or 6% EWM increased the breast meat yield, high density lipoprotein level and reduced the low-density lipoprotein level, and increased body weight and feed intake were observed in diet containing 2% or 4% EWM [ 120 ]. It was reported that soybean and fish meals could be replaced partially with EWM between 10% to 15% in the broiler diets [ 121 ] ( Table 4 ).

Application of earthworm meal with different addition levels in broilers

EWM, earthworm meal; FCR, feed conversion ratio.

TERMITE MEAL

Termite ( Sclerotized macropterous ) meal contains about 42.33% CP after Sun drying and 47.34% CP after roasting, and about 41% crude fat [ 122 ].

Termites ( Macrotermes subhyalinus and Macrotermes bellicosus ) were successfully substituted in dry or fresh form in the diet of indigenous chickens without any effect [ 123 ]. Inclusion of termites ( Glyptotermes montanus ) extracted endo-β-D-1,4-glucanase, avicelase, β-D-1,4-mannanase, β-D-1,4-xylanase and β-D-1,4-glucosidase enzymes in poultry diet can improve digestion in poultry [ 124 ].

Bee slum contains about 9.37% CP and 54.9% crude fat [ 125 ]. Bee products are mainly used in poultry feed in three forms: bee propolis, bee pollen and bee slum. The appropriate dosage of bee products can influence the performance of broiler chickens, and a lower dose of Bee products can have a good growth-promoting effect when applied in poultry feed.

Ross 308 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 0.025% bee propolis and 2% bee pollen increased carcass yield and reduced drip loss, skin yellowness, breast meat yellowness: and 0.05% bee propolis increased carcass yield and reduced drip loss, skin yellowness, breast meat yellowness [ 126 ]. Dietary addition of 0.05% to 0.1% bee propolis or 2% bee pollen increased the duodenal villi height, duodenal villi base width, villus height crypt depth ratio and reduced the duodenal villi crypt depth in broiler [ 127 ]. Diet containing 0.04% ethanol extracted bee propolis fed to Ross 308 broiler chickens increased the concentrations of glutamic acid, glycine and tyrosine in breast muscle, and aspartic acid, serine, alanine, tyrosine, histidine, and threonine in thigh muscle, and reduced the concentration of methionine in breast muscle and proline in thigh muscle; however, 0.04% ethanol extracted bee pollen reduced proline concentration in breast muscle [ 128 ]. Diet containing (0.04% or 0.08%) bee pollen fed to Ross 308 broiler chickens did not affect the blood mineral profile [ 129 ].

Ross 308 broiler chickens fed on the diet containing 0.04% bee pollen resulted in increased body weight and carcass weight [ 130 ]. Diet containing 25% or 50% bee slum as a replacement of corn in the diet of Anak 2000 broiler chickens reduced the body weight and feed intake and increased the pancreas percentage [ 125 ]. Ross 308 boiler chickens at week 3 exhibited improved body weight and feed intake when fed on diet containing 2,000 ppm pine originated bee propolis; however, diet containing 4,000 ppm have the opposite effect. Thus. higher level of pine originated bee propolis had adverse effect on growth performance and protein digestibility [ 131 ].

Lohmann LSL laying hens fed on the diet containing 0.025% and 0.05% bee propolis increased the egg mass, egg production, Haugh unit, albumen height, yolk height, yolk index, yolk weight, blood total protein, blood globulin, hemoglobin, lymphocytes and reduced FCR, yolk diameter, blood cholesterol, heterophil, heterophil lymphocyte ratio [ 132 ]. Diet containing 0.05% and 0.15% bee pollen fed to Sinai laying hens increased the egg number, egg mass, production percentage, feed intake, red blood cells, white blood cells, lymphocytes and reduced the body weight, weight gain, heterophils, heterophil lymphocyte ratio, blood cholesterol, blood triglycerides; however, diets containing 0.1% bee pollen have the opposite effect [ 133 ].

CHALLENGE AND PERSPECTIVES

Although considerable studies have been conducted in broilers and laying hens, there are still some obstacles to the proper and efficient utilization of insect meal in poultry industry. The quality and nutrient profile of insect products varied with the differences in insect species, rearing medium, environment, and processing method. The absence of large-scale production and stable supply of insect meal do not favor the accurate evaluation of metabolizable energy and effective nutrient availability. Furthermore, the processing method needs to be updated for cost reduction of insect products, and risk reduction of pathogenic contamination and disease spreading. With the availability of quality and stable insect meals, more reliable efficacy studies may be performed to evaluate the health, immunomodulatory and functional effects of insect meals compared with the alternative protein feedstuffs.

In the current environment with studies of insect meal in broiler and laying hens, BSFM, MWM, and HFM exhibit the most promising industrialization prospects. However, earthworm, silkworm, and locust swarms can be effectively utilized in poultry feed. Because insects are used as medium of medicines for centuries, it is reasonable to believe that insects can be used in poultry diet to replace antibiotics because of their antimicrobial properties. Insect meal can also be used in low CP diets for amino acids adjustment as insects are enriched in essential amino acids. With the emergence of more accurate and reliable studies, insect meal will inevitably play a greater role in the poultry feed industry.

Parts of this review were presented at Animal Bioscience Forum 2021 on Animal Biosciences to Improve Animal Health and Production: Insect proteins for animals — current status, potentials and challenges (September 28–29, 2021), which was supported by Pathway Intermediates ( http://www.pathway-intermediates.com ).

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial organization regarding the material discussed in the manuscript.

The authors are grateful for the support by Beijing Innovation Consortium of Agriculture Research System Poultry-related Science and Technology Team (CARS-PSTP), Shandong Key Science and Technology Innovation Program (2019 JZZY010704) and Agricultural Science and Technology Innovation Program of the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS-ASTPI-2017-FRI-03).

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Home > Books > Advances in Poultry Nutrition Research

Nontraditional Feedstuffs as an Alternative in Poultry Feed

Submitted: 09 October 2020 Reviewed: 11 January 2021 Published: 23 February 2021

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.95946

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Advances in Poultry Nutrition Research

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Soybean meal and yellow corn are conventional feedstuffs used as the main ingredients in poultry feeds due to their high nutrients availability. On the other hand, these two feedstuffs are high in demand by other animals (soybean meal) and humans (yellow corn). By the year 2050, the world’s population is expected to increase up to 9.1 billion. Global consumption of poultry products, such as meat or eggs is increasing predominantly in developing countries. Consequently, the global demand for poultry feedstuffs would increase. The availability of feedstuffs for poultry nutrition nowadays is becoming more competitive. Thus, food security, especially in the developing countries, would be threatened. Currently, efforts are being made to use alternative feedstuffs to substitute portion of soybean meal and yellow corn in poultry diets. This chapter discusses the alternative feedstuffs that can be incorporated in poultry feeds. In addition, the nutritive content and availability are examined as well as how to improve the nutritive quality of such nontraditional feedstuffs.

• alternative feedstuffs
• poultry feed

Author Information

Mohamed i. alshelmani.

• Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Benghazi, Libya

Emhimad A. Abdalla

• Centre for Genetic Improvement of Livestock, University of Guelph, Canada

Ubedullah Kaka *

• Department of Companion Animal Medicine and Surgery, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

Muhammad Abdul Basit

• Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Veterinary sciences, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Pakistan

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Due to their high nutrients contents, soybean meal and yellow corn are conventional feedstuffs in poultry feeds. Moreover, these two feed ingredients are also high in demand by other animals (soybean meal) and humans (yellow corn). The global consumption of poultry products, such as meat or eggs, appears to be increasing in the developing countries. Therefore, the global demands of the main poultry feedstuffs would increase leading to higher cost of poultry production. Studies have shown that the world’s population is expected to increase to 9.1 billion by the year 2050, [ 1 ]. This tremendous increase in population would produce competition in the available poultry feed ingredients for poultry nutrition. Furthermore, this increase in population will increase demand for poultry products. As a result, the availability of feed ingredients for poultry nutrition would become more competitive. In addition, there is an increasing trend to produce biofuel from feedstuffs, especially corn, to meet the demand all over the world. This further poses a serious food security risk, especially in the developing countries.

Currently, efforts are being made worldwide to use alternative sources of protein and energy to be substituted for soybean meal and yellow corn in monogastric animals such as poultry and swine. It is known that some developing countries produce a huge amount of alternative feedstuffs, considered as agro waste by–products such as wheat bran, rice bran, cotton seed meal, copra meal and palm kernel cake. However, many of these agro waste by–products are featuring on presence of non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) such as xylan and mannan as well as anti-nutritional factors [ 2 ].

The NSPs are found to be the main reason for increasing the viscosity in the small intestine of the birds, and hence lead to increased moisture content of the excreta. Hence, the productivity and health status of the chickens could be affected [ 2 ]. Therefore, the inclusion of these agro waste by–products in poultry feed are limited. The nontraditional feedstuffs can be defined as those feed ingredients that have not been conventionally or commercially used in poultry rations. This chapter discusses the nontraditional feedstuffs with potential to be replaced partially or totally with soybean meal and yellow corn in poultry feeds.

2. Alternative feed ingredients for yellow corn

It is well known that yellow corn is used as a main source of energy ingredient in poultry diets [ 2 ]. There are some nonconventional feed ingredients that can substitute certain amount of yellow corn in poultry rations. However, there are some limitations such as presence of anti-nutritional factors that lead to decrease feed intake and growth performance ( Table 1 ). The other important point to consider is that the lack of knowledge about the composition of nutrients and their availability, due to the lack of research centers in the developing countries limit use of these feed ingredients.

2.1 Sorghum

Sorghum is the main food grain in Africa and parts of India and China [ 3 ]. The nutritive value of sorghum is almost 90–95% similar to that of yellow corn. Moreover, its global price is less than yellow corn [ 4 ]. The problem of sorghum is the high tannins content, which is water soluble polyphenolic metabolites and leads to reduce growth performance of poultry. Tannins in higher concentration are anti-nutritional because made chelates and reduce protein digestibility [ 5 ]. Sorghum is usually classified as bird resistant (less than 0.5% tannin) or non-bird resistant (1.5% tannin or higher) varieties. The negative effects of tannins are decreasing growth, feed intake, protein digestibility, egg production and leg abnormalities with broilers [ 4 ]. There are some procedures that can be applied to the sorghum to minimize tannins and improve the nutritive value of such feed ingredients. These methods include soaking in alkali solution and water. It is reported that tannic acid can be hydrolyzed in the chicks to gallic acid which excreted in urine as 4 – O – methyl gallate [ 4 ]. Therefore, the action of methyl donors such as calcium hydroxide or slurry of sodium carbonate could be included in poultry rations to improve the feed intake of high tannin sorghum. As a result, low tannin sorghum can completely replace yellow corn in poultry diets.

2.2 Wheat bran

Wheat bran is the outer seed coat from flour mills. High in fiber, low in metabolizable energy (ME) and its usage in poultry nutrition is limited [ 4 ]. The ME can be increased up to 10% by simple steam pelleting, and the availability of phosphorus up to 20% under the same condition [ 6 ]. This by product could be beneficial for gut health which is reported to modify the gut microflora [ 4 ]. It is reported that wheat bran can be added in poultry diets up to 5–8% without negative effect [ 4 ]. Wheat bran contains xylan which may lead to increase viscosity in the small intestines. Therefore, xylanase supplementation is recommended for broilers fed more than 15% wheat bran in their diets [ 4 ].

2.3 Distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS)

Alternative and clean sources of energy are more attractive nowadays against fossil energy. The production of biofuel has globally increasing [ 7 ]. Therefore, the by-product obtained from this process is known as distillers dried grain with solubles (DDGS). It can be defined as a product obtained after ethanol extraction by distillation from the yeast fermentation, and drying at 75% of the resultant [ 8 ]. Including DDGS in poultry diets to replace part of yellow corn and soybean meal have shown positive results in terms of growth performance [ 9 ]. The main limitation of using DDGS in monogastrics is the variability of its nutrients content and availability [ 9 ]. This is due to the variation of growing conditions, ethanol production method and oil extraction. Therefore, it was reported that there are two types of DDGS; high protein and conventional DDGS ( Table 2 ).

Alternative energy sources that can replace yellow corn in poultry diets.

Nutrient composition of DDGS (% as –fed basis) [ 9 ].

Not only can DDGS provide energy in poultry diets, but also can provide protein and available phosphorus. It was shown that DDGS can be included in broiler diets at 8% or 15% in starter and grower phase, respectively without negative effects in their performance [ 8 ]. The supplementation of fiber-degrading enzyme could be an efficient way to enable the use of increased levels of DDGS in poultry and pig diets [ 10 ].

2.4 Date wastes

Dates are rich in vitamins and minerals. Usually, dates wastes consisting on the pulp and pits (stones). Date wastes are high in fiber, low in lysine, methionine, leucine and isoleusine [ 11 ]. The limitation of using date wastes is the high crude fiber in the date pits. Date wastes can be included in poultry diets up to 30% without negative effects on their performance [ 12 ]. In addition, the use of 30% of date pits (stones) with a supplementation of multi enzymes in broiler diets had no adverse effects on the final body weight [ 13 ]. Regarding date pits meal, it could be fed to laying hens up to 5% without adverse effects on their performance and egg quality. In addition, broilers fed diet incorporated with 4% date pits meal showed an ability to resist the deleterious effects of aflatoxine B1 [ 14 ].

2.5 Millets

Millets is adrought-resistant plant that produces a nutritious grain. It can be grown successfully under environmental conditions where corn and wheat fail to survive [ 15 ]. The nutrient content is variable, so that it contains 8–10% CP, 3395–3738 kcal/kg metabolizable energy, 3.60–5.27% fat and 1.59–2.36% fiber [ 15 ]. The limitation of using high levels of millets in poultry diets is the tannin content and fiber [ 16 ].

3. Alternative feedstuffs for soybean meal

Routinely, soybean meal is used as a main source of protein ingredient in poultry diets [ 4 ]. There are some nontraditional feed ingredients that can replace certain amount of soybean meal in poultry diets. Nevertheless, there are some limitations such as presence of anti-nutritional factors that lead to reduce feed intake and growth performance ( Table 3 ).

3.1 Canola meal

Canola crop is growing widely in the west of Canada as well as in other parts of the world [ 4 ]. The production of canola was influenced by the increasing demand for canola oil. Canola meal is the by-product of oil extraction, and lysine content is less than that of soybean meal. However, sulfur-containing amino acids are higher than that of soybean meal.

The problem of using canola meal in poultry feeds is the presence of glucosinolates, senapine, phytate, fibers, tannins as well as it has low metabolizable energy [ 17 ]. It was found that feeding canola meal to layers led to the occurring of fishy taint in egg and the reduction egg size [ 4 ].

There are attempts to improve the nutritional quality of canola meal by extrusion or solid-state fermentation using lactic acid bacteria [ 6 , 18 ]. Therefore, it was reported that canola meal can be incorporated in poultry diets up to 5–8% [ 4 ], or up to 10% in broilers fed fermented canola meal based diet [ 17 ].

3.2 Peanut (groundnut) meal

Peanut meal is a by-product from oil extraction. It contains 0.5–1% oil and 47% CP. The problem of using peanut meal in poultry diets is the trypsin inhibitors. Fortunately, it can be detoxifying by heat treatment during oil extraction. The issue to consider is that its potential aflatoxin contamination. To overcome this problem, the feedstuff could be supplemented with sodium-calcium aluminosilicates because these minerals bind with aflatoxin preventing its absorption [ 4 ].

Peas can be used in poultry diets depending on local economic conditions. It contains moderate amount of energy and protein. The limitation to use peas in poultry rations is the lack of sulfur containing amino acids, and moderate energy levels [ 4 ].

The use of low alkaloid lupins in poultry diets is going to be increased in certain regions of the world [ 4 ]. The high level of fiber in the seed leads in low metabolizable energy compared to soybean meal. Although lupins are much lower in methionine and lysine, many reports suggested that sweet lupins are comparable to soybean meal in terms of protein quality [ 4 ].

3.5 Sesame meal

Sesame meal is very deficient in available lysine. It contains high level of phytate which may cause problems with calcium absorption. Therefore, skeletal disorders or poor egg shell quality in laying hens may be occurred. It contains 35.1–47% CP [ 16 ]. It is recommended that diet incorporated with more than 10% sesame meal should be increased by 0.2% extra calcium [ 4 ].

3.6 Blood meal

Blood meal is high in protein (65–85%), rich in lysine, arginine, methionine, cysteine and leucine. However, it is very poor in isoleucine [ 19 ]. The use of blood meal is very limited in poultry diets because of its palatability and poor growth rate [ 4 ]. It was reported that blood meal can be incorporated up to 3% in broiler diets without negative effects in their performance [ 19 ].

3.7 Palm kernel cake

Tropical regions have an abundant amount of palm kernel cake (PKC), which is considered an agro-industrial waste derived from the extraction process of oil from palm fruits. It has been used in poultry diets as an alternative to soybean meal. Nevertheless, the use of PKC is limited in monogastrics because of its high content of fibers, coarse texture, and non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) [ 2 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. The main NSPs in the PKC are mannan, xylan, arabinoxylan, and glucoronoxylan [ 20 ]. This is considered a significant issue faced by nutritionists, and it has limited the use of PKC for manipulation of feed formulation. It has been reported that 10% is the maximum level of PKC that can be given to broiler chickens. However, solid-state fermentation by cellulolytic bacteria may improve the nutritive value of PKC to be incorporated up to 15% in the diet [ 2 , 24 ].

The treated PKC by enzyme [ 25 ], cellulolytic bacteria via solid state fermentation [ 2 , 23 , 24 ] or extrusion [ 26 ] may contribute to improve the nutritive value and poultry performance ( Table 4 ). It was reported that extrusion led to 6% increase in apparent metabolizable energy and 32% in crude protein digestibility in broiler chickens [ 27 ].

Alternative protein sources that can replace soybean meal in poultry diets.

Nutrient content of palm kernel cake and treated palm kernel cake (dry matter basis).

FPKCa; fermented palm kernel cake by P. polymyxa ATCC 842.

FPKCb; fermented palm kernel cake by P. curdlanolyticus DSMZ 10248.

3.8 Cottonseed meal

Cottonseed meal is a byproduct after oil extraction. Usually, this byproduct used for poultry in cottonseed producing regions [ 4 ]. It is high in crude protein (41%). However, the big problem for using cottonseed meal in poultry rations are the high fiber levels (14.5%) and gossypol [ 4 ]. Gossypol is a yellow polyphenolic pigment, and usually found at 0.1% free gossypol. The big issue with gossypol is binding with lysine during processing, and then the lysine will be unavailable to the chickens. The byproduct is not acceptable by poultry because of its dry and dusty nature [ 3 ]. Gossypol may lead to decrease feed intake and growth rate in broiler chickens [ 3 ]. The byproduct is low in calcium, and the phosphorus is chelated with phytate. Therefore, phytase supplementation could be beneficial to release unavailable phosphorus. In case cottonseed meal is used for poultry, it is recommended to supply fish meal to balance the essential amino acids and calcium [ 3 ].

The other important point to consider with gossypol is that it leads to discoloration of the yolk in laying hens. It causes a olive-green color in the yolk, especially during egg storage at low temperature [ 3 , 4 ]. The other problem with cottonseed meal is the presence of sterculic acid witch found to cause a pink color in the albumen. However, this can be avoided by using a byproduct with less residual oil because of the content of cyclopropenoid fatty acids [ 5 ].

It has been found that iron can bind with gossypol by 1:1 ratio, and may detoxify the gossypol. Therefore, the addition of 0.5 kg ferrous sulfate/tonne allowed the broilers and layers to tolerate up to 200 ppm and 30 ppm free gossypol, respectively without any negative effect in their performance [ 4 ].

In case iron was supplemented to cottonseed meal based diet, the balance between iron and copper should be considered to be 10: 1 iron to copper, respectively.

Studies have also shown that enzyme supplementation (β-glucanase and xylanase) may lead to increase the metabolizable energy and protein utilization in broiler chickens [ 28 ].

3.9 Feather meal

Feathers are considering as an industrial waste resulted during birds processing in slaughter houses. Several million tons of feathers are generated from the poultry processing industry are disposed as a waste [ 29 , 30 ]. Feather meal contains about 85% crude protein, 5% cysteine and 3000 kcal/kg metabolizable energy. The cysteine availability is about 60% depending on the processing conditions [ 4 ].

Usually, feathers are partially dried, and hence steam-treated to introduce hydrolysis. However, the extreme temperature will lead to destruct the amino acids, especially lysine. Therefore, leads to reduce the amino acids digestibility. To overcome this problem, the use of keratinase enzyme may play an important role in improving the protein digestibility [ 29 ] and poultry performance [ 4 ]. In addition, fermentation with bacteria-degrading keratin such as Bacillus licheniformis for five days at 50°C can produces a fermented product comparable in nutritional value to soybean meal [ 4 ].

Some reports mentioned that B. subtilis and Aspergillus fumigatus had an ability to degrade keratin in feathers [ 30 ]. Feather meal can be included in poultry diets at 2–3%. Nevertheless, the fermented feather meal may give promised results in poultry nutrition, and therefore it would be an additional commercial benefit for the poultry industry by replacing part of soybean meal in poultry feeds.

3.10 Insects and worms

Insects can be used to produce cheap source of protein. It is known that insects are considered as a natural food for birds. Insects are rich in protein (40–76%) and essential amino acids [ 31 ], particularly sulfur containing amino acids [ 32 ]. Insects meal are usually featuring on high fat content [ 31 ]. Therefore, microbial deterioration and lipid oxidation should be considered during storage [ 33 ]. Ssepuuya et al. [ 34 ] indicated that insects meal may replace the conventional protein sources by 10–100% without any negative growth performance whether in fish or poultry. It was also mentioned by Kareem et al. [ 31 ] that the incorporation of black soldier fly larvae to broiler diets up to 10% had no negative effect in their growth performance under humid tropical environment. In addition, no adverse effects on growth performance, carcass characteristics, hematological and serum biochemical indices in growing Japanese quail when meat and bone meal replaced with Spodoptera littorails in their diets [ 35 ]. It was claimed by Neumann et al. [ 36 ] that partly adding defatted insects meal of Hermetia illucens larvae in broiler diets – 26% and 22% in starter and grower phase, respectively – were acceptable. In terms of meat quality, it was reported that complete substitution of soybean meal by Hermetia illucens led to inducing lipid oxidation in broiler meat [ 37 ]. This was attributed to the high content of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in Hermetia illucens .

3.11 Earthworms

Earthworms are a natural source of protein for poultry raised in free-range system. Earthworm can produced even in small-scale system. Earthworms species require a temperature ranging from 15 to 25°C, and 60–85% soil moisture content [ 38 ]. It can be considered as an alternative source of protein (64–76%) [ 39 ]. At the same time, it can be degrade animal manure to clean the environment. It was reported that the total essential amino acids in earthworms are comparable with egg protein. Moreover, the omega – 3 PUFA are quite high and similar to that of some fish oil [ 40 ]. It was mentioned by Parolini et al. [ 38 ] that earthworms contain 6–11% fat, 5–21% carbohydrate, 2–3% minerals and range of vitamins, especially niacin and cyanocobalamin. In comparison with insects meal, it has been found that earthworm meal has no deficiencies in the essential amino acids and better fatty acids profile with no chitin content, so that it was more acceptable and palatable for chickens [ 38 ]. Earthworm meal could be integrated in broiler diets up to 10% without negative effects in growth performance and meat quality [ 38 ].

Algae represent an important source of unconventional protein (50–60%), oils, vitamins, minerals, antioxidant and colorants [ 41 ], carotenoids, omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA [ 42 , 43 ]. Some types of algae contain up to 76% crude protein [ 44 ]. In terms of nutrition, algae were used in broiler diets up to 16% without adverse effects. On the other hand, it was a replacement for approximately 60% of soybean meal and 40% of animal vegetable blended fat into practical broiler diets [ 44 ].

The most common species of algae used in poultry nutrition are chlorella and Spirulina . It was reported by Moury et al. [ 45 ] that supplementation of Spirulina platensis in broiler diets may completely replace the incorporation of vitamin-mineral premix. Moreover, it can be substitute the antibiotic usage in animals [ 46 ].

It is reported that algae can be a good option for 100% organic poultry feed [ 47 ]. Neumann et al. [ 36 ] reported that incorporation of Spirulina platensis at 21% and 17% in starter and grower phase, respectively was acceptable. However, nutritionists have to pay attention to the presence of PUFA in algae which may affect the meat quality of broilers and lead to lipid oxidation. Gkarane et al. [ 37 ] mentioned that complete substitution of soybean meal in broiler diets by Arthrospira platensis influenced the meat quality and led to lipid oxidation.

3.13 Azolla

Azolla is an aquatic and floating fern of the family Azollaceae. It contains 25–35% crude protein, 10–15% minerals and 7–10% amino acids, especially lysine [ 48 ]. Azolla forms a symbiotic with blue green algae which lives within its leaves. This relationship makes azolla as a beneficial source of protein, and can be fed safely to the farm animals [ 49 ]. It is recommended that azolla ( Azolla pinnata ) can be incorporated in poultry diet up to 5% with positive effect on their growth performance [ 49 ]. The limitation of using high levels of Azolla is its high level content [ 48 ].

3.14 Single-cell protein

The production of single-cell protein (SCP) can be done by microbial fermentation with selected strains of microorganisms. SCP also known as microbial protein or bio-protein [ 50 ]. Bacteria such as Pseudomonas spp. can be grown in methanol, ethanol and organic acids [ 3 ]. The protein and sulfur containing amino acids in bacteria are higher than that of yeast. The oil content in bacteria and yeast is high and rich in unsaturated fatty acids. Chen et al. [ 51 ] concluded that SCP produced by Chlostridium autoethanogenum had 88.93% crude protein and most of essential amino acids were higher than that of fish meal.

The incorporation of 15% of SCP in pigs diet exhibited a comparable results with those group of pigs fed diet containing soybean meal [ 3 ]. It is recommended that SCP can be included in 2–5% in broiler diets, and up to 10% in laying hens [ 3 ].

4. Alternative ingredients for oil and vitamins sources

It is known that – ingredients mentioned above – insects, worms, earthworms, algae, azolla and SCP contain significant amount of oil. In addition, these ingredients can provide omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA to the poultry [ 42 , 43 ]. Interestingly, these ingredients are rich in vitamins and minerals as mentioned above [ 46 ].

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, the use of alternative feedstuffs nowadays in poultry sector is going to be increased because of their nutritive quality and as a cheap source of protein and energy. In addition, these nontraditional feedstuffs are not competitive with humans. At the same time, their inclusion to poultry diets can replace portions of soybean meal and yellow corn. Therefore, reduce the cost of production.

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Feeding forage in poultry: a promising alternative for the future of production systems.

1. Introduction

2. forage nutritional composition, 3. poultry production systems, 3.1. free-range system, 3.2. organic system, 4. influence of feeding forage on poultry egg and meat quality, 5. conclusions and future outlook, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Tufarelli, V.; Ragni, M.; Laudadio, V. Feeding Forage in Poultry: A Promising Alternative for the Future of Production Systems. Agriculture 2018 , 8 , 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8060081

Tufarelli V, Ragni M, Laudadio V. Feeding Forage in Poultry: A Promising Alternative for the Future of Production Systems. Agriculture . 2018; 8(6):81. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8060081

Tufarelli, Vincenzo, Marco Ragni, and Vito Laudadio. 2018. "Feeding Forage in Poultry: A Promising Alternative for the Future of Production Systems" Agriculture 8, no. 6: 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture8060081

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Alternative animal feeds from agroforestry plants

• Published: 22 July 2020
• Volume 94 , pages 1133–1138, ( 2020 )

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• Abdelfattah Z. M. Salem 1 ,
• Carlos R. Kunst 2 &
• Shibu Jose 3  

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This special issue idea originated when a few researchers from around the world came together with the goal of compiling the most up-to-date information on the use of alternative animal feed resources derived from agroforestry plants, including woody perennials. It is a common animal feeding practice in many parts of the world, particularly in the tropics; however, no comprehensive source of this information exists as attempted in this special issue. In addition to exploring alternative resources such as foliage of woody plants and other plant products and by-products for animal feed, papers included in this issue also addressed their impacts on ruminant and non-ruminant performance, health and welfare, and ruminal fermentation metabolism and mitigation of methane emission. We received 78 manuscripts from more than 21 countries and 45 papers were accepted following appropriate peer reviews. Overall, alternative feed resources, including woody plant foliage, improved animal performance, particularly during dry season. Several bioactive compounds were identified in agroforestry plants and they had positive impacts as antimicrobials against some the pathogenic bacteria and for controlling gastrointestinal parasites in livestock, which improved the health, welfare and production. Most alternative feeds added at low proportions with regular feed improved digestibility and decreased methane production.

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Abbassy MMS, Salem MZM, Rashad NM, Afify SM, Salem AZM (2020) Nutritive and biocidal properties of agroforestry trees of Moringa oleifera Lam., Cassia fistula L., and Ceratonia siliqua L. as non-conventional edible vegetable oils. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0325-4

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Adegbeye MJ, Elghandour MMMY, Faniyi TO, Rivero Perez N, Barbabosa-Pilego A, Zaragoza-Bastida A, Salem AZM (2020) Antimicrobial and antihelminthic impacts of black cumin, pawpaw and mustard seeds in livestock production and health. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0337-0

Albores-Moreno S, Alayón-Gamboa JA, Miranda-Romero LA, Alarcón-Zúñiga B, Jiménez-Ferrer G, Ku-Vera JC, Piñeiro-Vázquez AT (2020) Effect of supplementation with tree foliage on in vitro digestibility and fermentation, synthesis of microbial biomass and methane production of cattle diets. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00416-1

Amadike Ugbogu E, Emmanuel O, Salem AZM, Elghandour MMMY (2020) Nutritional composition of Termitomyces robustus (Agaricomycetes) and Lentinus squarrosulus (Mont.) singer in South East Nigeria. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0323-6

Archundia Velarde ED, Pinzón Martínez DL, Salem AZM, Mendoza García PG, Mariezcurrena Berasain MD (2020) Antioxidant and antimicrobial capacity of three agroindustrial residues as animal feeds. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-00343-7

Ashmawy NA, Al Farraj DA, Salem MZM, Elshikh MS, Al-Kufaidy R, Alshammari MK, Salem AZM (2020) Potential impacts of Pinus halepensis Miller trees as a source of phytochemical compounds: antibacterial activity of the cones essential oil and n-butanol extract. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0324-5

Bouazza L, Boufennara S, Bensaada M, Zeraib A, Rahal K, Saro C, Ranilla MJ, López S (2020) In vitro screening of Algerian steppe browse plants for digestibility, rumen fermentation profile and methane mitigation. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00408-1

Cediel-Devia D, Sandoval-Lozano E, Castañeda-Serrano R (2020) Effects of different regrowth ages and cutting heights on biomass production, bromatological composition and in vitro digestibility of Guazuma ulmifolia foliage. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00354-y

De Jesús-Martínez X, Olmedo-Juárez A, Rojas Hernández S, Zamilpa A, Mendoza de Gives P, Lopez-Arellano ME, Villa-Mancera A, Camacho-Díaz LM, Cipriano Salazar M, Olivares-Pérez J (2020) Evaluation of the hydroalcoholic extract elaborated with Caesalpinia coriaria Jacq Willd tree fruits in the control of Haemonchus contortus Rudolphi. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00398-0

Deuri P, Sood N, Wadhwa M, Bakshi MPS, Salem AZM (2020) Screening of tree leaves for bioactive components and their impact on in vitro fermentability and methane production from total mixed ration. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00374-8

Dhanasekaran DK, Dias-Silva TP, Abdalla Filho AL, Sakita GZ, Abdalla AL, Louvandini H, Elghandour MMMY (2020) Plants extract and bioactive compounds on rumen methanogenesis. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00411-6

Dollinger J, Jose S (2018) Agroforestry for soil health. Agrofor Syst 92:213–219

El-Adawy MM, Aboelez ZR, Rashad AM, Elghandour MMMY, Adegbeye MJ, Ashtoy MR, Cipriano-Salazar M, Rojas Hernández S, Salem AZM (2020a) Effects of dietary inclusion of dried Kochia indica Wight tree foliages on growth performance and nutrient digestibility of growing rabbits. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00352-0

El-Adawy MM, Salem AZM, Khodeir MH, Khusro A, Elghandour MMMY, Rojas Hernández S, Al-Shamandy OAA (2020b) Influence of four tropical medicinal and aromatic plants on growth performance, digestibility, and blood constituents of rabbits. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0322-7

Flay HE, Kuhn-Sherlock B, Macdonald KA, Camara M, Lopez-Villalobos N, Donaghy DJ, Roche JR (2019) Selecting cattle for low residual feed intake did not affect daily methane production but increased methane yield. J Diary Sci 102:271–2708

Jafari S, Yong Meng G, Ali Rajion M, Ebrahimi M (2020) The use of plant by-products as non-conventional feedstuff for livestock feeding with reference to rumen methanogenesis. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00426-z

Jose S (2011) Managing native and non-native plants in agroforestry systems. Agrofor Syst 83:101–105

Jose S (2019) Environmental impacts and benefits of agroforestry. Oxford encyclopedia of agriculture and environment. Oxford University Press, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.195

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Lovell ST, Dupraz C, Gold M, Jose S, Revord R, Stanek E, Wolz K (2018) Temperate agroforestry research: considering multifunctional woody polycultures and the design of long-term field trials. Agrofor Syst 92:1397–1415

Manuel-Pablo A, Elghandour MMY, Olivares-Pérez J, Rojas-Hernández S, Cipriano-Salazar M, Cruz-Lagunas B, Camacho-Diaz LM (2020) Productive performance, rumen fermentation and carcass yield of goats supplemented with cascalote fruit ( Caesalpinia coriaria J. Wild.). Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0312-9

Rankoth L, Udawatta R, Jose S (2019) Agroforestry and biodiversity. Sustainability 11(10):2879. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11102879

Rasouli B, Movahhedkhah S, Seidavi A, Imranul Haq QM, Kadim I, Laudadio V, Mazzei D, Tufarelli V (2020) Effect of sage ( Salvia officinalis L.) aqueous leaf extract on performance, blood constituents, immunity response and ileal microflora of broiler chickens. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00401-8

Ruiz-Nieto JE, Hernández-Ruiz J, Hernández-Marín J, Mendoza-Carrillo J, Abraham-Juárez M, Isiordia-Lachica PM, Mireles-Arriaga AI (2020) Mesquite ( Prosopis spp.) tree as a feed resource for animal growth. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00481-x

Safaei-Cherehh A, Rasouli B, Adeniyi Alaba P, Seidavi A, Rojas Hernández S, Salem AZM (2020) Effect of dietary Foeniculum vulgare Mill. extract on growth performance, blood metabolites, immunity and ileal microflora in male broilers. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0326-3

Seidavi A, Belali M, Elghandour MMY, Adegbeye MJ, Salem AZM (2020) Potential impacts of dietary inclusion of green tea ( Camellia sinensis L.) in poultry feeding: a review. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00444-x

Serrapica F, Masucci F, Romano R, Santini A, Manzo N, Seidavi A, Omri B, Salem AZM, Di Francia A (2020) Peas may be a candidate crop for integrating silvoarable systems and dairy buffalo farming in southern Italy. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0316-5

Simbaya J, Chibinga O, Salem AZM (2020) Nutritional evaluation of selected fodder trees: Mulberry ( Morus alba Lam.), Leucaena ( Leucaena leucocephala  Lam de Wit.) and Moringa ( Moringa oleifera Lam.) as dry season protein supplements for grazing animals. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00504-7

Singh RK, Dey A, Paul SS, Singh M, Dahiya SS, Punia BS (2020) Associative effects of plant secondary metabolites in modulating in vitro methanogenesis, volatile fatty acids production and fermentation of feed in buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ). Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00395-3

Tirfessa G, Tolera A (2020) Comparative evaluation of chemical composition, in vitro fermentation and methane production of selected tree forages. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00391-7

Verdecia DM, Herrera RS, Ramírez JL, Leonard I, Bodas R, Andrés S, Giráldez FJ, Valdés C, Arceo Y, Paumier M, Santana A, Álvarez Y, Mendez Y, López S (2020) Effect of age of regrowth, chemical composition and secondary metabolites on the digestibility of Leucaena leucocephala in the Cauto Valley Cuba. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0339-y

Yang K, Wu Q, Tian X, Han E, Sun L (2020) Evaluation of sorghum hull serving as feed alternative on growth performance, nutrients digestibility and plasma metabolites for growing goats. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0318-3

Yusuf AO, Egbinola OO, Ekunseitan DA, Salem AZM (2020) Chemical characterization and in vitro methane production of selected agroforestry plants as dry season feeding of ruminants livestock. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-019-00480-7

Zeineldin MM, Sabek AA, Barakat RA, Elghandour MMMY, Salem AZM, de Oca Jiménez RM (2020) Potential contribution of plants bioactive in ruminant productive performance and their impact on gastrointestinal parasites elimination. Agrofor Syst. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-018-0295-6

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Acknowledgements

The guest editors of the special issue would like to thank the authors for their contributions. We are also grateful for the time and commitment given by all the reviewers to evaluate the manuscripts.

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Abdelfattah Z. M. Salem

INTA EEA Sgo del Estero, Manejo del Campo Natural/Range Management, Jujuy 850 G4200CQR, Santiago del Estero, Argentina

Carlos R. Kunst

College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 2-44 Agriculture Bldg., Columbia, MO, 65211, USA

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Salem, A.Z.M., Kunst, C.R. & Jose, S. Alternative animal feeds from agroforestry plants. Agroforest Syst 94 , 1133–1138 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00525-2

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Received : 16 July 2020

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Published : 22 July 2020

Issue Date : August 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-020-00525-2

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Azolla: An alternative feed for sustainable livestock production

2023, Azolla: An alternative feed for sustainable livestock production

This review paper aims to analyse the possibility of Azolla as an alternative feed source for livestock and poultry production. The manuscript has been prepared by reviewing a plethora of available literatures related to this topic. The report of 20 th livestock census-2019 states that, India holds around 20% of world's livestock population, which is precisely 535.82 million. The population has increased by 4.6% than previous livestock census-2012. Feed and fodder are the basis of existence of livestock and birds. The feed cost alone accounts around 70% of the total cost of livestock production. In a first changing world, the prices of animal feed i.e. both green fodder and concentrate are increasing day by day. Keeping this in mind, it is imperative to find an alternative feed source which will economise the cost of production and will be helpful towards a sustainable livestock and poultry production. Azolla is a fern that grows faster in fresh water in both temperate and tropical countries. It can be fed to various livestock and poultry birds without any deleterious effects. Various studies have reported that there was an overall increase of 15-20% milk yield in cattle and buffalo upon feeding of 1.5-2 Kg of Azolla in combination with daily ration. In case of meat animals and birds like pigs, rabbits, sheep, goats, ducks, quails, chickens etc., improved growth performances have been reported, indicating the possibility of using Azolla as a feed ingredient.

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International Journal of Biological Innovations

International Journal of Biological Innovations , Khushbu Arya

Livestock has a significant role in the world economy. Livestock is the major source of livelihood for about 20.5 million people in India and livestock resources contribute 4.11% of the country's GDP and 25.6% of total agriculture GDP. On the other hand, there is a huge gap between demand and supply of feed and fodder in India, which can be reduced by exploring natural feed resources as supplements. To complete the shortage of feed and optimum production of livestock, it is significant to explore some non-conventional nutritive feed resources. The aquatic fern, Azolla has been identified as one of the most efficient substitutes for livestock as it can be easily digested due to its low lignin with high protein content having especially essential amino acid lysine. Its unique nutrient aspects make it an ideal feed for livestock, poultry, goat, fish, and pigs. Nutraceutical aspects of Azolla bio-feed technology will be taken up in a big way by the dairy farmers, especially, by those who experience land scarce conditions for fodder production.

Journal of entomology and zoology studies

Priyanka Patoliya

India has the largest bovine population in the world and second in poultry population. This trend is increasing with time. Also the demand for animal food source is gaining momentum due to rapid urbanisation and rising population. These all things combined together have increased scope for livestock industry. But decreasing land availability has become a major concern now. It has reduced the availability of nutrient rich primary food source for livestock. Livestock is relying on poor food source that has made them less productive. Under this context, Azolla can be one of the best alternatives. It has ability to grow faster with the minimum production cost. Azolla is rich in protein along with mineral, vitamins, antioxidants that is contributing to better growth and production from livestock. Also, it can be feed to almost all livestock species which justifies its use and better inclusion as food source in livestock. It can be grown in both tropical and temperate countries with few p...

Animal Science Reporter

anandamoy kundu

Back yard poultry, a common livelihood for poor farmers in Andaman & Nicobar Islands is facing recession due to prohibitive feed cost. This paper has examined the prospects of supplementing commercial feed with raw Azolla (Azolla pinnata), a nutrient-rich water fern, originally imported from mainland India, but adapted well to the local ecosystem, on the production performance of Nicobari fowl. There has been no such study earlier. Forty-week old, 72 chicks were divided into two groups of 36 birds for the study. The control group was given commercial feed (basal diet) at the rate of 120 g per chick per day, while the experimental group was given raw Azolla, at the rate of 200 g per chick per day in separate feeder, in addition to 120 g of basal diet, from 45-60 weeks. The growth, feed conversion efficiency, hen housed egg production, immunocompetence, and economic impact of supplementation were assessed. The final body weight of the birds (1560.0±26.8 g), and gain in body weight/ da...

Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences

Shilpa Shree

AARF Publications Journals

Azolla is aquatic plant rich in protein, minerals, vitamins etc so used as unconventional feed for ruminants, poultry, swine, fish, laboratory animals and even humans. It is rich in essential aminoacids like lysine which is mostly deficit in plant protein sources along with methionine , arginine and carotene . Moreover,it is easy to cultivate and proliferates rapidly, so when fed to animals reduces cost on feed. In young animals azolla inclusion in diet promotes feed intake, body weight gain and improves the overall heath as azolla contains growth promoters. In lactating animals, increase in milk yield and milk fat content has been reported if included in ration of lactating animals. In case of poultry feed intake, body weight are increased in broilers and feed conversion efficiency is increased .In layers more enriched eggs are produced as azolla contains essential aminoacids. Research indicates that azolla can be recommended in poultry ration @5% to improve overall performance of birds. Incorporation of azolla in broiler diet affects haemato-biochemical parameters, dressing %, carcass yield, giblet

Jurnal Teknologi

Taufiq Jalil

The rapid rise in soybean prices has necessitated a potential replacement protein source for animal feed. Azolla is a Salviniaceae duckweed with valuable properties that have captivated the public. Its abundance reduces feed costs, which account for the majority of overall production costs. The research on Azolla is extensive, but the efficiency as a potential feed for livestock and poultry is limited. Thus, there is an urgent need to study the efficacy of Azolla as feed materials. A systematic literature review was conducted to collect and analyze information on Azolla as feed materials. Following the Report Standards for Systematic Evidence Synthesis (ROSES) protocol, 13 studies (years 2000-2021) were extracted and reviewed from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed. Three aspects were primarily highlighted to review the efficacy of using Azolla as feed: (1) feed conversion rate, (2) growth performance, and (3) biological effects on poultry and livestock. This study revealed that the...

Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition

lokman idris

Dr.Mamata Joysowal

Poultry and in particular ducks and chickens can be raised on a diet including fresh Azolla. the nutrient digestibility of crude protein, crude fat, and crude fiber were not affected by the level of Azolla in the ration, and that broilers can readily digest the crude fiber in Azolla, but not that in rice bran, so that digestibility is not a limiting factor when Azolla is used. Nutritive value of Azolla is well documented which shows that it is a good source of protein with almost all essential amino acid required for animal nutrition (notably lysine). Furthermore, it also provides macronutrients like calcium, magnesium, potassium and vitamins like vitamin A (precursor beta-carotene) and B12. All these facts suggested that Azolla can be used as unconventional feed with protein supplement for many species including ruminants, poultry, pigs and fish.

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Nontraditional Feedstuffs as an Alternative in Poultry Feed

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The presence of non-starch polysaccharides and anti-nutritional factors in alternative poultry feedstuffs can lead to reduced feed intake and growth performance.

The main alternative poultry feedstuffs discussed in the paper include date pits, insects, worms, earthworms, algae, azolla, and single-cell protein.

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Review on the effect of feed and feeding on chicken performance

• January 2019
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