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Advantages and Disadvantages of Traditional Farming

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5 (page 86) p. 86 Modern and traditional farming

• Published: April 2016
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There is a frequent identification of farming with tradition, even if what is seen as traditional might change over time. Farming is seen as a way of life, in which doing right by the land, producing healthy crops and livestock, employing local people, and having a thriving farm to hand on to the next generation are more important than expansion, profit maximization, and integration with the food chain. In contrast to big, modern, mechanized, globalized agribusinesses, it is sustainable, produces wildlife habitats and beautiful landscapes, and cares about animal welfare. How accurate is this view? ‘Modern and traditional farming’ considers the issues of sustainability, animal welfare, and wildlife and landscape.

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Traditional Agriculture: Benefits, Challenges, and Sustainable Practices

Discover how traditional agriculture has shaped our food systems and what practices are considered fundamental in this approach.

Look Inside:

Characteristics of Traditional Agriculture

Imagine a farming scene from a few centuries ago—no big machines, just hard-working folks using hand tools and animal power. That’s the essence of traditional agriculture. It primarily relies on techniques passed down through generations, often closely tied to the rhythms of nature.

Key facets include using natural resources available locally, like manure for fertilizer and rainwater for irrigation. Crop diversity is another hallmark, with seasonal rotations to maintain soil health. The scale is usually small—think family-run farms, supporting local communities primarily .

The methods are labor-intensive, with a strong emphasis on human and animal labor over mechanization. This approach minimizes energy use but can limit productivity compared to modern techniques.

In essence, traditional agriculture is like the vinyl record of the farming world: not the most efficient, but with undeniable classic appeal and sustainability charm.

Impact of Traditional Agriculture On Environment

Traditional agriculture, while steeped in history and cultural significance, packs a hefty punch on the environment. Not quite the gentle giant of land use, it often involves practices that aren’t exactly best buddies with Mother Nature. For instance, frequent tilling? It’s like the agriculture version of inviting friends over and having a dance party every week on your lawn—eventually, the soil gets worn out!

Moreover, the heavy use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides may bring out the big guns for pests and crops, but it’s less of a celebration for the surrounding ecosystems. Think of it like adding way too much hot sauce to a dish; sometimes it just ruins everything else.

And let’s not forget about water use. Traditional agriculture often relies on methods that could make a fish worry about its next glass of water. This extensive use of water resources not only strains our drinking supplies but can turn rivers near farmlands into mere trickles.

So, while traditional farming methods have fed and clothed populations for centuries, they come with some environmental drama that might just need a modern rewrite.

Evolution of Agricultural Techniques Over the Centuries

Agriculture has been a rollercoaster ride through history, morphing with the demands and innovations of society. Initially, it was all about survival, with early humans foraging and hunting, then discovering the thrill of planting seeds. Imagine the surprise when plants actually grew where they put them!

By the Middle Ages, the heavy plough was the new game-changer. This tech upgrade allowed farmers to tackle heavier soils, leading to more food and less grumbling bellies. Fast forward to the 18th century, and the Agricultural Revolution was all the rage in Britain. This era was the equivalent of a farming renaissance, introducing crop rotation and selective breeding—hello, superior livestock!

The 20th century brought mechanization into the spotlight. With tractors and combine harvesters, farming turned from muscle-depleting labor into a more “cruise control” mode. The Green Revolution soon followed, waving its magic wand with high-yielding varieties and chemical fertilizers, though it perhaps partied a bit too hard with resources.

Today, precision agriculture leverages GPS and IoT technology, ensuring that farming is smarter and less wasteful. Drones, for instance, are not just for cool aerial shots; they are the new on-farm paparazzi, capturing data and monitoring crop health, making sure plants are always camera-ready. Each step in agricultural evolution has built upon the last, aiming to meet growing demands and reduce environmental footprints. The next big trend? Stay tuned!

Sustainable Agriculture: A Solution to Environmental Concerns

As traditional farming takes its toll on Mother Earth, sustainable agriculture steps in like a green superhero. It’s all about meeting our current food needs without compromising the future. Sounds cool, right? Let’s break down how it makes a difference.

First off, this method uses fewer pesticides—think of it as detoxing the Earth. Cleaner soil, cleaner conscience! Plus, it champions crop rotation and polyculture (growing multiple types of crops), which naturally outwits pests and beefs up soil health—no chemical capes needed!

Then there’s water wisdom. Sustainable farming uses practices that save water like it’s a rare collectible. Techniques such as drip irrigation deliver water direct to plant roots, drastically cutting wastage.

Don’t forget the energy equation. Renewable power sources like solar panels replace the old, hungry fossil fuels. Farms get an energy makeover, turning them into lean, green, energy-efficient machines.

Lastly, sustainable agriculture reconnects farms with local communities through farmers’ markets and food cooperatives. This not only reduces food miles but also patches the disconnect between growers and consumers. A win-win for freshness and small carbon footprints!

In essence, it’s farming that cares—as much for the crops as for the world around them. A hearty recipe for a healthier planet, don’t you think?

Related Reading

Environmental Topics and Essays

Just another sb you: web publishing for you site, sustainable vs. conventional agriculture.

I. Introduction

Farming has enabled human populations to dominate the world’s landscapes for many thousands of years.  The science of agriculture has been refined and perfected over time to accommodate for the ever-increasing human population.  Until recent centuries, productive crops were mostly organic and existed with some permanence as part of a landscape.  As communities grow though, less and less land is available for food production and existing crops become easily exhausted.  Food insecurity caused by rapid population growth has pressured science to step in and produce many synthetic chemicals and gene manipulation techniques to maximize the potential of plants.  In addition, agricultural production has increased tremendously worldwide over the last century.  Coupled with this growth however is the pollution and degradation of the natural environment.  Many agricultural techniques exist today, but in an effort to adjust to the exponential trends of our population without compromising the integrity of the environment it is necessary to have a global transition towards sustainable farming.  With the current population at seven billion and rising, an important question must be addressed: What is the most sustainable and cost effective way to feed the world’s population?  Fortunately humans have been perfecting agricultural methods for thousands of years, which can help to answer this question.

This paper will analyze and compare two types of farming, organic and conventional.  In a comparison of agriculture, my goal is to assess the impact and performance of each practice and then identify the best method for growing crops.  Although there are many types of agricultural practices, they can be generalized as sustainable or conventional based on the techniques used.  Sustainable / organic farming aims to produce a number of crops, without the use of synthetic chemicals or fertilizers, while enhancing soil composition and promoting biodiversity.  This is a traditional, more permanent type of farming that relies on ecosystem services to maintain the integrity of the landscape while still producing sufficient yields.  Conventional farming uses synthetic chemicals and fertilizers to maximize the yield of a particular crop or set of crops, which are typically genetically modified.  This method requires a significant amount of chemical and energy input and weakens the ecology of a landscape.  In a comparative analysis of these two techniques, it is important to highlight the fact that the crops studied differed in soil composition, geography, and rotation systems.  “To carry on extensive long-term trials for a number of crops in several different geographical areas would be of fundamental importance to understand the potential of organic farming as well as to improve farming techniques in general.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Due to the many different factors determining crop health and productivity, there is a need for much more extensive research on the subject.  Therefore, my goal in writing this paper was to use reliable, long-term research that made specific assessments of the two generalized types of farming and then compare the results.

II. History of Agriculture

Agriculture has played a tremendous role in the advancement of human society. Agriculture has been around since roughly 10,000 B.C.E. and has enabled humans to manipulate ecosystems and maximize population growth ( Xtimeline.com ).  The science has encouraged people to live and develop rich, permanent settlements all over the world.  When humans first discovered the potential of planting seeds, they suddenly had the ability to explore the world and establish infrastructures wherever soils were fertile.

Soon after the start of agriculture people began to select for genes that maximized plant yields.  Selective breeding was first implemented on plants over 10,000 years ago to produce desired characteristics in crops ( USDA.gov ).  This discovery further contributed to the permanence and size of settlements.  With breakthroughs in agriculture, populations increased and development spread.

Early farming techniques depended on local climate conditions, but most farmers would continue to plant on the same field year-after-year until the soils were exhausted of nutrients.  This encouraged ingenuities such as crop rotation and intercropping ( Economywatch.com ).  Intercropping is a technique in which a variety of crops are grown together, creating a microclimate that favors the survival of each plant, maximizes potential yields and maintains soil fertility ( Archaeology.about.com ).  For example, Native Americans developed an intercropping technique over 5,000 years ago called the three sisters, where maize, beans, and squash were grown together ( Archaeology.about.com ).  Maize consumes a lot of nitrogen, while beans supply nitrogen to the soil, and squash benefits from a shady, moist climate.  Intercropping is one of many early discoveries in agriculture still being implemented today that promotes biodiversity, maintains soil composition, and fortifies plant health.

Techniques such as irrigation, intercropping, and crop rotation have progressively increased efficiency in agriculture.  Over the last few centuries however, radical changes have been made in farming and many countries have made a shift toward conventional methods.  Factors such as growing populations, economic instability, climate change, and pressures from companies to produce higher yields have contributed to this shift.  However, adopting these conventional methods subjects farmers to the greed of industry, as their crops depend on a high input of energy, synthetic chemicals, and genetically modified organisms.  And once committed to the conventional practices, farmers find themselves locked in a perpetual cycle of loans, subsidies, and debt.

III.  Conventional Agriculture

Conventional agriculture is a broad term that has a number of definitions, but a crop can be classified as conventional if synthetic chemicals are used to maintain the plants.  A significant amount of chemical and energy input is required in conventional agriculture to produce the highest possible yield of crops.  “This method usually alters the natural environment, deteriorates soil quality, and eliminates biodiversity.” ( USDA.gov ).   Conventional agriculture was developed to make farming more efficient, but achieves that efficiency at a major cost to the environment.

The goal of conventional agriculture is to maximize the potential yield of crops.  This is achieved through the application of synthetic chemicals, genetically modified organisms, and a number of other industrial products.  In maintaining a conventional system, biodiversity, soil fertility, and ecosystems health are compromised (Huntley, Collins, and Swisher).  Production of these crops is beneficial to nothing but food security and economy.  Once established, a conventional farm requires constant maintenance but produces maximal yields.

Maintenance is made easy for farmers as conventional farming typically involves monocropping, but is also very expensive.  In a conventional system farmers will designate entire fields to just one crop, which creates uniformity.  Uniformity can determine both the success and failure of conventional systems.  A uniform crop is ideal because it reduces labor costs and makes harvesting easy, but it can also impact biodiversity and make crops susceptible to pathogens (Gabriel, Salt, Kunin, and Benton 2013).  Chemicals and genetically modified organisms make maintenance of conventional systems relatively simple for farmers, but require a constant input of energy and money.  In a conventional system, farmers can apply pesticides and herbicides to crops at a much more efficient rate if they are made up of just one type of plant, but this has a number of unintended consequences.  Since the goal of conventional agriculture is to maximize yields, environmental health and biodiversity are usually not preserved.

IV.  Sustainable Agriculture

Where conventional farming represents one extreme of agriculture, sustainable farming represents the other.  “Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people.  It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects.  Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Sustainable agriculture is a more holistic approach to farming than conventional in that it relies on ecosystem services and is typically much less detrimental to the surrounding landscape.  Sustainable agriculture is a natural way to produce food and has a number of social, economic, and environmental benefits.

There are many types of sustainable farming that all rely on natural cycles to ensure plant health and crop performance.  Sustainable farming forgoes the use of synthetic pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers to produce food.  Instead, farmers will plant a variety of plants together to promote biodiversity and ward off pests and pathogens (Nicholls and Altieri 2012).  Where conventional systems promote uniformity and depend on synthetic chemicals for protection against disease and pests, sustainable systems rely on biodiversity as a measure to protect against these things.

Sustainable agriculture profits farmers, economies, and food banks while existing symbiotically with the landscape.  One example of many in sustainable farming practices, which emphasizes economic benefits and environmental health, is conservation agriculture.  “By increasing soil organic matter contents and moisture-holding capacity, CA can double subsistence crop yields in areas where use of fertilizers is uneconomic and it can sustain production in years with low rainfall.” (Kassam and Brammer 2013).  Conservation agriculture underlines the focus of sustainable agriculture in that it focuses on producing high yields without compromising the integrity of the environment.

V.  A Comparison of Agriculture

In a comparison of conventional and sustainable agriculture there should be several points of focus: production, biodiversity, soil composition / erosion, water use, energy use, and greenhouse gas emissions.  The environmental impact and production levels of each method will determine its overall viability as a solution to growing trends.  It is necessary to make these comparisons in order to identify the best agricultural method that can sustainably meet the needs of the current population.  Although these comparisons are based off of scientific data, there is much more research that needs to be done in order to make a definitive judgment.

To meet the needs of the current population requires a tremendous amount of resources.  Not taking into account the environmental damage associated with intense production, conventional agriculture is a feasible way to provide for more people; “… population growth and increasing consumption of calorie- and meat-intensive diets are expected to roughly double human food demand by 2050.” (Mueller, Gerber, Johnston, Ray, Ramankutty, and Foley 2012).  In addressing this rapid growth, production levels become a serious point of comparison.  “Organic yields are globally on average 25% lower than conventional yields according to a recent meta-analysis, although this varies with crop types and species and depends on the comparability of farming systems.” (Gabriel, Salt, Kunin, and Benton 2013).  Most research indicates that sustainable crops produce much less than conventional systems.

There are many environmental benefits associated with sustainable agriculture, but its production capacity is limited.  In general, sustainable agriculture fails to match up to conventional agriculture in terms of production.  This result varies though, and in some instances organic crops actually best conventional crops.  For example, under drought conditions organic crops tend to produce higher yields because they typically retain more water; “As part of the Rodale Institute Farming System Trial (from 1981 to 2002), Pimentel et al. , (2005) found that during 1999, a year of extreme drought, (with total rainfall between April and August of 224 mm, compared with an average of 500 mm) the organic animal system had significantly higher corn yield (1,511 kg per ha) than either organic legume (412 kg per ha) or the conventional (1,100 kg per ha).” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Although certain conditions may favor organic crops, conventional agriculture is designed to produce the highest yields possible.

Many factors contribute to this difference in production.  Conventional crops are designed specifically to produce maximal yields; therefore, the difference should be expected.  Typically conventional crops are genetically modified to perform better under certain conditions than sustainable crops (Carpenter 2011).  However, these crops are also sprayed with toxic pesticides and herbicides to make up for their uniformity.  Some research has been done to determine whether increased biodiversity is related to increased yields; “…farmland biodiversity is typically negatively related to crop yield; generally, organic farming per se does not have an effect other than via reducing yields and therefore increasing biodiversity.” (Gabriel, Salt, Kunin, and Benton 2013).  Although levels of production are reduced in sustainable agriculture, studies show that higher levels of biodiversity are linked to healthier crops.

Biodiversity plays a large part in this comparison because it is a determinant of agricultural health and performance.  The greater the biodiversity, the more immune plants are to pests and disease (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  This is important to highlight because conventional agriculture discourages biodiversity and instead relies on synthetic chemicals to maintain crop health.  Over 940 million pounds of pesticides are being applied annually with only 10% of that reaching the desired target, a number that could be greatly reduced if conventional agriculture were to implement sustainable alternatives ( Sustainablelafayette.org ).  Techniques such as integrated pest management and intercropping could be applied to conventional systems and in turn promote biodiversity.

High biodiversity is important to sustainable farming because it enhances the performance of the ecological cycles that the crops depend upon.  Organic agricultural systems are typically much more rich in nutrients and diverse in organisms than conventional systems; “…organic farming is usually associated with a significantly higher level of biological activity, represented by bacteria, fungi, springtails, mites and earthworms, due to its versatile crop rotations, reduced applications of nutrients, and the ban on pesticides.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  It is important to encourage high nutrient levels and biodiversity as these two factors contribute significantly to the health of the crops and the landscape.  Although biodiversity does not directly determine crop yield, it does play a major role in the health and permanence of sustainable farms.

Despite the impacts conventional methods have on agricultural land, not all conventional farms degrade biodiversity.  In fact, there are many ways farmers can reduce the amount of chemicals and energy they use by implementing low input alternatives; “Overall, the review finds that currently commercialized GM crops have reduced the impacts of agriculture on biodiversity, through enhanced adoption of conservation tillage practices, reduction of insecticide use and use of more environmentally benign herbicides and increasing yields to alleviate pressure to convert additional land into agricultural use.” (Carpenter 2011).  The global impact agriculture has can be significantly reduced if conventional farmers adopt sustainable techniques.

In addition to higher levels of biodiversity, sustainable farming is typically associated with better soil quality.  Organic farms have stronger soil ecology because they promote biodiversity rather than uniformity; “The results confirm that higher levels of total and organic C, total N and soluble organic C are observed in all of the organic soil.” (Wang, Li, and Fan 2012).  The increased concentrations of these nutrients can be contributed to the depth of the food web and amount of biomass in sustainable systems.  “In a seven-year experiment in Italy, Marinari et al. (2006) compared two adjacent farms, one organic and one conventional, and found that the fields under organic management showed significantly better soil nutritional and microbiological conditions; with an increased level of total nitrogen, nitrate and available phosphorus, and an increased microbial biomass content, and enzymatic activities.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Sustainable crops are more permanent than conventional crops because they work in harmony with the landscape rather than drain it of nutrients and biomass.

Soil management is vital for existing farms because agricultural production is increasing globally and land is becoming less available to accommodate this growth.  Conventional systems can improve soil quality by practicing sustainable methods like no-tillage farming, agroforestry, and integrated pest management, but sustainable agriculture is the most effective form of food production in terms of maintaining soil conditions.  “Establishing trees on agricultural land can help to mitigate many of the negative impacts of agriculture, for example by regulating soil, water and air quality, supporting biodiversity, reducing inputs by natural regulation of pests and more efficient nutrient cycling, and by modifying local and global climates.” (Smith, Pearce, and Wolfe 2012).  Again, research shows that an increase in biodiversity and a reduction of chemical input can result in conventional farms with more healthy soils and improved crop performance.

A major problem concerning agriculture is soil erosion caused by nutrient loss, run-off, salinity, and drought.  Soil erosion presents a threat to the growth of agriculture because, “Intensive farming exacerbates these phenomena, which are threatening the future sustainability of crop production on a global scale, especially under extreme climatic events such as droughts.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Organic systems enhance soil composition as well as prevent soil erosion due to the greater amount of plant material and biomass in the soil.  Conventional systems manipulate the landscape rather than adapt to it; “…soils under organic management showed <75% soil loss compared to the maximum tolerance value in the region (the maximum rate of soil erosion that can occur without compromising long-term crop productivity or environmental quality −11.2 t ha −1 yr −1 ), while in conventional soil a rate of soil loss three times the maximum tolerance value was recorded.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Compared to sustainable farming, conventional crops are terribly inefficient at maintaining the integrity of agricultural landscapes.  Conventional agriculture is therefore unable meet the demands of the growing populations without consuming a substantial amount of land and non-renewable resources.

On a global scale, water is a renewable resource that can meet the needs of our current population.  Locally, however, water is a scarce resource and must be appropriated efficiently.  The amount of fresh water available for consumption globally is small, but regional constraints make accessing that water even more difficult for many millions of people.  Agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of water use worldwide ( USDA.gov ).  Increasing demand for fresh water is pressuring global stocks.  To conserve this resource a drastic overhaul of water saving techniques, especially in agriculture, must occur.

Due to the abundance of flora and fauna in sustainable systems, organic soil typically retains much more water than conventional soil.  This increased retention rate enables sustainable agricultural systems to produce much higher yields than conventional systems during drought conditions (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  This is a desirable characteristic in agricultural land as it allows crops to be more tolerable to changing climate.  “In heavy loess soils in a temperate climate in Switzerland water holding capacity was reported being 20 to 40% higher in organically managed soils than in conventional ones… The primary reason for higher yield in organic crops is thought to be due to the higher water-holding capacity of the soils under organic management.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  To manage available water resources, sustainable agriculture is the more efficient approach to feeding the world.

A gap exists between current production rates and potential production rates of crops.  Through better management of water and soil, much greater yields can be produced.  Increasing efficiency to 100% is not entirely feasible, but implementing sustainable farming techniques would conserve resources and improve crop performance; “Globally, we find that closing yield gaps to 100% of attainable yields could increase worldwide crop production by 45% to 70% for most major crops (with 64%, 71% and 47% increases for maize, wheat and rice, respectively).” (Mueller, Gerber, Johnston, Ray, Ramankutty, and Foley 2012).  Meeting future food demands is a dynamic problem that requires consideration of all things, but most importantly water and soil conservation.

Sustainable agriculture relies solely on natural processes for input and recycles nutrients on-site to eliminate the use of non-renewable resources.  Alternatively, conventional agriculture requires an incredible amount of energy to produce, prepare, and transport food.  Energy efficiency is important to agriculture as it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and lower costs of production; “Agricultural activities (not including forest conversion) account for approximately 5% of anthropogenic emissions of CO 2 and the 10–12% of total global anthropogenic emissions of GHGs (5.1 to 6.1 Gt CO 2 eq. yr −1 in 2005), accounting for nearly all the anthropogenic methane and one to two thirds of all anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions are due to agricultural activities.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Agriculture is responsible for a significant percentage of greenhouse gas emissions, but can also mitigate this impact using sustainable methods.  Better management of agricultural land is required to reduce the effects of crop production.

Sustainable agriculture has the ability to offset global greenhouse emissions at a greater rate than conventional agriculture because it is more permanent and does not require much input to produce food.  Conventional systems are inefficient at capturing carbon because of soil composition, constant production, and how much energy is being used to maintain the crops.  “We use so much machinery, pesticides, irrigation, processing, and transportation that for every calorie that comes to the table, 10 calories or energy have been expended.” ( Sustainablelafayette.org ).  However, there are measures that can be taken to increase energy efficiency.  “This carbon can be stored in soil by SOM and by aboveground biomass through processes such as adopting rotations with cover crops and green manures to increase SOM, agroforestry, and conservation-tillage systems.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Conventional agriculture operates at a net energy loss, but implementing sustainable practices can reduce costs and benefit the surrounding landscape.

Sustainable agriculture aims to enhance the composition of a landscape while producing sufficient yields.  This method is so efficient compared to conventional agriculture because it requires no input of synthetic chemicals or fertilizers, which accounts for a large amount of the greenhouse gas emissions.  However, energy efficiency also takes into account the ratio of input to output.  In that sense, there is no substantial difference between the two types of agriculture; “…the energy efficiency, calculated as the yield divided by the energy use (MJ ha −1 ), was generally higher in the organic system than in the conventional system, but the yields were also lower. This meant that conventional crop production had the highest net energy production, whereas organic crop production had the highest energy efficiency.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Even though conventional systems produce greater yields than sustainable systems, organic crop production is the most energy efficient method.

VI.  Conclusion

Studies point toward sustainable agriculture as the best solution to managing the growing population.  Although the benefits of sustainable agriculture are abundant, there are several constraints to adopting this method worldwide.  Climate conditions vary with geography so where sustainable agriculture is the most efficient system in one part of the world, it may not be entirely feasible in another.  “Some authors suggest the adoption of integrated farming, rather than upholding solely organic practices, which they find more harmful than conventional farming, for instance in the case of pest control technologies.” (Gomiero, Pimentel, and Paoletti 2011).  Many factors determine the performance of agricultural methods and often the most effective type of agriculture requires a combination of techniques.  In addition to local constraints, sustainable agriculture also requires much more labor to maintain crops.

The science of agriculture has allowed human populations to grow exponentially and dominate the world’s landscapes.  Advancements in this science have enabled humans to manipulate entire ecosystems to cater to their survival.  But as populations continue to grow, resources are becoming limited.  Water, fuel, and soil are three important factors determining the survival the world’s population and it is crucial that they are used as efficiently as possible.  In a comparison of sustainable and conventional agriculture, organic farming methods are shown to perform much better for a number of indicators.  Sustainable agriculture consumes less water and energy, enhances soil composition, and forgoes synthetic chemical input.  Conventional agriculture cannot meet the needs of the current population without compromising the integrity of the environment.  Sustainable agriculture has the potential to sequester carbon, feed the world, and enrich the environment.  The social, economic, and environmental benefits of this system are reasons why sustainable agriculture is the most viable way to accommodate growing trends.

VII.  References

• Gomiero, T.; Pimentel, D.; Paoletti, M. G. Environmental Impact of Different Agricultural Management Practices: Conventional Vs. Organic Agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences [Online] 2011 , Volume 30, Issue 1-2: 95-124; http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/07352689.2011.554355#tabModule (Accessed April 17, 2013).
• Carpenter, J, E. Impact of GM Crops on Biodiversity. GM Crops [Online] 2011, Volume 2:1, 7-23; http://www.landesbioscience.com/journals/gmcrops/CarpenterGMC2-1.pdf  (Accessed April 20, 2013).
• Nicholls, C.; Altieri, M. Plant Biodiversity Enhances bees and Other Insect Pollinators in Agroecosystems. A Review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development [Online] 2012 ; http://agroeco.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/nicholls-altieri-pollinators.pdf (Accessed May 10, 2013).
• Wu, J.; Sardo, V. Sustainable Vs. Organic Agriculture. Sociology, Organic Farming, Climate Change, and Soil Science [Online] 2010 , Series 3, 41-76; http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-90-481-3333-8_3 (Accessed May 5, 2013).
• Smith, J.; Pearce, BD.; Wolfe, MS. Reconciling Productivity with Protection of the Environment: Is Temperate Agroforestry the Answer? Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems [Online] 2013 , Volume 28, Issue 1: 80-92; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=4&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=1 (Accessed May 9, 2013).
• Smith, P.; Gregory, PJ. Climate Change and Sustainable Food Production. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society [Online] 2013 , Volume 72, Issue 1: 21-28; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=4&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=6 (Accessed May 1, 2013).
• Mueller, ND.; Gerber, JS.; Johnston, M.; Ray, DK.; Ramankutty, N.; Foley, JA. Closing Yield gaps Through Nutrient and Water Management. Nature [Online] 2012 , Volume 490, Issue 7419: 254-257; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=4&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=3&doc=24 (Accessed May 8, 2013).
• Kassam, A.; Brammer, H.; Combining Sustainable Agricultural Production with Economic and Environmental Benefits. Geographical Journal [Online] 2013 , Volume 179: 11-18; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=7&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=1 (Accessed May 3, 2013).
• Gabriel, D.; Salt, SM.; Kunin, WE.; Benton, TG. Food Production Vs. Biodiversity: Comparing Organic and Conventional Agriculture. Journal of Applied Ecology [Online] 2013 , Volume 50, Issue 2: 355-364; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=10&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=1 (Accessed April 28, 2013).
• Wang, S.; Li, Z.; Fan, GS. Soil Quality and Microbes in Organic and Conventional Farming Systems. African Journal of Microbiology Research [Online] 2012 , Volume 6, Issue 24: 5077-5085; http://apps.webofknowledge.com.libproxy.cc.stonybrook.edu/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=14&SID=4CpkdIbjgdKHalEipLc&page=1&doc=1 (Accessed May 8, 2013).
• Huntley, EE.; Collins, EE.; Swisher, M.E. Effects of Organic and Conventional Farm Practices on Soil Quality. University of Florida [Online]; http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/nsfc/39.htm (Accessed April 26, 2013)
• USDA.Gov . U.S. Department of Agriculture. 2013. Web. http://www.nal.usda.gov/history-art-and-biography/history-agriculture. 1 May 2013.
• Economywatch . Com . Stanley St Labs. 2010. Web. http://www.economywatch.com/agriculture/types/. 25 Apr. 2013.
• Xtimeline . Com . Famento, Inc. 2013. Web. http://www.xtimeline.com/timeline/History-of-agriculture-1. 28 Apr. 2013.
• Archaeology.About.Com . About.Com. Web. http://archaeology.about.com/od/tterms/qt/Three-Sisters.htm. 20 Apr. 2013
• Sustainablelafayette.Org. Sustainable Lafayette. 2013. Web. http://www.sustainablelafayette.org/?page_id=1015. 13 May 2013.

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Essay on Agriculture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on agriculture.

Agriculture is one of the major sectors of the Indian economy. It is present in the country for thousands of years. Over the years it has developed and the use of new technologies and equipment replaced almost all the traditional methods of farming. Besides, in India, there are still some small farmers that use the old traditional methods of agriculture because they lack the resources to use modern methods. Furthermore, this is the only sector that contributed to the growth of not only itself but also of the other sector of the country.

Growth and Development of the Agriculture Sector

India largely depends on the agriculture sector. Besides, agriculture is not just a mean of livelihood but a way of living life in India. Moreover, the government is continuously making efforts to develop this sector as the whole nation depends on it for food.

For thousands of years, we are practicing agriculture but still, it remained underdeveloped for a long time. Moreover, after independence, we use to import food grains from other countries to fulfill our demand. But, after the green revolution, we become self-sufficient and started exporting our surplus to other countries.

Besides, these earlier we use to depend completely on monsoon for the cultivation of food grains but now we have constructed dams, canals, tube-wells, and pump-sets. Also, we now have a better variety of fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds, which help us to grow more food in comparison to what we produce during old times.

With the advancement of technology, advanced equipment, better irrigation facility and the specialized knowledge of agriculture started improving.

Furthermore, our agriculture sector has grown stronger than many countries and we are the largest exporter of many food grains.

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Significance of Agriculture

It is not wrong to say that the food we eat is the gift of agriculture activities and Indian farmers who work their sweat to provide us this food.

In addition, the agricultural sector is one of the major contributors to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and national income of the country.

Also, it requires a large labor force and employees around 80% of the total employed people. The agriculture sector not only employees directly but also indirectly.

Moreover, agriculture forms around 70% of our total exports. The main export items are tea, cotton, textiles, tobacco, sugar, jute products, spices, rice, and many other items.

Negative Impacts of Agriculture

Although agriculture is very beneficial for the economy and the people there are some negative impacts too. These impacts are harmful to both environments as the people involved in this sector.

Deforestation is the first negative impact of agriculture as many forests have been cut downed to turn them into agricultural land. Also, the use of river water for irrigation causes many small rivers and ponds to dry off which disturb the natural habitat.

Moreover, most of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides contaminate the land as well as water bodies nearby. Ultimately it leads to topsoil depletion and contamination of groundwater.

In conclusion, Agriculture has given so much to society. But it has its own pros and cons that we can’t overlook. Furthermore, the government is doing his every bit to help in the growth and development of agriculture; still, it needs to do something for the negative impacts of agriculture. To save the environment and the people involved in it.

FAQs about Essay on Agriculture

Q.1 Name the four types of agriculture? A.1 The four types of agriculture are nomadic herding, shifting cultivation, commercial plantation, and intensive subsistence farming.

Q.2 What are the components of the agriculture revolution? A.2 The agriculture revolution has five components namely, machinery, land under cultivation, fertilizers, and pesticides, irrigation, and high-yielding variety of seeds.

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Traditional vs. Modern Farming Techniques: A Comparative Analysis

Farming techniques have evolved over time, with traditional and modern approaches being at the forefront of agricultural practices. Understanding the differences between these two methods is crucial for making informed decisions regarding sustainability, productivity, and environmental impact. In this comparison, we explore the key contrasts between traditional and modern farming techniques.

1. Approach

Traditional Farming:

• Rooted in centuries-old practices and local knowledge.
• Emphasizes manual labor and simple tools.
• Often geared towards subsistence farming for local consumption.
• Favors crop diversity and organic practices.
• Relies on preservation of indigenous seed varieties.

Modern Farming:

• Incorporates both advanced technology and mechanization.
• Focuses on large-scale production for global markets.
• Utilizes genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for enhanced traits.
• Implements precision agriculture to optimize resource use.
• Aims for higher productivity and efficiency.

2. Environmental Impact

• Low environmental impact due to organic practices.
• Relies on natural pest control and crop rotation to maintain soil fertility.
• Preserves biodiversity through diverse crops and native seeds.
• Higher environmental impact due to chemical inputs and intensive practices.
• Utilizes synthetic both pesticides and fertilizers for pest and disease management.
• May lead to monoculture, reducing biodiversity.

3. Productivity

• Generally lower productivity compared to modern farming.
• Suitable for small-scale and needs.
• Higher productivity and yield due to technological advancements.
• Can meet the demands of a growing global population.

4. Sustainability

• Promotes sustainability through organic practices and community reliance.
• Well-suited for maintaining traditional cultures and local ecosystems.
• Faces challenges in sustainability due to resource-intensive practices.
• Requires responsible management to lessen environmental impact.

Traditional and modern farming techniques offer different approaches to agriculture, each with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Traditional farming emphasizes cultural heritage, local sustainability, and low environmental impact. On the other hand, modern farming prioritizes high productivity, global market demands, and technological advancements.

The key to sustainable agriculture lies in finding a balance between these two methods. Integrating traditional wisdom with modern innovations can lead to a more resilient and productive agricultural system that respects both cultural heritage and the environment. By fostering knowledge sharing and responsible practices, we can ensure a sustainable future for agriculture while meeting the challenges of a rapidly changing world.

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A pressure to modernize: a comparison between traditional and industrial agricultural practices.

As the pressures of globalization and modernization increase over time, traditional agricultural practices and knowledge become obsolete. These pressures have created a shift away from a food system dependant on millions of farmers to a system controlled by few agribusinesses.    Modern agricultural practices emphasize production, capital gain, input intensity and crop consistence.   In contrast, traditional agricultural practices emphasize localization, biodiversity, shared genetic resources and a cultural appreciation for many different crops.   S hifts from traditional agricultural to modern agriculture will have significant implications for the biodiversity of cultivated and wild plants.  In the face of global environmental problems, it is essential that agriculture remains resilient to maintain and increase food security. Cultural and biological diversity are essential to agricultural resilience; if one method or crop fails, there are many to compensate. Cultural diversity can maintain biodiversity if the pressure to modernize is reduced and the number of conservation projects continue to grow.

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The essence of traditional farming practices, contribution to crop diversity, challenges and the path forward, traditional farming practices and their contribution to crop diversity.

The world of agriculture is as vast and diverse as the ecosystems it operates within. Among the myriad of farming practices, traditional methods have carved a niche that not only sustains millions of smallholder farmers worldwide but also plays a crucial role in maintaining crop diversity. This article delves into the essence of traditional farming practices, their significance in promoting biodiversity, and the challenges they face in the modern agricultural landscape.

Traditional farming practices are deeply rooted in the cultural heritage of various communities around the globe. These methods have been passed down through generations, honed by the experiences of countless ancestors. They are characterized by a profound understanding of the local environment, including soil types, climate patterns, and indigenous flora and fauna. Unlike industrial agriculture, which often relies on monocultures, chemical inputs, and mechanization, traditional farming embraces diversity, natural resources, and human labor.

Key aspects of traditional farming include:

• Polyculture: Growing multiple crop species in the same space, which mimics natural ecosystems and enhances biodiversity.
• Agroforestry: Integrating trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes, which supports a wider range of plant and animal species.
• Use of Indigenous Knowledge: Applying ancestral knowledge of plants, weather, and natural pest control to manage farms sustainably.
• Seed Saving and Sharing: Preserving seeds from season to season, which maintains genetic diversity and resilience.

These practices not only contribute to the ecological health of the farming system but also ensure food security and livelihoods for rural communities.

Crop diversity is the cornerstone of agricultural resilience. It reduces the risk of total crop failure, provides a variety of nutrients to the diet, and supports ecosystems by hosting a range of species. Traditional farming practices are a treasure trove of agrobiodiversity. By favoring a wide array of crop varieties, including those that are native and adapted to local conditions, traditional farmers maintain a living library of genetic resources.

Polyculture, a common practice in traditional farming, ensures that a variety of crops are grown together. This not only prevents soil depletion by alternating crops with different nutrient needs but also discourages pests and diseases, which might otherwise devastate a monoculture. Moreover, the integration of wild plants into agricultural systems�a practice known as wild farming�can further enhance genetic diversity and provide refuge for beneficial insects and pollinators.

Agroforestry, another hallmark of traditional agriculture, contributes to crop diversity by introducing fruit trees, nuts, and medicinal plants into the farming landscape. These species offer additional sources of income and nutrition while supporting a diverse array of wildlife. Furthermore, the practice of seed saving and sharing among communities ensures that rare or unique varieties continue to be cultivated and appreciated, rather than being lost to the uniformity of commercial seeds.

Despite their invaluable contribution to biodiversity and sustainable agriculture, traditional farming practices face numerous challenges. The expansion of industrial agriculture, driven by the demand for high-yield crops, has led to the encroachment of monocultures and the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). This shift not only threatens the existence of traditional farming systems but also the genetic diversity they support.

Climate change poses another significant threat, altering weather patterns and making it increasingly difficult for farmers to rely on ancestral knowledge that is deeply tied to the local environment. Additionally, the migration of rural populations to urban areas in search of better opportunities has led to a decline in the number of people available to carry on these age-old practices.

To preserve traditional farming practices and their contribution to crop diversity, a multifaceted approach is necessary. This includes:

• Supporting policies that recognize and protect traditional knowledge and genetic resources.
• Encouraging the use of indigenous crops and varieties that are better adapted to local conditions and climate change.
• Providing platforms for the exchange of seeds and knowledge among traditional farming communities.
• Integrating traditional practices with modern scientific research to develop sustainable farming techniques that can feed the growing global population.

In conclusion, traditional farming practices are not relics of the past but vital components of a sustainable future. By valuing and integrating these practices into the broader agricultural landscape, we can ensure food security, protect our planet's biodiversity, and preserve the cultural heritage of communities around the world.

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Revolutionizing soil health: the future of no-till farming.

Daniel Harris

Optimizing Soil Health: A Guide to Sustainable Crop Cultivation

Research, Policy and Practice

• Open access
• Published: 23 November 2011

What is traditional pastoral farming? The politics of heritage and 'real values' in Swedish summer farms ( fäbodbruk )

• Camilla Eriksson 1  

Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice volume  1 , Article number:  25 ( 2011 ) Cite this article

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The number of pastoralists maintaining production systems with small numbers of traditional breeds of cattle decreased dramatically with the modernisation and industrialisation of agriculture in Europe during the twentieth century. While these pastoral systems were not compatible with agricultural industrialisation policies, they provide a far better match to current European Union (EU) policy with its emphasis on high nature values and various cultural heritage protection measures. Today, these farms can obtain EU funding for preserving natural and/or cultural heritage values rather than producing agricultural goods. Although such EU subsidies make a welcome contribution to the livelihood of traditional farmers, the critical definitions that have to be made regarding what is considered traditional or non-traditional can be problematic. This paper provides an example from Swedish fäbodbruk , a smallholder system of forest pasturing with traditional breeds of cattle, goats and sheep in northern Sweden. As policymaking and agricultural subsidies during the twentieth century reflected the contemporary political agenda of that time, farmers have been subjected to many changes in priority in political decision making. The contemporary push for traditional farming and heritage has made policymaking potentially even more difficult, e.g. as regards the question of what should be considered traditional and what makes up natural and cultural heritage. This paper examines how farmers are affected by valuations and assessments made by the relevant authorities on whether they are producing natural and/or cultural heritage.

Introduction

The attention to agriculture's role in creating cultural and natural heritage values rather than merely producing food and fibre has intensified in Scandinavia during the last decade ( Setten 2005 ; Daugstad et al. 2006 ), just as in broader discussions of European agricultural change (cf. Van Huylenbroeck and Durand 2003 ; Wilson 2007 ). This revaluing of agriculture's role is part of what ( Lowenthal (1998) ) has called the 'cult of heritage' that characterises late modernity, where 'Nostalgia for things old and outworn supplants dreams of progress and development. A century or even 50 years ago the untrammelled future was all the rage; today we laud legacies bequeathed by has-beens'. This new view on agriculture's role is also reflected in current European Union (EU) subsidies that are targeting the maintenance of natural and cultural heritage, thus endeavouring in the difficult task of assigning monetary values in the form of subsidies on heritage.

Since Sweden joined the EU in 1995, specific subsidies have been available for maintaining the practice of fäbodbruk , seasonal forest pasturing at summer farms ( fäbodar ). The rationale behind the funding is somewhat puzzling, as it stresses that a given grazing pressure is desired, but provides vague instructions on the summer farm having to be kept in accordance with tradition. This has caused much administrative difficulty for the regional county boards, as the Swedish Board of Agriculture only states that 'the county boards are to consider the number of animals, the type of animals and the traditional use of the summer farm' ( SJVFS 2011 ), author's translation) when deciding what land can be given a real support through the EU-funded forest grazing scheme ( fäbodbetesstöd ). Important issues are how the authorities determine what is considered traditional and how farmers are affected by these decisions (or rather lack of decisions). This paper provides two examples of how the Swedish authorities have dealt with issues of natural and cultural heritage in relation to summer farms. The first example concerns the case of pedigree versus unrefined traditional breeds of cattle, and the second that of grazing subsidies conflicting with predator policies.

In central and northern Sweden, farming systems were traditionally based on animal husbandry and depended on utilising outfields (mainly covered by boreal forest) as summertime grazing for cattle, sheep and goats, as arable land was scarce. During the summer, farmers moved to simple dwellings on summer farms ( fäbodar ) to graze the animals in the forest (Figure 1 ). Today these fäbodar often lack electricity and running water due to their marginal location or for more symbolic nostalgic reasons. The Swedish transhumance system, fäbodbruk , is identical to the practice of seterbruk in Norway and similar to Almwirtschaft in the Alps and transhumance systems in the Carpathians and Pyrenees ( Lidman 1963 ; Montelius 1975 ). Historically, animals were tended by hired milkmaids on the summer farm, whereas today these tasks are generally carried out within the family as increasing labour costs during the twentieth century have generally rendered it economically unfeasible to hire personnel for small farms. Cars have made it possible to commute between the main farm and the summer farm, which means that it is not necessary to live on the summer farm during the summer months if it is within daily commuting distance (Figure 1 ).

Summer farm (fäbod) . Summer farms accommodate both people and animals but are simple and usually lack electricity and running water due to their location in marginal forested areas. However, this lack of facilities is often appreciated today, as it preserves farming practices and gives the summer farm a genuine feeling. It also has some practical advantages, such as being low-maintenance during the harsh Swedish winter. This picture was taken in Arådalen, Jämtland County, in September 2010.

During the rapid industrialisation of agriculture that took place in the decades after the Second World War, central and northern Sweden was deemed unsuitable for rationalisation in terms of creating large-scale industrialised farms. Therefore farming in these areas was to a large degree abandoned, and the few farms that remain continued to be small-scale. The number of farmers using summer farms and forest pasturing in Sweden has dramatically decreased from an estimated 20,000 in the late nineteenth century ( Larsson 2009:382ff ) to around 250 farmers today as a result of technological development but also deliberate policies aimed at rationalising farms into larger-scale, specialist units. In comparison, in neighbouring Norway, where rural policies have sought to maintain traditional farming to a greater extent than in Sweden, the number of working summer farms with dairy cows is currently around 1,300 ( Stensgaard 2009 ). Considering that the total population of Norway is only around five million people compared with Sweden's nine million, it is remarkable that Norway has more than five times as many summer farms in use. There could of course be a number of reasons behind this difference in numbers, but it can be taken as an indication that politics and agricultural policies matter. In the remainder of this paper, Swedish fäbodbrukare , smallholders keeping summer farms, are referred to as 'farmers' for simplicity and ease of comprehension.

On the 250 summer farms that exist in Sweden today, the production system differs. Some are focused on milk production from cows or goats, others on meat production from cattle or sheep. While some are open for tourists and offer attractions such as cafes and guided tours, others are private, closed enterprises. Forest pasturing is generally based on Swedish common pasture rights ( ägofredslagen and mulbetesrätten ) and thus represents a non-exclusive right of access. Multiple land uses are frequent in areas where forest pasturing is carried out, such as reindeer herding, hunting, various leisure activities and, above all, forestry. All of these are sources of conflict for farmers in the region, whose animals are sometimes said to hinder the activities of other land users.

The remaining farmers practising forest pasturing are generally situated in mountainous or marginal areas of central and northern Sweden. They are especially concentrated to the more mountainous northern parts of Dalarna County and to the western part of Jämtland County, with close to 100 farmers in each county (Figure 2 ). This region is dominated by glacial till soils and boreal forest vegetation. Glacial till soils are generally difficult to cultivate and thus unsuitable for cropping, so the most important cultivated land areas in this region are alluvial soils along river valleys and the shores of major lakes. From the mid-nineteenth century onwards, many mires and wetlands were drained and cultivated, but above the tree line in the more mountainous parts, the soil cover is generally too thin to cultivate. Therefore crop cultivation in the latter areas has been limited and animal husbandry has dominated, with any arable fields available being used for fodder and self-sufficiency. The boreal forest in this region contains extensive naturally open mires that provide grazing rich in grasses, herbs and tree buds, which provide forage for cattle and goats, as well as reindeer and wild deer such as moose ( Alces alces ). Grazing cattle in the forest are left free-ranging or herded (Figure 2 ), a practice that is presumed to date back to the Iron Age (cf. Lidman 1963 ; Montelius 1975 ).

Map . Map showing counties where forest pasturing on summer farms is currently practised in Sweden. Z = Jämtland County (90 summer farms), W = Dalarna County (90 summer farms), × = Gävleborg (60 summer farms) and S = Värmland (10 summer farms). All counties are distinct rural regions with boreal forest as the main land cover. Generally, the landscapes of the eastern parts of this area are undulating, while the western and especially north-western parts are mountainous.

This paper draws on ethnographic field research that I undertook in 2009 and 2010 for my ongoing Ph.D. project on the politics of fäbodbruk . The main methods employed were participatory observations and qualitative interviews carried out with around 20 traditional farmers practising forest pasturing in central and northern Sweden. To a more limited extent, I also met with county board representatives, but the majority of my study of policymaking stems from analysing policy documents, media reports and statements made by the authorities and due responses from farmers' associations. There are four associations of summer farm users in Sweden: the national Swedish Transhumance and Pastoralist Association ( Föreningen Sveriges Fäbodbrukare ) and three regional associations ( Gävleborgs fäbodförening , Dalarnas fäbodbrukarförening and Värmlands Säterbrukarförening ).

Pedigree versus unrefined traditional cattle breeds in the twentieth century

Post-war modernisation and cattle breeding.

During the post-war period, Swedish agricultural policies strongly favoured rationalisation through stimulating a reduction in the total number of farms and an increase in the scale and degree of individual farm specialisation. As a result, Swedish farming practices underwent dramatic changes during the twentieth century. Technological development made traditional farming systems such as fäbodbruk seem backward, and longstanding agricultural propaganda informed farmers of the benefits of abandoning forest pasturing in favour of cultivating fodder for dairy animals. Small-scale farming was seen as a challenge to the creation of the welfare state, as the profit gained from such farming was unsatisfactory compared with the salaries that industrial workers enjoyed from the 1950s and onwards in Sweden. Thus, a number of policies were put in force in order to professionalise and industrialise farming during the post-war years ( Flygare and Isacson 2003 ; Flygare 2004 ).

One example that shows the effects of rationalisation and modernisation policies and their interconnectedness with technological developments is that of the introduction of pedigree cattle breeding. In the 1880s, deliberate pedigree breeding of cattle began in Sweden, since when cattle breeds were formalised, their outputs in terms of milk and meat could be compared and analysed. Ambitious breeding programmes coupled with new medical knowledge and technology during the twentieth century allowed cattle to be altered in a way probably only exceeded by their initial domestication around 7,000 years ago. As a result, the sturdy type of cattle commonly kept in central and northern Sweden was formally named Scandinavian Mountain Cattle ( fjällko ), hereafter referred to as mountain cattle. These mountain cattle proved to be unusually small, with significantly higher milk fat content, when compared with other breeds in a systematic way. According to farmers (field notes), mountain cattle are very well adapted to their environment in terms of their ability to find pasture and forage for mushrooms, buds and herbs in extensive boreal forests and their willingness to return home by themselves or when called by their herder. Scandinavian farmers practising forest pasturing on summer farms have developed a particular high-pitch singing technique ( kulning or kaukning ) that travels tens of kilometres in mountainous terrain in order to call their animals home.

In the 1880s, the average mountain cow weighed an estimated 180 to 230 kg and gave 1,200 to 1,400 kg of milk per year, according to figures made available by the Swedish Mountain Cattle Breeding Association ( Svensk Fjällrasavel, undated ). Regional agricultural committees ( hushållningssällskap ) were given the authority to create breeding plans and prioritise the use of bulls that met breed standards in Sweden. The ability of mountain cows to independently seek fodder in the forest was the reason why Scandinavian Mountain Cattle was recognised as the only suitable cattle breed for northern Sweden by the committee in 1893, and a breeding plan was established for its development. At the turn of the century, merely 20 years after breeding plans emerged, the average mountain cow had nearly doubled its weight and its milk output (ibid.). However, mountain cattle would not remain a rational option for long, as concentrated feed started to replace grazing as the main feed source for cattle in the post-Second World War period. In 1993, exactly 100 years after the formal establishment of the Scandinavian Mountain Cattle breed, a project was initiated for saving the breed, which was by then close to extinction.

The rapid development of new technologies was another important factor in the rationalisation of agriculture. For example, the expansion of commercial dairies in the early 1900s was problematic in areas where farmers kept their livestock on forest pastures and produced their own dairy products. In areas where summer farms were used, the village dairy was forced to close down operations during the summer months, when the cows were most productive. Eventually the promise of steady cash income from commercial dairies convinced farmers to keep their cows at home throughout the summer and deliver their milk to the dairies, even though sufficient grazing was sometimes lacking in the village so the cows had to be house fed until they could be released onto aftergrass following haymaking (field notes).

While farmers who stopped practising forest grazing generally chose to replace their mountain cattle with larger and more productive lowland cattle, those who continued with forest grazing generally did not. The main reason was that farmers who kept up the tradition of forest pasturing remained dependent on the mountain cattle breed's adaptiveness to its environment. Other reasons listed by the farmers interviewed were that mountain cattle milk is more suitable for home-made cheese production owing to its higher fat content, while lowland cattle is ideal as drinking milk and suits those farmers delivering milk to commercial dairies. Some simply argued that mountain cows are more beautiful, more trustworthy or have gentler ways or a more independent and intriguing mind. This attachment of farmers to their cows deserves some attention, as it is important to understand their reasons for continuity and resistance to change in their farming practices.

Farmers' attitudes to cows and cattle breeds

Small-scale dairy farmers take an ambivalent view of the fact that they have to get up every morning to milk their cows and often direct all their attention to problems as they emerge. On summer farms, the working conditions are also problematic - the animal houses are often small and lack electricity (Figure 3 ), while the buildings constructed for cheese production are often small and laborious to work in (Figure 4 ). While this is seen as a problem and a burden, it is also often talked of in positive ways. Most farmers realise that if they shifted from milk to meat consumption they would not only reduce their work burden substantially but also improve their profitability, as current European Union Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) subsidies prioritise keeping the landscape open through grazing, while subsidies for milk production are less advantageous to farmers. However, there are farmers who would rather stop farming altogether than sell their milk cows. The reason for this attitude is presumably the special bond that exists between farmers and their animals. When the practices of forest grazing on summer farms are examined more closely, it is easy to see the intrinsic ways in which animal behaviour and bonds with animals are crucial to the operation (Figures 3 and 4 ).

Animal houses . Cow houses on a summer farm, which provide shelter for animals from mosquitoes and other insects as well as from predators. Summer farms are often subject to cultural heritage preservation rules and thus have to balance the competing interests of preservation and functionality, as well as regulations within e.g. animal health. This picture was taken in Valsjöbyn, Jämtland County, in July 2010.

Cheese-making shed . Small sheds ( kokhus ) are usually built for producing cheese from milk and the distinct Scandinavian whey cheese ( mesost ) and whey butter ( messmör ), which needs to boil one full day in order to caramelise and thicken. This picture was taken in Valsjöbyn, Jämtland County, in July 2010.

In the newspaper Tidningen Härjedalen on 19 August 2010, the traditional farmer Karl-Olov Sundeberg was quoted as saying that 'we like music a lot and so a while ago Ingegerd [Karl-Olov's wife] and I were to go listen to Tomas Ledin [famous Swedish musician] when he played in Rätan, but then the cows did not come home from the forest so we couldn't make it. But all of that is forgotten the next day because we are so happy with the life we lead' [author's translation and notes]. The milk cows are at the core of the business and the care and affection shown to farm animals was striking in encounters with traditional farmers in the present field studies. Free-range forest pasturing is based on being able to control animal behaviour, as the cows are expected to return home every night by themselves, so a lot of time is invested in creating emotional bonds with the cows. This is not regarded as something specific for this type of farming by the farmers themselves, as it is usually based on tacit knowledge and regarded simply as a necessity that comes with this line of work. Giving the animals the time and patience needed to establish necessary bonds of trust is crucial to these pasture regimes.

The cows used in forest pasturing are possibly among the most tame in any livestock raising regime, which is an interesting paradox considering the free-range pasturing that is involved. Farmers practising forest pasturing usually have no more than 30 cows, often considerably fewer (10 to 15), and establish strong personal and emotional bonds with their cows. The cows are generally kept for longer than those in conventional farming systems in Sweden. One farmer interviewed did not even slaughter milk cows, but allowed them to die of old age at around 20 to 25 years. In the newspaper interview with Karl-Olov Sundeberg cited above, he notes that it is crucial for traditional farming that the cows come home by themselves from grazing in the forest. It has not always been so. Historically, the animals were herded, often by young milkmaids. The main reason for doing so was to make sure that the animals did not graze on land used for hay cutting or land to which the farmer had no grazing rights, and to some extent to protect animals from predator attacks ( Nyman 1963 ; Larsson 2009 ). From the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, when the practice of forest grazing peaked, there are historical accounts of how grazing rights were assigned and maintained by establishing detailed arrangements for grazing and work to be done by each farm household to maintain the grazing quality of the forested pastureland, such as cutting trees and bushes ( Larsson 2009 ). As the number of summer farms in use decreased, there was no reason for herding the animals to keep them off the hayfields or pasture land of other farms. In addition, as labour costs increased and the use of unpaid labour by family members decreased considerably during the twentieth century, herding animals would be economically impracticable nowadays, according to several of the farmers interviewed.

Today, if the cows do not come home for milking, farmers face hours of extra labour in locating them and bringing them back. It is rather unusual for cows not to return home, even dry cows, as they need shelter from mosquitoes and gnats, which farmers claim can cause so much distress that farm animals sometimes die from nervous exhaustion. If cows do not come home, it is most often due to mushrooms. Cows find mushrooms very tasty and according to farmers, they also eat hallucinogenic mushrooms that make them lose track of time and space. One farmer told me they behave like drunken teenagers. Others claim that the tastiness alone explains why cows move further and further away from home, as they lose judgement and get so full eating mushrooms that they cannot cope with walking all the way back once they realise how late it is and the mosquitoes come. Regardless of the reason, mushroom season is a problem for traditional farmers with free-ranging cows on forest pasture.

However, another reason why cows might not return home is if a lowland cow is leading the herd. The belief that lowland cows cannot find good fodder in the forest or manage to get home on time is widespread among farmers. On several occasions, I was told by farmers that the traditional breeds, mountain cattle and a breed with similar qualities to mountain cattle called red cattle ( rödkulla ) (Figure 5 ) that is more common in central Sweden, are light enough to walk through mires without sinking and fit enough to walk tens of kilometres seeking fodder every day. The larger lowland breeds are heavier and get tired from walking, and are often found lying resting somewhere, according to farmers. As one farmer said, even a herd of cows with a majority of mountain cattle could fail to return home in time if the dominant cow is a lowland cow. Therefore, it is important for farmers to ensure the dominant cow in the herd is of a suitable breed and with suitable qualities. This is not always easy, as it is not clear what makes a cow a leader. Age is one important factor but not the only one, as one farmer claimed that mental strength and displaying braveness and boldness are also important. A second farmer said that he could try to intervene and push for a certain cow to become the dominant one, for example by putting her first in the herd. However, the cows will ultimately decide among themselves who will be number one through violent fights, which I witnessed myself while participating in moving cows from a farm to a summer farm in the beginning of the grazing season ( buföring ), a walk of around 35 km in this particular case (Figure 5 ).

Traditional cattle breeds . This picture shows mountain cattle ( fjällko ), and red cattle ( rödkulla ) pasturing in the forest outside Rättvik, Dalarna County, in June 2010. Farmers claim that traditional breeds are better adapted to forest pasturing, as they are lighter and better suited for feeding on the buds, herbs and thick grasses that grow in forests and mires.

There are other characteristics unique to traditional breeds, according to farmers. One farmer described how she started up her business based on forest pasturing through buying red cattle raised in southern Sweden. In the very first summer, the cattle herd was pastured in the forest, they started what the farmer called a kindergarten all by themselves. Every day the cattle gathered before going out to pasture and one cow or bull stayed behind with the calves close to the farm, as calves are not fit enough to walk the distances that the cows walk. In this farmer's experience of working with lowland cows in southern Sweden, she had never seen anything like it and she is convinced that this is a behaviour traditional breeds have inherited genetically as they have adjusted to this specific environment over centuries. Another farmer tells this story:

When I was young I used to nag my mother about buying a lowland bull. They were so big and beautiful we thought, black and white and big. Mother said no time after time, because, she said "they are not suitable up here" [in the north], but in the end she bought one just to prove me wrong. It didn't take more than one day before he sunk into the mire. Then we had to keep him chained in the stable the entire summer. It is the mountain cow that knows how to walk, where to walk. Just like the North Swedish horse [a traditional horse breed]. They smell the mire and then they know how deep it is, and walk around it if needed. [author's translation and notes]

Several farmers described how mountain cattle and red cattle have advanced systems of knowing when and how to find feed and where to walk safely, skills that appear mystifying even to farmers. Others highlight their high-quality meat and milk. Their meat is said to be tastier and leaner, as the cows are fit and sturdy. Their milk is said to be of better quality and have a fuller and deeper taste thanks to the rich variety of fodder that the cows eat, resulting in cheese that tastes different every time. For these reasons, a number of farmers practising forest pasturing are active members of associations meant to strengthen and protect traditional breeds and which in various ways aim to affect policymaking within this field.

Traditional breed politics today

As in other areas, the view on traditional breeds has been reversed when it comes to agricultural subsidies. Today, there is a specific EU subsidy for farmers keeping traditional breeds, paid out per head for individual animals with the right genealogy ( SJVFS 2011 ). Mountain cattle ( fjällko ) and red cattle ( rödkulla ) are both eligible for this subsidy. For mountain cattle and red cattle to be considered pure breeds, their father and grandfather on the mother's side must both be considered 87.5% pure and their mother 80% pure ( SJVFS 2011 ). This might seem easy enough, but genetic purity in cows has become a heated issue as the deliberate breeding plans initiated in the late 1800s altered mountain cattle to such an extent that some people argue that they should not be considered an authentic traditional breed any more.

This has caused a division in the Swedish Mountain Cattle Breeding Association, with some members having chosen to leave the association and form a new one dedicated to breeding an 'unrefined' version of mountain cattle initially based on three bulls located at remote smallholdings in northern Sweden. Currently, there are around 200 cattle that belong to the unrefined version of Swedish Mountain Cattle ( fjällnära ko ), while the number of generic mountain cattle has reached 4,000 individuals ( Föreningen för Äldre Svensk Boskap 2008 ). So far, there are no specific agricultural subsidies available for the unrefined version of mountain cattle. However, the accounts of farmers on the qualities of traditional breeds and their rationale for keeping them have not affected policymaking or attitudes among authorities to any great extent. Apart from the EU subsidy for keeping traditional breeds, there are no other politically stimulated incentives to keep them.

On the contrary, there are indications that the authorities maintain a negative take on traditional breeds when it comes to their use in producing agricultural goods, while encouraging mountain cattle to be used as an instrument for cultural heritage production. One example is provided in the magazine Fjällkon (2011) distributed by the Swedish Mountain Cattle Breeding Association to its members; a disappointed farmer tells the story of how he wanted to start up a new dairy farm with a herd of mountain cattle. When he applied for investment support, another EU-funded measure, he was allegedly told by the county board in his region that the idea of keeping mountain cattle for milk production was absurd as he could never develop that into a profitable business. He was advised instead to keep mountain cattle for meat production and to obtain the EU grazing subsidy.

Grazing subsidy versus predator policies

Current predator policies provide a good case for discussing which biodiversity matters and how natural heritage is defined in contemporary policymaking. Summer farms are supported by the Swedish Board of Agriculture through EU subsidies, as the grazing regimes employed result in a species-rich flora and high nature values in the forest. Most farmers interviewed in the present study claim it is possible, although certainly not unproblematic, to combine free-range forest grazing with brown bears ( Ursus arctos , hereafter referred to as bears) resident within the grazing area. However, all the farmers I talked to claim it is impossible to combine free-range forest grazing with wolves (C anis lupus ) also resident in the grazing area, for various reasons. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency is protecting and managing the number of wolves present in each Swedish county. Wolves are said to be native to the Swedish fauna and as such they make up a natural heritage ( Herlitz and Peterson 2011 ). Wolves make an important symbol of the wilderness associated with northern Sweden (ibid.), while grazing subsidies represent the common perception among ecologists today that semi-natural pastures hold the greatest biodiversity. Both the Swedish Board of Agriculture and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency have decentralised part of their decision making to the regional county boards, which are now experiencing difficulty in effectively implementing conflicting policies. The historical background to the heated public debate on predator policies in Sweden is described briefly below.

The return of wolves

Predators are not evenly spread in Sweden but are concentrated to central and northern Sweden, overlapping precisely with the area where traditional farming with forest pasturing is practised by some 250 farmers as of 2010 (Figure 2 ). Bears have remained a part of the Swedish fauna all through the twentieth century, even though their numbers have fluctuated, but wolves have slowly re-established since the 1970s, following a period of near extinction. Predator encounters are much more common in traditional farming with forest pasturing than in conventional farming. Around 18% of all predator attacks in 2009 occurred on forest pasturing ( Viltskadecenter 2009 ), while farms practising forest pasturing make up around 0.0035% of Sweden's 72,000 farms ( Jordbruksverket 2011 ). The total number of predator attacks on domestic animals in 2009 was 687, 493 by wolves and 99 by bears ( Viltskadecenter 2009 ). As the wolf population in Sweden was an estimated 186 to 215 individuals in 2010 ( Wabakken et al. 2010 ) compared with a bear population of an estimated 3,221 in 2008 ( Kindberg et al. 2009 ), it is clear that wolves cause more problems to farmers both in total numbers and in relative numbers.

Up until 2007, it was forbidden to shoot wolves, a regulation which was heavily criticised by Swedish farmers (not only those using summer farms) wishing to defend their animals. This resulted in a policy change in 2007 that legalised shooting wolves during an ongoing attack on domesticated animals or humans. However, at summer farms many attacks on animals take place in the forest while grazing and furthermore, many of the farmers I interviewed do not own a gun and derive no benefit from this law. Farmers do have the right to file a complaint to the county board requesting for a particular wolf to be shot as a protective measure, called 'protective hunting' ( skyddsjakt ). The county boards are generally very restrictive on using this possibility of controlling predator damage and there were accusations by the farmers interviewed here that the county board stalls the decision until the grazing season is over. When the animals are taken back from forest pasturing to their main farmstead, the application for protective hunting is automatically denied, since the attacked animals are no longer in the area where the attack took place.

In 2010 and 2011, licensed wolf hunts ( licensjakt ) have been organised. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency set a fixed number of animals to be shot (27 individuals in 2010 and 20 individuals in 2011) and divided these shooting rights between different counties. The reason for issuing a licence for wolf hunting was officially that the wolf population was estimated to exceed the limit, set to 210 individuals. However, the government also wanted to increase the support for wolf policies among rural citizens, so keeping their numbers under control was intended to decrease the risk of wolf damage in rural areas ( Regeringskansliet 2009 , DN 28/3 2011) The licenced wolf hunts caused major reactions among hunting groups and various lobby groups, which demanded that the wolf population be reduced or expanded, respectively. Currently, the Swedish licenced wolf hunts are under investigation in the European Commission (SVT 15/1 2010; DN 16/6 2011)

Farmers taking on a political feud

Policymaking concerning predators is one of the main issues that the Swedish Transhumance and Pastoralist Association and regional summer farm associations are trying to influence. In 2010, during a meeting attended by the author, the Swedish Transhumance and Pastoralist Association established an internal predator policy stating that the association is not categorically negative to the existence of predators in Sweden, but that they should not be allowed to be resident in areas where summer farms are in use. Another standpoint made clear is that the Association is opposed to licensed wolf hunts such as those organised in 2010 and 2011 and wants to see a more liberal approach in allowing protective hunts instead. Their reason for arguing that protective hunts are more efficient is that licensed wolf hunts do not tackle individual wolves that have proven to cause problems. Furthermore, the hunt itself is not organised in a way that scares wolves away from settled areas. Protective hunts are in fact seen as the main instrument available to prevent predator-related conflicts by the Swedish Transhumance and Pastoralist Association, as is made clear in a statement to the Environmental Protection Agency ( Föreningen Sveriges Fäbodbrukare 2011 ). A number of recommendations have been made by the county boards and other agencies to prevent predator attacks, but all of these have focused on fencing the grazing animals in, which in effect means that free-range forest grazing is not compatible with these measures.

When a farm animal is killed by a predator, the Swedish authorities provide a set sum of compensation for the value of the animal. However, the greatest costs caused by predators to farms practising forest pasturing are not animals killed, but changes in animal behaviour, which farmers claim as threat to the basis of their farming practices. These include animals not returning home at night, decreasing milk production and occasionally, although more frequently in sheep than cows, spontaneous abortion or infertility during the following insemination season. All these effects are said to be the result of stress but are inherently difficult to account for. In most cases, farmers notice that predators have come close to their cattle when they find their herd has scattered. This is usually not noticed until it is time for the cattle to come home to their stalls in the evening and they fail to do so. Cattle can also hurt themselves as they flee from predators, even when they are fenced in, as they run straight through the fence. After being collected and put back in their stalls they can become unmanageable or prove to be less trustworthy during daily routines such as milking or being sent out to graze in the forest. In one such case when cows showed increasing aggression after having been in contact with bears, a local official recommended that the cows be put down, as they had become afraid of predators. The farmer was also recommended to place bear skins in the stall to get the animals used to their smell, supposedly making them less afraid. The farmer told me that he did not agree with this advice, as he thought that, if anything, cows with an instinct to flee predators would have a better chance of surviving predator attacks, but complied anyway as he was worried that not complying would damage his relationship with the authorities.

The farmers and farmers' associations affected have held a number of meetings among themselves and with relevant authorities and other sector organisations in an attempt to reach a solution to these problems. It is a commonly held view among farmers that forest pasturing is difficult or impossible to pursue in areas where predators are present, especially wolves. Sami people using forested areas for free-range reindeer pasture share this opinion, but have been more successful in their negotiations with the Swedish government. An agreement has been reached whereby reindeer pasture areas are to be kept free from resident wolves. Wolves that show signs of becoming resident within reindeer pasture areas are thus moved or shot with the permission of the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency ( Regeringskansliet 2009 ). Farmers practising forest pasturing for cattle often argue that they should be granted the same right, which is also the policy of the Swedish Transhumance and Pastoralist Association.

As mentioned above, farmers view bears as being less problematic than wolves. This is mainly because not all bear individuals cause problems. One example was given by a farmer who told me how a bear sow has lived for years within her forest pasturing area without ever causing any problems. Every year the farmer fears that what she calls 'her' bear will be shot in the annual bear hunt (unlike wolf hunts, licences for bear hunts are issued yearly as their numbers are not considered to be threatened), and that a new, more aggressive bear will settle in her territory instead. Other farmers have had major problems with frequent bear attacks, especially but not exclusively on sheep, and are more negative about the possibility of combining free-range pasturing with bear presence.

Heritage policies walking the tightrope

One way of tackling the predator-grazing conflict is to downplay the importance for biodiversity of forest grazing at summer farms, and to focus instead on the importance of the practice for tourism and cultural heritage. In changes made to the Rural Development Programme 2007 to 2013, what used to be a set sum (7,000 SEK) per livestock unit and year was replaced by a fixed sum (18,000 SEK) paid out for 'summer farms in use', complemented by a halved sum per livestock unit (3,500 SEK; Statens Jordbruksverk 2007 ). No official justification has been offered by the Swedish Board of Agriculture as to why the subsidy has been modified, which has caused the farmers' associations to draw their own conclusions. At the very first meeting between farmers and a county board that I attended as an observer when I started my fieldwork on 2 December 2009, I was puzzled by a question from a farmer to the officers about whether they seriously thought that the forest had been overgrazed as a result of farmers having put as many livestock units as possible on forest pastures, with minimal surveillance, simply to maximise their profits from EU subsidies. According to the farmer, who was a representative of one of the farmers' associations, this had been a written justification in an early draft of the new Rural Development Programme but was deleted in later drafts. A heated discussion arose where the county board officials generally agreed that there had been no cases of overgrazing, although there had been tendencies for 'ranching' rather than traditional summer farming in some cases. It is thus apparent that using a summer farm and practising forest pasturing and obtaining subsidies for this activity involves agreeing to keep the practices at a minimum level of authenticity - although it is not spelled out exactly what this entails.

There have been a number of fears on how the forest grazing subsidy could be misused, that could be of some guidance in understanding the struggle for authenticity at play here. One example is that the Board of Agriculture has specified that horses can be used to fulfil the minimum grazing pressure, which is 0.2 livestock unit per hectare of grazing land ( SJVFS 2011 ). However, horses can only be kept if the farmer keeps a minimum of 1.5 livestock units of cows, sheep or goats. These might seem irrelevant details, but the fact that the terms of the subsidy are so rigorous tells us something about what is considered traditional, but also how problematic it is in national policymaking to define what is traditional. The reason for not allowing summer farms to only keep horses must be considered in relation to the fact that horses are associated with a middle class peri-urban lifestyle. Narratives that dominate media representations speak of resourceful middle class urbanites buying up former smallholdings to keep horses for leisure, not production. Thus what rural areas might gain in gentrification they lose in local prospective farmers being pushed out of the market due to increasing real estate prices. Horse farms stand out not only as competitors for land but also as threats to traditional farmers and the romanticised asceticism associated with summer farms, which (ideally) lack all comforts such as electricity, running water and means of transportation. Put differently, one could say that horse farms are associated with rurality as a scene of middle class consumption ( Marsden 1999 ), rather than a place of agricultural production. Smallholdings taking their animals to summer farms find themselves between these two depictions of rural areas as a place of consumption or a place of production. There are also two competing views on the summer farm: either as a tourist resort with quality cheeses and recreational experiences, or as a place with high nature values in terms of biodiversity in semi-natural pastures and hence a place producing biological values through grazing.

In effect, the changes made to the Rural Development Programme of 2007 to 2013 mean that the subsidy has been decreased for all farmers keeping more than five cattle and can thus be seen as an incentive to increase the number of summer farms in use, while decreasing the number of animals grazing on each summer farm. There are strict rules on how many days the area affected by subsidies should be grazed and rules to ensure that farmers do not obtain several subsidies for 'summer farm in use' while grazing the same livestock at different places. This change in compensation rationale favouring many summer farms that are small in terms of livestock units could be seen as way of devaluing the heritage produced by summer farms when it comes to biodiversity, but emphasising their value when it comes to cultural heritage such as keeping traditional breeds and producing tourist experiences. That would make summer farms less of a problem in the complicated predator versus semi-natural pastureland biodiversity issue. However, farmers are generally not positive to being portrayed mainly as tourist attractions:

We have had an overwhelming number of visitors during the summer. I run a summer farm that has been a tourist attraction for more than a hundred years. Some days we have up to 200 visitors. It is difficult to count them, not all of them approach us to buy something or have a cup of coffee, some just walk around and take a look at the place. It is challenging to make it profitable to entertain tourists. I don't want people to just stand around looking at me while I'm using the outhouse. [author's translation]

These words were spoken by a farmer to the county board officers at the information meeting referred to above. The meeting was convened by the regional county board in order to inform farmers about the changes in EU subsidies for summer farms. Around 30 to 40 farmers participated in the meeting. This particular farmer was critical of the county board's view that tourism can be the main income for farmers. This shift in view of farms producing agricultural goods to instead producing heritage values is certainly problematic not only for policymakers, but also for farmers who find their new role discomforting.

Conclusions

In spite of rigorous and generally highly successful policies intended to rationalise agriculture, a number of farmers have still chosen to uphold what are now referred to as 'traditional' systems, as industrialised, large-scale units have become the new standard. Traditional farming is characterised by using 'traditional' breeds and 'traditional' feed for animals, which in central and northern Sweden is forest pastures. The identification of heritage values and of what is considered 'traditional' in these farming systems is made by external parties, not the farmers, whose view of a summer farm or cattle breeds is not necessarily the same as that imposed on them by the authorities. Generally, while farmers tend to define what traditional is in farming as continuity in farming practices, authorities tend to focus on what is non-traditional. The actual practices of farmers when creating the summer farm landscape seemingly play a minor role in the value judgements assigned to it by the authorities. The example of pedigree versus traditional breed policies shows that authorities have given conflicting advice and signals to farmers over the years as the considered 'real value' of traditional breeds have changed from being an animal that optimised for its environment to a breed that represents cultural heritage. For farmers, however, traditional breeds remain an animal optimised for production in its environment. The example of grazing subsidies versus predator policies shows that different sector interests produce conflicting outcomes even when played out at one particular time. While predators co-existing with a touristic summer farm with few grazing livestock is not necessarily a source of conflict, the summer farm that maximises biodiversity through keeping a larger number of grazing livestock is. The 'real values' of biodiversity in summer farms versus touristic values in summer farms is thus proven to be conflicting and negotiable. These cases show that it is certainly not an easy task to judge what cultural or natural heritage is or, even less so, should be.

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Acknowledgements

The fieldwork carried out for my ongoing PhD project was funded by the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU). Some fieldwork activities were funded by scholarships from the Swedish Society for Anthropology and Geography (SSAG) and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (KVA). SLU, SSAG and KVA played no role in the design, collection, analysis or writing of the manuscript.

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Eriksson, C. What is traditional pastoral farming? The politics of heritage and 'real values' in Swedish summer farms ( fäbodbruk ). Pastoralism 1 , 25 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1186/2041-7136-1-25

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The Development of Agriculture

The development of agricultural about 12,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming.

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The Farming Revolution Taking root around 12,000 years ago, agriculture triggered such a change in society and the way in which people lived that its development has been dubbed the “ Neolithic Revolution.” Traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles, followed by humans since their evolution, were swept aside in favor of permanent settlements and a reliable food supply. Out of agriculture, cities and civilizations grew, and because crops and animals could now be farmed to meet demand, the global population rocketed—from some five million people 10,000 years ago, to eight billion today.

There was no single factor, or combination of factors, that led people to take up farming in different parts of the world. In the Near East , for example, it’s thought that climatic changes at the end of the last ice age brought seasonal conditions that favored annual plants like wild cereals . Elsewhere, such as in East Asia, increased pressure on natural food resources may have forced people to find homegrown solutions. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age.

Plant Domestication

The wild progenitors of crops including wheat ( Triticum aestivum ), barley ( Hordeum vulgare ), and peas ( Lathyrus oleraceus ) are traced to the Near East region. Cereals were grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago, while figs ( Ficus carica ) were cultivated even earlier; prehistoric seedless fruits discovered in the Jordan Valley suggest fig trees were being planted some 11,300 years ago. Though the transition from wild harvesting was gradual, the switch from a nomadic to a settled way of life is marked by the appearance of early Neolithic villages with homes equipped with grinding stones for processing grain.

The origins of rice and millet farming date to the same Neolithic period in China. The world’s oldest known rice paddy fields, discovered in eastern China in 2007, reveal evidence of ancient cultivation techniques such as flood and fire control.

In Mexico, squash cultivation began around 10,000 years ago, but corn ( maize ) had to wait for natural genetic mutations to be selected for in its wild ancestor, teosinte. While maize -like plants derived from teosinte appear to have been cultivated at least 9,000 years ago, the first directly dated corn cob dates only to around 5,500 years ago.

Corn later reached North America, where cultivated sunflowers ( Helianthus annuus ) also started to bloom some 5,000 years ago. This is also when potato ( Solanum tuberosum ) growing in the Andes region of South America began.

Farmed Animals

Cattle ( Bos taurus ), goats ( Capra hircus ), sheep ( Ovis aries ), and pigs ( Sus domesticus ) all have their origins as farmed animals in the so-called Fertile Crescent , a region covering eastern Turkey, Iraq, and southwestern Iran. This region kick-started the Neolithic Revolution. Dates for the domestication of these animals range from between 13,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Genetic studies show that goats and other livestock accompanied the westward spread of agriculture into Europe, helping to revolutionize Stone Age society. While the extent to which farmers themselves migrated west remains a subject of debate, the dramatic impact of dairy farming on Europeans is clearly stamped in their DNA. Prior to the arrival of domestic cattle in Europe, prehistoric populations weren’t able to stomach raw cow milk. But at some point during the spread of farming into southeastern Europe, a mutation occurred for lactose tolerance that increased in frequency through natural selection thanks to the nourishing benefits of milk. Judging from the prevalence of the milk-drinking gene in Europeans today—as high as 90 percent in populations of northern countries such as Sweden—the vast majority are descended from cow herders.

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The Benefits of Traditional Farming

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There has been a long argument surrounding the concept of where your meat comes from and how it has been reared. With many of us not giving it a second thought when we choose our beef or chicken off the supermarket shelf, it’s an issue that not everyone will have considered before. With that in mind, do you know where your meat has come from? Do you know if it’s been carefully reared and looked after, or has it been subjected to factory farming?

It can be incredibly important to understand the source of your food, as it can have an effect on the quality of the meat as well as how good it is for you. The Good Grub People give an insight into what farming methods you should be looking out for, and what impact they can have on your food.

Intensive v extensive farming

Farming can fall into two categories, known as intensive and extensive. Intensive farming is associated with indoor farming, focusing on high yields and accelerated growth in order to raise a huge number of stock. The stock is reared in a confined and controlled space, which isn’t conducive to good health for the animals.

In an intensive farming environment, there is regular intervention required to prevent disease amongst the stock, and the animals are often given a cocktail of medicines to keep diseases at bay.

To create an unnatural fast rate of growth, intensive farming can include the use of drugs and additive-laced feed that you wouldn’t normally find in an animal’s diet. Intensive farming can also incite a high mortality rate and abnormal behaviour amongst the animals.

Extensive farming on the other hand, often known as outdoor or natural farming, is a much simpler and easier way to produce stock. It’s a stark contrast from intensive farming which can seem incredibly unnatural and forced. What’s so great about traditional farming?

When it comes to traditional farming, or extensive farming as it is often known, the concept is much easier to grasp. The animals are left to do exactly what they want; roam around, graze at their leisure and live life as nature intended.

Farming through this method doesn’t require the use of chemicals or pesticides, so the fields remain a high quality and the soil maintains its correct pH balance. In other words, extensive or traditional farming has very little negative impact on the environment.

This can be incredibly important if you’re conscious of where your food comes from, as you can rest assured that animal welfare has been a priority. Raising stock on a natural diet in a large field, instead of penned in, traditional farming allows a more mindful way of eating meat.

What’s more, buying meat that has been reared this way can also provide health benefits. The meat will naturally have higher levels of vitamins, minerals and Omega3s. This is because the animals have been reared properly and have been able to live a natural life.

So, if you’re not already thinking about where your meat comes from, now might be the time!

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From the Good Earth: A Photo Essay of Traditional Agriculture Around the World

Bioneers | Published: August 13, 2024 Food and Farming Article

In the 1980s, on a quest to understand the regionally-adapted ways in which traditional agriculture is able to feed people while tending the health of the land, Michael Ableman set out,  on a journey to photograph agrarian cultures around the world to learn the “ valuable information [they had] for modern destructive society.”  Michael was accompanied, on part of the journey (to the  Russian Far East and Mongolia) by legendary environmentalist David Brower who was a key supporter of the project. A master photographer and author of four books on the relationships between food, land, people and culture, Michael is, most of all, a great farmer who considers himself, even after almost 50 years of farming, “a beginner.” In this photo essay, Michael reflects back on that journey and some of the photographs that appeared in his first book   From The Good Earth, A  Celebration of Growing Food Around the World.

Michael Ableman currently operates  Sole Food Street Farm  as well as the large, highly-diverse, rural  Foxglove Farm  in British Columbia. 

All photos are copyrighted and cannot be distributed, reproduced, or reused in any way without the explicit permission of the photographer (Michael Ableman).

Photos are from these books authored by Michael Ableman: Fields of Plenty: A Farmer’s Journey in Search of Real Food and the People Who Grow It, From the Good Earth: A Celebration of Growing Food Around the World, and Street Farm: Growing Food, Jobs, and Hope on the Urban Frontier.

 This article is a transcribed, edited excerpt of a conversation with Michael Ableman

MICHAEL ABLEMAN: By the early 1980s, I had already been farming for a while, and I was interested in understanding more about this 7,000-year tradition I’d stepped into, considering myself, as I still do today after 44 years, a beginner. I was interested in what the lineage is and whose shoulders I’m standing on. At the same time, I was fascinated with the idea of hiking in the Himalayas, the highest mountain range in the world.

On the way there, I stopped to see a friend who was living and working in China and ended up in the city of Xindu. In those days, there weren’t a lot of foreign visitors in China and visiting rural areas was not something that was encouraged, but I was curious, so I walked for hours on the outskirts of the city on a path that led up a hill, and what I saw was remarkable. There was a vast network of fields being farmed by multigenerational families—kids with their parents and grandparents and, in some cases, even their great grandparents. Those fields had been farmed the same way, over and over, for thousands of years, and yet still appeared fertile and productive without the use of industrial methods. The thought struck me: “How is it possible? There were places near where I was farming in California where the land had been made useless after just a single decade.” I thought it was incredible, and I began photographing feverishly.

This image exemplifies the ability the Chinese had, at that time (1983), to feed a billion people on only 11% of their land base using the techniques that had been passed down since the Han dynasty. It is a highly intensive system. When I returned home from that journey, I was on fire with curiosity. I was young and fearless at that point of my life (neither of which I am now). I was intensely curious, and I was completely amazed and fascinated at the possibility that the profession I had chosen had a deep-rooted, vast, indigenous knowledge and history. I wanted to learn from it, and I wanted to understand how the work I was doing related to these other cultures that had been doing it for thousands of years.

But it wasn’t some sort of romantic quest for a mythic golden age; I wasn’t that stupid. I knew that the places, people and situations that I was looking at were also fraught with challenges and problems. It was more of an intense desire to learn and to record what I was seeing. I spent another winter in China because it was the oldest traditional agriculture in the world. I thought there was no better place to start exploring.

This two-acre onion field was being watered by hand. It was fascinating–like watching a well-choreographed dance. The equipment, which seems so rudimentary, is really well made, and the process is extremely balanced. The man was using both containers at the same time. I watched the entire thing and what was really profound is that two men using watering buckets could irrigate a two-acre field in about two hours without a word spoken. They both were in their 70s and had enormous physical strength, but what I saw was less about physical exertion and more about careful planning and balance. There was a great calm about the whole experience. It was a beautiful, silent dance.

I spent the entire next winter in the Andes in terraced fields built by the Incas that were so steep that farmers were known to fall out of them.

Capturing this image was a three-day process in order to get the lighting right. It gave me a lot of respect for Ansel Adams who would sit and wait for days just to make one frame.

I also traveled to East and Central Africa to try to catch a glimpse of the remnants of the few traditionally agrarian tribes that were still there. Pastoralists were dominant in those regions, but there were some really interesting examples of agrarian people making their own tools and doing some pretty cool stuff.

This photo was taken in the mountains of Burundi at the market in a little town called Ijenda where I lived for a while. The sorghum that the women are working with is made into a slightly fermented drink that’s sipped communally out of a common gourd with straws cut from a local tree. At the time, it was a very popular drink, but you would never see somebody sitting at home alone drinking it. It was a communal and social experience.

There’s an energy to this image of the women, a kind of excitement and enthusiasm around what’s happening. It’s a swirl of color and energy.

There was, at times, a tendency for me to romanticize the experiences I was having with the people I was visiting and sometimes to project my own ideas onto what I was seeing, feeling and experiencing as I was photographing them, but I had to keep all that in check.

People are basically just trying to survive, but the simplicity of some of those farming systems and the long history of those people on the land hold valuable information for modern destructive society.

The Moroccan markets are just incredible. I love the visual perspective of the passing of feet, the colorful clothing, the robes that people were wearing, and the vendor on the ground selling citrus and other items.

After Africa, I went to Southern Europe to Sicily and other places where I could photograph remnants of the traditional agriculture of that region.

In this image of an Italian olive merchant, you can see the diversity of olive varieties. There is also a diversity in the ways that olives were prepared, which is an almost lost art, but one that is coming back.

Traveling in Italy, I saw olive and carob trees that were four to five thousand years old growing wrapped around each other. The planting together was intentional because the carob is a legume that fixes nitrogen and feeds the olive tree.

Those ancient, long-term perennial systems are some of the most interesting to me because I’ve always believed that the fundamental structure of a farm has to be the perennial. The perennials have to be the anchor on the farm on many different levels—holding soil, creating habitat, reducing the churning of the ground, providing shade, etc. The folks in Italy know so much about all of that, as well as the importance of having a lot of diversity in their cultivars.

This image is from the Russian far east near Ulan-Ude in East Siberia. It’s so emblematic of the time: the style of dress, the soldiers and the seriousness with which people reflect on their cabbages.

David Brower had invited me to go to the Russian far east to Baikal the year I turned 40 (27 years ago). He had just turned 80. David had a longtime interest in Lake Baikal in Siberia because it is the oldest, deepest and largest body of freshwater on the planet with species that don’t exist anywhere else. David felt that it was one of the planet’s critical ecological cornerstones that needed to be preserved.

It was an extremely hard trip—long flights followed by long train trips. Transportation was not terribly functional. Food was not good; in fact, it was awful. When we eventually got to Ulan-Ude on Lake Baikal, David said to me, “Michael, I want to go to the Mongolian side of Baikal.”

So, we went down to the Mongolian consulate in Ulan-Ude and they said, “You’ve got to be kidding. You should have started six months ago to get that visa; there’s no possibility.” David had written two autobiographies, and he had one of them with him; I asked him to give it to me. There’s a page in that book with him and the Dalai Lama arm-in-arm with big smiles, so I opened it up to that page and I slid it on the table over to the consular agent. Then things happened fast. We got the visas right away. The agent even phoned and got us a ride in an ambulance. It was a hellish trip, super hard but super interesting.

The ambulance could only take us so far, so we took a train to Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia. As we were standing on the train platform, a drunk guy came right up to my face and out of the blue for no reason punched me as hard as he could in the stomach and put me out onto the ground.

After that, I decided to take a taxi to the marketplace, which is miles up above the city. I began photographing what was quite an incredible scene, but I didn’t realize that I shouldn’t have been there. A gang of young people chased me and pelted me with rocks; I barely got the hell out of there.

I began to realize that photographing those different cultures could be interpreted as appropriation of ideas, information and images that I could never really understand because I wasn’t from those places, and that would be a reasonable criticism. I questioned myself. I heard about people in various parts of the world who thought that taking their photographs was akin to stealing their spirits.  Some Western people would laugh at that idea, but I began to believe that there may be some truth to it. Was I stealing the spirits of the people that I was photographing?

But I felt what I was doing was fundamentally different. I was not a journalist or photojournalist. I didn’t step out of my office at The New York Times and fly off to some remote place. My daily work for most of the year was using my hands to grow food for my own community. Everywhere I went, I carried in my back pocket a little booklet of photographs of my farm and of me out in my fields. I thought that was critical because I shared a connection to the land and a shared interest in farming with the people I was taking photos of. Mind you, some people were farming from pure personal survival perspectives, some were farming to feed more than themselves. I was farming for both reasons, to feed my family and as a livelihood.

But the common thread was farming; that was a bridge. I’m sure I made mistakes, but I feel like that gave me a valid reason to be doing what I was doing. Often, when people see the portraits I made of other farmers, they comment that in many of the photos the farmers are looking into the camera, and you can see that there was a relationship there. Those images could not have been made without some connection. When I say relationship, I don’t mean that I was living with them or that I spent weeks there, but there was some sort of commonality established before the camera got pulled out. 

I never made a photograph of anyone without first developing even just the briefest of relationships. David Brower, who was involved in this project from its inception, said at a public event, “Notice how people in Michael’s photographs are connecting to the person behind the camera.”

There’s a sister image to this, which is of our friend Caroline, a Hopi elder, whom we spent a lot of years with at Hotevilla-Bacavi on Third Mesa in Arizona. Why would I be mentioning her in the context of this Karen tribesman? At the entrance of Hotevilla, there were hand-painted signs saying “no photographing, no drawing, no recording, no filming.” I was always very respectful of that, but in time Caroline gave me the permission to take some photographs of her, also winnowing beans. She had an amazing collection of bean seeds. When the time came for the book to be published, I knew there was no way I could use an image of her without her explicit permission.

So, I showed her a series of different images, and she said, you can use one of them if it’s next to the one of the Karen people winnowing beans. She understood acutely that there was a relationship that existed between Indigenous people all over the world, and she wanted to be thought of in relationship to that.

I took this photo in Todos Santos in the mountains of Guatemala, a little village where we spent a month living with a local family. This is a man on his way to the market outside an old church to sell his wares. The entire village, at that time, was made up of widowed mothers, children and old people. Inside the church where the market was held, the walls were riddled with bullet holes because all of the young men of that village were herded into the church during the civil war and murdered there.

This picture was taken looking south. Directly to my back, to the north, would have been Trump’s steel wall. We guard the borders and build fences and walls to keep out the very people whose hands are doing all the work to grow our food. We’re talking about people who risk their lives to make that journey. The craziest damn stories: being put in a refrigerated truck for hours and hours, stuffed into trunks of cars, all kinds of crazy shit to do the work in service industries, restaurants, factories and farms, that most Americans will no longer do. It’s an absurd situation, and it’s heartbreaking to see what people have to go through to survive.

Hilario slipped over the border in his late teens as an “illegal” farm worker and eventually became a farm owner employing 100 people with a very successful farming operation. It’s one of those rare but important stories to tell because, historically, people like Hilario are not celebrated for their contributions. He’s an exceptional farmer.

I wrote the book The Good Earth: A Celebration of Growing Food Around the World based on these journeys, but when I completed those incredible international visits recording those traditional cultures, I realized that, in a sense, I had been looking at the remnants of where agriculture has come from. I felt that I should also look at what’s happening now and what we are moving towards in the future, so, I delved into the hardest images that I made, the ones of industrial agriculture in California’s Central Valley, the largest feedlot in the world. I went up in helicopters that spray pesticides and did all sorts of crazy shit just to get striking visual examples of industrial agriculture for people who were unaware of the scale of its impact and devastation. I thought if they could see it, maybe they’d want to do something about it.

This very emblematic image taken after the harvest in a California Central Valley cotton field has been used repeatedly by Patagonia and others to illustrate how incredibly destructive we have been in a very short amount of time to the land which we are inextricably tied to and dependent on. The contrast is stark between this field likely totally depleted in less than a decade and some of the fields I saw in China and Peru that were being farmed continuously for thousands of years and were still fertile and productive.

This is a celery field in the Oxnard Plain in Ventura County being fumigated. You can see the sprayer in the background. I didn’t sneak this photograph. The man is posing. He’s looking at me. I think his stance, his willingness to pose, demonstrates a certain pride. This is not a critique of this person. That’s an important point. He was part of a system. The system and the thinking behind the system are all wrong. And yet, I think there was a certain pride in the power of chemistry, the power of the industrial mindset, the power of the ability to control and manipulate the natural world.

This is the same celery field in Oxnard. That chemical being sprayed directly onto the crop’s leaves and stems enters the plant’s cells and then subsequently enters into our cells when we eat it. I believe that in those days they sprayed every 10 days, so you’ve got to understand that the chemical became fully embedded in the crop.

This farmer is pouring fertilizer into a furrow irrigation ditch. It’s crazy, it’s one of the hottest places in California, and they’re furrow irrigating (flooding the rows between crops). This is not precision farming. The day I was there, it was probably 110 degrees, and probably 80% of that overhead irrigation that you see in the background was evaporating into the atmosphere. So, the whole process makes no sense.

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Traditional agriculture

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Traditional agriculture, the most practised form of agriculture around the world , became commonplace following the two world wars , as it was during that era that knowledge about chemistry greatly increased. Traditional agriculture is based on treating the soil and plants with products that are more likely than not noxious, and more likely than not synthetically produced in a laboratory . These products are used to prevent disease or pests from blighting the plant.

The result is that these products – and the same applies to products used in organic agriculture – find themselves in our food. (Granted, the level is higher in products grown according to traditional agriculture than to organic agriculture . ) It has been proven that these products accumulate in our fatty tissues , and when the level is high enough, the chance of developing an illness, like cancer, is higher .

Jean-Paul Jaud's documentary film Nos enfants nous accuseront (Our Children Will Accuse Us) traces the life of farmers, children and the people who live near to cultivated fields. Today, cancer is an inherence in the life of people who live in the countryside. Why do we let this happen?

One of the biggest problems with traditional agriculture is that it kills off life in the topsoil and subsoil. In order to be worth anything, soil needs microflora (bacteria, fungi and actinobacteria) and microfauna (protozoa, nematodes and arthropods). Use of powerful chemical products that destroy or inhibit harmful fungi or fungal spores (fungicides), that kill or inhibit harmful insects and other pests (insecticides) and that control unwanted vegetation (herbicides) has ultimately contributed to the reduction in microbial life in the soil, to the point that, in order to yield sufficient crops, it is necessary to use very large amounts of fertilisers. This all, in turn, results in near-barren land unable to generate its own organic matter.

Massive erosion is the result of 30 years of no ground cover at this vineyard.

In viticulture, for example, making a wine that expresses its terroir – its sense of place, a reflection of the climate and soil type and location – is thus nonsense, because there is no longer any terroir that can be expressed, not in the grapes on the vine, nor in the finished wine in the glass. Any organic matter present throughout the process came from a factory.

But the pattern continues. The arrival of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) is not a solution, though the giant corporations producing them would have us think otherwise . Insects against which GMOs are supposed to be resistant evolve to become themselves resistant to the anti-insect properties in the GM plants. So, in addition to genetically modified seeds, the farmer must then use products even more toxic than those used previously. The cost, economically and environmentally, of GMOs risks being very high in the near future.

Another very good documentary film, The World According To Monsanto by Marie-Monique Robin , gives a useful overview of what is at stake for huge agricultural corporations in using GMOs.

Furthermore, what is called responsible farming can often be a quick-and-easy strategy that dodges a total commitment to agricultural practices that respect the environment. It's something of an illusion, a deception, a way to profit from marketable keywords and catch phrases. But the fact is that “green” farming methods are more than just marketing – they are something that is necessary, both because of how we have been harming the earth with toxic substances, and for our future. Previously, fertilisers and other chemical treatments were used for no better reason than the fact that they existed. Today, people are starting to think about their overall impact before starting to spray. And it's a good thing!

To conclude, traditional agriculture answers to the economic demands of a capitalist world by making it possible to produce massive amounts of food and feed with minimal physical effort . Tractors, seeds, and synthetic fertilisers and treatments are used immoderately without much thought given to their impact on the soil or on plant biodiversity. Instead, a monoculture is favoured. Yet it is not the agriculturalists with whom we should be upset, but industrial lobbies, the petroleum industry and other such mega-corporations that utilise the earth each day to keep their systems rolling.

Thank's to Magdalena Rahn for the translation of this page.

Others definitions

Organic agriculture

Biodynamic agriculture

Wine The Green Revolution - Documentary Film - Buy the Film

Understand the evolution of the Domain Patrick Hudelot crossed between 2000 and 2012 of the conventional agriculture in the bio-dynamic farming .

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85 Farming Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best farming topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on farming, 💡 most interesting farming topics to write about.

• The Farmers’ Market Analysis For the farmers the benefit lies in the cost saving of the production transportation and in the ability of the wholesale with the large grocery companies.
• Smart Farming and Sustainable Agriculture Smart farming allows for a wide range of options, from robotization and satellite imagery to the Internet of Things and the blockchain technology that increases the efficiency of crop cultivation by optimizing the use of […]
• Natureview Farm: Problem Case It is in this regard that Wagner advised the management to increase the firm’s revenues from $13 million to $20 million before the end of 2001.
• Dairy Meal as an Important Concentrate in Dairy Cow Farming The number of times that the dairy meal is fed to cows depends on the management regime of the cow. The dairy meal is one of the feeds that guarantee better productivity to the farmer.
• Role of Technology in the Future of Farming The role technology has to play in farming in the future needs to be in great as it has been in the transportation sector in the past.
• The Process of Raising Factory Farm Chickens The lives of the chickens that are raised in the factory farm begin at the hatching machines. As such, the welfare of the chickens is secondary to profitability.
• Fish Farming Impacts on the Environment To begin with, according to Abel and Robert, fish farming has been generalized to have adverse effects on the environment, which ranges from the obliteration of the coastal habitats which are sensitive in the environment, […]
• Farm-to-Table Supply Chains for Supermarkets A potential risk is that small farms may be unable to provide a steady supply of the necessary magnitude or adhere to the same standards of quality.
• Fish Farming in the United States In the present day, the potential of the country’s fish farming is substantively limited by national, state, local, or tribal policies and opposition by national and local interest groups. Nevertheless, the supporters’ recent efforts and […]
• Farmer’s Market as a Food Event: Fresh and Straight From the Farm If I were to describe the entire scene an apt description would be to call it a scene of ordered chaos in that despite the sheer amount of people crisscrossing in front of me there […]
• What Kind of Energy Can Be Produced from Corn in Farms Over the years, corn has been used to produce alcohol in the form of ethanol, a major raw material for the production of energy.
• Organic Farming for Sustainable Food Production The article is titled “Will Organic Agriculture Feed the World,” and it provides its readers with an overview of the statistics that apply to the sustainability of organic farming.
• Large-Scale Organic Farming and Food Supply The issue of environmental sustainability comes up due to the emerging ways of farming like the great shift of the farmers to the use of organic methods of farming.
• Rearing of Cattle: Deprecating the Beef Farming It is for this reason that the whole world has to pose as ask the question “What are the causes of global warming?” The answer is simple, climate change and resultant global warming has to […]
• Food and Farming: Urban Farming Benefits the Local Economy Urban farming and foraging play essential roles not only in the lives of communities but in the ecosystems as well. Such responsive attitudes allow people to protect the environment and create more opportunities for local […]
• The Entomo Farms Company’s Analysis Such an approach contributes to improved control over the company’s development and ensures that Entomo can incorporate customers’ feedback for enhancement.
• Decline in the Honeybee Population and Farmers in the United States The analysis of farming in the country shows that the added revenue to crop production because of the pollinators’ activity is about $18 billion. Statistics evidence the topicality of the problem and the necessity to […]
• The Ethics of Farm Animal Biotechnology From an Anthropological Perspective Biotechnology is one of the most important branches of science, the results of which are used in many areas. The use of animals in the context of biotechnology is a daily routine for researchers.
• “The Biggest Little Farm” Movie Critique The film is a documentary and shows the real life and the desire of the husband and wife to create their wonderful farm where they can grow vegetables and fruits, as well as have different […]
• Prices at Farmers Markets vs. Grocery Stores When evaluating the items ordered at grocery retail locations to those acquired at local traders’ marketplaces, it is revealed that the commodities purchased at hypermarkets are more reliable and outstanding in form and structure.
• Smart Farms Hiring People with Disabilities Although Smart Farms is a non-profit organization and benefits from donations, the workers play their role in income generation by working on the farms and sales.
• Marketing of Indoor Farming in the UAE Adding to that, the delivery service, health benefits, and availability of Local Leaves products can be advertised on all social media platforms to help the company get the recognition it needs in a short period […]
• Demand for Indoor Farming Services in the UAE For any business, it is essential to be sure of the readiness of customers to buy the product. The likelihood of buying the service may be defined by the data, indicating the popularity of the […]
• Sunrise Farm’s Research of Its Customers Needs In this regard, the exploratory mixed methods approach was chosen to study the possibilities of diversifying the activities of Sunrise Farm. In particular, a semi-structured approach to the interviews was chosen that is suitable for […]
• Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) and Their Development The process involves the establishment of the limiting factors like site boundary, the maximum number of facilities to be installed, identification of dwellings that rotor blade shadows may affect, and a minimum spacing of the […]
• Cato’s “On Farming”, a Translated Part of Famous Treatise “De Agri Cultura” Review From this point of view, Cato’s recommendations are ideal: the location of the willow tree immediately after the vineyard and the garden is not accidental, since in this passage a scale of the main and […]
• Farm-to-Table Food: Dissemination Portfolio Modern American families try to adhere to the principles of Healthy People 2020 with its promotion of the so-called farm-to-table food and farm-to-school programs.
• Law: Legislation Regarding Marijuana Farming To evaluate the applicability of the proposed marijuana farming bill, the current marihuana production legislation needs to be reviewed, and the changes in social norms regarding criminal behavior are to be analyzed.
• Artificial Intelligence in Drone Technology for Farming Automated drones fitted with spraying features are used in the monitoring of agricultural processes and crops to schedule tasks and expeditiously address the observed issues throughout plant life.
• Problems Facing American Farmer Workers The owners of farms will continue to exploit these people since they are not afraid of any law that is in place and working as it should to protect this group of people.
• Food Processing and Farming Methods Afoakwa, Budu, and Merson note that nutrient loss in canned food depends on the amount of heat that is applied during the pre-treatment step, the type of tin, and the type of nutrients in the […]
• Face Recognition in Farming: The Multi-UAV Framework Indeed, the consumer wants a delicious and quality meat product, and it is known that the absence of stress in the life of an animal directly affects the structure of the meat.
• Using IoT Low-Cost Sensors for Smallholder Farms It is, therefore, essential for the users and IoT systems and devices developers to collectively ensure that the internet and the users of such components are not exposed.
• Artificial Intelligence in Smart Farming Owing to the development of the smart farming concept and precision agriculture, farmers all over the world gained a chance to implement digital tech to their daily operations and utilize AI to support some of […]
• Building a Sky Garden: Vertical Farming System Business Plan It helps farmers to appreciate the benefits of valuing more the depth of land fertility than the size of land holdings.
• United States History in 1864-1900 Years: Industrialization, Urbanization, and the Commercialization of Farming The Western frontier advanced in the years 1864 and 1900 by the establishment of democracy in America, industrialization, urbanization and the commercialization of farming.
• Competitive Market: Farm Income and Costs Connecting the farms in the US to the concept of the perfectly competitive market, the definition and the characteristics of such a market should be outlined.
• Standards for Confining Farm Animals One major concern that has been brought to the attention of animal farmers, in general, is the issue of whether or not it is appropriate to confine all or certain farm animals.
• Linking Small-Scale Farmers to Input-Output Markets Output markets refer to the markets that are used by the farmers or businessmen to market their products while the input market is used by the same group to access products that are to be […]
• Farmers Exchange Bank’s Strategic Human Resources Every employee of the bank is bounded to maintain the secrecy of the customers. This principle of the bank has greatly contributed to the success of the firm and increased the profitability of the business.
• Why the Best Soil in the Province of BC Is Not Used for Farming The opportunity cost for farming is, therefore, lower than the opportunity cost for the warehouses/airports. So you have got no opportunity cost for this because this is the best option for your building and it […]
• Fish Friendly Farming Case FFF viewed farmers as people with a vast amount of knowledge about the land and agricultural practices and those who were interested in supporting their lands fertile and farming productively. The case of FFF and […]
• New Zealand Farming Industry. Organization Theory and Design One of the most critical issues that the Guy fielding farm is facing is the organizational structure of the company. The gathering of 2009 and Macdonald’s fear that he will be left out, heated the […]
• Farming and Regulations in California The American government made multiple attempts to control the flow of immigrants to the county and the degree of their involvement in work in the agricultural industry.
• The Farm Labor Organizing Committee Movement Chapter 3 of the book by Barger, Reza, and Velasquez is dedicated to the history of the Farm Labor Organizing Committee and the movement associated with this labor union and the promotion of immigrant farmworkers’ […]
• Sprouts Farmers Market Company’s Entry to Canada The proportion of older people in Canada is also increasing thanks to improved living standards and access to affordable health care.
• Farmers and Their Role in the American Agriculture The recent changes in the world’s largest countries’ economies can be a good illustration of the exclusive role of agriculture which can enable a state to play an important role in the world.
• Kimango Farms Environmental Factors In 2015, the government established the Tanzania Agriculture Development Bank which is focused on assisting in developing the agricultural sector and assisting in the implementation of policies.
• Kimango Farm Enterprises: Business Plan Cultural values in a country guides business operations as well as it is important to be sensitive and understanding of these norms and attitudes.
• Farmers Views: Should Organic Food Be Promoted From? Organic food is grown and produced using natural methods, and it is believed that such products are safer and more nutritious than conventionally processed ones due to the rejection of the use of any artificial […]
• Kimango Farm Enterprises: Business Analysis of Tanzania The primary motivation and purpose of the company is to grow healthy and organic foods through sustainable farming techniques and to offer the world a piece of Tanzania.
• Impact of Antibiotics on Farm Animals One of the primary reasons for this condition in people is the use of antibiotics in farming. However, the use of antibiotics is associated with the occurrence of antibiotic resistance in people.
• Agriculture and Farming in Abu Dhabi Many researches have been done on soil taxonomy in the UAE, with the invention of a non-absorbent type of soil that was one of the breakthroughs that have greatly influenced agriculture in Abu Dhabi.
• Pre-Industrial Societies and Farming Patricia Crone has created a work where she discusses the trends and elements of pre-industrial societies in the world, particularly those that existed in the West. Farming was a key element in the pre-industrial era […]
• Susan Ferriss: United Farm Workers in “The Fight in the Fields” The focus of the reading is on the identity of Chavez and the evolution of the United Farm Workers, which is also the major event in the book.
• Bernard Matthews’ Farm Marketing Issues Valuable prizes and practical involvement should elicit in the customers the necessity to purchase Bernard Matthews’ products and actively participate in the life of the brand. Nonetheless, the key changes should be performed in the […]
• Farm, Companion, Laboratory Animals in Canada This paper will give facts on four categories of animals kept in Canada; the farm animals, animals used in experiments, animals used as companions to people and those used in entertainment. The category of wild […]
• Farm Security Administration and New York Photo League The disagreement regarding the focus of the Film and Photo league served as the basis for the emergence of The Photo League in 1936.
• Tasty Farms’ Changes and Communication Networks Following all the steps of effective change management models is crucial in ensuring that available resources are properly aligned to meet the objectives of change. Due to the resistance from the employees, the process of […]
• Laying Hens Farm: Peach Farm and Olive Farm In the Peach Farm, the chain feeders are placed at a lower position than the average height of the hens. Therefore, if the perch space is sufficient, as in the Olive Farm, the hens are […]
• Managing Farm Dams to Support Waterbird Breeding The frequent fires and forest clearance in these areas have led to extensive migration of different species of birds. For example, they should take some of the endangered birds and breed them separately in a […]
• Agriculture Improvement: The US Farm Bill Nadine Lehrer, who has been studying the bill, asserts, “The bill was developed in the wake of 1930’s farm crisis to bring farm incomes up to the par with the required minimum incomes”.
• Farming and Ranch Management Considering the varied nature of the job of a Farm or Ranch Manager, the college offers “the Farm and Ranch Management Degree and the Agriculture Management Certificate”.
• Farming Effects on Golden Sun Moth Agriculture has led to the destruction of the natural habitat of the moth. Farming practices have led to the dramatic reduction of the grass needed for the survival of this moth.
• Farmer Definition and Culture The era of information the has led, to the creation of the particular image of success, and mass media created an image of a successful and stylish businessman.
• The Near-Shore Wind Farm Controversy Case The developers and the investors made the decision to persuade the residents to accept their position regarding the importance of the wind turbines.
• Farm Standard Council Case: Cost Allocation Some costs cannot be classified as either fixed or variable costs and yet they have to be allocated somewhere in the process of allocating costs to different cost centers.
• Compensation System of State Farm Insurance With the philosophy, State Farm should provide insurance brands to students and young adults falling in this age gap in order to detach them from other insurance and make them independent.
• Irrigation Systems in Farming Because of the changing climate, and the region landscape, most farmers use irrigation schemes to support their practices of subsistence farming.
• Swidden Agriculture: Shift Farming Although this farming technique has been efficient in the past, it has proved to be unsustainable with the current increase in the global population.
• Small Scale Farm-Household System In general, a farm household system is comprised of the various parameters that govern the operation and sustainability of the system.
• Farming and Animal Consumption In essence, debate on farming methods and animal consumption has been a challenge not only to farmers but also to the society. It is, therefore, necessary to consider that numerous changes would be required to […]
• Large-Scale Shift to Organic Farming to Increase World Food Supply However, the acceptance of non-organic farming as the solution to the world’s food problem is not unanimous and there has emerged a vocal group advocating for the use of organic farming.
• Animal Abuse Research Topics
• Deforestation Research Ideas
• Environment Research Topics
• Industrial Revolution Research Ideas
• Wind Energy Essay Topics
• Technology Essay Ideas
• Wildlife Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food security

• Review Paper
• Published: 18 April 2020
• Volume 5 , pages 253–271, ( 2020 )

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• Sanoj Kumar Patel 1 ,
• Anil Sharma 1 &
• Gopal Shankar Singh 1  

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Sustainability of environment and food production is among the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century. Green revolution, however, achieved the targets of high food productivity, but at the cost of environmental degradation such as water pollution, soil contamination, climate change and biodiversity loss. Feeding the growing population and sustaining the quality of the environment are the two major challenges of Indian agriculture system. Traditional agricultural practices have been an integral part of food production in India since ages. These practices have the potential to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change with spatial and sequential diversity. This review covers three aspects of traditional farming of India: cultivation, biological method of pest management and locally available sustainable practices of crop protection. Double cropping, mixed cropping, crop rotation, agroforestry, use of local varieties and resources with host–pathogen interaction are some of the prominent traditional agricultural practices in India which have to be strengthened in view of the environment and food security. Such practices have a significant role in achieving the sustainability of agriculture by improving nutrition quality. The overall objective of this article is to highlight the potential of these practices for the sustainability of environment and food production.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the Director and Head of Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, BHU, Varanasi, for providing all necessary facilities. Anil Sharma is thankful to University Grants Commission, New Delhi [3615(NET-DEC. 2014)], for the financial support.

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Sanoj Kumar Patel, Anil Sharma & Gopal Shankar Singh

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Patel, S.K., Sharma, A. & Singh, G.S. Traditional agricultural practices in India: an approach for environmental sustainability and food security. Energ. Ecol. Environ. 5 , 253–271 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00158-2

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Received : 01 May 2019

Revised : 20 March 2020

Accepted : 25 March 2020

Published : 18 April 2020

Issue Date : August 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40974-020-00158-2

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