synthesis matrix

• Synthesis Matrix
• Synthesis Matrix - A Step-by-Step Guide

The Synthesis Matrix - How to begin

A Synthesis Matrix is a great tool to help you organize and synthesize your research. Essentially, it is a table or chart where you identify your main ideas along the first column and your sources along the top row. Once set up, you can enter your notes and quotes from each source that correspond to each of your main ideas.

• Synthesis Matrix tutorial
• Blank Synthesis Matrix (Google Docs) Use this Google Doc to set up your Synthesis Matrix. Make a copy of the document to enter your information.

Synthesis Matrix - Step 1 - Identify Themes

    What are your main ideas or concepts? 

Think about the assigned reading and the ideas that came up when discussing it in class. What are the ideas or themes that you found most interesting? Or that you are most curious about. Enter these themes or concepts into the first column of the Synthesis Matrix, putting each one in a different row.

These are the themes you will use to search for your secondary sources in the Library's databases.

Synthesis Matrix - Step 2 - Research the Themes

  Look for sources related to your themes

After identifying your main themes or concepts, take a moment to think about them. What are they? Are there other words you could use to describe them? What subject areas or disciplines would address those topics? Before you start searching in a Library database, record this information in your Synthesis Matrix under each theme.

If you are unsure of what words to use you could look up your terms in a dictionary or encyclopedia . You can also look online for ideas, Wikipedia is a good source for this part of your research. You will not use Wikipedia as a source but you can use it to identify keywords and related ideas. 

Search for sources

Use the keywords you identified to search for sources in the Library's databases . Try our SNAP! Search or some of the databases listed below.

Here are a few tips to help you out:

• Begin with a simple search 
• Only enter your concepts - don't enter your thesis statement, research question, or complete sentences
• Use the Advanced Search whenever possible
• Be persistent and flexible - if you're not finding what you need switch your keywords with ones that you identified on your Synthesis Matrix
• If you need help, let us know !

Here is an example of a search.

• SNAP! Search Our SNAP! Search makes finding information and credible sources a breeze. Search almost all of our databases at once with this powerful search. Here, you’ll find journals, books, videos, magazines, and more all in one search.
• Opposing Viewpoints in Context This link opens in a new window Informed viewpoints support learners in developing critical-thinking skills and drawing their own conclusions. Covers current social issues through viewpoints, reference articles, infographics, news, images, video, and audio.
• U.S. History in Context This link opens in a new window Find articles, statistics, images, videos, and other types of sources on the most significant people, events and topics in U.S. History.
• JSTOR This link opens in a new window JSTOR is an excellent source for scholarly, peer-reviewed articles, ebooks and images, covering literature, history, the arts, and more.
• CINAHL Complete This link opens in a new window Nursing and allied health literature. Find evidence based research articles/studies, evidence-based care sheets and practice guidelines.

Synthesis Matrix - Step 3 - Fill in the Matrix

    Read the articles and start filling in the Matrix

Review all the articles you found and choose the ones you would like to use. Read these articles thoroughly, take notes, and highlight passages that relate to your themes.

In this example, I have quotes from the Tom Tiede article that represent the experiences of doctors in the first column. In the next columns, I have quotes from the other articles I chose that represent the same idea - the experiences of medical personnel.

I don't have any quotes from the Horwitz book in this row. I didn't find anything in this source that discussed this aspect of my topic and that's fine. The Horwitz book had good information on PTSD and war that I can use. Not all of my sources will cover all of my topic. You will use your sources and the matrix to create a conversation about your topic, bringing in evidence from an array of sources.

The next rows of the matrix for the topics of War and PTSD are below.

The Synthesis Matrix - Examples and Help

• Blank Synthesis Matrix Use this Google Doc to set up your Synthesis Matrix. Make a copy of the document by clicking on "File" and "Make a Copy" to enter your information. You should be logged in to MyNorthShore to access this document.
• Synthesis Matrix Use this Word document to set up your Synthesis Matrix
• Synthesis Matrix for "Black Men and Public Spaces" This is an example of a Synthesis Matrix based on the article, "Black Men and Public Spaces" by Brent Staples.
• Synthesis Matrix for Story of an Hour
• Tom Tiede - Synthesis Matrix
• Synthesis Matrix for Black Men in Public Spaces Google Doc
• Tom Tiede Synthesis Matrix Example Google Doc
• << Previous: Synthesis Matrix
• Last Updated: Oct 23, 2023 1:44 PM
• URL: https://library.northshore.edu/synthesis-matrix

The Sheridan Libraries

• Write a Literature Review
• Sheridan Libraries
• Find This link opens in a new window
• Evaluate This link opens in a new window

Get Organized

• Lit Review Prep Use this template to help you evaluate your sources, create article summaries for an annotated bibliography, and a synthesis matrix for your lit review outline.

Synthesize your Information

Synthesize: combine separate elements to form a whole.

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other.

After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix or use a citation manager to help you see how they relate to each other and apply to each of your themes or variables.  

By arranging your sources by theme or variable, you can see how your sources relate to each other, and can start thinking about how you weave them together to create a narrative.

• Step-by-Step Approach
• Example Matrix from NSCU
• Matrix Template
• << Previous: Summarize
• Next: Integrate >>
• Last Updated: Sep 26, 2023 10:25 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.jhu.edu/lit-review

• Research Guides

Literature Review: A Self-Guided Tutorial

Using a synthesis matrix.

• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Peer Review
• Reading the Literature
• Using Concept Maps
• Developing Research Questions
• Considering Strong Opinions
• 2. Review discipline styles
• Super Searching
• Finding the Full Text
• Citation Searching This link opens in a new window
• When to stop searching
• Citation Management
• Annotating Articles Tip
• 5. Critically analyze and evaluate
• How to Review the Literature
• 7. Write literature review

A synthesis matrix visually represents your research by organizing your sources by themes:

• Sample Synthesis Matrix Example provided by Ashford University Writing Center .
• << Previous: How to Review the Literature
• Next: 7. Write literature review >>
• Last Updated: Feb 22, 2024 10:53 AM
• URL: https://libguides.williams.edu/literature-review

Literature Review: A Self-Guided Tutorial for NUR 288

• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Peer-Review
• Reading the Literature
• Developing Research Questions
• 2. Review discipline styles
• Super Searching
• Finding the Full Text
• Citation Searching
• Evaluating online information
• When to stop searching
• How to cite your sources following APA
• In-Text Citations
• Keeping track of your references
• Annotating Articles Tip
• 5. Critically analyze and evaluate
• How to review the literature

Using a synthesis matrix

• 7. Write literature review

Synthesize : combine separate elements to form a whole.

Why use a synthesis matrix? 

• A synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other.
• After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix or use a citation manager to help you see how they relate to each other and apply to each of your themes or variables.  
• By arranging your sources by theme or variable, you can see how your sources relate to each other, and can start thinking about how you weave them together to create a narrative.

A synthesis matrix visually represents your research by organizing your sources by themes:

Add each article citation to the Source column and begin to identify the theme(s) from the article. 

Use the Excel template below to help you evaluate your sources, create article summaries for an annotated bibliography, and a synthesis matrix for your lit review outline. From John Hopkins Sheridan Libraries.  

NOTE : There are several tabs at the bottom of the Excel spreadsheet to help guide you with this method.

• Literature Review Prep - with Synthesis Matrix
• << Previous: How to review the literature
• Next: 7. Write literature review >>
• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 2:54 PM
• URL: https://libguides.wccnet.edu/literature_review

• University of Oregon Libraries
• Research Guides

How to Write a Literature Review

• 6. Synthesize
• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Reading Journal Articles
• Does it Describe a Literature Review?
• 1. Identify the Question
• 2. Review Discipline Styles
• Searching Article Databases
• Finding Full-Text of an Article
• Citation Chaining
• When to Stop Searching
• 4. Manage Your References
• 5. Critically Analyze and Evaluate

Synthesis Visualization

Synthesis matrix example.

• 7. Write a Literature Review

• Synthesis Worksheet

About Synthesis

Approaches to synthesis.

You can sort the literature in various ways, for example:

How to Begin?

Read your sources carefully and find the main idea(s) of each source

Look for similarities in your sources – which sources are talking about the same main ideas? (for example, sources that discuss the historical background on your topic)

Use the worksheet (above) or synthesis matrix (below) to get organized

This work can be messy. Don't worry if you have to go through a few iterations of the worksheet or matrix as you work on your lit review!

Four Examples of Student Writing

In the four examples below, only ONE shows a good example of synthesis: the fourth column, or  Student D . For a web accessible version, click the link below the image.

Long description of "Four Examples of Student Writing" for web accessibility

• Download a copy of the "Four Examples of Student Writing" chart

Click on the example to view the pdf.

From Jennifer Lim

• << Previous: 5. Critically Analyze and Evaluate
• Next: 7. Write a Literature Review >>
• Last Updated: May 3, 2024 5:17 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.uoregon.edu/litreview

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How I Made My Life Easier By Using A Synthesis Matrix

By Abbie, a Writing Center Coach

I’ve always enjoyed writing and thought myself quite good at it before getting to college. Of course, a lot of the writing you do then is for English class, reading one book and writing about it; you still have to work at figuring out your focus and how to support it, but the “research” aspect is limited. Stepping outside of a traditional English paper is another step, one that I was hit with when I first started college and had to write for other subjects.

To me, a research paper is one of the most daunting assignments I’ve ever received. Suddenly, I needed to look at more than just a single work of fiction. There are often semester-long steps to picking a question, finding sources, evaluating them, and synthesizing them. It’s easy for me to want to push those tasks until later or cherrypick evidence to support an easier answer. But that doesn’t result in the best research paper possible, and I might not even learn much along the way.

One of my favorite strategies for writing research papers is creating a synthesis matrix, which is essentially creating a research worksheet to fill out. They can look different depending on what I’m working on, but their main purpose is for taking research notes and seeing relationships across large numbers of sources and information categories. I’ve used both Microsoft Excel and Google Sheets to create synthesis matrices in the past.

The first time I ever created a synthesis matrix was for ENGL 402 , which I took to apply to work at the Writing Center. The assignment was a literature review where I had to pick any topic related to writing and explore what the literature said about it. I had no idea where to start, but this method helped me land on and deeply explore my topic.

While working on my literature review, I divided my synthesis matrix process into five steps: topic selection, source selection, matrix setup, reading and categorization, and usage of the matrix itself.

Step 1: Topic Selection

First, I decided to freewrite some topic ideas, a strategy I got from the Writing Center’s Brainstorming handout . I set a timer for 5 minutes and listed out every topic related to writing that came to mind. I came up with multiple ideas, but the one I chose was about writing motivation. As someone who has always loved writing, I wanted to explore people writing solely for a grade rather than because of genuine passion and interest in the topic. This helped me come up with keywords (writing, grades, motivation, rubrics) that I could then use in my initial research step when searching for sources.

Step 2: Source Selection

Once I had my keywords, I turned to the UNC Libraries website. I always begin with the “E-Research by Discipline” tool, which allows me to select databases of academic articles that are more likely to be related to my topic. For my initial ideas about writing motivation, I went to a database under the “English” discipline. The “Articles+” on the library site has more search filters under “Advanced Search” that I used to get more specific search results.

Through this research process, I landed on a topic: utility-value in writing . Using this topic to form my new keywords, I found multiple sources related to writing, learning, real world applications of course material, and connections between class content. One issue I ran into was that a lot of sources were about multilingual learners, while I just wanted to focus on general college writing (rather than language learning). Thankfully, I was able to use Boolean search logic to filter out language learning sources.

Step 3: Setting up the Matrices

Before looking through the sources I had gathered, I set up a Microsoft Excel sheet for note taking. This would become my synthesis matrix — all of my sources, along with the author, date, and citation, were listed in the left columns. The rest of the columns were broken into categories of information I thought I might use. The first few columns make it easy for me to find important information needed for parenthetical citations and references, as well as to remember the specific focus of a source. I was mostly using empirical studies, though other source types could have different categories, like a synopsis of a book from which a chapter had been pulled. I ended up with two separate sections of my sheet: one for sources related to utility value writing and another for sources related to Writing-To-Learn ( a learning pedagogy with some similarities).

With my matrix set up, I felt much better about my ability to take good notes on my sources rather than trying to tackle them with a blank document.

Step 4: Reading & Note-taking

Once I started reading, using the matrix felt like I had given myself a checklist of sources to get through along with boxes to fill in for each one. Because of this, I was able to get through my sources much more quickly, feeling a sense of accomplishment as I could see how much I had done. I also was already beginning to organize my notes because of the matrix setup. It initially seemed like a much more time-consuming method, but the organizational element was a huge time-saver when it came to actually putting my paper together. I was much more familiar with my evidence by the time it came to outline, so I didn’t have to dig through my notes as much to figure out what to say or where to say it.

As I read through my sources, I took notes in the matrix by copy and pasting quotes from my sources as well as paraphrasing information. I always made sure to add page numbers so I could easily go back and find where I got my information. Along the way, my categories molded to what I was reading. It was important for me to not only search for what I was originally looking for but reflect what was actually being discussed in my sources.

Step 5: Using the Matrix 

Once I had filled in the entire Excel sheet, I could see which sources overlapped where, compare and contrast what they said, and see areas of agreement and disagreement. My next step was to use this information to organize my paper. I decided to color-code the boxes based on where I thought they might fit; while this ended up largely following the column categories, there were a few that fit somewhere else, and the visual strategy helped remind me to include everything where I wanted it.

The last step was writing the actual paper. I found it to be a much easier and faster process with my synthesis matrix having already organized everything, and was able to sit down and write an entire 10 pages over just a couple days. I ended up satisfied with what I had written, and I know it would have been much harder without the synthesis matrix.

Reflections

If I were to go back and work on this matrix again, I might work on paraphrasing more than just pasting direct quotes in. While it was easier to just paste the original wording, I ended up having to work a lot on paraphrasing and evaluating my sources’ information when I was actually writing the paper. I think using more paraphrasing relative to quoting when I was filling in the matrix would have gotten me to try to better understand what I was reading when I was reading it, and probably would have saved some space since I ended up with a lot of blocks of long quotes. I also had a column for figures and diagrams that I didn’t fill in much and didn’t end up using what I had filled in at all, so I might reevaluate what forms of information I’m predominantly paying attention to in sources and whether other forms might add something of value to my paper, perhaps by listing out information I get without even looking at the main text.

I highly recommend trying this strategy out on your next research paper or literature review! I learned it from Dr. Gigi Taylor in ENGL 402, a class where you can try using this strategy and learn more about yourself and your writing style. I am very grateful to have found a method that works so well with my approach to writing, and I hope that it helps you as well.

This blog showcases the perspectives of UNC Chapel Hill community members learning and writing online. If you want to talk to a Writing and Learning Center coach about implementing strategies described in the blog, make an appointment with a writing coach , a peer tutor , or an academic coach today. Have an idea for a blog post about how you are learning and writing remotely? Contact us here .

How to Synthesize Written Information from Multiple Sources

Shona McCombes

Content Manager

B.A., English Literature, University of Glasgow

Shona McCombes is the content manager at Scribbr, Netherlands.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

When you write a literature review or essay, you have to go beyond just summarizing the articles you’ve read – you need to synthesize the literature to show how it all fits together (and how your own research fits in).

Synthesizing simply means combining. Instead of summarizing the main points of each source in turn, you put together the ideas and findings of multiple sources in order to make an overall point.

At the most basic level, this involves looking for similarities and differences between your sources. Your synthesis should show the reader where the sources overlap and where they diverge.

Unsynthesized Example

Franz (2008) studied undergraduate online students. He looked at 17 females and 18 males and found that none of them liked APA. According to Franz, the evidence suggested that all students are reluctant to learn citations style. Perez (2010) also studies undergraduate students. She looked at 42 females and 50 males and found that males were significantly more inclined to use citation software ( p < .05). Findings suggest that females might graduate sooner. Goldstein (2012) looked at British undergraduates. Among a sample of 50, all females, all confident in their abilities to cite and were eager to write their dissertations.

Synthesized Example

Studies of undergraduate students reveal conflicting conclusions regarding relationships between advanced scholarly study and citation efficacy. Although Franz (2008) found that no participants enjoyed learning citation style, Goldstein (2012) determined in a larger study that all participants watched felt comfortable citing sources, suggesting that variables among participant and control group populations must be examined more closely. Although Perez (2010) expanded on Franz’s original study with a larger, more diverse sample…

Step 1: Organize your sources

After collecting the relevant literature, you’ve got a lot of information to work through, and no clear idea of how it all fits together.

Before you can start writing, you need to organize your notes in a way that allows you to see the relationships between sources.

One way to begin synthesizing the literature is to put your notes into a table. Depending on your topic and the type of literature you’re dealing with, there are a couple of different ways you can organize this.

Summary table

A summary table collates the key points of each source under consistent headings. This is a good approach if your sources tend to have a similar structure – for instance, if they’re all empirical papers.

Each row in the table lists one source, and each column identifies a specific part of the source. You can decide which headings to include based on what’s most relevant to the literature you’re dealing with.

For example, you might include columns for things like aims, methods, variables, population, sample size, and conclusion.

For each study, you briefly summarize each of these aspects. You can also include columns for your own evaluation and analysis.

The summary table gives you a quick overview of the key points of each source. This allows you to group sources by relevant similarities, as well as noticing important differences or contradictions in their findings.

Synthesis matrix

A synthesis matrix is useful when your sources are more varied in their purpose and structure – for example, when you’re dealing with books and essays making various different arguments about a topic.

Each column in the table lists one source. Each row is labeled with a specific concept, topic or theme that recurs across all or most of the sources.

Then, for each source, you summarize the main points or arguments related to the theme.

The purposes of the table is to identify the common points that connect the sources, as well as identifying points where they diverge or disagree.

Step 2: Outline your structure

Now you should have a clear overview of the main connections and differences between the sources you’ve read. Next, you need to decide how you’ll group them together and the order in which you’ll discuss them.

For shorter papers, your outline can just identify the focus of each paragraph; for longer papers, you might want to divide it into sections with headings.

There are a few different approaches you can take to help you structure your synthesis.

If your sources cover a broad time period, and you found patterns in how researchers approached the topic over time, you can organize your discussion chronologically .

That doesn’t mean you just summarize each paper in chronological order; instead, you should group articles into time periods and identify what they have in common, as well as signalling important turning points or developments in the literature.

If the literature covers various different topics, you can organize it thematically .

That means that each paragraph or section focuses on a specific theme and explains how that theme is approached in the literature.

Source Used with Permission: The Chicago School

If you’re drawing on literature from various different fields or they use a wide variety of research methods, you can organize your sources methodologically .

That means grouping together studies based on the type of research they did and discussing the findings that emerged from each method.

If your topic involves a debate between different schools of thought, you can organize it theoretically .

That means comparing the different theories that have been developed and grouping together papers based on the position or perspective they take on the topic, as well as evaluating which arguments are most convincing.

Step 3: Write paragraphs with topic sentences

What sets a synthesis apart from a summary is that it combines various sources. The easiest way to think about this is that each paragraph should discuss a few different sources, and you should be able to condense the overall point of the paragraph into one sentence.

This is called a topic sentence , and it usually appears at the start of the paragraph. The topic sentence signals what the whole paragraph is about; every sentence in the paragraph should be clearly related to it.

A topic sentence can be a simple summary of the paragraph’s content:

“Early research on [x] focused heavily on [y].”

For an effective synthesis, you can use topic sentences to link back to the previous paragraph, highlighting a point of debate or critique:

“Several scholars have pointed out the flaws in this approach.” “While recent research has attempted to address the problem, many of these studies have methodological flaws that limit their validity.”

By using topic sentences, you can ensure that your paragraphs are coherent and clearly show the connections between the articles you are discussing.

As you write your paragraphs, avoid quoting directly from sources: use your own words to explain the commonalities and differences that you found in the literature.

Don’t try to cover every single point from every single source – the key to synthesizing is to extract the most important and relevant information and combine it to give your reader an overall picture of the state of knowledge on your topic.

Step 4: Revise, edit and proofread

Like any other piece of academic writing, synthesizing literature doesn’t happen all in one go – it involves redrafting, revising, editing and proofreading your work.

Checklist for Synthesis

•   Do I introduce the paragraph with a clear, focused topic sentence?
•   Do I discuss more than one source in the paragraph?
•   Do I mention only the most relevant findings, rather than describing every part of the studies?
•   Do I discuss the similarities or differences between the sources, rather than summarizing each source in turn?
•   Do I put the findings or arguments of the sources in my own words?
•   Is the paragraph organized around a single idea?
•   Is the paragraph directly relevant to my research question or topic?
•   Is there a logical transition from this paragraph to the next one?

Further Information

How to Synthesise: a Step-by-Step Approach

Help…I”ve Been Asked to Synthesize!

Learn how to Synthesise (combine information from sources)

How to write a Psychology Essay

Related Articles

Student Resources

How To Cite A YouTube Video In APA Style – With Examples

How to Write an Abstract APA Format

APA References Page Formatting and Example

APA Title Page (Cover Page) Format, Example, & Templates

How do I Cite a Source with Multiple Authors in APA Style?

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Write a Literature Review

• Find This link opens in a new window

Get Organized

• Lit Review Prep Use this template to help you evaluate your sources, create article summaries for an annotated bibliography, and a synthesis matrix for your lit review outline.

Synthesize your Information

Synthesize: combine separate elements to form a whole.

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other.  After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix to help you see how they relate to each other, and apply to each of your themes or variables.  By arranging your sources in a matrix by theme or variable, you can see how your sources relate to each other, and can start thinking about how you weave them together to create a narrative.

• Step-by-Step Approach
• Example Matrix from NSCU
• Matrix Template
• << Previous: Summarize
• Next: Integrate >>
• Last Updated: Oct 11, 2023 12:20 PM
• URL: https://libraryguides.goucher.edu/literature-review

Indiana University Indianapolis Indiana University Indianapolis IU Indianapolis

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Literature Review - A Self-Guided Tutorial

• Literature Reviews: A Recap
• Reading Journal Articles
• Does it describe a Literature Review?
• 1. Identify the question
• 2. Review discipline styles
• Searching article databases - video
• Finding the article full-text
• Citation chaining
• When to stop searching
• 4. Manage your references
• 5. Critically analyze and evaluate
• 6. Synthesize
• 7. Write literature review

Who's My Librarian?

Locate your University Library's subject librarian  for personalized assistance.

Students doing research in specific areas may also request assistance at other IUPUI libraries:

• IU School of Dentistry Library
• Ruth Lilly Law Library
• Ruth Lilly Medical Library  

You can sort the literature in various ways, for example:

Synthesis Matrix Example

From Jennifer Lim

• << Previous: 5. Critically analyze and evaluate
• Next: 7. Write literature review >>
• Last Updated: May 16, 2024 10:16 AM
• URL: https://iu.libguides.com/literaturereview

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• Determining the Resource This link opens in a new window
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• International Center for Academic Integrity
• How to Synthesize and Analyze
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Learning about Synthesis Analysis

What D oes Synthesis and Analysis Mean?

Synthesis: the combination of ideas to

• show commonalities or patterns

Analysis: a detailed examination

• of elements, ideas, or the structure of something
• can be a basis for discussion or interpretation

Synthesis and Analysis: combine and examine ideas to

• show how commonalities, patterns, and elements fit together
• form a unified point for a theory, discussion, or interpretation
• develop an informed evaluation of the idea by presenting several different viewpoints and/or ideas

Key Resource: Synthesis Matrix

Synthesis Matrix

A synthesis matrix is an excellent tool to use to organize sources by theme and to be able to see the similarities and differences as well as any important patterns in the methodology and recommendations for future research. Using a synthesis matrix can assist you not only in synthesizing and analyzing,  but it can also aid you in finding a researchable problem and gaps in methodology and/or research.

Use the Synthesis Matrix Template attached below to organize your research by theme and look for patterns in your sources .Use the companion handout, "Types of Articles" to aid you in identifying the different article types for the sources you are using in your matrix. If you have any questions about how to use the synthesis matrix, sign up for the synthesis analysis group session to practice using them with Dr. Sara Northern!

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• Last Updated: May 16, 2024 8:28 AM
• URL: https://resources.nu.edu/writingresources

• USU Library

Synthesis: Home

Engaging in synthesis.

Synthesis requires you to make sense of all the relevant ideas in your sources and blend them together with your own thoughts and ideas. Watch this video to learn how to engage in synthesis in order to take research from multiple sources along with your own arguments and turn it into a research paper.

Synthesizing Your Research

Understanding your research.

1. Read through your sources carefully.

2. Identify common themes or sub-topics that keep appearing in the articles you’re reading.

The Research Matrix

• Blank Research Matrix Fill out this blank matrix.
• Blank Synthesis Matrix template (Google Docs)

The research matrix is a helpful tool you can use to synthesize your research along with your own voice. The blank research matrix above can help you organize your paper by main idea, identify connections between your sources, and add your own analysis.

Filling Out Your Matrix

1. Write your topic or research question above the matrix.

2. Write your main ideas for your paper on the left side of the matrix. Helpful Tip: Choose your main ideas AFTER you have read your sources!

3. Write the title, author, or citation of each source in the top row of the matrix.

4. Fill in the matrix boxes with a paraphrase or direct quote that represents how the source discussed that main idea. You do not need every source to address every main idea!

5. Don't forget to nclude your own analysis of the main idea and the sources in the last column on the matrix.

Identify Gaps in Your Research

1. There’s a high likelihood that you will have empty spaces on your research matrix and that’s okay! Small gaps show that there is room for your own voice to join the conversation.

2. Large gaps in your matrix are often a sign that you need to do more research on that main idea. As a rule of thumb you should have at least two sources for each main idea in order to create a meaningful dialogue. 

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Synthesis Matrix Many assignments, both short and long, require you to stretch toward the highest categories of Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Cognitive Skills . atg the highest level, you will find "creating," which includes synthesis--integrating or drawing together logically information from many different sources. How? The matrix below provides a template to help you develop better syntheses of evidence. To produce a well-integrated argument, you must find and organize supporting evidence from several different sources. Otherwise, you produce a list of disconnected information, not a unified analysis drawing together data from different sources. As you read each source, whether a primary source, textbook, or other secondary source, organize notes topically, looking for patterns and trends. For printed sources, indicate a page number so that you can return to the information. For an online document, enter a short phrase that you can quickly search for and find again later. Establish columns of topics as you do your research. When you find another reference related to the same topic, enter it into your matrix. By the time you've finished the required readings, you will have a matrix that shows what sources relate to which specific topic. Armed with this information, you can develop well-supported topical paragraphs that each draw upon information from several different sources. This process of integration helps you bring together multi-source support for your interpretation. It also helps you winnow out less important points. For example, if one of your topics appears in only a single source, drop it from your discussion. Historians and other scholars seek broader patterns, so any key point should appear in several sources. The example below includes issues that might arise in a question about conditions for the rural masses in 19th-century Latin America. This tool has been tested and verified to improve student performance. See scholarship of teaching and learning article by Maxine P. Atkinson, Jeremiah B. Wills, and Amy I. McClure. "The Evidence Matrix: A Simple Heuristic for Analyzing and Integrating Evidence." Teaching Sociology , 36: 3: (July 2008): 262-71. I've created a blank matrix template that you may wish to print out and use for a future project. (Print it out in landscape format for best use. If it doesn't fit on a single sheet of paper, reduce the font size of your browser.) Prefer to work with your computer, rather than with a preprinted form? You may download this Synthesis Matrix Table (RTF). Save the table file to your computer. The table should work with any word processing software. Follow instructions at the top of the table. Sample Matrix of Sources and Topics Source/document Topic/category 1, quality of life issues Topic/category 2, employment problems Topic/category 3, land monopoly Topic/category 4, legal restrictions Topic/category 5, racial discrimination Document 1 "flea-ridden huts" no data Rosas vagrancy law legal code of 1865 Source 2 (textbook) no data p. 34 p. 55 no data p. 23 Document 3 meager diet falling wages no data Constitution of 1917 no data Document 4 export crops injuries and deaths no data no data unofficial slavery Document 5 asado no data terratenientes elite rule debt peonage

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• Developing a Research Question
• Database Searching
• Documenting Your Search and Findings
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Why should I document my search?

Documenting searches for traditional literature reviews is not essential but will help you stay organized and perhaps save you some time. Documenting your search can help you:

• keep track of what you've done so that you don't repeat unproductive searches
• reuse successful search strategies for future papers

Consider whether it makes sense for you to document the following during your search process:

• the databases and resources used
• search strategies for each resource, including the search terms and limits used (e.g. dates, language, etc.)
• the number of results for each search strategy

Selecting Articles for Your Literature Review

You may want to think about criteria that will be used to select articles for your literature review based on your research question.  These are commonly known as inclusion criteria and exclusion criteria. Inclusion criteria are the elements of an article that must be present in order for it to be eligible for inclusion in a literature review, while exclusion criteria are the elements of an article that disqualify the study from inclusion in a literature review.

For example:

• Must certain methodologies be used?
• Should the studies have been published in the last 5 years?

Consider Using a Synthesis Matrix

As you read, you'll encounter various ideas, disagreements, methods, and perspectives which can be hard to organize in a meaningful way. Because you'll be reading a number of resources, a synthesis matrix helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other.

• Download Excel Synthesis Matrix Feel free to customize columns to your needs.

What is Reference Management?

Reference management is when you use specific tools to help you organize the references you find during a lit review search. Citation Management Software, like Zotero or Mendeley, are commonly used in literature reviews. VCU Libraries has more information about Choosing a Citation Tool  to fit your needs.

Need Help Writing the Literature Review?

Now that you have conducted your research and documented your findings, you're ready to begin writing your literature review.   VCU's Writing Center consultants can help you plan, develop, and organize your literature review and a follow-up appointment will help you edit, proofread, and revise it.

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Synthesizing

Synthesis matrix – brainstorming in preparation for writing a synthesis essay.

• References McBride, N., Farringdon, F., Midford, R., Meuleners, L. and Phillips, M. (2004), u201cHarm minimization in school drug education: final results of the school health and alcohol harm reduction project (SHAHRP)u201d, Addiction, Vol. 99 No. 3, pp. 278-291. Rundle-Thiele, S.R., Russell-Bennett, R., Leo, C. and Dietrich, T. [in press] u201cModerating teen drinking: Combining social marketing and educationu201d Health Education Tobler, N.S., Roona, M.R., Ochshorn, P., Marshall, D.G., Streke, A.V., and Stackpole, K.M. (2000), u201cSchool-based adolescent drug prevention programs: a meta-analysisu201d, Journal of Primary Prevention, Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 274-336. Vogl, L. (2007), u201cThe feasibility and efficacy of a universal school-based computerised prevention program for alcohol misuse and related harmsu201d, available at: http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:1309/SOURCE02 (accessed 26 March 2012).. License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Sulfur-assisted ammonia treatment of fibrous carbon matrix to fabricate high-content pyrrole-type fe-n-c catalyst for superior oxygen reduction.

The high-content pyrrole-type metal-nitrogen-carbon (M-N-C) catalysts are emerging as promising candidates in the electrocatalytic oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), though it is still challenging to achieve the effective synthesis. Herein, we successfully prepared high-content pyrrole-type Fe-N-C catalyst through ammonia treatment assisted with sulfur started from an electrospinning imidazole coordination polymer fibers. The hierarchical porous fiber-derived carbon matrix not only works as excellent receivers to anchor Fe atoms, but also benefits the ammonia diffusion and the replacement of sulfur atoms during the secondary sintering. The ammonia treatment with pre-sulfur doping is experimentally and theoretically proved to be favorable for the etching of carbon atoms and creation of pyrrole-type N sites. The optimized pyrrole-type Fe-N-C catalyst shows excellent ORR activity (E1/2 = 0.89 V, JL = 5.58 mA cm-2). The as-assembled Zn-air battery also shows remarkable power density and rechargeable performance. This work provides a novel method to prepare high-content pyrrole-type M-N-C catalyst with fibrous structure, which can be used in designing advanced electrocatalysts for various sustainable energy devices.

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H. Hu, R. Qiao, R. Miao, H. Sun, F. Duan, H. Zhu, M. Du and S. Lu, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4TA02623C

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Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of Zinc-tin Based Nanoflower for the Adsorptive Removal of Cadmium from Synthetic Wastewater

• Open access
• Published: 08 May 2024
• Volume 235 , article number  318 , ( 2024 )

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• Münevver Toprak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1856-5635 1 , 2 ,
• Barış Yıldız   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0004-1959-8169 3 ,
• Buse Tuğba Zaman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0542-1050 1 ,
• Gamze Dalgıç Bozyiğit   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8129-7488 4 ,
• İlknur Durukan Temuge   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7200-5789 3 ,
• Gülten Çetin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6574-6004 1 &
• Sezgin Bakırdere   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9746-3682 1 , 5  

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The present study utilized zinc-tin nanoflowers (ZT-NFs) in a batch adsorption treatment process to effectively remove cadmium from synthetic wastewater. The batch adsorption strategy was optimized using the univariate approach to enhance the efficiency of the adsorption process. The dominant parameters examined in the optimization experiments were pH/volume of buffer solution, nanoflower amount, and sample agitation type/period. After determining the optimal batch adsorption conditions, equilibrium studies were performed by adding cadmium to synthetic wastewater at concentrations in the range of 1.0 – 40 mg/L. The quantification accuracy for cadmium was improved by developing the calibration plot with spiked sample matrix. The equilibrium data were subjected to mathematical modelling utilizing the Langmuir adsorption isotherm model. The calculated isotherm constants indicated a well-fitted isotherm model to the experimental data. The reported ZT-NFs-based adsorptive removal strategy was effectively employed to remove cadmium from synthetic wastewater.

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1 Introduction

Heavy metal toxicity is among the alarming issues facing humans, and these toxic metals are known to be more prevalent in areas where industrial activities are prominent (Yang et al., 2016 ). Cadmium, which is a toxic metal, occurs naturally in the environment but is released in larger proportions into living environs through many human activities such as the use of fossil fuels, untreated mining waste, welding, smelting, and cigarette smoking (Akkaya et al., 2017 ). Due to its poisonous effect on both animals and humans, this element has receives a lot of attention for its potential long-term risks to public health (Ehrampoush et al., 2015 ). Determining the level of cadmium in the environment is a crucial issue because of its potential toxicity to humans, plants, and other species, even at low concentrations (Ali et al., 2019 ). It is also one of the ten most harmful compounds for public health, according to the literature (Koju et al., 2018 ). It was reported that cadmium accumulation in the body can result in hypertension, bone ailments, and damage of the liver and kidneys (Dias et al., 2019 ). According to the World Health Organization, regions with the highest contamination levels recorded average daily consumption of cadmium in the range of 600 – 2000 µg/day, and regions with lower contamination levels- recorded cadmium levels in the range of 100 – 390 µg/day (WHO, 2011 ).

With reference to the negative impacts stated above, accurate and sensitive determination of cadmium is a very crucial issue. This metal has been determined in different matrices using a variety of analytical instruments including FAAS (flame atomic absorption spectrometry) (Prasad et al., 2006 ; Meira and Souza, 2017 ; Sixto et al., 2019 ; Fontes et al., 2020 ), GF-AAS (graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry) (Zeini Jahromi et al., 2007 ; Moinfar & Khayatian, 2017 ; Valasques et al., 2020 ), AFS (atomic fluorescence spectrometry) (Lei et al., 2018 ; Yuan et al., 2018 ), ICP-MS (inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry) (Rodríguez Giraldo et al., 2022 ; Shao et al., 2020 ; Zergui et al., 2022 ) and ICP-OES (inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry) (Guedes et al., 2020 ; Mohamed et al., 2020 ; Rodríguez Giraldo et al., 2022 ). Among these instruments, FAAS is reasonably affordable, easy to use, compatible with other equipment, and yields exact findings (Kasa et al., 2020 ).

According to the literature, adsorptive treatment strategies are commonly preferred for the removal of cadmium from various matrices (Baskaran & Abraham, 2022 ; Kavisri et al., 2023 ; Masood et al., 2023 ). In place of classical adsorbents, nanoadsorbents are capable of adsorbing a broad range of pollutants by reason of their unique properties such as adjustable pore sizes, elevated surface activities, intraparticle-diffusion distances, and extended sorption sites/surface areas (Homaeigohar, 2020 ; Yadav et al., 2020 ). An additional advantage associated with the utilization of nanoadsorbents is the feasibility of their functionalization, which allows them to possess a high level of selectivity towards different contaminants (Abbas et al., 2015 , 2017 ; Cai et al., 2014 , 2023 ; Harja et al., 2021 ; Lodhi et al., 2019 ). A wide range of novel nanomaterials such as nano volcanic ash (Alraddadi, 2022 ), nano-clay (Sethy et al., 2023 ), biofunctional reduced graphene oxide (Lin et al., 2023 ), nano-silica particles (Foroutan et al., 2020 ), Ca-doped Ni-Zn nanoferrites (Punia et al., 2022 ), and nano calcium carbonate doped chitin hydrogel (Dou et al., 2022 ) are commonly used as nanoadsorbents for the adsorption of cadmium from wastewater.

In this study, zinc-tin based nanoflower (ZT-NFs) were synthesized by a simple approach, characterized by SEM (scanning electron microscopy) and used for the adsorption of cadmium from synthetic wastewater. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study where the ZT-NFs is used for effective removal of Cd from the water medium. All the dominant parameters of the batch adsorptive removal process were optimized in the univariate manner to determine the optimum conditions. The experimental data was modelled using the most widely used Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

2 Materials and Methods

2.1 chemicals and reagents.

A commercially available Cd standard solution (1000 mg/L) in 2.0% HNO 3 was purchased from Merck (Germany) and used for the optimization experiments. Synthesis of the ZT-NFs was achieved through the combination of zinc chloride, sodium hydroxide and tin (II) chloride. Tin (II) chloride and zinc chloride dihydrate were purchased from Merck, while sodium hydroxide was obtained from Sigma Aldrich (Germany). The standard and sample solutions were prepared with deionized water taken from an ELGA PureFlex III water treatment system. Analytical grade salts of potassium hydrogen phthalate and tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane were dissolved in deionized water to prepare buffer solutions that were adjusted to their specific pH values using dilute sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid solutions.

2.2 Instrumentations

An ATI UNICAM 929 AA (UK, Cambridge) model FAAS fitted with a D 2 (deuterium) lamp for the correction of background noise was utilized for the determination of cadmium. The flame of the system was generated with a stoichiometric mixture of air (oxidant) and acetylene (fuel). A cadmium hollow cathode lamp, manufactured by Photron (Australia) was operated at 10 mA and used as radiation light source to detect cadmium at the analytical wavelength of 228.8 nm. The pH values of both the standard and sample solutions were regulated using a pH meter manufactured by Mettler Toledo (USA). The microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis procedure was conducted with a MILESTONE Start D digestion system (Sorisole, Italy). The drying and incubation procedures were conducted using a laboratory oven D-6450 Hanau model (Heraeus, Germany). A table top BIOBASE BKCTL5II centrifuge (Shandong, China) was employed for the purpose of separating the nanoflowers from solution.

2.3 Synthesis of the Zinc-tin Oxide Nanoflowers

The synthesis of the zinc-tin based nanoflowers (ZT-NFs) was achieved by modifying a method previously described in the literature (Jaculine et al., 2014 ). A total of 6.0 mmol of SnCl 2 .2H 2 O and 6.0 mmol of ZnCl 2 were precisely weighed using an analytical balance and subsequently transferred into separate beakers. The two distinct solutions were prepared by adding 8.0 mL of deionized water. Approximately 4.0 mL of 5.0 M NaOH solution was pipetted into the SnCl 2 .2H 2 O solution and agitated using a magnetic stirrer for a duration of 10 min. Subsequently, the ZnCl 2 solution was incrementally added to the mixture and further mixed for a period of 45 min. The nanoflowers was synthesized with a microwave digester employing a 55-min heating program as indicated in Fig.  1 . Finally, the specimen was subjected to an overnight drying process in an oven maintained at a temperature of 50 °C.

Representation of the time and temperature program employed for the microwave-assisted hydrothermal synthesis of the nanoparticles

2.4 Preparation of Synthetic Wastewater

Synthetic wastewater was prepared with the following composition via the procedure reported in the literature by Erşahin et al. ( 2014 ) (Ersahin et al., 2014 ). The chemicals used were CuCl 2 ·2H 2 O (0.015 g/L), NiCl 2 ·6H 2 O; boric acid; and ZnCl 2 (0.025 g/L), (NH 4 ) 6 Mo 7 O 24 ·4H 2 O (0.045 g/L), Na 2 SeO 3 ·5H 2 O (0.05 g/L), resazurin and MnCl 2 ·4H 2 O (0.25 g/L), EDTA (0.5 g/L), CoCl 2 ·6H 2 O and FeCl 3 ·4H 2 O (1.0 g/L), and HCl 36% (0.5 mL) as micronutrients. Sunflower oil (1.4 mL), micronutrient (1.0 mL), MgSO 4 ·7H 2 O (0.25 g/L), CaCl 2 .2H 2 O (0.37 g/L), NH 4 Cl (0.56 g/L), ovoalbumin (0.84 g/L), K 2 HPO 4 (2.2 g/L), urea (3 g/L), NaCH 3 COOH·3H 2 O (6.3 g/L), starch (5.9 g/L), milk powder (5.6 g/L), and yeast extract (2.5 g/L) were used as macronutrients. Firstly, the synthetic wastewater was prepared as a concentrated stock solution and diluted with tap water until the chemical oxygen demand (COD) value of the wastewater reached 750 g/L. Then, it was diluted four times with ultrapure deionized water immediately before being used in the equilibrium adsorption experiments.

2.5 Procedure of the Batch Adsorptive Removal Process

In the batch adsorption experiments, falcon tubes with a capacity of 50 mL were filled with 35 mL of sample solution. Subsequently, 75 mg of ZT-NFs and 1.0 mL of a pH 6.0 buffer solution were added to the sample solution. The nanoflowers were uniformly dispersed within the aqueous solution with the aid of a mechanical shaker for a duration of 30 min. The nanoflowers were retrieved from the bottom of the falcon tube following a centrifugation period of 5.0 min at a speed of 3000 rpm. Then, 20 mL of the supernatant was transferred into a clean falcon tube and subjected to an additional centrifugation step. The final step of the procedure was transferring 2.0 mL of the effluent solution into a separate tube and aspirating into the FAAS system to measure absorbance signals.

The percent removal efficiency (%RE) of the ZT-NFs for cadmium was calculated according to Eq.  1 .

In Eq.  1 , X i (mg/L) and X e (mg/L) represent the initial and residual (equilibrium) adsorption levels, respectively. For the optimization experiments, the %REs were calculated via the difference in absorbance values of cadmium in the influent and effluent samples. On the other hand, the cadmium concentrations of the effluents calculated from the calibration plot of cadmium in synthetic wastewater were used as X e values for the equilibrium modelling studies. All the experimental steps of the adsorptive removal process are shown in Fig.  2 .

A schematic illustration depicting the sequential experimental procedures employed in the adsorptive removal process

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 characterization of the zinc-tin oxide nanoflowers.

The SEM images of the synthesized ZT-NFs are displayed in Fig.  3 with two different magnifications. The provided image displays a substantial cluster of nanoflowers that exhibit a discernible morphology reminiscent of rose petals. The images clearly demonstrate that each nanoflower consisted of multiple thin nanosheets, thereby offering a substantial surface area for its intended purpose.

SEM images obtained with different magnification levels: 10 µm (left) and 1.0 µm (right)

3.2 Univariate Optimization of the Batch Adsorption Process

The batch adsorptive removal process was optimized univariately via pH/volume of buffer solution, nanoflower amount and agitation type/period. The standard solutions of cadmium used in all the optimization experiments were prepared with ultrapure water at room temperature. The effect of each parameter was evaluated according to the %RE calculated via the absorbance of the influent and effluent. The SDs (standard deviations) of the %REs were calculated for triplicate batch experiments. The optimum optimization parameters and values were selected as the highest means of triplicate %REs.

3.2.1 Effect of pH and Volume of Buffer Solution

The stability of an analyte on the surface of an adsorbent can be affected by the ionic balance of the sample solution. Therefore, the effect of pH on the adsorption process was examined by adding 3.0 mL of buffer solutions in the range of pH 5.0 – 8.0 (at 1.0 intervals) to 2.0 mg/L of cadmium standard solutions and treating with 25 mg ZT-NFs for 15 s and 1.0 min period of agitation by vortex and ultrasonication, respectively. As shown in Fig.  4 , cadmium was adsorbed effectively onto the ZT-NFs in the aqueous media buffered at pH 6.0. Highly acidic sample media presents several hydronium ions that may compete with cadmium ions for adsorptive sites on the sorbent material. The surface chemistry of the sorbent material is also maximized for adsorption through different mechanisms (physical and chemical) at the optimum pH value. Therefore, the pH of the buffer solution was selected as 6.0 for the adsorptive removal process due to its highest average removal efficiency compared to the other pH values. The volume of pH 6.0 buffer solution was also evaluated by testing 0.50, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0, and 4.0 mL volumes, and the optimum buffer solution volume was selected as 1.0 mL. This observation can be supported by the principle of dilution, where the buffer volumes higher than 1.0 mL ended up diluting the analyte in solution with corresponding high initial volumes. The interaction of the same sorbent amount with analytes in higher volumes becomes limited and this causes the decline in removal efficiency. For the 0.50 mL volume, it can be inferred that its buffer capacity was relatively lower than the optimum 1.0 mL volume.

Effect of pH on cadmium removal by ZT-NFs based adsorption process, n = 3 error bars (35 mL of 2.0 mg/L Cd standard solution, 25 mg of ZT-NF, 3.0 mL of each buffer solution)

3.2.2 Effect of Nanoflower Amount

This optimization step was performed to determine the optimum amount of the adsorbent that would yield maximum interaction with the analyte in solution. For this purpose, eight different amounts (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 75, and 100 mg) of ZT-NFs were tested for 35 mL of sample solutions. The significant increase in the %REs from 10 to 60 mg amounts can be clearly seen in Fig.  5 , indicating that the higher amounts offered large surface areas, facilitating the removal of cadmium from the aqueous sample solution compared to the lower amounts. On the other hand, no significant differences in %REs were observed from 60 to 100 mg. Consequently, the optimum nanoflower amount was selected as 75 mg, considering its low standard deviation (SD) value of 6.4 and relatively higher efficiency based on mean values.

Effect of nanoflower amount on cadmium removal by ZT-NFs based adsorption process, n = 3 error bars (35 mL of 2.0 mg/L Cd standard solution, 1.0 mL of pH 6.0 buffer solution)

3.2.3 Effect of Agitation Type and Period

In order to achieve a homogeneous dispersion of nanoparticles within an aqueous solution, it is essential to employ sample agitation. This process facilitates the uniform distribution of nanoparticles throughout the solution, thereby enhancing their interaction with the analyte and leading to efficient adsorption. The optimizations of pH/volume of buffer solution and nanoflower amount were performed with 2.0 mg/L cadmium solutions. For the optimization of sample agitation type and period, the concentration of cadmium was increased to 4.0 mg/L to determine the impact of these optimization parameters more significantly due to the increasing removal efficiencies. Three agitation procedures including vortexing, ultrasonication, and mechanical mixing were employed to optimize the dispersion of the nanoflowers within the solution and improve the adsorption efficiency. The agitation procedures for all samples were conducted for a period of 3 min. The mechanical mixing technique yielded the highest removal efficiencies, indicating that the technique facilitated enhanced interaction between cadmium and the ZT-NFs. Different periods (1.0, 2.0, 5.0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 min) of mechanical mixing were therefore tested to determine their impact on the removal efficiency for cadmium. There was a significant increase in the %REs from 1.0 to 30 min, followed by no significant differences from 30 to 50 min. Therefore, 30 min of mechanical mixing was selected as the optimum agitation type and period.

The optimized experimental parameters/values determined via the univariate optimization experiments for the adsorptive removal of cadmium by ZT-NFs are detailed in Table  1 .

3.3 Equilibrium Modelling in the Batch Adsorption Process

Ultrapure water was used for all the optimization experiments that were performed to determine the optimum parameters/values. Adsorption equilibrium experiments were performed with synthetic wastewater, to mimic a real sample matrix. The raw synthetic wastewater was analyzed under optimized conditions, but no analytical signals were recorded for cadmium. Afterwards, a calibration plot of the absorbance values plotted against their corresponding concentrations in the range of 0.25 to 8.0 mg/L (in synthetic wastewater) was used to determine the equilibrium/residual concentrations (C i , mg/L) of cadmium in the effluent samples. The calibration plot of cadmium developed for the spiked synthetic wastewater is given in Fig.  6 .

Calibration plot of cadmium in synthetic wastewater

After developing the calibration plot, cadmium was spiked in the 4-times diluted synthetic wastewater samples in the range of 1.0 – 40 mg/L. The cadmium concentrations of the effluent samples treated with the ZT-NFs-based adsorptive removal process was calculated via the calibration plot in synthetic wastewater and the calculated average %REs with their SDs for triplicate analyses are given in Table  2 .

3.3.1 Langmuir Isotherm Model

The Langmuir equation, which has its basis in the theory of a finite number of uniformly distributed binding sites on the surface of an adsorbent, is widely recognized as the isotherm model that is most commonly employed for modelling adsorption data (Langmuir, 1918 ; Onkal Engin et al., 2012 ). This isotherm model has the mathematical equation (non-linear) given in Eq.  2 :

In this non-linear equation, the denotations of C e , K L , q e , and q m represent residual/equilibrium adsorbate concentration (mg/L), Langmuir constant (L/mg), equilibrium adsorption capacity (mg/g), and maximum adsorption capacity (mg/g). The equilibrium adsorption capacity ( q e ) can be easily calculated via Eq.  3 :

where: m is the amount of adsorbent and V is the volume of sample solution (L). After calculating the C e values from the developed calibration plot and the q e values from Eq.  3 , the regression constants q m and K L can be calculated from the linearization of the non-linear Langmuir equation. The linearization of this model utilized in this study is given in Table  3 (Sadeghi et al., 2023 ).

In the Langmuir model, there is a constant separation factor ( R L ), which is dimensionless, indicating the isotherm type as: R L  = 1 (linear), R L  = 0 (irreversible), R L  > 1 (undesirable), and 0 <  R L  < 1 (favorable). The mathematical equation for R L is given in Eq.  4 .

In this ZT-NFs-based adsorptive removal study, the data was modelled according to the Langmuir isotherm model. The equilibrium isotherm plot ( 1/q e against 1/Ce ) obtained from the linearization of the Langmuir isotherm equation is given in Fig.  7 .

A plot of Langmuir isotherm for adsorptive removal of cadmium by ZT-NFs from synthetic wastewater

The R 2 (coefficient of determination) value of 0.9942 indicated a good fit of this isotherm model (Table  4 ). The q e and R L values with their corresponding initial concentrations are also given in Table  5 . All the R L values represented favorable adsorptive removal of cadmium for the working concentration range (1.0 – 40 mg/L).

4 Conclusion

The development of wastewater treatment processes that serve as feasible alternatives or complements to conventional wastewater treatment plants help to effectively mitigate the release of heavy metals into water bodies. In the scope of this study, ZT-NFs were synthesized via a microwave-assisted hydrothermal technique and used as nanoadsorbents for the adsorptive removal of cadmium from synthetic wastewater. The structure and morphology of the nanoflowers were confirmed by SEM analysis. The dominant parameters of the adsorptive removal process (pH/volume of buffer solution, nanoflower amount, and agitation type/period) were optimized univariately to enhance the overall efficiency of the process. The optimization experiments were carried out in ultrapure deionized water, while the equilibrium adsorption experiments were performed in synthetic wastewater. Cadmium was determined in the influent/effluent samples by a robust analytical instrument, FAAS, which is known to be affordable and compatible with different sample preparation methods. Moreover, the residual cadmium concentrations in the synthetic wastewater were calculated via the calibration plot developed in the sample matrix to improve the quantification accuracy of the method. Percent removal efficiencies of cadmium from synthetic wastewater up to 80% were achieved in the working concentration range. The equilibrium data of the adsorption process was modelled according to the Langmuir isotherm model and the results confirmed that this isotherm model fitted well with the data in the initial concentrations between 1.0 and 40 mg/L. Consequently, favorable adsorption of cadmium onto ZT-NFs was successfully achieved in synthetic wastewater at low concentrations, as confirmed by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. A sound assumption can be made that the proposed removal method can be extended to other metal ions to achieve similar or better removal efficiencies.

Data Availability

Data will be available upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors dedicated this publication to the 100th anniversary of the Republic of Türkiye. As scientists raised by Türkiye, they are proud to be citizens of this country.

Open access funding provided by the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBİTAK).

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Münevver Toprak, Buse Tuğba Zaman, Gülten Çetin & Sezgin Bakırdere

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Münevver Toprak

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Barış Yıldız & İlknur Durukan Temuge

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Münevver Toprak: Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft.

Barış Yıldız: Formal analysis, Validation, Writing – original draft.

Buse Tuğba Zaman: Data curation, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft.

Gamze Dalgıç Bozyiğit: Data curation, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft.

İlknur Durukan Temuge: Conceptualization, Data curation, Writing – original draft.

Gülten Çetin: Conceptualization, Co-supervision, Validation, Writing– review & editing.

Sezgin Bakırdere: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing– review & editing.

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Toprak, M., Yıldız, B., Zaman, B.T. et al. Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Synthesis of Zinc-tin Based Nanoflower for the Adsorptive Removal of Cadmium from Synthetic Wastewater. Water Air Soil Pollut 235 , 318 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07129-x

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Building a Summary Table or Synthesis Matrix

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• Writing a Literature Review and Using a Synthesis Matrix

What a Summary Table or Synthesis Matrix looks like

Use the "Literature Review Matrix Template" as a guideline to help you sort through your thoughts, note important points and think through the similarities and differences: 

You are organizing the review by ideas and not by sources .  The literature review is not just a summary of the already published works.  Your synthesis should show how various articles are linked. 

A summary table is also called a synthesis matrix.  The table helps you organize and compare information for your systematic review, scholarly report, dissertation or thesis

Synthesis Matrix.

A summary table is also called a synthesis matrix . A summary table helps you record the main points of each source and document how sources relate to each other. After summarizing and evaluating your sources, arrange them in a matrix to help you see how they relate to each other, and apply to each of your themes or variables.

Faculty who typically guide students find it challenging to help students learn how to synthesize material (Blondy, Blakesless, Scheffer, Rubenfeld, Cronin, & Luster-Turner, 2016; Kearney, 2015) .  Writers  can easily summarize material but seem to struggle to adequately synthesize knowledge about their topic and express that in their writing. So, whether you are writing a student papers, dissertations, or scholarly report it is necessary to learn a few tips and tricks to organize your ideas.

Building a summary table and developing solid synthesis skills is important for nurses, nurse practitioners, and allied health researchers.  Quality evidence-based practice initiatives and nursing care and medicine are based on understanding and evaluating the resources and research available, identifying gaps, and building a strong foundation for future work.

Good synthesis is about putting the data gathered, references read, and literature analyzed together in a new way that shows connections and relationships. ( Shellenbarger, 2016 ). The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines synthesis as something that is made by combining different things or the composition or combination of parts or elements so as to form a whole (Synthesis, n.d.).  

In other words, building a summary table or synthesis matrix  involves taking information from a variety of sources, evaluating that information and forming new ideas or insights in an original way.  This can be a new and potentially challenging experience for students and researchers who are used to just repeating what is already in the literature.

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