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August 16, 2021

Is it time to get rid of homework? Mental health experts weigh in

by Sara M Moniuszko

The pandemic made the conversation around homework more crucial

'get organized' ahead of back-to-school.

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Health Hazards of Homework

March 18, 2014 | Julie Greicius Pediatrics .

A new study by the Stanford Graduate School of Education and colleagues found that students in high-performing schools who did excessive hours of homework “experienced greater behavioral engagement in school but also more academic stress, physical health problems, and lack of balance in their lives.”

Those health problems ranged from stress, headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems, to psycho-social effects like dropping activities, not seeing friends or family, and not pursuing hobbies they enjoy.

In the Stanford Report story about the research, Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of the  study published in the  Journal of Experimental Education , says, “Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good.”

The study was based on survey data from a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in California communities in which median household income exceeded $90,000. Of the students surveyed, homework volume averaged about 3.1 hours each night.

“It is time to re-evaluate how the school environment is preparing our high school student for today’s workplace,” says Neville Golden, MD , chief of adolescent medicine at Stanford Medicine Children’s Health and a professor at the School of Medicine. “This landmark study shows that excessive homework is counterproductive, leading to sleep deprivation, school stress and other health problems. Parents can best support their children in these demanding academic environments by advocating for them through direct communication with teachers and school administrators about homework load.”

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More than two hours of homework may be counterproductive, research suggests.

A Stanford education researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.   "Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good," wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .   The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students' views on homework.   Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.   Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.   "The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students' advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being," Pope wrote.   Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.   Their study found that too much homework is associated with:   • Greater stress : 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.   • Reductions in health : In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.   • Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits : Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were "not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills," according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.   A balancing act   The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.   Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as "pointless" or "mindless" in order to keep their grades up.   "This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points," said Pope, who is also a co-founder of Challenge Success , a nonprofit organization affiliated with the GSE that conducts research and works with schools and parents to improve students' educational experiences..   Pope said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.   "Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development," wrote Pope.   High-performing paradox   In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. "Young people are spending more time alone," they wrote, "which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities."   Student perspectives   The researchers say that while their open-ended or "self-reporting" methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for "typical adolescent complaining" – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.   The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Clifton B. Parker is a writer at the Stanford News Service .

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Stanford research shows pitfalls of homework

A Stanford researcher found that students in high-achieving communities who spend too much time on homework experience more stress, physical health problems, a lack of balance and even alienation from society. More than two hours of homework a night may be counterproductive, according to the study.

Education scholar Denise Pope has found that too much homework has negative effects on student well-being and behavioral engagement. (Image credit: L.A. Cicero)

A Stanford researcher found that too much homework can negatively affect kids, especially their lives away from school, where family, friends and activities matter.

“Our findings on the effects of homework challenge the traditional assumption that homework is inherently good,” wrote Denise Pope , a senior lecturer at the Stanford Graduate School of Education and a co-author of a study published in the Journal of Experimental Education .

The researchers used survey data to examine perceptions about homework, student well-being and behavioral engagement in a sample of 4,317 students from 10 high-performing high schools in upper-middle-class California communities. Along with the survey data, Pope and her colleagues used open-ended answers to explore the students’ views on homework.

Median household income exceeded $90,000 in these communities, and 93 percent of the students went on to college, either two-year or four-year.

Students in these schools average about 3.1 hours of homework each night.

“The findings address how current homework practices in privileged, high-performing schools sustain students’ advantage in competitive climates yet hinder learning, full engagement and well-being,” Pope wrote.

Pope and her colleagues found that too much homework can diminish its effectiveness and even be counterproductive. They cite prior research indicating that homework benefits plateau at about two hours per night, and that 90 minutes to two and a half hours is optimal for high school.

Their study found that too much homework is associated with:

• Greater stress: 56 percent of the students considered homework a primary source of stress, according to the survey data. Forty-three percent viewed tests as a primary stressor, while 33 percent put the pressure to get good grades in that category. Less than 1 percent of the students said homework was not a stressor.

• Reductions in health: In their open-ended answers, many students said their homework load led to sleep deprivation and other health problems. The researchers asked students whether they experienced health issues such as headaches, exhaustion, sleep deprivation, weight loss and stomach problems.

• Less time for friends, family and extracurricular pursuits: Both the survey data and student responses indicate that spending too much time on homework meant that students were “not meeting their developmental needs or cultivating other critical life skills,” according to the researchers. Students were more likely to drop activities, not see friends or family, and not pursue hobbies they enjoy.

A balancing act

The results offer empirical evidence that many students struggle to find balance between homework, extracurricular activities and social time, the researchers said. Many students felt forced or obligated to choose homework over developing other talents or skills.

Also, there was no relationship between the time spent on homework and how much the student enjoyed it. The research quoted students as saying they often do homework they see as “pointless” or “mindless” in order to keep their grades up.

“This kind of busy work, by its very nature, discourages learning and instead promotes doing homework simply to get points,” Pope said.

She said the research calls into question the value of assigning large amounts of homework in high-performing schools. Homework should not be simply assigned as a routine practice, she said.

“Rather, any homework assigned should have a purpose and benefit, and it should be designed to cultivate learning and development,” wrote Pope.

High-performing paradox

In places where students attend high-performing schools, too much homework can reduce their time to foster skills in the area of personal responsibility, the researchers concluded. “Young people are spending more time alone,” they wrote, “which means less time for family and fewer opportunities to engage in their communities.”

Student perspectives

The researchers say that while their open-ended or “self-reporting” methodology to gauge student concerns about homework may have limitations – some might regard it as an opportunity for “typical adolescent complaining” – it was important to learn firsthand what the students believe.

The paper was co-authored by Mollie Galloway from Lewis and Clark College and Jerusha Conner from Villanova University.

Opinion | Social-Emotional Learning

If we’re serious about student well-being, we must change the systems students learn in, here are five steps high schools can take to support students' mental health., by tim klein and belle liang     oct 14, 2022.

Shutterstock / SvetaZi

Educators and parents started this school year with bated breath. Last year’s stress led to record levels of teacher burnout and mental health challenges for students.

Even before the pandemic, a mental health crisis among high schoolers loomed. According to a survey administered by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in 2019, 37 percent of high school students said they experienced persistent sadness or hopelessness and 19 percent reported suicidality. In response, more than half of all U.S. states mandated that schools have a mental health curriculum or include mental health in their standards .

As mental health professionals and co-authors of a book about the pressure and stress facing high school students, we’ve spent our entire careers supporting students’ mental health. Traditionally, mental health interventions are individualized and they focus on helping students manage and change their behaviors to cope with challenges they’re facing. But while working with schools and colleges across the globe as we conducted research for our book , we realized that most interventions don’t address systemic issues causing mental health problems in the first place.

It’s time we acknowledge that our education systems are directly contributing to the youth mental health crisis. And if we are serious about student well-being, we must change the systems they learn in.

Here are five bold steps that high schools can take to boost mental health.

Limit Homework or Make it Optional

Imagine applying for a job, and the hiring manager informs you that in addition to a full workday in the office, you’ll be assigned three more hours of work every night. Does this sound like a healthy work-life balance? Most adults would consider this expectation ridiculous and unsustainable. Yet, this is the workload most schools place on high school students.

Research shows that excessive homework leads to increased stress, physical health problems and a lack of balance in students' lives. And studies have shown that more than two hours of daily homework can be counterproductive , yet many teachers assign more.

Homework proponents argue that homework improves academic performance. Indeed, a meta-analysis of research on this issue found a correlation between homework and achievement. But correlation isn’t causation. Does homework cause achievement or do high achievers do more homework? While it’s likely that homework completion signals student engagement, which in turn leads to academic achievement, there’s little evidence to suggest that homework itself improves engagement in learning.

Another common argument is that homework helps students develop skills related to problem-solving, time-management and self-direction. But these skills can be explicitly taught during the school day rather than after school.

Limiting homework or moving to an optional homework policy not only supports student well-being, but it can also create a more equitable learning environment. According to the American Psychological Association, students from more affluent families are more likely to have access to resources such as devices, internet, dedicated work space and the support necessary to complete their work successfully—and homework can highlight those inequities .

Whether a school limits homework or makes it optional, it’s critical to remember that more important than the amount of homework assigned, is designing the type of activities that engage students in learning. When students are intrinsically motivated to do their homework, they are more engaged in the work, which in turn is associated with academic achievement.

Cap the Number of APs Students Can Take

Advanced Placement courses give students a taste of college-level work and, in theory, allow them to earn college credits early. Getting good grades on AP exams is associated with higher GPAs in high school and success in college, but the research tends to be correlational rather than causational.

In 2008, a little over 180,000 students took three or more AP exams. By 2018, that number had ballooned to almost 350,000 students .

However, this expansion has come at the expense of student well-being.

Over the years, we’ve heard many students express that they feel pressure to take as many AP classes as possible, which overloads them with work. That’s troubling because studies show that students who take AP classes and exams are twice as likely to report adverse physical and emotional health .

AP courses and exams also raise complex issues of equity. In 2019, two out of three Harvard freshmen reported taking AP Calculus in high school, according to Jeff Selingo, author of “ Who Gets In and Why: A Year Inside College Admissions ,” yet only half of all high schools in the country offer the course. And opportunity gaps exist for advanced coursework such as AP courses and dual enrollment, with inequitable distribution of funding and support impacting which students are enrolling and experiencing success. According to the Center for American Progress, “National data from the Civil Rights Data Collection show that students who are Black, Indigenous, and other non-Black people of color (BIPOC) are not enrolled in AP courses at rates comparable to their white and Asian peers and experience less success when they are—and the analysis for this report finds this to be true even when they attend schools with similar levels of AP course availability.”

Limiting the number of AP courses students take can protect mental health and create a more equitable experience for students.

Eliminate Class Rankings

In a study we conducted about mental health problems among high school girls, we found that a primary driver of stress was their perception of school as a hypercompetitive, zero-sum game where pervasive peer pressure to perform reigns supreme.

Class rankings fuel these cutthroat environments. They send a toxic message to young people: success requires doing better than your peers.

Ranking systems help highly selective colleges decide which students to admit or reject for admission. The purpose of high school is to develop students to their own full potential, rather than causing them to fixate on measuring up to others. Research shows that ranking systems undercut students’ learning and damage social relationships by turning peers into opponents.

Eliminating class rankings sends a powerful message to students that they are more than a number.

Become an Admission Test Objector

COVID-19 ushered in the era of test-optional admissions. De-centering standardized tests in the college application process is unequivocally a good thing. Standardized tests don’t predict student success in college , they only widen the achievement gap between privileged and underprivileged students and damage students' mental health .

Going “test optional” is an excellent first step, but it's not enough.

Even as more colleges have made tests optional, affluent students submit test scores at a higher rate than their lower-income peers and are admitted at higher rates , suggesting that testing still gives them an edge.

High schools must adhere to standardized test mandates, but they don’t have to endorse them. They can become test objectors by publicly proclaiming that these tests hold no inherent value. They can stop teaching to the test and educate parents on why they are doing so. Counseling departments can inform colleges that their school is a test objector so admission teams won’t penalize students.

Of course, students and families will still find ways to wield these tests as a competitive advantage. Over time, the more schools and educators unite to denounce these tests, the less power they will hold over students and families.

Big change starts with small steps.

Stand For What You Value

Critics may argue that such policies might hurt student outcomes. How will colleges evaluate school rigor if we limit AP courses and homework? How will students demonstrate their merits without class rankings and standardized test scores?

The truth is, the best school systems in the world succeed without homework, standardized test scores or an obsession with rigorous courses. And many U.S. schools have found creative and empowering ways to showcase student merit beyond rankings and test scores.

If we aren’t willing to change policies and practices that have been shown to harm students’ well-being, we have to ask ourselves: Do we really value mental health?

Thankfully, it doesn’t have to be an either/or scenario: We can design school systems that help students thrive academically and psychologically.

Belle Liang and Tim Klein are mental health professionals and co-authors of “How To Navigate Life: The New Science of Finding Your Way in School, Career and Life.”

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Infographic: How Does Homework Actually Affect Students?

Homework is an important part of engaging students outside of the classroom. How does homework affect students?

It carries educational benefits for all age groups, including time management and organization. Homework also provides students with the ability to think beyond what is taught in class.

The not-so-good news is these benefits only occur when students are engaged and ready to learn. But, the more homework they get, the less they want to engage.

The Negative Effects on Students

Homework can affect students’ health, social life and grades. The hours logged in class, and the hours logged on schoolwork can lead to students feeling overwhelmed and unmotivated. Navigating the line between developing learning skills and feeling frustrated can be tricky.

Homework is an important part of being successful inside and outside of the classroom, but too much of it can actually have the opposite effect. Students who spend too much time on homework are not always able to meet other needs, like being physically and socially active. Ultimately, the amount of homework a student has can impact a lot more than his or her grades.

Find out how too much homework actually affects students.

How Does Homework Affect Students’ Health?

Homework can affect both students’ physical and mental health. According to a study by Stanford University, 56 per cent of students considered homework a primary source of stress. Too much homework can result in lack of sleep, headaches, exhaustion and weight loss. Excessive homework can also result in poor eating habits, with families choosing fast food as a faster alternative.

How Does Homework Affect Students’ Social Life?

Extracurricular activities and social time gives students a chance to refresh their minds and bodies. But students who have large amounts of homework have less time to spend with their families and friends. This can leave them feeling isolated and without a support system. For older students, balancing homework and part-time work makes it harder to balance school and other tasks. Without time to socialize and relax, students can become increasingly stressed, impacting life at school and at home.

How Does Homework Affect Students’ Grades?

After a full day of learning in class, students can become burnt out if they have too much homework. When this happens, the child may stop completing homework or rely on a parent to assist with homework. As a result, the benefits of homework are lost and grades can start to slip.

Too much homework can also result in less active learning, a type of learning that occurs in context and encourages participation. Active learning promotes the analysis and application of class content in real world settings. Homework does not always provide these opportunities, leading to boredom and a lack of problem-solving skills.

Take a look at how homework affects students and how to help with homework.

How Can Parents Help?

Being an active part of children’s homework routine is a major part of understanding feelings and of be able to provide the needed support. As parents, you can help your child have a stress-free homework experience. Sticking to a clear and organized homework routine helps children develop better homework habits as they get older. This routine also comes in handy when homework becomes more difficult and time-consuming.

Learn more about the current world of homework, and how you can help your child stay engaged.

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When Is Homework Stressful? Its Effects on Students’ Mental Health

Are you wondering when is homework stressful? Well, homework is a vital constituent in keeping students attentive to the course covered in a class. By applying the lessons, students learned in class, they can gain a mastery of the material by reflecting on it in greater detail and applying what they learned through homework. 

However, students get advantages from homework, as it improves soft skills like organisation and time management which are important after high school. However, the additional work usually causes anxiety for both the parents and the child. As their load of homework accumulates, some students may find themselves growing more and more bored.

Students may take assistance online and ask someone to do my online homework . As there are many platforms available for the students such as Chegg, Scholarly Help, and Quizlet offering academic services that can assist students in completing their homework on time. 

Negative impact of homework

There are the following reasons why is homework stressful and leads to depression for students and affect their mental health. As they work hard on their assignments for alarmingly long periods, students’ mental health is repeatedly put at risk. Here are some serious arguments against too much homework.

No uniqueness

Homework should be intended to encourage children to express themselves more creatively. Teachers must assign kids intriguing assignments that highlight their uniqueness. similar to writing an essay on a topic they enjoy.

Moreover, the key is encouraging the child instead of criticizing him for writing a poor essay so that he can express himself more creatively.

Lack of sleep

One of the most prevalent adverse effects of schoolwork is lack of sleep. The average student only gets about 5 hours of sleep per night since they stay up late to complete their homework, even though the body needs at least 7 hours of sleep every day. Lack of sleep has an impact on both mental and physical health.

No pleasure

Students learn more effectively while they are having fun. They typically learn things more quickly when their minds are not clouded by fear. However, the fear factor that most teachers introduce into homework causes kids to turn to unethical means of completing their assignments.

Excessive homework

The lack of coordination between teachers in the existing educational system is a concern. As a result, teachers frequently end up assigning children far more work than they can handle. In such circumstances, children turn to cheat on their schoolwork by either copying their friends’ work or using online resources that assist with homework.

Anxiety level

Homework stress can increase anxiety levels and that could hurt the blood pressure norms in young people . Do you know? Around 3.5% of young people in the USA have high blood pressure. So why is homework stressful for children when homework is meant to be enjoyable and something they look forward to doing? It is simple to reject this claim by asserting that schoolwork is never enjoyable, yet with some careful consideration and preparation, homework may become pleasurable.

No time for personal matters

Students that have an excessive amount of homework miss out on personal time. They can’t get enough enjoyment. There is little time left over for hobbies, interpersonal interaction with colleagues, and other activities. 

However, many students dislike doing their assignments since they don’t have enough time. As they grow to detest it, they can stop learning. In any case, it has a significant negative impact on their mental health.

Children are no different than everyone else in need of a break. Weekends with no homework should be considered by schools so that kids have time to unwind and prepare for the coming week. Without a break, doing homework all week long might be stressful.

How do parents help kids with homework?

Encouraging children’s well-being and health begins with parents being involved in their children’s lives. By taking part in their homework routine, you can see any issues your child may be having and offer them the necessary support.

Set up a routine

Your student will develop and maintain good study habits if you have a clear and organized homework regimen. If there is still a lot of schoolwork to finish, try putting a time limit. Students must obtain regular, good sleep every single night.

Observe carefully

The student is ultimately responsible for their homework. Because of this, parents should only focus on ensuring that their children are on track with their assignments and leave it to the teacher to determine what skills the students have and have not learned in class.

Listen to your child

One of the nicest things a parent can do for their kids is to ask open-ended questions and listen to their responses. Many kids are reluctant to acknowledge they are struggling with their homework because they fear being labelled as failures or lazy if they do.

However, every parent wants their child to succeed to the best of their ability, but it’s crucial to be prepared to ease the pressure if your child starts to show signs of being overburdened with homework.

Talk to your teachers

Also, make sure to contact the teacher with any problems regarding your homework by phone or email. Additionally, it demonstrates to your student that you and their teacher are working together to further their education.

Homework with friends

If you are still thinking is homework stressful then It’s better to do homework with buddies because it gives them these advantages. Their stress is reduced by collaborating, interacting, and sharing with peers.

Additionally, students are more relaxed when they work on homework with pals. It makes even having too much homework manageable by ensuring they receive the support they require when working on the assignment. Additionally, it improves their communication abilities.

However, doing homework with friends guarantees that one learns how to communicate well and express themselves. 

Review homework plan

Create a schedule for finishing schoolwork on time with your child. Every few weeks, review the strategy and make any necessary adjustments. Gratefully, more schools are making an effort to control the quantity of homework assigned to children to lessen the stress this produces.

Bottom line

Finally, be aware that homework-related stress is fairly prevalent and is likely to occasionally affect you or your student. Sometimes all you or your kid needs to calm down and get back on track is a brief moment of comfort. So if you are a student and wondering if is homework stressful then you must go through this blog.

While homework is a crucial component of a student’s education, when kids are overwhelmed by the amount of work they have to perform, the advantages of homework can be lost and grades can suffer. Finding a balance that ensures students understand the material covered in class without becoming overburdened is therefore essential.

Zuella Montemayor did her degree in psychology at the University of Toronto. She is interested in mental health, wellness, and lifestyle.

Psychreg is a digital media company and not a clinical company. Our content does not constitute a medical or psychological consultation. See a certified medical or mental health professional for diagnosis.

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School educational models and child mental health among K-12 students: a scoping review

1 The International Peace Maternity & Child Health Hospital, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Embryo Original Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, No. 910 Hengshan Road, Shanghai, 200030 China

Yining Jiang

Xiangrong guo.

2 MOE-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children’s Environmental Health, Department of Child and Adolescent Healthcare, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200092 China

Associated Data

The data analysed in this review are available from the corresponding author upon request.

The promotion of mental health among children and adolescents is a public health imperative worldwide, and schools have been proposed as the primary and targeted settings for mental health promotion for students in grades K-12. This review sought to provide a comprehensive understanding of key factors involved in models of school education contributing to student mental health development, interrelationships among these factors and the cross-cultural differences across nations and societies.

This scoping review followed the framework of Arksey and O’Malley and holistically reviewed the current evidence on the potential impacts of school-related factors or school-based interventions on student mental health in recent 5 years based on the PubMed, Web of Science, Embase and PsycExtra databases.

Results/findings

After screening 558 full-texts, this review contained a total of 197 original articles on school education and student mental health. Based on the five key factors (including curriculum, homework and tests, physical activities, interpersonal relationships and after-school activities) identified in student mental development according to thematic analyses, a multi-component school educational model integrating academic, social and physical factors was proposed so as to conceptualize the five school-based dimensions for K-12 students to promote student mental health development.

Conclusions

The lessons learned from previous studies indicate that developing multi-component school strategies to promote student mental health remains a major challenge. This review may help establish appropriate school educational models and call for a greater emphasis on advancement of student mental health in the K-12 school context among different nations or societies.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13034-022-00469-8.

Introduction

In recent years, mental health conditions among children and adolescents have received considerable attention as a public health concern. Globally about 10–20% of children and adolescents experience mental health problems [ 1 , 2 ], and mental health problems in early life may have the potential for long-term adverse consequences [ 3 , 4 ]. In 2019, the World Health Organization has pointed out that childhood and adolescence are critical periods for the acquisition of socio-emotional capabilities and for prevention of mental health problems [ 5 ]. A comprehensive multi-level solution to child mental health problems needs to be put forward for the sake of a healthier lifestyle and environment for future generations.

The school is a unique resource to help children improve their mental health. A few generations ago, schools’ priority was to teach the traditional subjects, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic. However, children are now spending a large amount of time at school where they learn, play and socialize. For some students, schools have a positive influence on their mental health. While for others, schools can present as a considerable source of stress, worry, and unhappiness, and hinder academic achievement [ 2 ]. According to Greenberg et al., today’s schools need to teach beyond basic skills (such as reading, writing, and counting skills) and enhance students’ social-emotional competence, characters, health, and civic engagement [ 6 ]. Therefore, universal mental health promotion in school settings is recognized to be particularly effective in improving students’ emotional well-being [ 2 , 7 ].

Research evidence over the last two decades has shown that schools can make a difference to students’ mental health [ 8 ]. Previous related systematic reviews or meta-analyses focused on the effects of a particular school-based intervention on child mental health [ 9 , 10 ] and answered a specific question with available research, however, reviews covering different school-related factors or school-based interventions are still lacking. An appropriate model of school education requires the combination of different school-related factors (such as curriculum, homework, and physical activities) and therefore needs to focus on multiple primary outcomes. Thus, we consider that a scoping review may be more appropriate to help us synthesize the recent evidence than a systematic review or meta-analysis, as the wide coverage and the heterogeneous nature of related literature focusing on multiple primary outcomes are not amenable to a more precise systematic review or meta-analysis [ 11 ]. To the best of our knowledge, this review is among the first to provide a comprehensive overview of available evidence on the potential impacts of multiple school-related factors or school-based interventions on student mental health, and identify school-related risk/protective factors involved in the development of mental health problems among K-12 students, and therefore, to help develop a holistic model of K-12 education.

A scoping review was systematically conducted following the methodological framework of Arksey and O'Malley [ 12 ]: defining the research question; identifying relevant studies; study selection; data extraction; and summarizing and reporting results. The protocol for this review was specified in advance and submitted for registration in the PROSPERO database (Reference number, CRD42019123126).

Defining the research question (stage 1)

For this review, we sought to answer the following questions:

• What is known from the existing literature on the potential impacts of school-related factors or school-based interventions on student mental health?
• What are the interrelationships among these factors involved in the school educational process?
• What are the cross-cultural differences in K-12 education process across nations and societies?

Identifying relevant studies (stage 2)

The search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science and Embase electronic databases, and the dates of the published articles included in the search were limited to the last 5 years until 23 March 2021. The PsycExtra database was also searched to identify relevant evidence in the grey literature [ 13 ]. In recent 5 years, mental disorders among children and adolescents have increased at an alarming rate [ 14 , 15 ] and relevant policies calling for a greater role of schools in promoting student mental health have been issued in different countries [ 16 – 18 ], making educational settings at the forefront of the prevention initiative globally. Therefore, limiting research source published in the past 5 years was pre-defined since these publications reflected the newest discoveries, theories, processes, or practices. Search terms were selected based on the eligibility criteria and outcomes of interest were described as follows (Additional file 1 : Table S1). The search strategy was peer-reviewed by the librarian of Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine.

Study selection (stage 3)

T.Y. and Y.J. independently identified relevant articles by screening the titles, reviewing the abstracts and full-text articles. If any disagreement arises, the disagreement shall be resolved by discussion between the two reviewers and a third reviewer (J. X.).

Inclusion criteria were (1) according to the study designs: only randomized controlled trials (RCT)/quasi-RCT, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies; (2) according to the languages: articles only published in English or Chinese; (3) according to the ages of the subjects: preschoolers (3.5–5 years of age), children (6–11 years of age) and adolescents (12–18 years of age); and (4) according to the study topics: only articles examining the associations between factors involved in the school education and student mental health outcomes (psychological distress, such as depression, anxiety, stress, self-injury, suicide; and/or psychological well-being, such as self-esteem, self-concept, self-efficacy, optimism and happiness) in educational settings. Exclusion criteria: (1) Conference abstracts, case report/series, and descriptive articles were excluded due to overall quality and reliability. (2) Studies investigating problems potentially on a causal pathway to mental health disorders but without close associations with school education models (such as problems probably caused by family backgrounds) were excluded. (3) Studies using schools as the recruitment places but without school-related topics were also excluded.

Data extraction (stage 4)

T.Y. and Y.J., and X.G., Y. Z., H.H. extracted data from the included studies using a pre-defined extraction sheet. Researchers extracted the following information from each eligible study: study background (name of the first author, publication year, and study location), sample characteristics (number of participants, ages of participants, and sex proportion), design [intervention (RCT or quasi-RCT), or observational (cross-sectional or longitudinal) study], and instruments used to assess exposures in school settings and mental health outcomes. For intervention studies (RCTs and quasi-RCTs), we also extracted weeks of intervention, descriptions of the program, duration and frequency. T.Y. reviewed all the data extraction sheets under the supervision of J. X.

Summarizing and reporting the results (stage 5)

Results were summarized and reported using a narrative synthesis approach. Studies were sorted according to (a) factors/exposures associated with child and adolescent mental health in educational settings, and (b) components of school-based interventions to facilitate student mental health development. Key findings from the studies were then compared, contrasted and synthesized to illuminate themes which appeared across multiple investigations.

Search results and characteristics of the included articles

The search yielded 25,338 citations, from which 558 were screened in full-text. Finally, a total of 197 original articles were included in this scoping review: 72 RCTs (including individually randomized and cluster-randomized trials), 27 quasi-RCTs, 29 longitudinal studies and 69 cross-sectional studies (Fig.  1 for details). Based on thematic analyses, the included studies were analyzed and thematically grouped into five overarching categories based on the common themes in the types of intervention programs or exposures in the school context: curriculum, homework and tests, interpersonal relationships, physical activity and after-school activities. Table ​ Table1 1 provided a numerical summary of the characteristics of the included articles. The 197 articles included data from 46 countries in total, covering 24 European countries, 13 Asian countries, 4 American countries, 3 African countries, and 2 Oceanian countries. Most intervention studies were conducted in the United States of America (n = 16), followed by Australia (n = 11) and the United Kingdom (n = 11). Most observational studies were conducted in the United States of America (n = 19), followed by China (n = 15) and Canada (n = 8). Figure  2 illustrated the geographical distribution of the included studies. Further detailed descriptions of the intervention studies or observational studies were provided in Additional file 1 : Tables S2 and S3, respectively.

Study selection process

Summary of the included articles

Geographical distribution of included studies: A intervention studies; B observational studies

The association between school curriculum and student mental health was investigated in four cross-sectional studies. Mathematics performance was found to be adversely associated with levels of anxiety or negative emotional responses among primary school students [ 19 ]. However, in middle schools, difficulties and stressors students may encounter in learning academic lessons (such as difficulties/stressors in taking notes and understanding teachers’ instructions) could contribute to lowered self-esteem [ 20 ] and increased suicidal ideation or attempts [ 21 ]. Innovative integration of different courses instead of the traditional approach of teaching biology, chemistry, and physics separately, could improve students’ self-concept [ 22 ].

To promote student mental health, 64 intervention studies were involved in innovative curricula integrating different types of competencies, including social emotional learning (SEL), mindfulness-intervention, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)-based curriculum, life skills training, stress management curriculum, and so on (Fig.  3 ). Curricula focusing on SEL put an emphasis on the development of child social-emotional skills such as managing emotions, coping skills and empathy [ 23 ], and showed positive effects on depression, anxiety, stress, negative affect and emotional problems [ 23 – 37 ], especially in children with psychological symptoms [ 24 ] and girls [ 23 , 27 ], as well as increased prosocial behaviors [ 38 ], self-esteem [ 39 – 42 ] and positive affect [ 43 ]. However, four programs reported non-significant effects of SEL on student mental health outcomes [ 44 – 47 ], while two programs demonstrated increased levels of anxiety [ 48 ] and a reduction of subjective well-being [ 49 ] at post-intervention. Mindfulness-based curriculum showed its potential to endorse positive outcomes for youth including reduced emotional problems and negative affect [ 50 – 56 ] as well as increased well-being and positive emotions [ 51 , 52 , 57 – 60 ], especially among high-risk children with emotional problems or perceived stress before interventions [ 50 , 53 ]. However, non-significant effects were also reported in an Australian study in secondary schools [ 61 ]. Curricula based on CBT targeted children at risk or with early symptoms of mental illness [ 62 – 67 ], or all students regardless of symptom levels as a universal program [ 68 – 70 ], and could impose a positive effect on self-esteem, well-being, distress, stress and suicidality. However, a universal CBT trial in Swedish primary schools found no evidence of long-term effects of such program on anxiety prevention [ 71 ]. Five intervention studies based on life-skill-training were found to be effective in promoting self-efficacy [ 72 , 73 ], self-esteem [ 73 , 74 ], and reducing depression/anxiety-like symptoms [ 72 , 75 , 76 ]. Courses covering stress management skills have also been reported to improve life satisfaction, increase happiness and decrease anxiety levels among students in developing countries [ 77 – 79 ]. In practice, innovative teaching forms such as the game play [ 67 , 80 , 81 ] and outdoor learning [ 82 , 83 ] embedded in the traditional classes could help address the mental health and social participation concerns for children and youth. Limited evidence supported the mental health benefits of resilience-based curricula [ 84 – 86 ], which deserve further studies.

Harvest plots for overview of curriculum-based intervention studies, grouped by different types of curriculum-based interventions. The height of the bars corresponded to the sample sizes on a logarithmic scale of each study. Red bars represented positive effects of interventions on student mental health outcomes, grey bars represented non-significant effects on student mental health outcomes, and black bars represented negative effects on student mental health outcomes

Large cluster-randomized trials utilizing multi-component whole-school interventions which involves various aspects of school life (curriculum, interpersonal relationships, activities), such as the Strengthening Evidence base on scHool-based intErventions for pRomoting adolescent health (SEHER) program in India and the Together at School program in Finland, have been proved to be beneficial for prevention from depression [ 87 – 89 ] and psychological problems [ 90 ].

Homework and tests

The association between homework and psychological ill-being outcomes was investigated in four cross-sectional studies and one longitudinal study. Incomplete homework and longer homework durations were associated with a higher risk of anxiety symptoms [ 91 , 92 ], negative emotions [ 93 – 95 ] and even psychological distress in adulthood [ 96 ].

Innumerable exams during the educational process starting from primary schools may lead to increased anxiety and depression levels [ 97 , 98 ], particularly among senior students preparing for college entrance examinations [ 99 ]. Students with higher test scores had a lower probability to have emotional and behavioral problems [ 100 ], in comparison with students who failed examinations [ 93 , 101 ]. Depression and test anxiety were found to be highly correlated [ 102 ]. In terms of psychological well-being outcomes, findings were consistent in the negative associations between student test anxiety and self-esteem/life-satisfaction levels [ 103 , 104 ]. Regarding intervention studies, adolescent students at a high risk of test anxiety benefited from CBT or attention training by strengthening sense of control and meta-cognitive beliefs [ 105 , 106 ]. However, more knowledge about the criteria for an upcoming test was not related to anxiety levels during lessons [ 107 ].

Interpersonal relationships

School-based interpersonal (student–student or student–teacher) relationships are also important to student mental health. Low support from schoolmates/teachers and negative interpersonal events were reported to be associated with psychosomatic health complaints [ 108 – 113 ]. In contrast, positive interpersonal relationships in schools could promote emotional well-being [ 114 – 117 ] and reduce depressive symptoms in students [ 118 – 120 ].

Student–teacher relationships

Negative teaching behaviors were associated with negative affect [ 121 , 122 ] and low self-efficacy [ 123 ] among primary and high school students. Student–teacher conflicts at the beginning of the school year were associated with higher anxiety levels in students at the end of the year, and high-achieving girls were most susceptible to such negative associations [ 124 ]. Higher levels of perceived teachers’ support were correlated with decreased risks of depression [ 125 ], mental health problems [ 126 ] as well as increased positive affect [ 127 , 128 ] and improved mental well-being [ 129 , 130 ]. Better student–teacher relationships were positively associated with self-esteem/efficacy [ 131 ], while negatively associated with the risks of adolescents’ externalizing behaviors [ 132 ] among secondary school students. Longitudinal studies demonstrated that high intimacy levels between students and teachers were correlated with reduced emotional symptoms [ 133 ] and increased life-satisfaction among students [ 134 ]. In addition, more respect to teachers in 10th grade students was associated with higher self-efficacy and lower stress levels 1 year later [ 135 ].

A growing body of research focused on the issue of how to increase positive interactions between teachers and students in teaching practices. Actually, interventions on improving teaching skills to promote a positive classroom atmosphere could potentially benefit children, especially those experiencing a moderate to high level of risks of mental health problems [ 136 , 137 ].

Student–student relationships

Findings were consistent in considering the positive peer relationship as a protective factor against internalizing and externalizing behaviors [ 138 – 142 ], depression [ 143 – 145 ], anxiety [ 146 ], self-harm [ 147 ] and suicide [ 148 ], and as a favorable factor for positive affect [ 149 , 150 ], increased happiness [ 151 ], self-efficacy [ 152 ], optimism [ 153 , 154 ] and mental well-being [ 155 ]. In contrast, peer-hassles, friendlessness, negative peer-beliefs, peer-conflicts/isolation and peer-rejection, have been identified in the development of psychological distress among students [ 141 , 143 , 149 , 156 – 165 ].

As schools and classrooms are common settings to build peer relationships, student social skills to enhance the student–student relationship can be incorporated into school education. Training of interpersonal skills among secondary school students with depressive symptoms appeared to be effective in decreasing adolescent internalizing and externalizing symptoms [ 166 ]. In addition, recent studies also identified the effectiveness of small-group learning activities in the cognitive development and mental health promotion among students [ 87 – 90 , 167 ].

Physical activity in school

Moderate-to-high-intensity physical activity during school days has been confirmed to benefit children and adolescents in relation to various psychosocial outcomes, such as reduced symptoms of depression [ 168 ], emotional problems [ 169 ] and mental distress [ 170 ] as well as improved self-efficacy [ 171 ] and mental well-being [ 172 , 173 ]. In addition, participation in physical education (PE) at least twice a week was significantly associated with a lower likelihood of suicidal ideation and stress [ 174 ].

A variety of school‐based physical activity interventions or lessons have been proposed in previous studies to promote physical activity levels and psychosocial fitness in students, including integrating physical activities into classroom settings [ 175 – 178 ], assigning physical activity homework [ 178 ], physically-active academic lessons [ 179 , 180 ] as well as an obligation of ensuring the participation of various kinds of sports (such as aerobic exercises, resistance exercises, yoga) in PE lessons [ 181 – 192 ]. Although the effectiveness of these proposed physical activity interventions was not consistent, physical education is suggested to implement sustainably as other academic courses with special attention.

After-school activities

Several cross-sectional studies have synthesized evidence on the positive effects of leisure-time physical activity against student depression, anxiety, stress, and psychological distress [ 193 – 199 ]. Extracurricular sport participation (such as sports, dance, and martial arts) could foster perceived self-efficacy, self-esteem, improve mental health status [ 200 – 203 ], and reduce emotional problems [ 204 ] and depressive symptoms [ 205 ]. Participation in team sports was more strongly related to beneficial mental health outcomes than individual sports, especially in high school girls [ 199 ]. Other forms of organized activities, such as youth organizations and arts, have also been demonstrated to benefit self-esteem [ 201 ], self-worth [ 206 ], satisfaction with life and optimism [ 207 , 208 ].

However, different types of after-school activities may result in different impacts on student mental health. Previous studies demonstrated that students participating in after-school programs of yoga or sports had better well-being and self-efficacy [ 209 ], and decreased levels of anxiety [ 210 ] and negative mood [ 211 ], while another study showed that the after-school yoga program induced no significant changes in levels of depression, anxiety and stress among students [ 212 ]. Inconsistent findings on the effects of participation in art activities on student mental health were also reported [ 213 , 214 ]. Another study also highlighted the benefits of after-school clubs, demonstrating an improvement in socio-emotional competencies and emotional status, and sustained effects at 12-month follow-up [ 215 ].

Based on the potential importance of the five school-based factors identified in student mental development, a multi-component school educational model is therefore proposed to conceptualize the five school-based dimensions (including curriculum, homework and tests, interpersonal relationships, physical activity, and after-school activities) for K-12 students to promote their mental health (Fig.  4 ). The interrelationships among the five dimensions and cross-cultural comparisons are further discussed as follows in a holistic way.

The multi-component school educational model is proposed to conceptualize the five school-based dimensions (including curriculum set, homework and tests, physical activity, interpersonal relationships and after-school activities) for K-12 students to promote student mental health

Comprehensive understanding of K-12 school educational models: the reciprocal relationships among factors

Students’ experiences in the school educational context are dynamic processes which englobe a variety of educational elements (such as curriculum, homework, tests) and social elements (such as interpersonal relationships and social activities in schools). Based on the educational model proposed in this review, these educational/social elements are closely related and interact with each other, which play an important role in students’ psychosocial development.

Being aware of this, initiatives aimed to improve student social and emotional competencies may certainly impact student psychological well-being, at least in part, in a way of developing supportive relationships between teachers-students or between peers [ 35 , 89 ]. On the other hand, the enhancement of interpersonal relationships at school could serve as a potent source of motivation for student academic progress so as to further promote psychological well-being [ 131 , 132 ]. In addition, school education reforms intended to provide pupils with more varied teaching and learning practices to promote supportive interpersonal relationships between students and teachers or between peers, such as education programs outside the classroom [ 82 ], cooperative learning [ 167 ] and adaptive classroom management [ 136 , 137 ], have also been advocated among nations recently.

Our findings also suggested that participation in non-academic activities was an important component of positive youth development. Actually, these school-based activities in different contexts also require teacher–student interactions or peer interactions. Social aspects of physical activities have been proposed to strengthen relationship-building and other interpersonal skills that may additionally protect students against the development of mental health problems [ 130 , 203 ]. Among various types of sports, team sports seemed to be associated with more beneficial outcomes compared with individual sports due to the social aspect of being part of a team [ 194 , 199 ]. Participation in music, student council, and other clubs/organizations may also provide students with frequent connections with peers, and opportunities to build relationships with others that share similar interests [ 201 ]. Further, frequent and supportive interactions with teachers and peers in sports and clubs may promote student positive views of the self and encourage their health-promoting behaviors (such as physical activities).

However, due to increasing academic pressure, children have to spend a large amount of time on academic studies, and inevitably displace time on sleep, leisure, exercises/sports, and extracurricular activities [ 92 ]. Although the right amount of homework may improve school achievements [ 216 ] and higher test scores may help prevent students from mental distress [ 100 – 102 ], over-emphasis on academic achivements may lead to elevated stress levels and poor health outcomes ultimately. The anxiety specifically related to academic achievement and test-taking at school was frequently reported among students who felt pressured and overwhelmed by the continuous evaluation of their academic performance [ 98 , 103 , 104 ]. In such high-pressure academic environments, strategies to alleviate the levels of stress among students should be incorporated into intervention efforts, such as stress management skill training [ 77 – 79 ], CBT-based curriculum [ 62 , 64 , 66 , 105 ], and attention training [ 106 ]. Therefore, school supportive policies that allow students continued access to various non-academic activities as well as improve their social aspect of participation may be one fruitful avenue to promote student well-being.

Cross-cultural differences in K-12 educational models among different nations and societies

As we reviewed above, heavy academic burden exists as an important school-related stressor for students [ 91 , 92 , 94 – 96 ], probably due to excessive examinations [ 97 – 99 ] and unsatisfactory academic performance [ 100 – 102 ]. Actually, extrinsic cultural factors significantly impact upon student academic burden. In most countries, college admission policies affect the entire ecological system of K-12 education, because success in life or careers is determined by examination performance to a large extent [ 217 ]. The impacts of heavy academic burden may be greatest in Asian cultures where more after-school time of students is spent on homework, exam preparations, and extracurricular classes for academic improvement (such as in Korea, Japan, China and Singapore) [ 92 , 95 , 218 ]. As a consequence, the high proportion of adolescents fall in the “academic burnout group” in Asian countries [ 219 ], which highlights the need to take further measures to combat the issue. As an issue of concern, the “double reduction” policy has been implemented nationwide in China since 2021, being aimed to relieve students of excessive study burden, and the effects of the policy are anticipated but remain unknown up to now.

Other factors such as school curriculum and extra-curricular commitments, vary among societies and nations and may explain the cross-cultural differences in educational models [ 220 ]. For example, in Finland, the primary science subject is as important as mathematics or reading, while Chinese schools often lack time to arrange a sufficient number of science courses [ 221 ], which could be explained by different educational traditions of the two countries. In addition, approximately 75% of high schools in Korea failed to implement national curriculum guidelines for physical education (150 min/week), instead replacing that time with self-guided study to prepare for university admission exams [ 174 ]. In terms of the arrangement of the after-school time, Asian students spend most of their after-school time on private tutoring or doing homework [ 222 ], 2–3 times longer than the time spent by adolescents in most western countries/cities [ 92 ]. However, according to our analyses and summaries, most intervention studies targeting the improvement of mental health of students by school education were conducted in western countries (Fig.  2 ), suggesting that special attention needs to be paid to the students’ mental health issue on campus, especially in countries where students have heavy study-loads. Merits of the different educational traditions also need to be considered in the designs of educational models among different countries.

Strengths and limitations

This study focuses on an interdisciplinary topic covering the fields of developmental behavioral pediatrics and education, and the establishment of appropriate school educational models is teamwork involving multiple disciplines including pediatrics, prevention, education, services and policy. Although there are lots of studies focusing on a particular factor in school educational processes to promote student mental health, comprehensive analysis/understanding on multi-component educational model is lacking, which is important and urgently needed for the development of multi-dimensional educational models/strategies. Therefore, we included a wide range of related studies, summarized a comprehensive understanding of the evidence base, and discussed the interrelationships among the components/factors of school educational models and the cross-cultural gaps in K-12 education across different societies, which may have significant implications for future policy-making.

Some limitations also exist and are worth noting. First, this review used the method of the scoping review which adopted a descriptive approach, rather than the meta-analysis or systematic review which provided a rigorous method of synthesizing the literature. Under the subject (appropriate school education model among K-12 students) of this scoping review, multiple related topics (including curriculum, homework and tests, physical activities, interpersonal relationships and after-school activities) were included rather than one specific topic. Therefore, we consider that the method of the scoping-review is appropriate, given that the aim of this review is to chart or map the available literature on a given subject rather than answering a specific question by providing effect sizes across multiple studies. Second, we limited the study search within recent 5 years. Although we consider that the fields involved in this scoping review change quickly with the acquisition of new knowledge/information in recent 5 years, limiting the literature search within recent 5 years may make us miss some related but relatively old literature. Third, we only included studies disseminated in English or Chinese, which may limit the generalizability of our results to other non-English/Chinese speaking countries.

This scoping review has revealed that the K-12 schools are unique settings where almost all the children and adolescents can be reached, and through which existing educational components (such as curriculum, homework and tests, physical activities, interpersonal relationships and after-school activities) can be leveraged and integrated to form a holistic model of school education, and therefore to promote student mental health. In future, the school may be considered as an ideal setting to implement school-based mental health interventions. Our review suggests the need of comprehensive multi-component educational model, which involves academic, social and physical factors, to be established to improve student academic achievement and simultaneously maintain their mental health.

However, questions still remain as to what is optimal integration of various educational components to form the best model of school education, and how to promote the wide application of the appropriate school educational model. Individual differences among students/schools and cross-cultural differences may need to be considered in the model design process.

Acknowledgements

We thank the librarian of Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine for their help.

Abbreviations

Author contributions.

JX conceived the scoping review, supervised the review process and reviewed the manuscript. TY conducted study selection and data extraction, charted, synthesized the data, and drafted the manuscript. YJ conducted study selection and data extraction. XG, YZ and HH conducted data extraction. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, 81974486, 81673189) (to Jian Xu), Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine Gaofeng Clinical Medicine Grant Support (20172016) (to Jian Xu), Shanghai Sailing Program (21YF1451500) (to Hui Hua).

Availability of data and materials

Declarations.

Not applicable.

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest that could be perceived as prejudicing the impartiality of the research reported.

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Is Homework Necessary? Education Inequity and Its Impact on Students

The Problem with Homework: It Highlights Inequalities

How much homework is too much homework, when does homework actually help, negative effects of homework for students, how teachers can help.

Schools are getting rid of homework from Essex, Mass., to Los Angeles, Calif. Although the no-homework trend may sound alarming, especially to parents dreaming of their child’s acceptance to Harvard, Stanford or Yale, there is mounting evidence that eliminating homework in grade school may actually have great benefits , especially with regard to educational equity.

In fact, while the push to eliminate homework may come as a surprise to many adults, the debate is not new . Parents and educators have been talking about this subject for the last century, so that the educational pendulum continues to swing back and forth between the need for homework and the need to eliminate homework.

One of the most pressing talking points around homework is how it disproportionately affects students from less affluent families. The American Psychological Association (APA) explained:

“Kids from wealthier homes are more likely to have resources such as computers, internet connections, dedicated areas to do schoolwork and parents who tend to be more educated and more available to help them with tricky assignments. Kids from disadvantaged homes are more likely to work at afterschool jobs, or to be home without supervision in the evenings while their parents work multiple jobs.”

[RELATED] How to Advance Your Career: A Guide for Educators >> 

While students growing up in more affluent areas are likely playing sports, participating in other recreational activities after school, or receiving additional tutoring, children in disadvantaged areas are more likely headed to work after school, taking care of siblings while their parents work or dealing with an unstable home life. Adding homework into the mix is one more thing to deal with — and if the student is struggling, the task of completing homework can be too much to consider at the end of an already long school day.

While all students may groan at the mention of homework, it may be more than just a nuisance for poor and disadvantaged children, instead becoming another burden to carry and contend with.

Beyond the logistical issues, homework can negatively impact physical health and stress — and once again this may be a more significant problem among economically disadvantaged youth who typically already have a higher stress level than peers from more financially stable families .

Yet, today, it is not just the disadvantaged who suffer from the stressors that homework inflicts. A 2014 CNN article, “Is Homework Making Your Child Sick?” , covered the issue of extreme pressure placed on children of the affluent. The article looked at the results of a study surveying more than 4,300 students from 10 high-performing public and private high schools in upper-middle-class California communities.

“Their findings were troubling: Research showed that excessive homework is associated with high stress levels, physical health problems and lack of balance in children’s lives; 56% of the students in the study cited homework as a primary stressor in their lives,” according to the CNN story. “That children growing up in poverty are at-risk for a number of ailments is both intuitive and well-supported by research. More difficult to believe is the growing consensus that children on the other end of the spectrum, children raised in affluence, may also be at risk.”

When it comes to health and stress it is clear that excessive homework, for children at both ends of the spectrum, can be damaging. Which begs the question, how much homework is too much?

The National Education Association and the National Parent Teacher Association recommend that students spend 10 minutes per grade level per night on homework . That means that first graders should spend 10 minutes on homework, second graders 20 minutes and so on. But a study published by The American Journal of Family Therapy found that students are getting much more than that.

While 10 minutes per day doesn’t sound like much, that quickly adds up to an hour per night by sixth grade. The National Center for Education Statistics found that high school students get an average of 6.8 hours of homework per week, a figure that is much too high according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It is also to be noted that this figure does not take into consideration the needs of underprivileged student populations.

In a study conducted by the OECD it was found that “after around four hours of homework per week, the additional time invested in homework has a negligible impact on performance .” That means that by asking our children to put in an hour or more per day of dedicated homework time, we are not only not helping them, but — according to the aforementioned studies — we are hurting them, both physically and emotionally.

What’s more is that homework is, as the name implies, to be completed at home, after a full day of learning that is typically six to seven hours long with breaks and lunch included. However, a study by the APA on how people develop expertise found that elite musicians, scientists and athletes do their most productive work for about only four hours per day. Similarly, companies like Tower Paddle Boards are experimenting with a five-hour workday, under the assumption that people are not able to be truly productive for much longer than that. CEO Stephan Aarstol told CNBC that he believes most Americans only get about two to three hours of work done in an eight-hour day.

In the scope of world history, homework is a fairly new construct in the U.S. Students of all ages have been receiving work to complete at home for centuries, but it was educational reformer Horace Mann who first brought the concept to America from Prussia. 

Since then, homework’s popularity has ebbed and flowed in the court of public opinion. In the 1930s, it was considered child labor (as, ironically, it compromised children’s ability to do chores at home). Then, in the 1950s, implementing mandatory homework was hailed as a way to ensure America’s youth were always one step ahead of Soviet children during the Cold War. Homework was formally mandated as a tool for boosting educational quality in 1986 by the U.S. Department of Education, and has remained in common practice ever since.  

School work assigned and completed outside of school hours is not without its benefits. Numerous studies have shown that regular homework has a hand in improving student performance and connecting students to their learning. When reviewing these studies, take them with a grain of salt; there are strong arguments for both sides, and only you will know which solution is best for your students or school. 

Homework improves student achievement.

• Source: The High School Journal, “ When is Homework Worth the Time?: Evaluating the Association between Homework and Achievement in High School Science and Math ,” 2012. 
• Source: IZA.org, “ Does High School Homework Increase Academic Achievement? ,” 2014. **Note: Study sample comprised only high school boys. 

Homework helps reinforce classroom learning.

• Source: “ Debunk This: People Remember 10 Percent of What They Read ,” 2015.

Homework helps students develop good study habits and life skills.

• Sources: The Repository @ St. Cloud State, “ Types of Homework and Their Effect on Student Achievement ,” 2017; Journal of Advanced Academics, “ Developing Self-Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework ,” 2011.
• Source: Journal of Advanced Academics, “ Developing Self-Regulation Skills: The Important Role of Homework ,” 2011.

Homework allows parents to be involved with their children’s learning.

• Parents can see what their children are learning and working on in school every day. 
• Parents can participate in their children’s learning by guiding them through homework assignments and reinforcing positive study and research habits.
• Homework observation and participation can help parents understand their children’s academic strengths and weaknesses, and even identify possible learning difficulties.
• Source: Phys.org, “ Sociologist Upends Notions about Parental Help with Homework ,” 2018.

While some amount of homework may help students connect to their learning and enhance their in-class performance, too much homework can have damaging effects. 

Students with too much homework have elevated stress levels. 

• Source: USA Today, “ Is It Time to Get Rid of Homework? Mental Health Experts Weigh In ,” 2021.
• Source: Stanford University, “ Stanford Research Shows Pitfalls of Homework ,” 2014.

Students with too much homework may be tempted to cheat. 

• Source: The Chronicle of Higher Education, “ High-Tech Cheating Abounds, and Professors Bear Some Blame ,” 2010.
• Source: The American Journal of Family Therapy, “ Homework and Family Stress: With Consideration of Parents’ Self Confidence, Educational Level, and Cultural Background ,” 2015.

Homework highlights digital inequity. 

• Sources: NEAToday.org, “ The Homework Gap: The ‘Cruelest Part of the Digital Divide’ ,” 2016; CNET.com, “ The Digital Divide Has Left Millions of School Kids Behind ,” 2021.
• Source: Investopedia, “ Digital Divide ,” 2022; International Journal of Education and Social Science, “ Getting the Homework Done: Social Class and Parents’ Relationship to Homework ,” 2015.
• Source: World Economic Forum, “ COVID-19 exposed the digital divide. Here’s how we can close it ,” 2021.

Homework does not help younger students.

• Source: Review of Educational Research, “ Does Homework Improve Academic Achievement? A Synthesis of Researcher, 1987-2003 ,” 2006.

To help students find the right balance and succeed, teachers and educators must start the homework conversation, both internally at their school and with parents. But in order to successfully advocate on behalf of students, teachers must be well educated on the subject, fully understanding the research and the outcomes that can be achieved by eliminating or reducing the homework burden. There is a plethora of research and writing on the subject for those interested in self-study.

For teachers looking for a more in-depth approach or for educators with a keen interest in educational equity, formal education may be the best route. If this latter option sounds appealing, there are now many reputable schools offering online master of education degree programs to help educators balance the demands of work and family life while furthering their education in the quest to help others.

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Will less homework stress make California students happier?

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A bill from a member of the Legislature’s happiness committee would require schools to come up with homework policies that consider the mental and physical strain on students.

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Update: The Assembly education committee on April 24 approved an amended version of the bill that softens some requirements and gives districts until the 2027-28 school year. Some bills before California’s Legislature don’t come from passionate policy advocates, or from powerful interest groups.  

Sometimes, the inspiration comes from a family car ride. 

While campaigning two years ago, Assemblymember Pilar Schiavo ’s daughter, then nine, asked from the backseat what her mother could do if she won.

Schiavo answered that she’d be able to make laws. Then, her daughter Sofia asked her if she could make a law banning homework.

“It was a kind of a joke,” the Santa Clarita Valley Democrat said in an interview, “though I’m sure she’d be happy if homework were banned.”

Still, the conversation got Schiavo thinking, she said. And while Assembly Bill 2999 — which faces its first big test on Wednesday — is far from a ban on homework, it would require school districts, county offices of education and charter schools to develop guidelines for K-12 students and would urge schools to be more intentional about “good,” or meaningful homework. 

Among other things, the guidelines should consider students’ physical health, how long assignments take and how effective they are. But the bill’s main concern is mental health and when homework adds stress to students’ daily lives.

Homework’s impact on happiness is partly why Schiavo brought up the proposal last month during the first meeting of the Legislature’s select committee on happiness , led by former Assembly Speaker Anthony Rendon .   

“This feeling of loneliness and disconnection — I know when my kid is not feeling connected,” Schiavo, a member of the happiness committee, told CalMatters. “It’s when she’s alone in her room (doing homework), not playing with her cousin, not having dinner with her family.” 

The bill analysis cites a survey of 15,000 California high schoolers from Challenge Success, a nonprofit affiliated with the Stanford Graduate School of Education. It found that 45% said homework was a major source of stress and that 52% considered most assignments to be busywork.  

The organization also reported in 2020 that students with higher workloads reported “symptoms of exhaustion and lower rates of sleep,” but that spending more time on homework did not necessarily lead to higher test scores.

Homework’s potential to also widen inequities is why Casey Cuny supports the measure. An English and mythology teacher at Valencia High School and 2024’s California Teacher of the Year , Cuny says language barriers, unreliable home internet, family responsibilities or other outside factors may contribute to a student falling behind on homework.

“I never want a kid’s grade to be low because they have divorced parents and their book was at their dad’s house when they were spending the weekend at mom’s house,” said Cuny, who plans to attend a press conference Wednesday to promote the bill.

In addition, as technology makes it easier for students to cheat — using artificial technology or chat threads to lift answers, for example — Schiavo says that the educators she has spoken to indicate they’re moving towards more in-class assignments. 

Cuny agrees that an emphasis on classwork does help to rein in cheating and allows him to give students immediate feedback. “I feel that I should teach them what I need to teach them when I’m with them in the room,” he said. 

The bill says the local homework policies should have input from teachers, parents, school counselors, social workers and students; be distributed at the beginning of every school year; and be reevaluated every five years.

The Assembly Committee on Education is expected to hear the bill Wednesday. Schiavo says she has received bipartisan support and so far, no official opposition or support is listed in the bill analysis. 

The measure’s provision for parental input may lead to disagreements given the recent culture war disputes between Democratic officials and parental rights groups backed by some Republican lawmakers. Because homework is such a big issue, “I’m sure there will be lively (school) board meetings,” Schiavo said.

Nevertheless, she says she hopes the proposal will overhaul the discussion around homework and mental health. The bill is especially pertinent now that the state is also poised to cut spending on mental health services for children with the passage of Proposition 1 .

Schiavo said the mother of a student with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder told her that the child’s struggle to finish homework has raised issues inside the house, as well as with the school’s principal and teachers.

“And I’m just like, it’s sixth grade!” Schaivo said. “What’s going on?”

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Does Homework Cause Stress? Exploring the Impact on Students’ Mental Health

How much homework is too much?

Jump to: The Link Between Homework and Stress | Homework’s Impact on Mental Health | Benefits of Homework | How Much Homework Should Teacher’s Assign? | Advice for Students | How Healium Helps

Homework has become a matter of concern for educators, parents, and researchers due to its potential effects on students’ stress levels. It’s no secret students often find themselves grappling with high levels of stress and anxiety throughout their academic careers, so understanding the extent to which homework affects those stress levels is important. 

By delving into the latest research and understanding the underlying factors at play, we hope to curate insights for educators, parents, and students who are wondering  is homework causing stress in their lives?

The Link Between Homework and Stress: What the Research Says

Over the years, numerous studies investigated the relationship between homework and stress levels in students. 

One study published in the Journal of Experimental Education found that students who reported spending more than two hours per night on homework experienced higher stress levels and physical health issues . Those same students reported over three hours of homework a night on average.

This study, conducted by Stanford lecturer Denise Pope, has been heavily cited throughout the years, with WebMD eproducing the below video on the topic– part of their special report series on teens and stress : 

Additional studies published by Sleep Health Journal found that long hours on homework on may be a risk factor for depression while also suggesting that reducing workload outside of class may benefit sleep and mental fitness .

Lastly, a study presented by Frontiers in Psychology highlighted significant health implications for high school students facing chronic stress, including emotional exhaustion and alcohol and drug use.

Homework’s Potential Impact on Mental Health and Well-being

Homework-induced stress on students can involve both psychological and physiological side effects. 

1. Potential Psychological Effects of Homework-Induced Stress:

• Anxiety: The pressure to perform academically and meet homework expectations can lead to heightened levels of anxiety in students. Constant worry about completing assignments on time and achieving high grades can be overwhelming.

• Sleep Disturbances : Homework-related stress can disrupt students’ sleep patterns, leading to sleep anxiety or sleep deprivation, both of which can negatively impact cognitive function and emotional regulation.

• Reduced Motivation: Excessive homework demands could drain students’ motivation, causing them to feel fatigued and disengaged from their studies. Reduced motivation may lead to a lack of interest in learning, hindering overall academic performance.

2. Potential Physical Effects of Homework-Induced Stress:

• Impaired Immune Function: Prolonged stress could weaken the immune system, making students more susceptible to illnesses and infections.

• Disrupted Hormonal Balance : The body’s stress response triggers the release of hormones like cortisol, which, when chronically elevated due to stress, can disrupt the delicate hormonal balance and lead to various health issues.

• Gastrointestinal Disturbances: Stress has been known to affect the gastrointestinal system, leading to symptoms such as stomachaches, nausea, and other digestive problems.

• Cardiovascular Impact: The increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure associated with stress can strain the cardiovascular system, potentially increasing the risk of heart-related issues in the long run.

• Brain impact: Prolonged exposure to stress hormones may impact the brain’s functioning , affecting memory, concentration, and cognitive abilities.

The Benefits of Homework

It’s important to note that homework also offers many benefits that contribute to students’ academic growth and development, such as: 

• Development of Time Management Skills: Completing homework within specified deadlines encourages students to manage their time efficiently. This valuable skill extends beyond academics and becomes essential in various aspects of life.

• Preparation for Future Challenges : Homework helps prepare students for future academic challenges and responsibilities. It fosters a sense of discipline and responsibility, qualities that are crucial for success in higher education and professional life.

• Enhanced Problem-Solving Abilities: Homework often presents students with challenging problems to solve. Tackling these problems independently nurtures critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

While homework can foster discipline, time management, and self-directed learning, the middle ground may be to  strike a balance that promotes both academic growth and mental well-being .

How Much Homework Should Teachers Assign?

As a general guideline, educators suggest assigning a workload that allows students to grasp concepts effectively without overwhelming them . Quality over quantity is key, ensuring that homework assignments are purposeful, relevant, and targeted towards specific objectives. 

Advice for Students: How to balance Homework and Well-being

Finding a balance between academic responsibilities and well-being is crucial for students. Here are some practical tips and techniques to help manage homework-related stress and foster a healthier approach to learning:

• Effective Time Management : Encourage students to create a structured study schedule that allocates sufficient time for homework, breaks, and other activities. Prioritizing tasks and setting realistic goals can prevent last-minute rushes and reduce the feeling of being overwhelmed.

• Break Tasks into Smaller Chunks : Large assignments can be daunting and may contribute to stress. Students should break such tasks into smaller, manageable parts. This approach not only makes the workload seem less intimidating but also provides a sense of accomplishment as each section is completed.

• Find a Distraction-Free Zone : Establish a designated study area that is free from distractions like smartphones, television, or social media. This setting will improve focus and productivity, reducing time needed to complete homework.

• Be Active : Regular exercise is known to reduce stress and enhance mood. Encourage students to incorporate physical activity into their daily routine, whether it’s going for a walk, playing a sport, or doing yoga.

• Practice Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques : Encourage students to engage in mindfulness practices, such as deep breathing exercises or meditation, to alleviate stress and improve concentration. Taking short breaks to relax and clear the mind can enhance overall well-being and cognitive performance.

• Seek Support : Teachers, parents, and school counselors play an essential role in supporting students. Create an open and supportive environment where students feel comfortable expressing their concerns and seeking help when needed.

How Healium is Helping in Schools

Stress is caused by so many factors and not just the amount of work students are taking home.  Our company created a virtual reality stress management solution… a mental fitness tool called “Healium” that’s teaching students how to learn to self-regulate their stress and downshift in a drugless way. Schools implementing Healium have seen improvements from supporting dysregulated students and ADHD challenges to empowering students with body awareness and learning to self-regulate stress . Here’s one of their stories. 

By providing students with the tools they need to self-manage stress and anxiety, we represent a forward-looking approach to education that prioritizes the holistic development of every student. 

To learn more about how Healium works, watch the video below.

About the Author

Sarah Hill , a former interactive TV news journalist at NBC, ABC, and CBS affiliates in Missouri, gained recognition for pioneering interactive news broadcasting using Google Hangouts. She is now the CEO of Healium, the world’s first biometrically powered immersive media channel, helping those with stress, anxiety, insomnia, and other struggles through biofeedback storytelling. With patents, clinical validation, and over seven million views, she has reshaped the landscape of immersive media.

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The Impact of Homework on Student Mental Health

By Happy Sharer

Introduction

Homework is a key part of the educational process. It is often seen as an essential part of learning and helping students to develop important skills. However, there is growing evidence that too much homework can have a negative effect on student mental health. This article will explore the impact of homework on student mental health, examining the correlation between workload and stress levels, analyzing the effects of too much homework on student anxiety, and understanding how homework can lead to depression in students.

Exploring the Impact of Homework on Student Mental Health

Homework has long been seen as an important part of the educational process, but it can also become a source of stress for students. A recent study by the American Psychological Association found that more than two-thirds of students reported feeling overwhelmed by their homework load. The study also found that students who felt overwhelmed were more likely to experience symptoms of depression and anxiety. It is clear that the amount of homework assigned to students can have a significant impact on their mental health.

Examining the Correlation Between Homework and Student Stress Levels

The amount of homework assigned to students can have a direct impact on their stress levels. Too much homework can lead to feelings of frustration and overwhelm, which can then lead to increased stress levels. A study published in the journal Developmental Psychology found that when students had more homework assignments, they experienced higher levels of stress. The study also found that students who had more homework assignments were more likely to report feeling overwhelmed and anxious.

It is also important to consider the relationship between homework and academic performance. Studies have suggested that too much homework can lead to decreased academic performance, which can then lead to increased stress levels. A study published in the Journal of Experimental Education found that when students had more homework, their performance on tests was lower than those with less homework. This suggests that too much homework can lead to increased stress levels, as students feel pressure to perform at a higher level.

In order to reduce homework-related stress, it is important for students to prioritize their work. Planning ahead and breaking down tasks into smaller, more manageable chunks can help students to feel more organized and in control. Taking regular breaks throughout the day can also help students to stay focused and motivated. Finally, it is important to ensure that students are getting enough sleep in order to maintain their energy levels and reduce stress.

Analyzing the Effects of Too Much Homework on Student Anxiety

Too much homework can also lead to increased anxiety levels in students. A study published in the journal Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review found that when students had more homework, they were more likely to experience symptoms of anxiety. The study also found that students with excessive amounts of homework were more likely to report feeling overwhelmed and unable to cope with the workload.

It is important to understand the psychological effects of too much homework on students. Excessive amounts of homework can lead to feelings of frustration and helplessness, which can then lead to increased anxiety levels. Furthermore, students may start to see homework as a burden rather than an opportunity to learn, which can lead to decreased motivation and further feelings of anxiety.

In order to reduce homework-related anxiety, it is important to set realistic goals and expectations. Setting achievable goals and deadlines can help students to stay focused and motivated. It is also important to ensure that students are getting enough rest and taking regular breaks throughout the day. Finally, it is important to talk to teachers and parents about any concerns or worries that students may have about their workload.

Understanding How Homework Can Lead to Depression in Students

Too much homework can also lead to depression in students. A study published in the journal Pediatrics found that when students had more homework, they were more likely to experience symptoms of depression. The study also found that students with excessive amounts of homework were more likely to report feeling overwhelmed, frustrated, and helpless.

It is important to understand the psychological effects of too much homework on students. Excessive amounts of homework can lead to feelings of hopelessness and failure, which can then lead to increased depression levels. Furthermore, students may start to see homework as a chore rather than an opportunity to learn, which can lead to decreased motivation and further feelings of depression.

In order to reduce homework-related depression, it is important to focus on developing positive coping skills. Taking time to relax and practice mindfulness can help students to manage their emotions and stay focused. It is also important to ensure that students are getting enough sleep and taking regular breaks throughout the day. Finally, it is important to talk to teachers and parents about any concerns or worries that students may have about their workload.

Investigating the Relationship Between Homework and Student Self-Esteem

Finally, it is important to consider the relationship between homework and student self-esteem. A study published in the journal Developmental Psychology found that when students had more homework, they were more likely to report feeling inadequate and inferior. The study also found that students with excessive amounts of homework were more likely to report feeling overwhelmed and helpless.

It is important to understand the psychological effects of too much homework on students. Excessive amounts of homework can lead to feelings of worthlessness and failure, which can then lead to decreased self-esteem. Furthermore, students may start to see homework as a burden rather than an opportunity to learn, which can lead to decreased motivation and further feelings of inadequacy.

In order to increase homework-related self-esteem, it is important to focus on developing positive self-talk. Taking time to recognize achievements and celebrate successes can help students to stay motivated and build confidence. It is also important to ensure that students are getting enough rest and taking regular breaks throughout the day. Finally, it is important to talk to teachers and parents about any concerns or worries that students may have about their workload.

In conclusion, it is clear that the amount of homework assigned to students can have a significant impact on their mental health. Too much homework can lead to increased stress levels, anxiety, depression, and decreased self-esteem. It is therefore important to ensure that students are not overloaded with homework and are given the opportunity to learn in a healthy environment. By reducing the amount of homework assigned to students, we can help them to develop important skills without compromising their mental wellbeing.

(Note: Is this article not meeting your expectations? Do you have knowledge or insights to share? Unlock new opportunities and expand your reach by joining our authors team. Click Registration to join us and share your expertise with our readers.)

Hi, I'm Happy Sharer and I love sharing interesting and useful knowledge with others. I have a passion for learning and enjoy explaining complex concepts in a simple way.

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Studies highlight impact of social media use on college student mental health

When Kyle Palmberg set out to design a research study as the capstone project for his psychology major at St. Mary’s University of M i nnesota in Winona, he knew he wanted his focus to be topical and relevant to college students.

His initial brainstorming centered around the mental health impact of poor sleep quality.

“I wanted to look at college students specifically, to see the different ways that sleep quality can be harmed and how that can impact your mental health,” he said. As he reviewed the scientific literature, one variable kept appearing. “The topic that kept coming up was social media overuse,” he said. “It is such an important thing to my target demographic of college students.”

Palmberg, 22, grew up surrounded by social media. He’d heard plenty of warnings about the downsides of spending too much time online, and he’d seen many of his peers seemingly anchored to their phones, anxious or untethered if they had to put them down for more than a few minutes at a time.

“I think from my perspective as someone who’s been really interested in psychology as an academic discipline, social media addiction is also something I’ve been aware of personally,” Palmberg said. “I can tell within myself when things can become harmful or easy to misuse. I often see the hints of addictive behaviors in peers and coworkers.”

Palmberg found much of the published research on the topic inspiring, particularly a 2003 study on internet gambling addiction.

“They were looking at how internet gambling addiction permeates a person’s behavior,” he said. Palmberg hypothesized that there may be behavioral similarities between people addicted to online gambling and those addicted to social media.

“Social media provides this convenient platform for users to interact with others,” he said. “As users grow addicted, they learn that they can come back to that social platform more and more to get their needs met. The tolerance users have for gratifying that social need grows. Then they have to use social media more and more often to get those benefits.”

The negative impact of a growing dependence on social media is that time spent online takes away from real in-person interactions and reduces the time a person has available for basic personal care needs, like sleep and exercise, Palmberg said. This can ultimately have a negative impact on mental health.

“As a person builds a high tolerance for the use of social media it causes internal and external conflict,” he said. “You know it is wrong but you continue to use it. You relapse and struggle to stop using it.” Palmberg said that social media use can be a form of “mood modification. When a person is feeling down or anxious they can turn to it and feel better at least for a moment. They get a sense of withdrawal if they stop using it. Because of this negative side effect, it causes that relapse.”

Palmberg decided he wanted to survey college students about their social media use and devise a study that looked at connections between the different motivations for that use and potential for addictive behaviors. He ran his idea by his academic advisor, Molly O’Connor, associate professor of psychology at Saint Mary’s, who was intrigued by his topic’s clear connections to student life.

“We often notice social media addiction with our student population,” O’Connor said. She knew that Palmberg wouldn’t have a hard time recruiting study participants, because young people have first-hand experience and interest in the topic. “He’s looking at college students who are particularly vulnerable to that addiction. They are tuned into it and they are using it for coursework, socialization, entertainment, self-documentation.”

O’Connor said she and her colleagues at the university see signs of this addiction among many of their students.

“They’ll be on their phones during class when they are supposed to pay attention,” she said. “They can’t help themselves from checking when a notification comes through. They say they had trouble sleeping and you’ll ask questions about why and they’ll say they were scrolling on their phone before they went to bed and just couldn’t fall asleep.”

The entertainment-addiction connection

Once his study was given the go-ahead by his advisor and approved by the university for human-subjects research, Palmberg had two months to recruit participants.

To gather his research subjects, he visited classes and gave a short speech. Afterward, students were given an opportunity to sign up and provide their emails. Palmberg recruited 86 participants this way, and each was asked to fill out an anonymous survey about their social media habits.

Palmberg explained that the main framework of his study was to gain a deeper understanding of why college students use social media and the circumstances when it can become addictive and harmful to their mental health and well-being. He also hypothesized that perceived sleep quality issues would be connected to social media addiction.

After collecting the surveys, Palmberg said, “We essentially threw the data into a big spreadsheet. We worked with it, played with it, analyzed it.” He explained that his analysis focused on motivations for social media use, “including building social connections and self-documentation.”

What Palmberg discovered was that his subjects’ most popular motivation for social media use was for entertainment. While some participants listed other motivations, he said the most “statistically significant” motivation was entertainment.

“Not only was entertainment the most highly endorsed reason to use social media in the study,” Palmberg said, “for college students it was the only motivation we analyzed that was statistically connected to social media addiction and perceived stress. The entertainment motivation was also related to poor sleep quality.”

He found connections between a reliance on social media for entertainment and addictive behaviors, like an inability to shut down apps or put a phone away for an extended period of time. “If a person is using social media for entertainment, they are more likely to be addicted to social media than someone who is not using it for entertainment,” Palmberg said.

The structures of popular social media platforms reinforce addictive behaviors, he said. “Current trends in social media lean more toward entertainment platforms like TikTok or Instagram. People are going on there just to pass time,” Palmberg said. These brief and repetitive formats encourage addiction, he said, because the dopamine high they create is short-lived, causing users to keep visiting to get those fleetingly positive feelings.

O’Connor supports Palmberg’s conclusions. A reliance on social media platforms for entertainment encourages addiction, she said. This is backed up by student behavior.

“My big takeaway was the interest in the entertainment variable was the key predictor of addiction. It’s not necessarily the students that are using it to communicate with each other, but the ones that say, ‘I need to kill time between classes,’ or, ‘I’m bored before bed,’ or, ‘I am trying to relieve stress after working on homework.’” The addictive aspect comes in, O’Connor said, “because users want to be entertained more and more. They are constantly looking for the next thing to talk about with their friends.”

Palmberg said he believes that not all social media use among college students has to be addictive. “It is important for people to view social media as not only something that can be harmful but also something that can be used as a tool. I like to emphasize with my study that it’s not all negative. It is more of an emphasis on moderation. It is possible to use social media responsibly. But just like almost anything, it can be addictive.”

An emphasis on digital well-being

Twice a year, in an effort to get out ahead of digital addiction, students at Gustavus Adolphus College in St. Peter are encouraged to take a deeper look at their social media use and its impact on their mental health. Charlie Potts, the college’s interim dean of students, heads the effort: It’s a clear match with his job and his research interests.

During the semiannual event, known as “Digital Well-Being Week,” Gustavus students learn about the potentially negative impact of social media overuse — as well as strategies for expanding their social networks without the help of technology.

Potts said that event has been held four times so far, and students now tell him they anticipate it.

“We’ve gotten to the point where we get comments from students saying, ‘It’s that time again,’” he said. Students say they appreciate the information and activities associated with Digital Well-Being Week, Potts continued, and they look forward to a week focused on spending less time with their phones.

“They remember that we put baskets on every table in the dining hall with a little card encouraging them to leave their phones there and instead focus on conversations with others,” he added. “We even include a card in the basket with conversation starters. Students are excited about it. They know the drill. It is something they like to do that feels good.”

Potts’ own academic research has focused on mental health and belonging. Each fall, he also heads up a campus-wide student survey focused on digital well-being and how to balance phone use with other aspects of mental and physical health.

In the survey, Potts said, “We ask students, ‘How much time do you spend every day on social media? How does it make you feel?’ Students are blown away when they see the number of hours that the average Gustie spends online. The vast majority are in the 4-7 hours a day on their phone range.”

The survey, which uses a motivational style of interviewing to help participants get at the root of why altering their social media behaviors may be valuable to their overall health and well-being, focuses on small changes that might reduce participants’ reliance on technology in favor of face-to-face interaction.

“We do a lot of conversations with students about strategies they could use,” Potts said. “Things like plugging your phone in across the room while you sleep, leaving it behind while you go to work out at the rec center, subtle changes like that. We also talk about mental health and mindfulness and how…you discern your values about what you are consuming and how that might affect you.”

Though Potts said he has encountered some resistance from students (“You roll with that and help them understand the value of that and think about how they are going to make that change,” he said), he’s also heard a lot of positive student feedback about his survey — and the twice-yearly focus on digital well-being.

“What we found with our students is they realize deep down that their relationship with their phones and social media was not having a positive impact on their life,” Potts said. “They knew change would be good but they didn’t know how to make change or who to talk to about that or what tools were at their disposal. These options help them understand how to do that.”

This story was originally published by MinnPost .

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Existential Well-being, Mental Health, and COVID-19: Reconsidering the Impact of Lockdown Stressors in Moscow.

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• Klimochkina AY 1
• Nekhorosheva EV 2
• Kasatkina DA 2

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• Nekhorosheva EV | 0000-0002-1243-4223
• Kasatkina DA | 0000-0002-5248-5367

Psychology in Russia : State of the art , 15 Jun 2022 , 15(2): 14-31 https://doi.org/10.11621/pir.2022.0202   PMID: 36699708  PMCID: PMC9833610

Abstract 

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Existential Well-being, Mental Health, and COVID-19: Reconsidering the Impact of Lockdown Stressors in Moscow

Anastasia y. klimochkina.

a HSE University, Moscow, Russia

Elena V. Nekhorosheva

b Moscow City University, Moscow, Russia

Daria A. Kasatkina

Initial psychological papers on COVID-19, mental health and wellbeing mostly focus on the aftermath lockdown-related stress and stress related to the disease itself. Still, we presume that personal well-being can be resistant to stressors depending on the way the person is settled in their life.

We seek to reconsider the contribution of lockdown-related stressors to existential well-being, to assess existential well-being during the outbreak and to compare the contribution of living conditions and COVID-19-related factors on well-being.

An online survey was conducted during the peak of the outbreak in Moscow (April-May 2020) (N=880). The data was obtained using the “Test of Existential Motivations” questionnaire and a series of questions addressing (1) living conditions — mental and physical health, employment, and social distancing; (2) COVID-19-related stressors — non-chronic illness, financial losses, and unavailability of goods or services; (3) sociodemographic indicators — age, gender, and income. Data analysis included hierarchical multiple regression, one-sample t-test, and analysis of variance.

Surprisingly, the existential well-being of Moscow citizens during the research period was moderate. Each of the three groups of factors predicted a similar proportion of the variance of well-being (3-3,9%). The strongest predictors of well-being were long-term mental health status and financial stability. The effect of COVID-19-related stressors was most pronounced when they co-occur.

The negative association between lockdown-related stressors and poor well-being is not universal. It is necessary to study the effect of COVID-19-related stressors in combination with individual living conditions and region-specific factors and to focus on the prevention of the occurrence of stressors.

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic generated social and psychological changes globally. Mental health specialists have been registering various behavioral and psychological challenges, such as hoarding behavior, emotional eating, dependencies, anxiety, and depression ( Banerjee, 2020 ; Barcın-Güzeldere, 2022 ; Rajkumar, 2020 ; Talevi et al., 2020 ; Zandifar & Badrfam, 2020 ). The negative impact of the pandemic on mental health was observed during various “waves” of the pandemic and was considered more harmful than other stressful events ( Olff et al., 2021 ). Some researchers noticed a delayed or cumulative effect of the pandemic on people’s well-being (Zacher and Rudolph, 2020).

Many scientists have stated that the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown, and situational factors such as harsh security measures, self-isolation, fear of being infected, a lack of relevant information, loneliness, boredom, and financial troubles, negatively affected people’s mental health ( Capuzzi et al., 2020 ; Newby et al., 2020 ; Rajkumar, 2020 ; Satici et al., 2020 ; Tian et al., 2020 ; Yıldırım et al., 2020 ). Though many scholars observed similar mental health issues across different countries, the effects of lockdown on well-being differed. Ausín et al. (2021), comparing Spanish and Russian general populations, stated that loneliness and alienation, as a tendency to gain social support from family only, were more pronounced among the Russian population.

Some researchers have highlighted that a person’s lifestyle and level of life satisfaction before the onset of COVID-19 could predict how they would feel during the pandemic ( Hoffman, 2020 ; Trzebiński et al., 2020 ; Yang, 2020 ). Sutin et al. (2020) noted that people remain resilient in the face of catastrophic events despite the stress they cause, at least in the short term.

We aim to reconsider the contribution of lockdown-related stressors to the level of existential well-being. Our goal was to compare the contributions of long-term and short-term (lockdown-related) factors affecting self-reported existential well-being, and to assess the level of Muscovites’ well-being during the most stressful period of the pandemic. We hypothesized that, despite initial studies of the psychological effects of the pandemic, long-term factors were more significant for existential wellbeing than short-term stressors and that the well-being of the participants would not be poor.

COVID-19 in Russia: Background

COVID-19 began to spread in Russia at the end of January 2020 (Mankoff, 2020). Lockdown restrictions varied from region to region and according to morbidity levels. In Moscow, which has a registered population of around 12.5 million, a high-alert regime was imposed on March 5 th , while the morbidity was still low (Moscow Government, 2020a). Moscow residents were obliged to inform the authorities of their condition and self-isolate for 14 days after returning from abroad. The authorities canceled all public events with over 5,000 participants. By March 12 th , there were 25 new cases in Moscow and the Moscow Region, compared with 45,000 cases with 4,917 deaths worldwide.

A strict lockdown was introduced in Moscow on April 15 th ( Moscow Government, 2020b ). Following this, residents were required to stay at home or use a digital pass for any travel. A shortage problem and a temporary price increase occurred for certain goods, including medicines, medical masks, and antiseptics. Temporary hospitals were opened. Students began to study online.

Morbidity reached its height by May 7 th , with 6,703 new cases and 39 deaths in Moscow and 842 new cases and 15 deaths in the Moscow Region. Moscow authorities introduced one-time payments to support families with children, pensioners, and the unemployed and provided a COVID-19 hotline on the Moscow Mayor’s official webpage. Most employees started to work remotely ( Nekhorosheva et al., 2020 ), and business tax holidays were introduced.

By June 9 th , the morbidity level in Moscow decreased to 1,500 new cases and 12 deaths, compared with 7.3 million global cases, with a daily increase of 124,700 cases and 32,474 deaths. Moscow authorities gradually put an end to lockdown restrictions and canceled digital passes, many small businesses and services reopened.

Understanding Mental Health and Well-being: An Existential Approach

Well-being is a core concept in mental health science. According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2001, 2018), mental health is both absence of mental disorders and a state of emotional, mental, and behavioral well-being that allows for adaptation to everyday life. Mental health implies the ability to deal with the stressors of daily life, fulfill one’s potential, and work fruitfully (WHO, 2013). The pandemic has drastically altered several societal fundamentals, such as security of life, reliability of public institutions, and freedom of movement and communication. We take an existential approach to assessing these fundamental changes. Existential models allow us to consider the psychological characteristics of a person’s quality of life by assessing their interaction with external life circumstances ( Längle, 1993 ; Längle & Klaassen, 2019 ).

Anxiety about one’s mortality (death anxiety) is a fundamental concept in existential psychology ( Frankl, 1992 ; Yalom, 1980 , 2008), which is thrust to the forefront of our minds due to awareness of the threat posed by the virus. For example, Tomaszek and Muchacka-Cymerman (2020) studied the mediating effect of existential anxiety and life satisfaction on the relationship between PTSD symptoms and post-traumatic growth during the pandemic. Existential psychology understands wellbeing as fulfillment, perceiving life as good, having inner consent to life’s conditions and limitations, and choosing an authentic way of life ( Längle, 2003 ). An existentially prosperous person can cope with everyday tasks, build warm relations with themselves and others, have healthy emotions, be authentic and productive, and make meaningful contributions to the future ( Längle, 2011 , 2014).

Theoretical Model: Three Groups of Factors Impacting Existential Well-being During COVID-19

Applying an existential approach, we identified three groups of factors that could predict the psychological fallout of lockdown.

The first group includes the sociodemographic features that influence social status and living conditions — age, gender, monthly household income. According to researchers, females, children, adolescents, and the elderly are prone to anxious or depressive reactions during the pandemic ( Brooks et al., 2020 ; Fernández-Castillo et al., 2021 ; Inchausti et al., 2020 ; Rajkumar, 2020 ; Yenan Wang et al., 2020 ). Women who have experienced traumatic events are more likely to develop anxiety symptoms ( Cai et al., 2021 ; Remes et al., 2016 ). Women and the elderly were more open to help-seeking behavior ( MacKenzie et al., 2008 ; Mojtabai et al., 2002 ). Researchers stress the differences in “socially acceptable methods of coping with stress and care-seeking rates for mental disorders between men and women” ( Cabrera-Mendoza et al., 2020 , p. 68). People with lower incomes could suffer from fear and stigmatization ( Tian et al., 2020 ). All this justifies the inclusion of this group of factors into the model as control variables.

The second group refers to ongoing living conditions and individual way of life. It includes (1) mental health status (diagnosed psychiatric conditions such as depression and anxiety), (2) physical health status (chronic physical conditions such as hypertension, lung disease, and heart disease), (3) working status (employment of any type, or non-working status including being a housewife, student, or pensioner), and (4) self-isolation or social distancing (the degree of changes in personal daily life and behavior caused by the lockdown restrictions).

Tian et al. (2020) demonstrated that employment, financial problems, lower levels of education, and migrant status had affected the mental health of Chinese citizens, while mental health literacy among Chinese college students was associated with lower stress and anxiety levels ( Hu et al., 2021 ). The impact of poor health conditions, specifically diagnosed mental disorders, has been noted in COVID-19 studies in different countries ( Newby et al., 2020 ). The relevance of self-isolation behavior has also been widely discussed (Rubin & Wessely, 2020; Taylor, 2019 ). For example, Talevi et al. (2020) found that increased length and severity of quarantine was associated with increased anxiety, depression, coping strategies, and stigmatization.

Situational stressors constitute the third group of factors in our model. A psychological stressor is a “life situation that creates an unusual or intense level of stress that may contribute to the development or aggravation of mental disorders, illness, or maladaptive behavior” ( VandenBos, 2015 , p. 1204). We study the following situational COVID-19-related stressors: health, financial complications, and lockdown.

The first stressor is becoming infected with COVID-19 or having a family member infected. Fear of death, loss of loved ones, damage to health, and lack of information (the so-called “headline stress disorders’’) can provoke a stress reaction. People diagnosed with COVID-19 experienced different mental outcomes depending on the severity of the disease and quarantine conditions — from anxiety, shame, and stigmatization ( Tian et al., 2020 ), to post-traumatic stress symptoms ( Bo et al., 2020 ). People who did not suffer COVID-19 experienced the emergence of defensive mechanisms, panic, and various anxiety-related reactions due to abundant or controversial reports about regarding virus and the epidemiological situation ( Cuiyan Wang et al., 2020 ; Dong & Zheng, 2020 ; Zandifar & Badrfam, 2020 ).

The second stressor is the economic crisis which creates financial losses, unemployment, and unpredictability. This stressor leads to social fears, xenophobia, detachment, anxiety, and depressive disorders ( Banerjee, 2020 ; Talevi et al., 2020 ).

The third stressor is the lockdown itself, manifested in restrictions, loss of freedom, social distancing, lack of social contacts, routine changes, and inaccessibility of some basic supplies. It triggers various feelings (anger, irritation, confusion, anxiety, loneliness), post-traumatic stress symptoms, and other severe psychological and behavioral deviations, such as suicidality, dependencies, and somatization ( Banerjee, 2020 ; Bo et al., 2020 ; Brooks et al., 2020 ; Inchausti et al., 2020 ; Roy et al., 2020 ; Talevi et al., 2020 ; Yenan Wang et al., 2020 ).

This study aims to assess the existential well-being of Muscovites during the lockdown period and compare the contribution of the participants’ living conditions and COVID-19-related factors on well-being. We hypothesized that factors relating to long-term and ongoing life events would have a more significant impact on existential well-being than short-term stressors and that the participants’ well-being would not be poor.

In order to test this hypothesis, we compared the unique contributions of two groups of factors (ongoing living conditions and situational COVID-19-related stressors) towards levels of existential well-being, while controlling sociodemographic variables. The factors were structured so as to compare the relevance of long-term dispositions and short-term stressors in the same areas of life: (1) health, (2) work, and (3) state of social distancing during the pandemic. Each factor is treated as an independent variable, while the dependent variable is existential fulfillment as a measure of well-being ( Shumskiy et al., 2017 ; Shumskiy & Klimochkina, 2018 ).

We used a cross-sectional research design. The quantitative data was collected using verbal questionnaires based on self-reports. The survey was conducted online due to lockdown restrictions.

Participants

The raw sample consisted of 1839 unique answers, before the following exclusion criteria were applied:

Agreement for the processing of personal data.

No missing data (all fields were filled).

Using the answer “prefer not to say” in the question about monthly family income.

The final sample consisted of 880 participants (9.2% male, 90.8% female; M age = 39.55 years, SD = 10.33, range = 17–75 years) (see Table 1 ).

Sample characteristics (N=880)

The average monthly family income (50 000–100 000 RUB 1 ) was reported by 47.5% of respondents, 29.5% reported a subsistence level of income for a two-person family living in Moscow (< 50 000 RUB), 23% had a high level of income (> 100 000 RUB). The respondents exhibited good health: only 4% had been diagnosed with neuropsychological conditions (depression, anxiety, or other) at the time of the survey; 33% had chronic physical conditions (heart disease, lung disease, or other). Concerning working status, most were employed (70%), while 30% were non-working, including housewives, students, pensioners, and persons with disabilities. As for self-isolation status, 68% maintained a reasonable degree of self-isolation, 8% supported all restrictive prescriptions, and 24% reported they had not changed their routine during the pandemic. Respondents faced the following COVID-19-related stressors: 3% fell ill themselves (any infection) or had a family member fal ill; 30% faced a decrease in earnings or job loss; 41% faced the unavailability of goods, medicines, or services during the lockdown.

The study was approved by the Psychological and Pedagogical Research Ethics Committee (PPREC) of the Institute of Pedagogy and Psychology of Education (Moscow City University) on 01/04/2020. The online questionnaire was made on the Survey-Monkey platform. The participants were provided with the web-link sent through urban parental and professional communities (such as academic, pedagogical, medical, and law enforcement communities) using social networks and messengers. Participation in this study was voluntary and anonymous. Participants were also asked to provide electronic consent for the processing of personal data.

The target sample was used, in accordance with the target audience — Muscovites (“living in Moscow”). According to the Federal State Statistics Service, 12.6 million people were living in Moscow by 2020. With the sample reliability of 99%, our sample size ( N= 880) was sufficient. Also, it was important to represent people of different gender, age, occupation, and social status, as well as to comprehensively cover the working part of the city’s population, since changes in the working status and income were expected to be one of the consequences of the pandemic.

The survey was conducted from April 19 th to May 18 th , during the time when citizens were obliged to use digital passes, avoid public places (including schools and kindergartens), wear medical masks, and maintain self-isolation. Most of the data was collected during the first COVID-19 wave in Moscow (from April 27 th to May 3 rd ), when restrictions were tightest.

Statistical analysis

We used R-studio and SPSS software to perform the statistical analysis:

One-sample t-test to examine the difference between the sample mean and the standard TEM values for the Russian population.

Hierarchical multiple regression to explore the relationship between existential well-being as a dependent variable and the three groups of independent variables: (1) sociodemographic indicators (as controlled variables), (2) ongoing life conditions, and (3) COVID-19-related stressors. Variables were included in each of the groups of factors in accordance with the theoretical model. This analysis allowed us to measure the contribution of COVID-19-related stressors against the long-term living conditions of the respondents. Thus, we could test the claim of whether COVID-19-related stressors had a universally harmful effect, and identify the stressors to which respondents were most sensitive.

ANOVA was used to further refine the relationship between categorical variables (and their interactions) and existential well-being.

Questionnaires

Existential well-being was measured using the Test of Existential Motivations questionnaire (TEM) ( Shumskiy et al., 2017 ) based on Längle’s theory of four fundamental existential motivations ( Längle, 2016 ). The questionnaire consisted of 36 items (24 were reverse-scored and 12 straight), 4 subscales (with 9 items in each scale), and one summarizing indicator. Each item was assessed using a Likert scale over a range of 1 to 4, where 1 = “ strongly disagree ”, 2 = “ disagree ”, 3 = “ agree ”, and 4 = “ strongly agree ”. Each subscale represented the prerequisites for existential fulfillment — fundamental motivations (FM): 1 FM referred to fundamental trust; 2 FM referred to the fundamental value of life; 3 FM referred to the authenticity and fundamental self-value, and 4 FM referred to the meaning of life. Due to the need for further confirmation of the factor structure of the questionnaire subscales, this study used only an aggregated indicator of existential well-being.

Other variables were evaluated by direct questions:

Sociodemographic characteristics were assessed using questions on matters of gender, age, and family monthly income. The option “prefer not to say” was available for the question regarding income.

Ongoing life conditions were measured using questions concerning:

Mental health status: “Do you have any clinically diagnosed mental disorders, such as depression, anxiety disorder, or other clinically diagnosed mental disorder?” (1 = yes , 0 = no ).

Physical health status: “Do you have any clinically diagnosed chronic physical disorders, such as hypertonic disease, diabetes, heart diseases, lung disease (including asthma, COPD, etc.), oncological diseases, disability, or mobility limitation, or other clinically diagnosed chronic diseases or vulnerable states?” (1 = yes , 0 = no ).

Working status: “Are you currently employed?” (1 = yes , 0 = no ).

Social distancing status: “How would you describe your current routine during lockdown?” Respondents were asked to choose from three options: (1) “I am on strict self-isolation or quarantine, I don’t leave home and follow all the authorities’ guidance”; (2) “I can leave home if necessary, following authorities’ guidance on self-isolation and social distancing”; (3) “I am moving freely around the city, and nothing has changed in my daily routine”.

Situational COVID-19-related stressors were measured with the question: “For the last seven days, have you experienced any of the following?”: (1) “I or my family members have become ill (any illness) and/or had to see a doctor” (1 = yes , 0 = no ); (2) “financial loss, a reduction in earnings or job loss” (1 = yes , 0 = no ); (3) “the unavailability of goods, medicines or services” (1 = yes , 0 = no ).

We used a one-sample t-test to examine the difference between the sample mean and the value established by the norms of the TEM test for the total Russian population, including Moscow (see Table 2 ).

Summary of One Sample T-Test for the Level of Existential Well-being (fulfillment)

Note. *** p < 0.00

The mean in the Moscow sample during the lockdown period turned out to be significantly higher than TEM norms. Although the difference was significant, its effect size was relatively small (Cohen’s d = 0.249).

We used hierarchical multiple regression to explore the relationship between existential well-being as a dependent variable and the three groups of independent variables (see Table 3 ).

Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Estimating the Level of Existential Well-being (N = 880)

Note. a 0 = male, 1 = female. b 0 = subsistence level, 1 = middle level, 2 = high level. c 0 = no diagnosed conditions, 1 = have diagnosed conditions. d 0 = non-working, 1 = working/employed. e 0 = no self-isolation/distancing, 1 = strict self-isolation, 2 = reasonable distancing. f 0 = no stressful situations 1 = faced illness. g 0 = no stressful situations 1 = faced financial loss or job loss. h 0 = no stressful situations 1 = faced unavailability of goods or services. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001

Categorical variables with multiple categories were transformed into dummy variables. Three models were created with factors added sequentially to each model, while controlling the previous ones. The fourth model was the most complete due to the inclusion of the interaction of the variables; it was created to achieve maximum model fit.

The coefficients of determination show that all three groups of factors predict a similar proportion of the variance in the measured well-being (ΔR-squared model 1 = .039, ΔR-squared model 2 = .035, ΔR-squared model 3 = .033). However, the most complete model explains 11.4% of the variance in existential well-being. Adjusted coefficients of determination make it possible to compare models, since they consider the number of explanatory variables and the number of observations. We see that the fourth model, which considers the interaction of stressors, is the most accurate of the four presented models (Adjusted R-squared = .101).

The models allow us to estimate the significance of each factor. In the first group of factors, age and household monthly income were statistically significant. In the second group, working status was significantly positively related to well-being, while health conditions were negatively related. The negative effects of mental diseases were greater than those of physical diseases. Social distancing caused by the lockdown was not significant as a separate variable nor in its interaction with others. Problems caused by a job loss or a reduction in earnings and lockdown-related stressors were statistically significant.

Standardized regression coefficients allow us to compare the strength of the effect of each independent variable to the dependent variable. Based on the most complete model, the negative factors had the greatest effect: mental health status ( β = –.16), financial stressors ( β = –.15), and interaction of health stressors and lockdown stressors ( β = –.14).

The interaction of variables was discovered by a combination of two stressors. The unavailability of goods or services moderated the connection between illness in the family and existential well-being. Increasing the moderator increased the effect of the predictor: having an ill family member did not produce a significant effect if the respondent could receive all the necessary assistance and medicines; but when these two stressors co-occurred, a significant decrease in well-being level was revealed.

ANOVA was used to determine whether the explanatory variables and their interactions were related to the dependent variable. The relevance of income appeared to be most prominent when comparing the difference between respondents who had a high household income and those whose income was close to the subsistence level ( F = 11.186, p Tukey = < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.449). Respondents with higher income levels report a higher level of well-being, even during the pandemic. Upon comparison of groups by physical health status, no significant differences in well-being were observed ( F = 0.354, p = .552, Cohen’s d = 0.043), while mental health had a greater effect ( F = 28.465, p = < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.976). Working status was also a significant factor ( F = 13.226, p = < .001, Cohen’s d = 0.267). The analysis of variance showed that being employed was associated with existential well-being, regardless of the respondent’s social status and income. Respondents who faced financial difficulties during the final week of lockdown more clearly demonstrated lower well-being ( F = 24.183, p = < .001, Cohen’s d = –0.365).

Assessing the existential well-being

The average of the Muscovites’ well-being during the lockdown was higher than the average TEM test scores as calculated for the general Russian population during an ordinary period. We assume either that initially high existential well-being in Moscow decreased during the pandemic but remained higher than in the whole of Russia, or that the existential well-being had not decreased at all. It is possible that the wellbeing of citizens has not declined due to changes brought about by the pandemic. Several other studies conducted in Russia at the beginning of the pandemic give further grounds for such an assumption.

Rasskazova et al. (2020) compared the well-being level between a group of 409 healthy adults in the period from April 17 th to April 26 th 2020, and three samples of 98, 66, and 293 people who completed the same tests (Satisfaction with Life Scale and Scale of Positive and Negative Experiences) in 2017 and 2019. Their results showed no differences between groups in the level of life satisfaction, although the intensity of positive emotions decreased. Some studies in other countries show similar data. The longitudinal study by Fernández-Abascal and Martín-Díaz (2021) comparing the level of well-being of Spanish adults throughout different weeks (a typical week, the week before the lockdown, and a week during the lockdown). They reviewed no progressive decrease of psychological well-being in either gender group over time. At the same time, the authors note that positive affects progressively decrease, while negative affects remain stable without increasing over time.

However, the results of global studies on well-being at the start of the pandemic remain conflicting. For example, Zhang et al. (2020) collected data on the well-being of 2231 adults living in 454 counties across 48 states in the US where the severity of the pandemic varied. The research was based on an analysis of Twitter profiles and tweets posted between April 1 st and April 24 th . They found that pandemic severity gave rise to negative affects in adults (such as feeling scared, hostile, and nervous) rather than positive affects (such as excitement and enthusiasm), and the relationship between pandemic severity and the negative affects was moderated by personality and family connectedness. An Australian study by van Agteren et al. (2020) , comparing the level of well-being (Satisfaction with Life Scale and MHC-SF), stress, and anxiety during the lockdown period, between March-April 2020, with the same indicators used from February 2019 to February 2020, showed that well-being and resilience were significantly lower during the period of the pandemic. In a study of Italian population stress and well-being during the pandemic, Rania & Coppola (2021) observed a decrease in well-being and mental health, regardless of gender differences and of whether or not participants had had direct contact with the virus.

We can see that the research results are not consistent due to the complexity of the phenomenon of well-being, a variety of measuring instruments, and the differences in lockdown conditions in different countries (and even within regions of one country). Thus, the conclusions about the greater or lesser significance of lockdown stressors cannot be universal.

If the level of well-being of Moscow citizens did not decrease, what could have determined its sustainability at the beginning of the pandemic? Under the existential approach, the absence of a decline may indicate the resistance of this form of well-being to situational changes. According to Längle (1993) , existential fulfillment is the result of living with “inner consent”. During the measurement period, many residents had hope that the pandemic would recede in the summer and the stressors could seem like a challenge requiring a personal response. Lockdown created a new personal experience in many ways. Many residents began to pay more attention to their interests and communication with loved ones. These factors could support the inner consent and may have contributed to sustainability of existential well-being.

This result may also have occurred due to sample specifics. Moscow is a prosperous and wealthy city with an advanced social support system that had introduced additional support measures during the pandemic. It is possible that the citizen’s wellbeing in Moscow was higher before the pandemic and decreased under its influence but remained higher than in Russia as a whole. Clarification of this result provides an opportunity for future research.

Also, Pervichko et al. (2020) indicate that many Russians perceived COVID-19 as a “disease of the elite” at the beginning of pandemic. They believed that those affected were people who have opportunity to travel abroad (the entry route of the virus to Russia) and spend more time in informal communication, not limited by social distancing. The authors report that 38% of participants think the danger of COVID-19 is exaggerated.

Finally, the participants of the online studies can be assigned specific characteristics: they are socially active, well adapted to the online space and stay more connected to others. These factors are common for all online research ( Payne & Barnfather, 2011 ), but during self-isolation, the opportunity to communicate online could significantly support the well-being of participants. However, clarifying the actual impact of these limitations requires testing additional hypotheses in future research.

The effects of COVID-19-related stressors

We aimed to assess the impact of specific pandemic-related difficulties on Moscow citizens’ existential well-being. Ongoing living conditions and COVID-19-related stressors did not affect well-being as we expected. All groups of factors showed approximately equal statistical significance but had relatively weak explanatory power regarding existential well-being. Thus, both COVID-19-related stressors and ongoing living conditions predict well-being to a certain extent, but other factors were not measured in this study. This result emphasizes the importance of not neglecting both factors for predicting well-being: understanding the way a person is settled in life at a basic level is just as important as information about the difficulties that a person faced during the specific crisis.

Among the variables included in the group of long-term ongoing factors, the most significant was mental health. This result shows the crucial importance of taking a person’s mental state into account in well-being research. This finding is consistent with other studies, revealing that participants with self-reported mental health diagnoses had significantly higher distress, health anxiety, and fears of COVID-19 than those without a mental health diagnosis ( Newby et al., 2020 ). However, given the small number (N = 31) of respondents diagnosed with mental conditions in our sample, this contrast should be treated with caution.

The most significant of the studied stressors were financial losses (a reduction in earnings or job loss) in the final week of lockdown and the co- occurrence of two stressors — illness and the unavailability of necessary services and medicines.

The importance of stable employment in times of change is shown. Similar results are discussed by Blustein and Guarino (2020) : job loss provokes existential anxiety that has psychological consequences. Prime et al. (2020) emphasize that financial stability is one of the conditions for maintaining a safe living environment and therefore crucial for subjective well-being. From an existential-psychological perspective, support, a protected private space, reliability, and confidence in the future are prerequisites for well-being.

The discovered interaction of two stressors is interesting for the field of social welfare planning. Any physical illness that the respondent or someone in their family suffered from during the pandemic caused a decrease in well-being when social insecurity co-occurred with the instance of poor health. In such circumstances, growing stress can occur due to the unavailability of social services or the lack of access to necessary goods. Namely, Muscovites experienced temporal unavailability of free medical care for non-COVID-19 patients due to extreme congestion in hospitals. This combination of stressors is negatively related to existential well-being. This result can be used by social services to provide citizens with the necessary support.

The study allows us to reconsider the impact of COVID-19-related stressors. In the context of the pandemic in Moscow during the first wave, we see a moderately high level of existential well-being and a moderate connection between existential well-being and COVID-related stressors when other factors are controlled. We may conclude that the impact of lockdown stressors is not universal. It varies according to region, living conditions, the severity of the lockdown, the dynamics of the pandemic, and cultural specifics.

The results may also vary depending on the measurement specifics of well-being. We assume that existential well-being can be resilient to rapid social changes, as it is more determined by internal factors like the ability to find meaning.

The existential well-being of the Moscow citizens during the first wave of the pandemic was affected by both the ongoing living conditions and COVID-19-related stressors (while sociodemographic variables were controlled). Thus, it is fruitful to use a comprehensive approach to measure the COVID-19-related stressors’ effect on well-being and is insufficient to consider only the frequency of exposure to stressful situations.

We discovered that a combination of COVID-19-related stressors (facing unavailability of goods, medicine, or services while falling ill or having a sick family member) was associated with poor well-being, while facing these situations separately did not produce a significant decline in well-being.

These results can find practical application in planning programs to support socially unprotected categories of citizens and in the work of social welfare services.

Limitations

This research has been restricted by the unbalanced sample due to the research procedure (voluntary online survey), where female participants of the active middle age with access to the internet prevailed. It should also be noted that the research was carried out among Moscow citizens, thus the conclusions about the greater or lesser significance of lockdown stressors cannot be universal.

1 100 000 RUB ≈ 1300 USD (for 2020–2021)

Ethics Statement

All subjects gave informed consent for the sharing of their data before taking part in the study. This research obtained ethical approval by Dr. Alexey M. Dvoinin, Chair of the Psychological and Pedagogical Research Ethics Committee (PPREC) of the Institute of Pedagogy and Psychology of Education (Moscow City University) 01/04/2020.

Author Contributions

Elena Nekhorosheva conceived the idea, developed the design and questionnaire, selected the research methods, and provided data collection. Anastasia Klimochkina contributed to the theoretical review, development of the theoretical model, performed data analysis and description of results. Daria Kasatkina contributed to the questionnaire development, theoretical review, and editorial work. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Sexual Identity, Stigma, and Depression: the Role of the “Anti-gay Propaganda Law” in Mental Health among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Moscow, Russia

• Published: 27 February 2017
• Volume 94 , pages 319–329, ( 2017 )

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• Emily Hylton 1 ,
• Andrea L. Wirtz 1 ,
• Carla E. Zelaya 1 ,
• Carl Latkin 2 ,
• Alena Peryshkina 3 ,
• Vladmir Mogilnyi 3 ,
• Petr Dzhigun 3 ,
• Irina Kostetskaya 3 ,
• Noya Galai 1 , 4 &
• Chris Beyrer 1  

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Depression is a major public health problem in the Russian Federation and is particularly of concern for men who have sex with men (MSM). MSM living in Moscow City were recruited via respondent-driven sampling and participated in a cross-sectional survey from October 2010 to April 2013. Multiple logistic regression models compared the relationship between sexual identity, recent stigma, and probable depression, defined as a score of ≥23 on the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale. We investigated the interactive effect of stigma and participation in the study after the passage of multiple “anti-gay propaganda laws” in Russian provinces, municipalities, and in neighboring Ukraine on depression among MSM. Among 1367 MSM, 36.7% ( n  = 505) qualified as probably depressed. Fifty-five percent identified as homosexual ( n  = 741) and 42.9% identified as bisexual ( n  = 578). Bisexual identity had a protective association against probable depression (reference: homosexual identity AOR 0.71; 95%CI 0.52–0.97; p  < 0.01). Those who experienced recent stigma (last 12 months) were more likely to report probable depression (reference: no stigma; AOR 1.75; 95%CI 1.20–2.56; p  < 0.01). The interaction between stigma and the propaganda laws was significant. Among participants with stigma, probable depression increased 1.67-fold after the passage of the anti-gay laws AOR 1.67; 95%CI 1.04–2.68; p  < 0.01). Depressive symptoms are common among MSM in Russia and exacerbated by stigma and laws that deny homosexual identities. Repeal of Russia’s federal anti-gay propaganda law is urgent but other social interventions may address depression and stigma in the current context.

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Acknowledgements

We wish to thank SANAM clinic and Tatiana Bondarenko for insight, support, and use of the SANAM clinic for conduct of qualitative research and the Be Safe study. We appreciate the efforts put forth by Irina Deobald and Konstantin Dyakonov in the formative phases of this project. We are deeply thankful to the participants who contributed their time and personal experiences to this study.

Authors’ Contributions

CB, ALW, CEZ, NG, VM, AP, and CL collaborated in the design and oversight of the overall study. PD and KI collected data. EH conducted data analysis. ALW reviewed and provided input to the statistical analysis. EH and ALW wrote the initial drafts of this manuscript. All authors had full access to the data, reviewed and edited the manuscript, and all take responsibility for its integrity as well as the accuracy of the analysis.

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Emily Hylton, Andrea L. Wirtz, Carla E. Zelaya, Noya Galai & Chris Beyrer

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Carl Latkin

AIDS Infoshare, Moscow, Russian Federation

Alena Peryshkina, Vladmir Mogilnyi, Petr Dzhigun & Irina Kostetskaya

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Correspondence to Andrea L. Wirtz .

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The study was approved by both the Ethics Committee of the State Medical University, IP Pavlov, St. Petersburg, Russia, and the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Institutional Review Board, Baltimore, Maryland.

Funding for this study came from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH R01 MH085574-01A2) “High Risk Men: Identity, Health Risks, HIV and Stigma” funded from 2009 to 2014. Drs. Wirtz, Latkin, Galai, and Beyrer are also supported by the Johns Hopkins University Center for AIDS Research (P30AI094189).

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Hylton, E., Wirtz, A.L., Zelaya, C.E. et al. Sexual Identity, Stigma, and Depression: the Role of the “Anti-gay Propaganda Law” in Mental Health among Men Who Have Sex with Men in Moscow, Russia. J Urban Health 94 , 319–329 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-017-0133-6

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The impact of social media use on college student mental health

Nine University of New Mexico students reported various effects to an anonymous survey conducted by the Daily Lobo on social media use and mental health. Whether these effects are negative or positive could depend on how people use social media, according to a UNM psychology professor.

Of nine UNM students who responded to the survey, 100% said they use some type of social media every day.

Of those students, seven believe social media has an impact on their mental health. The nature of that impact ranged from somewhat negative (with four respondents) to somewhat positive (with two respondents). Three students rated the impact as neutral.

The impact social media has may depend on how people are using it, Joshua Grubbs, an associate professor in the UNM Department of Psychology, said.

“What seems to matter most is what people do on social media and the reasons that they are using (it),” Grubbs said.

Using social media for connection and social life are indicators of a positive relationship with social media, if it supplements offline relationships and experiences, Grubbs said. 

“If someone is using social media as a part of their overall social life – using it to connect with and reach out to people in addition to meaningful relationships in-person and involvement in the offline world – then it’s probably a good thing,” Grubbs said.

Routine use of social media with no emotional connection to it may have positive effects on social well-being, mental health and self-rated health, according to a study published in “Health Education & Behavior.”

Social media can have a negative impact when people use it in “more toxic ways,” Grubbs said.

“Either constantly comparing themselves to others or ‘doom-scrolling’ and obsessing over negative news, it’s probably going to affect them negatively,” Grubbs said. 

About half of U.S. adults receive the news from social media “sometimes” or “often,” according to Pew Research Center .

Negative mental health effects can also result from excessive social media use, which involves increased monitoring and frequency of checking social media sites, according to a study published in the “International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning.”

Excessive social media use can cause individuals to decrease their physical activity and face-to-face communication – both of which are protective factors against depression, according to the study. Exposure to “overwhelming (amounts of) information” and self-other comparisons are also dangers of excessive social media use, according to the study.

“All in all, there isn’t a simple one-size-fits-all narrative for social media,” Grubbs said.

Arly Garcia is a freelance reporter with the Daily Lobo. She can be reached at [email protected] or on Twitter @DailyLobo

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Research: More People Use Mental Health Benefits When They Hear That Colleagues Use Them Too

• Laura M. Giurge,
• Lauren C. Howe,
• Zsofia Belovai,
• Guusje Lindemann,
• Sharon O’Connor

A study of 2,400 Novartis employees around the world found that simply hearing about others’ struggles can normalize accessing support at work.

Novartis has trained more than 1,000 employees as Mental Health First Aiders to offer peer-to-peer support for their colleagues. While employees were eager for the training, uptake of the program remains low. To understand why, a team of researchers conducted a randomized controlled trial with 2,400 Novartis employees who worked in the UK, Ireland, India, and Malaysia. Employees were shown one of six framings that were designed to overcome two key barriers: privacy concerns and usage concerns. They found that employees who read a story about their colleague using the service were more likely to sign up to learn more about the program, and that emphasizing the anonymity of the program did not seem to have an impact. Their findings suggest that one way to encourage employees to make use of existing mental health resources is by creating a supportive culture that embraces sharing about mental health challenges at work.

“I almost scheduled an appointment about a dozen times. But no, in the end I never went. I just wasn’t sure if my problems were big enough to warrant help and I didn’t want to take up someone else’s time unnecessarily.”

• Laura M. Giurge is an assistant professor at the London School of Economics, and a faculty affiliate at London Business School. Her research focuses on time and boundaries in organizations, workplace well-being, and the future of work. She is also passionate about translating research to the broader public through interactive and creative keynote talks, workshops, and coaching. Follow her on LinkedIn  here .
• Lauren C. Howe is an assistant professor in management at the University of Zurich. As head of research at the Center for Leadership in the Future of Work , she focuses on how human aspects, such as mindsets, socioemotional skills, and leadership, play a role in the changing world of work.
• Zsofia Belovai is a behavioral science lead for the organizational performance research practice at MoreThanNow, focusing on exploring how employee welfare can drive KPIs.
• Guusje Lindemann is a senior behavioral scientist at MoreThanNow, in the social impact and organizational performance practices, working on making the workplace better for all.
• Sharon O’Connor is the global employee wellbeing lead at Novartis. She is a founding member of the Wellbeing Executives Council of The Conference Board, and a guest lecturer on the Workplace Wellness postgraduate certificate at Trinity College Dublin.

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Novel study quantifies immense economic costs of mental illness in the u.s..

(Illustration by Michael S. Helfenbein)

Mental illness costs the U.S. economy $282 billion annually, which is equivalent to the average economic recession, according to a new study co-authored by Yale economist Aleh Tsyvinski .

The first-of-its-kind study integrates psychiatric scholarship with economic modeling to better understand the macroeconomic effects of mental illness in the United States.

The study was prepared as a working paper of the National Bureau of Research, a private nonprofit U.S. organization that includes researchers from leading U.S. universities, economics professional organizations, and the business and labor communities.

The $282 billion estimate — which amounts to about 1.7% of the country’s aggregate consumption — is about 30% larger than previous approximations of mental illness’s overall cost in epidemiological studies.

While those earlier studies focused on income loss relating to mental illness and the costs of mental health treatment, the new study also accounted for a host of additional adverse economic outcomes associated with mental illness, including the fact that people with mental illness consume less, invest less in a house, stocks and other risky assets, and may choose less-demanding jobs, Tsyvinski said.

“ In this paper, we develop the first integrated model of macroeconomics and mental health building on classic and modern psychiatric theories,” said Tsyvinski, the Arthur M. Okun Professor of Economics in Yale’s Faculty of Arts and Sciences and professor of global affairs in the Yale Jackson School of Global Affairs. “We show that mental illness alters people’s consumption, savings, portfolio choices, as well as the country’s labor supply, generating enormous annual costs to our economy.”

Nationwide, more than 20% of adults live with mental illness and about 5.5% experience serious mental illness, according to the U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 

For the study, Tsyvinski and co-authors Boaz Abramson, of Columbia Business School, and Job Boerma, of the University of Wisconsin-Madison, analyzed the potential effects of policies aimed at improving treatment of mental illness. They found that expanding the availability of mental health services — by eliminating the shortage of mental health professionals, among other means — would reduce mental illness by 3.1% and bring societal benefits equivalent to 1.1% of aggregate consumption.

Providing mental health services to everyone between the ages of 16 and 25 experiencing mental illness would reap societal benefits equal to 1.7% of aggregate consumption, according to the study.

At the same time, their analysis found that lowering the out-of-pocket cost of mental health services does not substantially reduce the share of people with mental illness and provides only minor economic gains. The researchers suggest that the monetary costs of mental health services are relatively low, meaning that reducing costs does not lead to greater uptake in treatment nor does it significantly reduce instances of mental illness.

The researchers model mental illness as a state of negative thinking and a state of rumination — the uncontrollable and repetitive preoccupation with negative thoughts — that is reinforced through behavior. In that model, they say, individuals experiencing mental illness are pessimistic about their future productivity, risky investments, and the evolution of their mental health. They also lose time while ruminating. As a result, they work, consume, and invest less while also foregoing treatment, which reinforces their mental illness. 

The study typifies the cross-disciplinary approach to economic questions of major policy and societal importance that is a hallmark of the scholarship produced by Yale’s Department of Economics over more than 50 years — including Yale economist William Nordhaus’s pioneering work combining economic modeling with climate science to predict the costs of climate change.

“ Economics and psychiatry have developed over 50 years, but they don’t speak to each other very much,” he said. “Here, we’ve put them in conversation in a way that enlightens both and provides us a stronger sense of the societal costs of mental illness as well as what can be gained through policies that seek to expand and improve mental health care.” 

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Beyond TikTok ban: How one state is grappling with teens and scrolling

• Deep Read ( 5 Min. )
• By Jasper Davidoff Staff writer @jasperdavidoff

April 27, 2024 | New York

The TikTok law that recently sailed through Congress was primarily driven by national security concerns. Left unaddressed: a wider strategy on social media and teen mental health. 

Federal and state lawmakers face decisions on whether to make tech companies more responsible for safety and well-being issues, or to put that onus on parents and guardians.

Why We Wrote This

Teens and officials recognize social media can have both positive and harmful effects on mental health. New York state is seeking a middle ground on finding solutions.

New York is becoming a testing ground for how public officials are trying to help address rising concerns about the effects of unchecked digital immersion on young people’s development. 

New York City Mayor Eric Adams’ administration sued five social media companies earlier this year for “fueling” a youth mental health crisis. Meanwhile, the New York state Legislature is considering bills that could rein in the interactions social media platforms can have with minors – either by restricting corporations or by empowering parents and children.

Grace Jung, a high school sophomore, acknowledges that, alongside homework, time on her phone plays a pretty big part in keeping her up at night. “Every time I try turning it off, there’s another app that’s trying to get me on it,” she says.

Will American teens lose their access to TikTok? Should they?

A new law that could ban the video app – a platform especially popular with youth – unless it is sold by Chinese owner ByteDance, moves the former question closer to an answer. But the latter remains less clear.

Public officials are increasingly concerned about teenage screen time and social media use. And, though with mixed feelings, teens are, too.

Grace Jung is one of them. The high school sophomore readily acknowledges that, alongside homework, time on her phone plays a pretty big part in keeping her up at night. “Every time I try turning it off, there’s another app that’s trying to get me on it,” she says.

At her New York City school, “confessions” groups are making a comeback. Classmates have been posting anonymously on Facebook and Instagram with jabs and observations about how their peers look, who they’re friends with, the latest rumors. Grace cites one friend who’s suffered as a result of comments about her online.

“This could have been avoided or regulated in the first place, so she wouldn’t have to go through this in real life,” she says. “I feel like people always have to walk on eggshells.”

Help might be on the way. Through legislation and lawsuits, her home state is becoming a testing ground for how public officials are trying to help address rising concerns about the effects of unchecked digital immersion on young people’s development. 

As with parallel efforts in other states, it’s not yet clear if actions emerging here will succeed in addressing families’ concerns. But officials nationwide see the links between social media and adolescent well-being as an increasingly urgent issue, especially after a 2023 Surgeon General’s advisory found “harmful content” exposure and “excessive and problematic” social media use have become primary drivers of youth mental health concerns. 

“This is something that lawmakers have experienced firsthand themselves,” says Kris Perry, executive director of Children and Screens, a nonprofit that studies the impact of digital media on child development. “Many of them are parents or grandparents, and they are shocked and alarmed at what has unfolded in this past decade.”

Here in New York City, Mayor Eric Adams’ administration sued five social media companies earlier this year for “fueling” a youth mental health crisis. The state’s attorney general last fall joined a national lawsuit against Meta, Facebook’s parent company, over youth mental health. Meanwhile, the New York state Legislature is considering bills that could rein in the interactions social media platforms can have with minors – either by restricting corporations or by empowering parents and children.

New York’s actions mirror bipartisan efforts in a number of states to tackle the downsides of addictive social media. Lawmakers in red and blue states have passed laws regulating youth social media use, including in Arkansas, California, Florida, Texas, and Utah. Maryland passed legislation earlier this month . 

Social media legislation for kids 

The TikTok law that sailed through Congress this week was primarily driven by national security concerns over the Chinese government potentially reaping data on 170 million American users. 

Left unaddressed in Congress: a wider strategy on social media and teen mental health. Federal and state lawmakers face a decision on whether to make tech companies more responsible for safety and well-being issues, or to put that onus on parents and guardians. 

The Kids Online Safety Act, a bipartisan U.S. Senate bill reintroduced in February by Richard Blumenthal, a Democrat from Connecticut, and Tennessee Republican Marsha Blackburn, includes “duty of care” clauses that make platforms liable for addressing harmful content. 

But civil rights groups like the American Civil Liberties Union and the Electronic Frontier Foundation have warned those provisions could lead to increased censorship and loss of First Amendment free speech rights.

The proposals on the table in New York lean more toward parental oversight. The Stop Addictive Feeds Exploitation for Kids Act, or SAFE Act, would ban the use of feed algorithms for pushing content at users under 18. Instead, youth would get a default chronological feed, unless parents consent otherwise. The measure would also allow parents to block their children’s access between midnight and 6 a.m., as well as giving them the opportunity to limit their total usage.

Grace agrees that restricting notifications could help. But she says giving parents too much blanket power to decide what their children can and can’t see could do more harm than good.

“Honestly, I don’t think I would trust my parents to regulate my social media use,” she says. “Even though parents do want what’s for the best, I don’t think they can understand what their children do.”

That’s an attitude Andy Jung, her dad, happens to share. He believes in serving as a role model on how to use the internet responsibly. But he’s not interested in weighing in on how she can or can’t use Instagram. 

“I’m not 100% sure how she’s spending most of her time when she’s using her cellphone or the internet,” he says. “All I can say is I trust my daughter. That’s all I can do. I cannot monitor what she’s doing all day.”

Will constraining social media companies help?

The New York Child Data Protection Act, meanwhile, would prohibit websites from collecting or sharing any minor’s personal data without informed consent, including parental consent for those younger than 13. That’s a particularly valued step for civil rights groups, Ms. Perry says, because it has less of a chance of curtailing teens’ free speech but does more to restrict harmful algorithmic manipulation, as well as companies’ abilities to sell the information they collect. 

“The less we allow companies to monetize the child’s experience, the less motivated they are to put products in front of children,” Ms. Perry says. And, perhaps, the less children will be inclined to overuse social apps.

Both New York bills are still under committee consideration. In several other states with youth social media laws, NetChoice, a tech industry group, has succeeded in suing to delay implementation. 

Any move that constrains the algorithms appears bound to be unpopular among teenagers. It’s the feature that’s made apps like TikTok and YouTube so eerily proficient at presenting content that captivates.

And only 46% of teenagers support requiring parental consent for minors to create social media accounts, compared with 81% of U.S. adults, according to Pew Research Center. 

Ash Farley, a high school senior in New York, says teens are well aware platforms are raking in their data. But Ash, who uses they/them pronouns, says restrictions could make it harder to find anything from content that inspires their art to online resources that help teens explore their developing identities away from prying eyes.

“You’d miss out on a lot that you’re interested in,” Ash says. “There’s not a lot of ways to get that stuff, other than social media.”

Ash’s mom, Jennifer Watters-Farley, has tried to take an approach of maximizing communication and enabling good judgment with her children.

“We try to be very candid without scaring them, but at least giving them enough information to know what to look out for and how to act, and to always let us know if something was happening that they were really uncomfortable with,” Ms. Watters-Farley says. “That we wouldn’t be upset with them – we would just want to try to help them handle it.”

Anne Marie Albano, a psychologist at Columbia University Irving Medical Center, says the ideal solution might not be to give parents or legislators more direct control over social feeds, but to ensure that parents have more resources to prepare their kids to make healthy decisions. 

“Our kids have to learn how to become independent beings,” she says. 

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Mental Health and Substance Use Disorders Often Go Untreated for Parents on Medicaid

By Emily Baumgaertner

For parents struggling with mental health or substance use disorders, access to treatment can often mean the difference between keeping and losing their children. But a new analysis of health and child welfare records found that a significant portion of those who were eligible for Medicaid coverage for such treatment were not getting it.

The analysis, published Friday by researchers at the nonprofit institute RTI International and the Department of Health and Human Services, found that fewer than half of parents on Medicaid who had substance use disorders and had been referred to authorities over suspicions of child abuse or neglect had received treatment.

Some Context: Experts say bad situations can often be reversed with treatment.

Both mental health and drug addiction crises have been roiling the country, and the effects of parental drug use and mental illness can quickly trickle down to their children . Public health experts say substance use disorders can incapacitate a previously diligent parent and lead to the involvement of child protective services.

In 2021 alone, more than seven million children were referred to authorities over worries of maltreatment, according to a federal report , and more than 200,000 were removed from their homes. But research shows that when parents seek treatment for psychiatric and substance use disorders , they are far less likely to experience family separation.

The Numbers: What the researchers found.

To calculate treatment rates among parents on Medicaid, the health insurance program for low income people, Tami Mark, a health economist at RTI, who led the research, and her colleagues drew from a new publicly available data set that used de-identified social security numbers to link child welfare records in Florida and Kentucky with corresponding Medicaid claims records from 2020.

For comparison, they also analyzed a random sample of Medicaid recipients who had no records in the child welfare system. (The study didn’t capture any counseling or medication given outside the Medicaid system, nor any cases of mental health or substance use disorders that were undiagnosed.)

Among 58,551 parents who had a child referred to welfare services, more than half had a psychiatric or substance use diagnosis, compared to 33 percent of the comparison group. About 38 percent of those with referrals who had mental health disorders and 40 percent of those who had substance use disorders had received counseling; about 67 percent of people with mental health disorders and 38 percent of those with substance use disorders had received medication.

Norma Coe, an associate professor of medical ethics and health policy at the University of Pennsylvania, who was not involved in the research, said some of the rates were worse than general Medicaid treatment figures , suggesting that some barriers could be specific to parents.

“In general, the U.S. supports parents and caregivers less than many other countries,” Dr. Coe said, “which has numerous and lasting intergenerational effects on health and wealth.”

What Happens Next: Examining the barriers.

The study’s authors highlighted an array of roadblocks to receiving counseling and medication, including stigma, inconvenience and the fear of losing parental rights.

They called for better coordination between social programs, such as integrating the data systems of child welfare and Medicaid so that it would be clear when parents needed to be connected to specific services.

But Dr. Steven Woolf, a professor of family medicine and population health at Virginia Commonwealth University who studies inequity, said there was another challenge: a shortage of treatment providers that will accept patients on Medicaid, which pays lower reimbursement rates than private insurers.

“Access to behavioral health services is inadequate in the United States,” he said, “but it’s even worse for Medicaid beneficiaries.”

Emily Baumgaertner is a national health reporter for The Times, focusing on public health issues that primarily affect vulnerable communities. More about Emily Baumgaertner

Opinion: Too often, Utah neglects the mental health needs of individuals with disabilities

Individuals with disabilities experience higher rates of depression than people without disabilities in utah..

(Rick Egan | The Salt Lake Tribune) CEOs and their families check out what organizers are calling the world's largest cardboard fort at the Gateway, during the official launch on Thursday. The rooms of the fort are dedicated to educate visitors on how to build mental wellness.

Utah is cited as one of the top five worst states for mental health . While the conversation around mental health has commonly focused on school-based issues, LGTBQ+ youth and even adults following the COVID-19 pandemic, there continues to be a lack of concerted state-wide attention for one group: individuals with disabilities.

According to a report of publicly available state data , individuals with disabilities experience higher rates of depression than people without disabilities in Utah. In fact, among a list of 13 common chronic health conditions that included conditions like arthritis, heart disease and diabetes, depression was the second leading condition experienced by individuals with disabilities in Utah. Unfortunately, these results mirror what is known across the nation: Individuals with disabilities commonly experience mental health concerns like depression and anxiety, but often experience difficulties in accessing care.

It is true that Utah has made strides over the past five years in regards to mental health. Collaborations and partnerships that lead to organizations like the Huntsman Mental Health Institute can truly increase access to care for individuals who desperately need it. Legislation that expands who can provide care and provides funding to services that are desperately underfunded helps, too.

This alone, however, isn’t enough. We could increase service providers by nearly double and there still would not be an adequate amount of providers to meet the need. It is even more dire when considering that these services are commonly designed in ways that are inaccessible to individuals with disabilities, meaning they are often ineffective and directly harmful at worst.

As Utahns, we need to do more to directly support the mental health of individuals with disabilities. The Beehive State is built on helping each other and, in this vein, each of us can do more to make our communities more inclusive. So where can we start?

Have the conversation

First, we need to start by being open and honest with one another. Pain is real, it is a part of life and it isn’t going away. Much of the conversation surrounding mental health concerns seems to focus on an unattainable goal of eradicating these concerns. It is almost as if we were to just find the right pill, the right circumstance or the right solution, we could finally “solve the problem for good.” Don’t get me wrong — each of these things can help improve someone’s life — but pain will always find a way to come back. We would be better served if we learned to work with this pain, rather than making it the enemy.

In fact, by using this “cure-based” approach that is so often advanced in the medical field, we can unintentionally send the message that someone needs “fixed” or that the way they are is “wrong.” This isn’t new. For centuries, individuals with disabilities, including individuals with mental health concerns, have been told they are a problem, ostracized from society and then told there is no place for them. There are countless stories of how harmful this is and how it leads to worsening mental health, isolation and risk for suicide. By shifting away from trying to “fix” individuals with disabilities experiencing mental health concerns, we might instead make enough space for their experiences and, in doing so, help create purpose that promotes wellbeing.

Create connection

Second, we need to be more willing to support one another in both the easy and hard ways. It can be as easy as saying hello to someone, inviting someone with a disability to be included in an event and genuinely connecting with someone who is different from you. It can also be as hard as taking time out of your day to support someone in distress, help them find resources and follow-up with them about how these efforts are helping. Each effort matters, is needed and can make a lasting difference.

Focus on the process

Lastly, we need to move past trying to obtain an outcome (e.g., cure all depression) and instead engage with an ongoing process that brings us purpose. I would bet that almost all of you reading this has experienced what I mean; when you shift from trying to obtain a goal (e.g., I’m going to win the basketball game) to a process (e.g., I’m going to work on my jump shot) you find both more purpose in the process and you increase your odds of winning. Mental health tends to work the same; let’s focus on the process of finding purpose and as a result our mental health is likely to improve.

As Utahns, we are all a part of the solution that we keep looking for in terms of mental health. By striving to create communities that are consistent, warm and responsive and inclusive of all, we can create more purpose that promotes mental health.

(Photo courtesy of Ty B. Aller) Ty B. Aller

Ty B. Aller, PhD, LMFT, is a researcher working at Utah State’s Institute for Disability Research, Policy, and Practice .

The Salt Lake Tribune is committed to creating a space where Utahns can share ideas, perspectives and solutions that move our state forward. We rely on your insight to do this. Find out how to share your opinion here , and email us at [email protected] .

Donate to the newsroom now. The Salt Lake Tribune, Inc. is a 501(c)(3) public charity and contributions are tax deductible

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This Earth Day we consider the impact of climate change on human health

The health outcomes of climate change are highlighted this Earth Day. Image:  Unsplash/Guillaume de Germain

.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:hover,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo:focus,.chakra .wef-1c7l3mo[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);} Shyam Bishen

Annika green.

.chakra .wef-9dduvl{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-9dduvl{font-size:1.125rem;}} Explore and monitor how .chakra .wef-15eoq1r{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;font-size:1.25rem;color:#F7DB5E;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-15eoq1r{font-size:1.125rem;}} Future of the Environment is affecting economies, industries and global issues

.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{margin-top:16px;margin-bottom:16px;line-height:1.388;color:#2846F8;font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:56.5rem){.chakra .wef-1nk5u5d{font-size:1.125rem;}} Get involved with our crowdsourced digital platform to deliver impact at scale

Stay up to date:, extreme weather events.

• Earth Day takes place every year on 22 April when we are encouraged to come together to work on solutions to give our planet a healthier future.
• Climate change is one of the biggest challenges to the health of our planet, which also impacts human health worldwide.
• By taking action to mitigate climate change, we can safeguard the well-being of current and future generations and preserve the beauty and diversity of life on Earth.

By 2050, climate change will place immense strain on global healthcare systems, causing 14.5 million deaths and $12.5 trillion in economic losses. This was the warning from the Quantifying the impact of climate change on human health report published in January 2024 by the World Economic Forum in collaboration with Oliver Wyman,

As we celebrate Earth Day , it's essential to reflect on the beauty of our planet and on the challenges it faces, particularly concerning climate change. The environmental effects of climate change are widely discussed, but its impact on human health is significant and often overlooked.

Here, we delve into the profound effects climate change has on our well-being and explore why addressing these issues is crucial for the health of planet Earth and all of its inhabitants. There are five key issues related to climate change that are already impacting human health.

1. Extreme weather events

Climate change intensifies extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, heatwaves, floods and droughts. Forty million people in Africa are living in severe drought conditions and droughts are on the rise in more temperate climes too. Almost 40% of the lower 48 states in the United States and 17% of the European population are facing drought, threatening food and water security.

These extreme weather events can have devastating consequences on human health, leading to injuries, displacement and even loss of life. Increased heatwaves, for example, can exacerbate heat-related illnesses and strain healthcare systems. Heat waves also come with a huge economic toll. It is estimated that $7.1 trillion of productivity could be lost by 2050 as a result of heat waves.

2. Air pollution

The burning of fossil fuels and other human activities contribute to air pollution, which is exacerbated by climate change. Wildfires increasingly are making the news headlines because they cause immense destruction of property and loss of life and livestock, but they also aggravate air pollution. Poor air quality is linked to respiratory diseases, such as asthma, bronchitis and lung cancer. Additionally, pollutants, such as particulate matter and ozone, can worsen cardiovascular health, leading to heart attacks and strokes. Air pollution could lead to 6 to 9 million premature deaths per year by 2060.

The Global Health and Strategic Outlook 2023 highlighted that there will be an estimated shortage of 10 million healthcare workers worldwide by 2030.

The World Economic Forum’s Centre for Health and Healthcare works with governments and businesses to build more resilient, efficient and equitable healthcare systems that embrace new technologies.

Learn more about our impact:

• Global vaccine delivery: Our contribution to COVAX resulted in the delivery of over 1 billion COVID-19 vaccines and our efforts in launching Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance, has helped save more than 13 million lives over the past 20 years .
• Davos Alzheimer's Collaborative: Through this collaborative initiative, we are working to accelerate progress in the discovery, testing and delivery of interventions for Alzheimer's – building a cohort of 1 million people living with the disease who provide real-world data to researchers worldwide.
• Mental health policy: In partnership with Deloitte, we developed a comprehensive toolkit to assist lawmakers in crafting effective policies related to technology for mental health .
• Global Coalition for Value in Healthcare: We are fostering a sustainable and equitable healthcare industry by launching innovative healthcare hubs to address ineffective spending on global health . In the Netherlands, for example, it has provided care for more than 3,000 patients with type 1 diabetes and enrolled 69 healthcare providers who supported 50,000 mothers in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• UHC2030 Private Sector Constituency : This collaboration with 30 diverse stakeholders plays a crucial role in advocating for universal health coverage and emphasizing the private sector's potential to contribute to achieving this ambitious goal.

Want to know more about our centre’s impact or get involved? Contact us .

3. Vector-borne diseases

Climate change affects the distribution and behaviour of disease-carrying vectors, such as mosquitoes and ticks. Warmer temperatures and altered precipitation patterns create favourable conditions for the spread of vector-borne diseases, like malaria, dengue fever, Lyme disease and Zika virus, to moderate and previously less affected climate zones, such as Europe and the United States.

These diseases pose significant threats to public health, especially in vulnerable communities with limited access to healthcare. By 2050, an additional 500 million people may be at risk of exposure to vector-borne diseases.

Have you read?

Earth day: what is it, when is it and why is it important.

Equitable healthcare is the industry's north star. Here's how AI can get us there

4. Food and water insecurity

Changes in climate patterns disrupt agricultural systems, leading to decreased crop yields, food shortages and compromised food safety. In Sub-Saharan Africa, southern Asia and Central America, around 80 million people will be at risk of hunger by 2050.

Moreover, extreme weather events can contaminate water sources, contributing to waterborne diseases, such as cholera and dysentery. Food and water insecurity not only jeopardize physical health but also contribute to malnutrition and widening socio-economic disparities.

5. Mental health impacts

Climate change-induced disasters and environmental degradation can take a toll on mental health too. The loss of homes, livelihoods and communities due to natural disasters can cause psychological distress, anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Additionally, the uncertainty and existential threat posed by climate change can lead to eco-anxiety and feelings of helplessness.

If climate change continues to impact human health across these five vectors, it is predicted that the total cumulative healthcare system costs to provide treatment for diseases caused by climate change could reach over $1.1 trillion by 2050 . North and Central America are expected to have to cover nearly half the cost of this because of higher hospitalization and treatment costs in these regions. And, with climate-related disasters disproportionately impacting Asia, it will also have to shoulder a lot of this financial and medical burden

Addressing the health impacts of climate change requires urgent action at individual, community and global levels. Transitioning to renewable energy sources, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, promoting sustainable agriculture and investing in resilient healthcare infrastructure are crucial steps in mitigating these challenges. Furthermore, prioritizing adaptation strategies and enhancing public health preparedness can help communities withstand and recover from climate-related disasters.

This Earth Day, let's recognize the intrinsic connection between planetary health and human health. By taking decisive action to mitigate climate change and protect our environment, we safeguard the well-being of current and future generations and preserve the beauty and diversity of life on Earth. Together, we can build a healthier, more sustainable future for all.

Healthy and resilient societies

The World Economic Forum has been active in climate action for over a decade, including initiatives such as the Alliance for Clean Air , the Alliance of CEO Climate Leaders and the Forum's work towards nature-positive industry sector transition, amongst others.

These workstreams and activities have focused on climate change mitigation and transition towards net-zero conditions. However, it is recognized that historically, there has been a critical underinvestment in the health implications of climate change, with only 0.5% of multilateral climate funding allocated towards the protection or improvement of human health.

The launch of the Forum’s Climate and Health Initiative at the start of 2023, ahead of the first COP meeting with a dedicated health day, was designed to address this lack of focus on health.

The Initiative’s mission is to help build a healthier and more resilient society to the health impacts of climate change through multistakeholder and cross-sector collaboration and systems transformation. The initiative aims to achieve this through three strategic pillars:

1. Advocacy and visibility

Convene and amplify voices to advance a unified global approach by building a multisector community of thought leaders to deliver a high-impact outreach and engagement campaign.

2. Evidence gathering to catalyze action

Map the research and data on the impact of climate change on health, with a focus on identifying the most critical gaps in understanding and how partners can address these gaps in knowledge.

3. Resilience and preparedness

Identify and accelerate evidence-based approaches to mitigating the health impacts of climate change across sectors. Unlock finances and incentivize climate and health investment.

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License and Republishing

World Economic Forum articles may be republished in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License, and in accordance with our Terms of Use.

The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum.

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