thesis of globalization

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Globalization

Covering a wide range of distinct political, economic, and cultural trends, the term “globalization” remains crucial to contemporary political and academic debate. In contemporary popular discourse, globalization often functions as little more than a synonym for one or more of the following phenomena: the pursuit of classical liberal (or “free market”) policies in the world economy (“economic liberalization”), the growing dominance of western (or even American) forms of political, economic, and cultural life (“westernization” or “Americanization”), a global political order built on liberal notions of international law (the “global liberal order”), an ominous network of top-down rule by global elites (“globalism” or “global technocracy”), the proliferation of new information technologies (the “Internet Revolution”), as well as the notion that humanity stands at the threshold of realizing one single unified community in which major sources of social conflict have vanished (“global integration”). Globalization is a politically-contested phenomenon about which there are significant disagreements and struggles, with many nationalist and populist movements and leaders worldwide (including Turkey’s Recep Erdoğan, Hungary’s Viktor Orbán, and former US President Donald Trump) pushing back against what they view as its unappealing features.

Fortunately, recent social theory has formulated a more precise concept of globalization than those typically offered by politicians and pundits. Although sharp differences continue to separate participants in the ongoing debate about the term, most contemporary social theorists endorse the view that globalization refers to fundamental changes in the spatial and temporal contours of social existence, according to which the significance of space or territory undergoes shifts in the face of a no less dramatic acceleration in the temporal structure of crucial forms of human activity. Geographical distance is typically measured in time. As the time necessary to connect distinct geographical locations is reduced, distance or space undergoes compression or “annihilation.” The human experience of space is intimately connected to the temporal structure of those activities by means of which we experience space. Changes in the temporality of human activity inevitably generate altered experiences of space or territory. Theorists of globalization disagree about the precise sources of recent shifts in the spatial and temporal contours of human life. Nonetheless, they generally agree that alterations in humanity’s experiences of space and time are working to undermine the importance of local and even national boundaries in many arenas of human endeavor. Since globalization contains far-reaching implications for virtually every facet of human life, it necessarily suggests the need to rethink key questions of normative political theory.

1. Globalization in the History of Ideas

2. globalization in contemporary social theory, 3. the normative challenges of globalization, other internet resources, related entries.

The term globalization has only become commonplace in the last three decades, and academic commentators who employed the term as late as the 1970s accurately recognized the novelty of doing so (Modelski 1972). At least since the advent of industrial capitalism, however, intellectual discourse has been replete with allusions to phenomena strikingly akin to those that have garnered the attention of recent theorists of globalization. Nineteenth and twentieth-century philosophy, literature, and social commentary include numerous references to an inchoate yet widely shared awareness that experiences of distance and space are inevitably transformed by the emergence of high-speed forms of transportation (for example, rail and air travel) and communication (the telegraph or telephone) that dramatically heighten possibilities for human interaction across existing geographical and political divides (Harvey 1989; Kern 1983). Long before the introduction of the term globalization into recent popular and scholarly debate, the appearance of novel high-speed forms of social activity generated extensive commentary about the compression of space.

Writing in 1839, an English journalist commented on the implications of rail travel by anxiously postulating that as distance was “annihilated, the surface of our country would, as it were, shrivel in size until it became not much bigger than one immense city” (Harvey 1996, 242). A few years later, Heinrich Heine, the émigré German-Jewish poet, captured this same experience when he noted: “space is killed by the railways. I feel as if the mountains and forests of all countries were advancing on Paris. Even now, I can smell the German linden trees; the North Sea’s breakers are rolling against my door” (Schivelbusch 1978, 34). Another young German émigré, the socialist theorist Karl Marx, in 1848 formulated the first theoretical explanation of the sense of territorial compression that so fascinated his contemporaries. In Marx’s account, the imperatives of capitalist production inevitably drove the bourgeoisie to “nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, and establish connections everywhere.” The juggernaut of industrial capitalism constituted the most basic source of technologies resulting in the annihilation of space, helping to pave the way for “intercourse in every direction, universal interdependence of nations,” in contrast to a narrow-minded provincialism that had plagued humanity for untold eons (Marx 1848, 476). Despite their ills as instruments of capitalist exploitation, Marx argued, new technologies that increased possibilities for human interaction across borders ultimately represented a progressive force in history. They provided the necessary infrastructure for a cosmopolitan future socialist civilization, while simultaneously functioning in the present as indispensable organizational tools for a working class destined to undertake a revolution no less oblivious to traditional territorial divisions than the system of capitalist exploitation it hoped to dismantle.

European intellectuals have hardly been alone in their fascination with the experience of territorial compression, as evinced by the key role played by the same theme in early twentieth-century American thought. In 1904, the literary figure Henry Adams diagnosed the existence of a “law of acceleration,” fundamental to the workings of social development, in order to make sense of the rapidly changing spatial and temporal contours of human activity. Modern society could only be properly understood if the seemingly irrepressible acceleration of basic technological and social processes was given a central place in social and historical analysis (Adams 1931 [1904]). John Dewey argued in 1927 that recent economic and technological trends implied the emergence of a “new world” no less noteworthy than the opening up of America to European exploration and conquest in 1492. For Dewey, the invention of steam, electricity, and the telephone offered formidable challenges to relatively static and homogeneous forms of local community life that had long represented the main theatre for most human activity. Economic activity increasingly exploded the confines of local communities to a degree that would have stunned our historical predecessors, for example, while the steamship, railroad, automobile, and air travel considerably intensified rates of geographical mobility. Dewey went beyond previous discussions of the changing temporal and spatial contours of human activity, however, by suggesting that the compression of space posed fundamental questions for democracy. Dewey observed that small-scale political communities (for example, the New England township), a crucial site for the exercise of effective democratic participation, seemed ever more peripheral to the great issues of an interconnected world. Increasingly dense networks of social ties across borders rendered local forms of self-government ineffective. Dewey wondered, “How can a public be organized, we may ask, when literally it does not stay in place?” (Dewey 1927, 140). To the extent that democratic citizenship minimally presupposes the possibility of action in concert with others, how might citizenship be sustained in a social world subject to ever more astonishing possibilities for movement and mobility? New high-speed technologies attributed a shifting and unstable character to social life, as demonstrated by increased rates of change and turnover in many arenas of activity (most important perhaps, the economy) directly affected by them, and the relative fluidity and inconstancy of social relations there. If citizenship requires some modicum of constancy and stability in social life, however, did not recent changes in the temporal and spatial conditions of human activity bode poorly for political participation? How might citizens come together and act in concert when contemporary society’s “mania for motion and speed” made it difficult for them even to get acquainted with one another, let alone identify objects of common concern? (Dewey 1927, 140).

The unabated proliferation of high-speed technologies is probably the main source of the numerous references in intellectual life since 1950 to the annihilation of distance. The Canadian cultural critic Marshall McLuhan made the theme of a technologically based “global village,” generated by social “acceleration at all levels of human organization,” the centerpiece of an anxiety-ridden analysis of new media technologies in the 1960s (McLuhan 1964, 103). Arguing in the 1970s and 1980s that recent shifts in the spatial and temporal contours of social life exacerbated authoritarian political trends, the French social critic Paul Virilio seemed to confirm many of Dewey’s darkest worries about the decay of democracy. According to his analysis, the high-speed imperatives of modern warfare and weapons systems strengthened the executive and debilitated representative legislatures. The compression of territory thereby paved the way for executive-centered emergency government (Virilio 1977). But it was probably the German philosopher Martin Heidegger who most clearly anticipated contemporary debates about globalization. Heidegger not only described the “abolition of distance” as a constitutive feature of our contemporary condition, but he linked recent shifts in spatial experience to no less fundamental alterations in the temporality of human activity: “All distances in time and space are shrinking. Man now reaches overnight, by places, places which formerly took weeks and months of travel” (Heidegger 1950, 165). Heidegger also accurately prophesied that new communication and information technologies would soon spawn novel possibilities for dramatically extending the scope of virtual reality : “Distant sites of the most ancient cultures are shown on film as if they stood this very moment amidst today’s street traffic…The peak of this abolition of every possibility of remoteness is reached by television, which will soon pervade and dominate the whole machinery of communication” (Heidegger 1950, 165). Heidegger’s description of growing possibilities for simultaneity and instantaneousness in human experience ultimately proved no less apprehensive than the views of many of his predecessors. In his analysis, the compression of space increasingly meant that from the perspective of human experience “everything is equally far and equally near.” Instead of opening up new possibilities for rich and multi-faceted interaction with events once distant from the purview of most individuals, the abolition of distance tended to generate a “uniform distanceless” in which fundamentally distinct objects became part of a bland homogeneous experiential mass (Heidegger 1950, 166). The loss of any meaningful distinction between “nearness” and “distance” contributed to a leveling down of human experience, which in turn spawned an indifference that rendered human experience monotonous and one-dimensional.

Since the mid-1980s, social theorists have moved beyond the relatively underdeveloped character of previous reflections on the compression or annihilation of space to offer a rigorous conception of globalization. To be sure, major disagreements remain about the precise nature of the causal forces behind globalization, with David Harvey (1989 1996) building directly on Marx’s pioneering explanation of globalization, while others (Giddens 19990; Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton 1999) question the exclusive focus on economic factors characteristic of the Marxist approach. Nonetheless, a consensus about the basic rudiments of the concept of globalization appears to be emerging.

First, recent analysts associate globalization with deterritorialization , according to which a growing variety of social activities takes place irrespective of the geographical location of participants. As Jan Aart Scholte observes, “global events can – via telecommunication, digital computers, audiovisual media, rocketry and the like – occur almost simultaneously anywhere and everywhere in the world” (Scholte 1996, 45). Globalization refers to increased possibilities for action between and among people in situations where latitudinal and longitudinal location seems immaterial to the social activity at hand. Even though geographical location remains crucial for many undertakings (for example, farming to satisfy the needs of a local market), deterritorialization manifests itself in many social spheres. Business people on different continents now engage in electronic commerce; academics make use of the latest Internet conferencing equipment to organize seminars in which participants are located at disparate geographical locations; the Internet allows people to communicate instantaneously with each other notwithstanding vast geographical distances separating them. Territory in the sense of a traditional sense of a geographically identifiable location no longer constitutes the whole of “social space” in which human activity takes places. In this initial sense of the term, globalization refers to the spread of new forms of non-territorial social activity (Ruggie 1993; Scholte 2000).

Second, theorists conceive of globalization as linked to the growth of social interconnectedness across existing geographical and political boundaries. In this view, deterritorialization is a crucial facet of globalization. Yet an exclusive focus on it would be misleading. Since the vast majority of human activities is still tied to a concrete geographical location, the more decisive facet of globalization concerns the manner in which distant events and forces impact on local and regional endeavors (Tomlinson 1999, 9). For example, this encyclopedia might be seen as an example of a deterritorialized social space since it allows for the exchange of ideas in cyberspace. The only prerequisite for its use is access to the Internet. Although substantial inequalities in Internet access still exist, use of the encyclopedia is in principle unrelated to any specific geographical location. However, the reader may very well be making use of the encyclopedia as a supplement to course work undertaken at a school or university. That institution is not only located at a specific geographical juncture, but its location is probably essential for understanding many of its key attributes: the level of funding may vary according to the state or region where the university is located, or the same academic major might require different courses and readings at a university in China, for example, than in Argentina or Norway. Globalization refers to those processes whereby geographically distant events and decisions impact to a growing degree on “local” university life. For example, the insistence by powerful political leaders in wealthy countries that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) or World Bank recommend to Latin and South American countries that they commit themselves to a particular set of economic policies might result in poorly paid teachers and researchers as well as large, understaffed lecture classes in São Paolo or Lima; the latest innovations in information technology from a computer research laboratory in India could quickly change the classroom experience of students in British Columbia or Tokyo. Globalization refers “to processes of change which underpin a transformation in the organization of human affairs by linking together and expanding human activity across regions and continents” (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton 1999, 15). Globalization in this sense is a matter of degree since any given social activity might influence events more or less faraway: even though a growing number of activities seems intermeshed with events in distant continents, certain human activities remain primarily local or regional in scope. Also, the magnitude and impact of the activity might vary: geographically removed events could have a relatively minimal or a far more extensive influence on events at a particular locality. Finally, we might consider the degree to which interconnectedness across frontiers is no longer merely haphazard but instead predictable and regularized (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton 1999).

Third, globalization must also include reference to the speed or velocity of social activity. Deterritorialization and interconnectedness initially seem chiefly spatial in nature. Yet it is easy to see how these spatial shifts are directly tied to the acceleration of crucial forms of social activity. As we observed above in our discussion of the conceptual forerunners to the present-day debate on globalization, the proliferation of high-speed transportation, communication, and information technologies constitutes the most immediate source for the blurring of geographical and territorial boundaries that prescient observers have diagnosed at least since the mid-nineteenth century. The compression of space presupposes rapid-fire forms of technology; shifts in our experiences of territory depend on concomitant changes in the temporality of human action. High-speed technology only represents the tip of the iceberg, however. The linking together and expanding of social activities across borders is predicated on the possibility of relatively fast flows and movements of people, information, capital, and goods. Without these fast flows, it is difficult to see how distant events could possibly posses the influence they now enjoy. High-speed technology plays a pivotal role in the velocity of human affairs. But many other factors contribute to the overall pace and speed of social activity. The organizational structure of the modern capitalist factory offers one example; certain contemporary habits and inclinations, including the “mania for motion and speed” described by Dewey, represent another. Deterritorialization and the expansion of interconnectedness are intimately tied to the acceleration of social life, while social acceleration itself takes many different forms (Eriksen 2001; Rosa 2013). Here as well, we can easily see why globalization is always a matter of degree. The velocity or speed of flows, movements, and interchanges across borders can vary no less than their magnitude, impact, or regularity.

Fourth, even though analysts disagree about the causal forces that generate globalization, most agree that globalization should be conceived as a relatively long-term process . The triad of deterritorialization, interconnectedness, and social acceleration hardly represents a sudden or recent event in contemporary social life. Globalization is a constitutive feature of the modern world, and modern history includes many examples of globalization (Giddens 1990). As we saw above, nineteenth-century thinkers captured at least some of its core features; the compression of territoriality composed an important element of their lived experience. Nonetheless, some contemporary theorists believe that globalization has taken a particularly intense form in recent decades, as innovations in communication, transportation, and information technologies (for example, computerization) have generated stunning new possibilities for simultaneity and instantaneousness (Harvey 1989). In this view, present-day intellectual interest in the problem of globalization can be linked directly to the emergence of new high-speed technologies that tend to minimize the significance of distance and heighten possibilities for deterritorialization and social interconnectedness. Although the intense sense of territorial compression experienced by so many of our contemporaries is surely reminiscent of the experiences of earlier generations, some contemporary writers nonetheless argue that it would be mistaken to obscure the countless ways in which ongoing transformations of the spatial and temporal contours of human experience are especially far-reaching. While our nineteenth-century predecessors understandably marveled at the railroad or the telegraph, a comparatively vast array of social activities is now being transformed by innovations that accelerate social activity and considerably deepen longstanding trends towards deterritorialization and social interconnectedness. To be sure, the impact of deterritorialization, social interconnectedness, and social acceleration are by no means universal or uniform: migrant workers engaging in traditional forms of low-wage agricultural labor in the fields of southern California, for example, probably operate in a different spatial and temporal context than the Internet entrepreneurs of San Francisco or Seattle. Distinct assumptions about space and time often coexist uneasily during a specific historical juncture (Gurvitch 1964). Nonetheless, the impact of recent technological innovations is profound, and even those who do not have a job directly affected by the new technology are shaped by it in innumerable ways as citizens and consumers (Eriksen 2001, 16).

Fifth, globalization should be understood as a multi-pronged process, since deterritorialization, social interconnectedness, and acceleration manifest themselves in many different (economic, political, and cultural) arenas of social activity. Although each facet of globalization is linked to the core components of globalization described above, each consists of a complex and relatively autonomous series of empirical developments, requiring careful examination in order to disclose the causal mechanisms specific to it (Held, McGrew, Goldblatt & Perraton 1999). Each manifestation of globalization also generates distinct conflicts and dislocations. For example, there is substantial empirical evidence that cross-border flows and exchanges (of goods, people, information, etc.), as well as the emergence of directly transnational forms of production by means of which a single commodity is manufactured simultaneously in distant corners of the globe, are gaining in prominence (Castells 1996). High-speed technologies and organizational approaches are employed by transnationally operating firms, the so-called “global players,” with great effectiveness. The emergence of “around-the-world, around-the-clock” financial markets, where major cross-border financial transactions are made in cyberspace at the blink of an eye, represents a familiar example of the economic face of globalization. Global financial markets also challenge traditional attempts by liberal democratic nation-states to rein in the activities of bankers, spawning understandable anxieties about the growing power and influence of financial markets over democratically elected representative institutions. In political life, globalization takes a distinct form, though the general trends towards deterritorialization, interconnectedness across borders, and the acceleration of social activity are fundamental here as well. Transnational movements, in which activists employ rapid-fire communication technologies to join forces across borders in combating ills that seem correspondingly transnational in scope (for example, the depletion of the ozone layer), offer an example of political globalization (Tarrow 2005). Another would be the tendency towards ambitious supranational forms of social and economic lawmaking and regulation, where individual nation-states cooperate to pursue regulation whose jurisdiction transcends national borders no less than the cross-border economic processes that undermine traditional modes of nation state-based regulation. Political scientists typically describe such supranational organizations (the European Union, for example, or United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement, or USMCA) as important manifestations of political and legal globalization. The proliferation of supranational organizations has been no less conflict-laden than economic globalization, however. Critics insist that local, regional, and national forms of self-government are being supplanted by insufficiently democratic forms of global governance remote from the needs of ordinary citizens (Maus 2006; Streeck 2016). In contrast, defenders describe new forms of supranational legal and political decision as indispensable forerunners to more inclusive and advanced forms of self-government, even as they worry about existing democratic deficits and technocratic traits (Habermas 2015).

The wide-ranging impact of globalization on human existence means that it necessarily touches on many basic philosophical and political-theoretical questions. At a minimum, globalization suggests that academic philosophers in the rich countries of the West should pay closer attention to the neglected voices and intellectual traditions of peoples with whom our fate is intertwined in ever more intimate ways (Dallmayr 1998). In this section, however, we focus exclusively on the immediate challenges posed by globalization to normative political theory.

Western political theory has traditionally presupposed the existence of territorially bound communities, whose borders can be more or less neatly delineated from those of other communities. In this vein, the influential liberal political philosopher John Rawls described bounded communities whose fundamental structure consisted of “self-sufficient schemes of cooperation for all the essential purposes of human life” (Rawls 1993, 301). Although political and legal thinkers historically have exerted substantial energy in formulating defensible normative models of relations between states (Nardin and Mapel 1992), like Rawls they typically have relied on a clear delineation of “domestic” from “foreign” affairs. In addition, they have often argued that the domestic arena represents a normatively privileged site, since fundamental normative ideals and principles (for example, liberty or justice) are more likely to be successfully realized in the domestic arena than in relations among states. According to one influential strand within international relations theory, relations between states are more-or-less lawless. Since the achievement of justice or democracy, for example, presupposes an effective political sovereign, the lacuna of sovereignty at the global level means that justice and democracy are necessarily incomplete and probably unattainable there. In this conventional realist view of international politics, core features of the modern system of sovereign states relegate the pursuit of western political thought’s most noble normative goals primarily to the domestic arena (Mearsheimer 2003.) Significantly, some prominent mid-century proponents of international realism rejected this position’s deep hostility to international law and supranational political organization, in part because they presciently confronted challenges that we now typically associate with intensified globalization (Scheuerman 2011).

Globalization poses a fundamental challenge to each of these traditional assumptions. It is no longer self-evident that nation-states can be described as “self-sufficient schemes of cooperation for all the essential purposes of human life” in the context of intense deterritorialization and the spread and intensification of social relations across borders. The idea of a bounded community seems suspect given recent shifts in the spatio-temporal contours of human life. Even the most powerful and privileged political units are now subject to increasingly deterritorialized activities (for example, global financial markets or digitalized mass communication) over which they have limited control, and they find themselves nested in webs of social relations whose scope explodes the confines of national borders. Of course, in much of human history social relations have transcended existing political divides. However, globalization implies a profound quantitative increase in and intensification of social relations of this type. While attempts to offer a clear delineation of the “domestic” from the “foreign” probably made sense at an earlier juncture in history, this distinction no longer accords with core developmental trends in many arenas of social activity. As the possibility of a clear division between domestic and foreign affairs dissipates, the traditional tendency to picture the domestic arena as a privileged site for the realization of normative ideals and principles becomes problematic as well. As an empirical matter, the decay of the domestic-foreign frontier seems highly ambivalent, since it might easily pave the way for the decay of the more attractive attributes of domestic political life: as “foreign” affairs collapse inward onto “domestic” political life, the insufficiently lawful contours of the former make disturbing inroads onto the latter (Scheuerman 2004). As a normative matter, however, the disintegration of the domestic-foreign divide probably calls for us to consider, to a greater extent than ever before, how our fundamental normative commitments about political life can be effectively achieved on a global scale. If we take the principles of justice or democracy seriously, for example, it is no longer self-evident that the domestic arena is the exclusive or perhaps even main site for their pursuit, since domestic and foreign affairs are now deeply and irrevocably intermeshed. In a globalizing world, the lack of democracy or justice in the global setting necessarily impacts deeply on the pursuit of justice or democracy at home. Indeed, it may no longer be possible to achieve our normative ideals at home without undertaking to do so transnationally as well.

To claim, for example, that questions of distributive justice have no standing in the making of foreign affairs represents at best empirical naivete about economic globalization. At worst, it constitutes a disingenuous refusal to grapple with the fact that the material existence of those fortunate enough to live in the rich countries is inextricably tied to the material status of the vast majority of humanity residing in poor and underdeveloped regions. Growing material inequality spawned by economic globalization is linked to growing domestic material inequality in the rich democracies (Falk 1999; Pogge 2002). Similarly, in the context of global warming and the destruction of the ozone layer, a dogmatic insistence on the sanctity of national sovereignty risks constituting a cynical fig leaf for irresponsible activities whose impact extends well beyond the borders of those countries most directly responsible. Global warming and ozone-depletion cry out for ambitious forms of transnational cooperation and regulation, and the refusal by the rich democracies to accept this necessity implies a failure to take the process of globalization seriously when doing so conflicts with their immediate material interests. Although it might initially seem to be illustrative of clever Realpolitik on the part of the culpable nations to ward off strict cross-border environmental regulation, their stubbornness is probably short-sighted: global warming and ozone depletion will affect the children of Americans who drive gas-guzzling SUVs or use environmentally unsound air-conditioning as well as the future generations of South Africa or Afghanistan (Cerutti 2007). If we keep in mind that environmental degradation probably impacts negatively on democratic politics (for example, by undermining its legitimacy and stability), the failure to pursue effective transnational environmental regulation potentially undermines democracy at home as well as abroad.

Philosophers and political theorists have eagerly addressed the normative and political implications of our globalizing world. A lively debate about the possibility of achieving justice at the global level pits representatives of cosmopolitanism against myriad communitarians, nationalists, realists, and others who privilege the nation-state and moral, political, and social ties resting on it (Lieven 2020; Tamir 2019). In contrast, cosmopolitans tend to underscore our universal obligations to those who reside faraway and with whom we may share little in the way of language, custom, or culture, oftentimes arguing that claims to “justice at home” can and should be applied elsewhere as well (Beardsworth 2011; Beitz 1999; Caney 2006; Wallace-Brown & Held 2010). In this way, cosmopolitanism builds directly on the universalistic impulses of modern moral and political thought. Cosmopolitanism’s critics dispute the view that our obligations to foreigners possess the same status as those to members of particular local and national communities of which we remain very much a part. They by no means deny the need to redress global inequality, for example, but they often express skepticism in the face of cosmopolitanism’s tendency to defend significant legal and political reforms as necessary to address the inequities of a planet where millions of people a year die of starvation or curable diseases (Miller 2007; 2013; Nagel 2005). Nor do cosmopolitanism’s critics necessarily deny that the process of globalization is real, though some of them suggest that its impact has been grossly exaggerated (Kymlicka 1999; Nussbaum et al . 1996; Streeck 2016). Nonetheless, they doubt that humanity has achieved a rich or sufficiently articulated sense of a common fate such that far-reaching attempts to achieve greater global justice (for example, substantial redistribution from the rich to poor) could prove successful. Cosmopolitans not only counter with a flurry of universalist and egalitarian moral arguments, but they also accuse their opponents of obscuring the threat posed by globalization to the particular forms of national community whose ethical primacy communitarians, nationalists, and others endorse. From the cosmopolitan perspective, the tendency to favor moral and political obligations to fellow members of the nation-state represents a misguided and increasingly reactionary nostalgia for a rapidly decaying constellation of political practices and institutions.

A similar divide characterizes the ongoing debate about the prospects of democratic institutions at the global level. In a cosmopolitan mode, Daniele Archibugi (2008) and the late David Held (1995) have argued that globalization requires the extension of liberal democratic institutions (including the rule of law and elected representative institutions) to the transnational level. Nation state-based liberal democracy is poorly equipped to deal with deleterious side effects of present-day globalization such as ozone depletion or burgeoning material inequality. In addition, a growing array of genuinely transnational forms of activity calls out for correspondingly transnational modes of liberal democratic decision-making. According to this model, “local” or “national” matters should remain under the auspices of existing liberal democratic institutions. But in those areas where deterritorialization and social interconnectedness across national borders are especially striking, new transnational institutions (for example, cross-border referenda), along with a dramatic strengthening and further democratization of existing forms of supranational authority (in particular, the United Nations), are necessary if we are to assure that popular sovereignty remains an effective principle. In the same spirit, cosmopolitans debate whether a loose system of global “governance” suffices, or instead cosmopolitan ideals require something along the lines of a global “government” or state (Cabrera 2011; Scheuerman 2014). Jürgen Habermas, a prominent cosmopolitan-minded theorist, has tried to formulate a defense of the European Union that conceives of it as a key stepping stone towards supranational democracy. If the EU is to help succeed in salvaging the principle of popular sovereignty in a world where the decay of nation state-based democracy makes democracy vulnerable, the EU will need to strengthen its elected representative organs and better guarantee the civil, political, and social and economic rights of all Europeans (Habermas 2001, 58–113; 2009). Representing a novel form of postnational constitutionalism, it potentially offers some broader lessons for those hoping to save democratic constitutionalism under novel global conditions. Despite dire threats to the EU posed by nationalist and populist movements, Habermas and other cosmopolitan-minded intellectuals believe that it can be effectively reformed and preserved (Habermas 2012).

In opposition to Archibugi, Held, Habermas, and other cosmopolitans, skeptics underscore the purportedly utopian character of such proposals, arguing that democratic politics presupposes deep feelings of trust, commitment, and belonging that remain uncommon at the postnational and global levels. Largely non-voluntary commonalities of belief, history, and custom compose necessary preconditions of any viable democracy, and since these commonalities are missing beyond the sphere of the nation-state, global or cosmopolitan democracy is doomed to fail (Archibugi, Held, and Koehler 1998; Lieven 2020). Critics inspired by realist international theory argue that cosmopolitanism obscures the fundamentally pluralistic, dynamic, and conflictual nature of political life on our divided planet. Notwithstanding its pacific self-understanding, cosmopolitan democracy inadvertently opens the door to new and even more horrible forms of political violence. Cosmpolitanism’s universalistic normative discourse not only ignores the harsh and unavoidably agonistic character of political life, but it also tends to serve as a convenient ideological cloak for terrible wars waged by political blocs no less self-interested than the traditional nation state (Zolo 1997, 24).

Ongoing political developments suggest that such debates are of more than narrow scholarly interest. Until recently, some of globalization’s key prongs seemed destined to transform human affairs in seemingly permanent ways: economic globalization, as well as the growth of a panoply of international and global political and legal institutions, continued to transpire at a rapid rate. Such institutional developments, it should be noted, were interpreted by some cosmopolitan theorists as broadly corroborating their overall normative aspirations. With the resurgence of nationalist and populist political movements, many of which diffusely (and sometimes misleadingly) target elements of globalization, globalization’s future prospects seem increasingly uncertain. For example, with powerful political leaders regularly making disdainful remarks about the UN and EU, it seems unclear whether one of globalization’s most striking features, i.e., enhanced political and legal decision-making “beyond the nation state,” will continue unabated. Tragically perhaps, the failure to manage economic globalization so as to minimize avoidable inequalities and injustices has opened the door to a nationalist and populist backlash, with many people now ready to embrace politicians and movements promising to push back against “free trade,” relatively porous borders (for migrants and refugees), and other manifestations of globalization (Stiglitz 2018). Even if it seems unlikely that nationalists or populists can succeed in fully halting, let alone reversing, structural trends towards deterritorialization, intensified interconnectedness, and social acceleration, they may manage to reshape them in ways that cosmopolitans are likely to find alarming. Whether or not nationalists and populists can successfully respond to many fundamental global challenges (e.g., climate change or nuclear proliferation), however, remains far less likely.

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The impact of economic, social, and political globalization and democracy on life expectancy in low-income countries: are sustainable development goals contradictory?

Published: 18 January 2021
Volume 23 , pages 13508–13525, ( 2021 )

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Arif Eser Guzel ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5072-9527 1 ,
Unal Arslan 1 &
Ali Acaravci 1

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The 17 Sustainable Development Goals announced by the United Nations are important guides for the development processes of developing countries. However, achieving all of these goals is only possible if the goals are consistent with each other. It has been observed in the literature that possible contradictions between these goals are ignored. Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate whether two sustainable development goals (SDGs) of the UN are contradictory or supporting each other in low-income countries. These SDGs are “Good Health and Well-Being” (SDG3) and “Partnerships for the Goals” (SDG17). For this purpose, the role of globalization and democracy in life expectancy is empirically investigated in 16 low-income countries over the period 1970–2017. While globalization has been used as an indicator of the partnership between countries, democracy has been used as an indicator of accountability and cooperation between governments and societies. According to estimations of the continuous-updated fully modified (CUP-FM) and bias-adjusted ordinary least squares (BA-OLS), globalization and its subcomponents such as economic, social, and political globalization affect life expectancy positively. Democracy also increases life expectancy in those countries. The GDP per capita is also used as a control variable. Our results show that a higher level of per capita income is positively associated with higher levels of life expectancy. In conclusion, no contradiction was found between SDG3 and SDG17 in those countries. Achieving a healthier society requires economic, social, and political integration between governments and societies.

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1 Introduction

The main problem of economics is to increase economic development and social welfare. Increasing the social welfare level is a complex process that depends on economic and non-economic factors. Achieving economic development or increasing the level of welfare depends on achieving and sustaining the main objectives in political, economic, and social areas. Today, development is no longer a process that can be realized through policies implemented by governments alone. It requires cooperation between governments and societies. While cooperation between different countries requires globalization in the economic, social, and political fields, democracy is the way to ensure cooperation between governments and societies.

Health is one of the most important indicators of social welfare. Besides being one of the indicators of development, it is one of the determinants of human capital formation which is necessary for economic development. Individuals living in developed countries live a healthier life compared to those living in less developed countries. While the differences between the levels of development of countries determine the health conditions, at the same time, improvement of public health paves the way for economic development. Healthy people have higher opportunities to earn a higher income than unhealthy people. Individuals with higher incomes can benefit from better nutrition and access to health services. Therefore, economic development and improvement of health conditions represent a two-way process. In this context, the determination of the variables that will enable the achievement of the goal of a healthier society is especially important in explaining the economic differences between developing countries and developed countries. Because of its importance, health-related goals have an important place both among the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) announced by the United Nations.

The world leaders with the support of international funding organizations announced the Millennium Declaration in September 2000 at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. They committed their nations to a new international partnership to achieve some development targets having with the final deadline of 2015. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) consist of 8 goals, 21 targets, and 60 related indicators covering a wide spectrum of development areas such as “End Poverty and Hunger (MDG 1),” “Universal Education (MDG 2),” “Gender Equality (MDG 3),” “Child Health (MDG 4),” “Maternal Health (MDG 5),” “Combat HIV/AIDS (MDG 6),” “Environmental Sustainability (MDG 7),” and “Global Partnership (MDG 8).” As we see, three of the goals are directly associated with the health status of the people. In the deadline of 2015, according to “Health in 2015: From MDGs to SDGs” report of the World Health Organization (WHO), there are improvements in health-related targets such as child health, maternal health, and combat with HIV/AIDS. Globally, HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria targets have been met. Also, the child mortality rate was reduced by 53% and maternal mortality by 43% (WHO 2016 ). On a global view, although health-related problems are largely resolved, the situation is not as good for low-income countries. As shown in Fig. 1 , significant differences exist between developing countries and developed countries in achieving health-related goals.

Source Halisçelik and Soytas (2015)

World Bank Income Groups’ MDGs Index Values in 2015.

According to MDGs, indexes in the context of health status show that the goals desired in terms of health are not attained in low-income countries compared to other income groups. After the deadline of MDGs, the United Nations has announced 17 SDGs, and “Good Health and Well-Being” takes its place as the third goal. Since achieving these goals requires the cooperation of countries and societies, “Partnership for the Goals” is determined as the seventeenth SDG. According to the United Nations ( 2019 ), the main indicators of global partnerships are trade, foreign direct investments, remittances, financial integration technology transfers, data monitoring and accountability, internet usage, and political integration among countries. In our study, while globalization is used as a proxy indicator of global cooperation, democracy is an indicator of cooperation between societies and governments. Democracy also refers to accountability levels of governments.

Globalization can simply be defined as the process of international integration which has economic, social, and political dimensions (Dreher 2006 ). Many countries have adapted to this process and have enjoyed the welfare effects of globalization by implementing necessary economic and institutional transformation. However, some countries still suffer from poor adaption to global markets. According to the KOF Globalization Index published by the Swiss Economic Institute ( 2020 ), low-income countries have the lowest globalization level compared to other income groups. They also suffer from bad health conditions such as low life expectancy, communicable diseases, and high mortality rates according to MDG indexes given above. At this point, the literature is divided into two parts. The first one blames globalization and argues that poverty and as a result of this, low life expectancy derives from the inequality created by globalization itself (Buss 2002 ). The second group mostly focuses on the benefits of free trade, capital mobility, and technology transfers (Rao and Vadlamannati 2011 ). The low-income countries also suffer from low institutional quality in the context of democracy and political rights. According to Freedom House’s list of electoral democracies, the countries without electoral democracy are mostly the low-income countries in the Middle East, North Africa, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia (Freedom House 2019 ).

The main question of our study is to determine whether the problem of low life expectancy in low-income countries is due to the low levels of globalization and weak political institutions in these countries. To answer this question, the role of economic, social, and political globalization and democracy in life expectancy in those countries is empirically investigated. This study provides several contributions to previous literature. First, we provide a new perspective in the context of sustainable development goals. Previous studies mostly focused on how to achieve SDGs, while possible conflicts between the goals were mostly ignored especially in the context of health. Such conflicts between sustainable development goals in the literature have mostly focused on the impact of economic growth and globalization on the sustainable environment (Ulucak and Bilgili 2018 ; Zafar et al. 2019a ). Those studies are mostly addressed the relationship between SDG7, SDG8, SDG13, and SDG17 (Zafar et al. 2019b ). To the best of our knowledge, it is the first study that investigates the relationship between SDG3 and SDG17. It is also important to examine this relationship in low-income countries since they still suffer from low levels of life expectancy, less adaptation to globalization, and poor democratic institutions compared to other income groups. Previous works mostly provide global evidence, while only a few studies focus on less developed countries. Achieving these 17 goals put forward by the United Nations at the same time is possible only if these goals do not conflict with each other. Second, empirical works in previous literature consist of traditional estimation methods called first-generation tests. In the analysis of panel data, the estimators considering cross-sectional dependence are called the second-generation estimators. Cross-sectional dependency simply refers to the situation when the shock that occurs in one country affects other countries as well. The source of this problem encountered in panel data analysis is the economic, financial, and political integration among countries (Menyah et al. 2014 ). The ignorance of cross-sectional dependence results in biased and inconsistent estimates and wrong inferences (De Hoyos and Sarafidis 2006 ; Chudik and Pesaran 2013 ). Low-income countries are mostly African countries where there is a rising trend in terms of integration to global markets and institutions (Beck et al. 2011 ). Using estimation techniques that consider cross-sectional dependence in those countries prevents misleading results. As the literature is divided into two parts about the effects of globalization on human well-being, fresh evidence via robust estimation methods is required in order to provide proper policy implications. To fill this gap, our work provides second-generation estimations.

2 Literature review

To improve the health conditions of a country, the welfare of the poor should be improved as well. Poverty is detrimental to access to health services. Therefore, the positive impact of globalization on health first emerged with its positive effects on economic growth (Labonté et al. 2009 : 10). The effects of globalization on growth were mostly driven by free trade, international specialization, technology transfers, knowledge spillovers, and competitive markets. It also offers broader opportunities for entrepreneurs and paves the way for innovation (Grossman and Helpman 2015 : 101). As expected, poverty rates significantly reduced in the last two decades because of the integration of developing economies to global markets (Harrison 2006 ). When trade liberalization and income increases are considered together, people's access to treatments and medications can be easier and life expectancy may be prolonged. However, we should consider other possibilities in the context of spreading communicable diseases. As Deaton ( 2004 ) mentioned before, access to cheap and easy travel can increase the rate of spread of communicable diseases. Migration is also another fact to take into account. Particularly rising sexual tourism and migrant sex workers increase the spread of sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS. But today there are improved treatment methods to solve these problems. Even HIV-infected people can survive with antiretroviral therapy, and it also reduces sexual transmission of the infection (Dollar 2001 ; Cohen et al. 2011 ). Due to the high cost of advanced drugs as in the case of antiretroviral therapy, it should be accepted that people in low-income countries will have trouble accessing the drugs (Buss 2002 ). There are approaches known as the unequal exchange that globalization increases inequality among countries and that developed countries are more profitable from the globalization process (Love, 1980 ). It may also increase domestic income inequality. There are a few studies that came with the conclusion that globalization rises inequality (Dreher and Gaston 2008 ; Ha 2012 ), but Bergh and Nilsson ( 2010 ) suggested a different perspective. Due to extensive R&D investments and scientific activities, developed countries can find new treatment methods and supply advanced drugs. The only way to access that knowledge and these drugs are trade and integration between developed and underdeveloped countries. Globalization can play an important role in improving the health conditions of low-income countries to the extent that it can provide these linkages. One should also notice that wider markets and higher returns are important factors that motivate entrepreneurs. Buss ( 2002 ) claimed that the intellectual property rights of advanced drugs belong to private firms in developed countries, and because of the strong protection of property rights, less developed countries have trouble accessing them. However, rising global human rights became an important step to advance public health issues against economic concerns in the trade of pharmaceutical products.

The human rights approach focuses on how globalization affected disadvantaged people worldwide (Chapman 2009 ). It is an important instrument in the suppression of the inequality created by economic globalization. Because of the pressure on the government about human rights, disadvantaged people are becoming able to meet their basic human needs. The role of political globalization on this point is forcing governments to adopt global institutions. It increases the number of international organizations in which a country is a member. This makes governments more accountable in the global area and forcing them to pay attention to protect human rights. Gelleny and McCoy ( 2001 ) also claimed that integration among countries leads to political stability. Therefore, governments' tendency to violate human rights in order to maintain their power becomes lesser. Moreover, as social dimensions of globalization expand and communication opportunities among people in different countries increase, the possibility of human rights violations being discovered by other people increases (Dreher et al. 2012 ). Governments that know the international sanctions required by these violations have to be more cautious against human rights violations. Social globalization also provides cultural integration among the world’s people, and it changes lifestyles and consumption patterns worldwide. The consequences of this change can have positive and negative effects. First, increased urban population and sedentary lifestyles may enhance prepared food consumption and reduce daily movements which result in rising obesity and diabetes (Hu 2011 ). Second, although rapidly increasing consumption options and diversity are known as welfare indicators, they also can cause stress which is known as an important determinant of many diseases both psychological and physical (Cutler et al. 2006 ). Third, due to knowledge spillovers and communication technology, people can learn about healthy nutrition and protection from communicable diseases. Thus, unhealthy but traditional consumption patterns and lifestyles may change. These days we experience the coronavirus epidemic and we see once again the importance of globalization. Countries are aware of infectious diseases in different parts of the world in a very short time and can take measures to stop the spread of the virus. The changes created by social and political globalization play a major role in this emergence. Social globalization enables people in very remote areas of the world to communicate with each other, while political globalization forces governments to be transparent about infectious diseases.

With economic globalization, increased economic activity may lead to urbanization. One may think about unhealthy conditions of an urban area such as environmental degradation, air and water pollution, higher crime rates, and stress which reduce life expectancy. However, according to Kabir ( 2008 ), people living in an urban area can benefit from improved medical care, easy access to pharmacy, and to the hospitals that use higher technology. They can also get a better education and can enjoy better socioeconomic conditions.

Democracy can be considered as another determinant of life expectancy. In order to solve the health problems of the poor, people should draw the attention of the government. Sen ( 1999 ) claimed that the instrumental role of democracy in solving problems is enabling people to express and support their claims. Thus, the attention of politicians can be attracted to the problems of the poor. Politicians who have never tasted poverty do not have the urge to take action against the problems of the poor at the right time. Another linkage can be established through accountability (Besley and Kudamatsu 2006 ). In democracies, governments have an obligation to account to citizens for what purposes the resources were used. Thus, resources can be allocated to solve important public issues such as quality of life, communicable diseases, and mortality.

Compared to theoretical discussions, previous literature provides a lack of empirical evidence. Barlow and Vissandjee ( 1999 ) examined the determinants of life expectancy with cross-sectional data available in 1990 for 77 developed and developing countries. According to regression results, per capita income, literacy rate, and lower fertility are important determinants of life expectancy while living in a tropical area decreasing it. Another finding in this study shows that health expenditures in those countries failed to increase life expectancy. Following this study, Or ( 2000 ) analyzed the determinants of health outcomes in 21 industrialized OECD countries covering the period 1970–1992. This study presents gender-specific estimates separately for men and women. Fixed effects estimation results reveal a significant negative relationship between public health expenditure and women's premature death. The relationship also occurs for men, while GDP per capita dropped from the regression model due to high collinearity. Furthermore, GDP per capita and the proportion of white-collar workers reduce premature death for both men and women, while alcohol consumption increases it.

Franco et al. ( 2004 ) analyzed the impact of democracy on health utilizing political rights data of 170 countries. Empirical results show that people living in democracies enjoy better health conditions such as longer life expectancy, better maternal health, and lower child mortality. Following this, Besley and Kudamatsu ( 2006 ) investigated the nexus between democracy and health outcomes utilizing panel data from the 1960s to the 2000s. In their study, they used life expectancy at birth and child mortality variables for 146 countries as indicators of health outcomes. According to results, democracy has a positive and significant effect on life expectancy at birth and it also reduces child mortality. Safaei ( 2006 ) also investigated the impact of democracy on life expectancy and adult and child mortality rates with the data of 32 autocratic, 13 incoherent, and 72 democratic countries. According to the OLS estimation results, improving democratic institutions increases life expectancy and reduces child and adult mortality rates. Another finding of the study is that socioeconomic factors such as income, education, and access to health care services are important determinants of health status.

Owen and Wu ( 2007 ) found a positive relationship between trade openness and health outcomes using a panel of 219 countries. Health outcome measures of this study are infant mortality and life expectancy. Trade openness is one of the most important dimensions of globalization.

Kabir ( 2008 ) analyzed the determinants of life expectancy in 91 developing countries. Empirical results obtained are the opposite of the expected. According to results, per capita income, literacy rate, per capita health expenditure, and urbanization have no significant impact on life expectancy. On the other hand, the number of physicians has a positive and significant impact on life expectancy, while malnutrition reduces it. As a dummy variable, living in Sub-Saharan Africa is another factor that reduces life expectancy due to communicable diseases like HIV, malaria, etc.

Bergh and Nilsson ( 2010 ) used a panel of 92 countries in the period 1970–2005 to investigate the relationship between globalization and life expectancy. They used social, political, and economic globalization data separately, and the results show a significant positive effect of economic globalization on life expectancy at birth. But no significant relationship was found between social globalization, political globalization, and life expectancy. They also used average years of education, urban population, the number of physicians, and nutrition as control variables and the effect of economic globalization was still positive and significant.

Welander et al. ( 2015 ) examined the effects of globalization and democracy on child health in their panel data analysis for 70 developing countries covering the period 1970–2009. According to the results, globalization significantly reduces child mortality. In addition, democracy improves child health and it also increases the beneficial effects of globalization on child health. Following this study, Tausch ( 2015 ) analyzed the role of globalization in life expectancy in 99 countries. The results of OLS estimates show that globalization leads to inequality, and therefore, it reduces health performance in terms of life expectancy and infant mortality. These results are contradictory to positive views on the role of globalization in public health. However, in 19 of 99 countries, globalization increases public health performance. Ali and Audi ( 2016 ) also analyzed the role of globalization in life expectancy in Pakistan. According to ARDL estimation results, life expectancy is positively associated with higher levels of globalization. Another study on the Pakistan case proposed by Alam et al. ( 2016 ) concluded that foreign direct investment and trade openness which are important indicators of economic globalization affects life expectancy positively.

Patterson and Veenstra ( 2016 ) concluded that electoral democracies provide better health conditions compared to other countries. Their analysis includes annual data from 168 countries covering the period 1960–2010. Empirical results show democracy has a significant positive impact on life expectancy and it reduces infant mortality.

In their recent study, Shahbaz et al. ( 2019 ) investigated the impact of globalization, financial development, and economic growth on life expectancy. The authors used nonlinear time series analysis methods utilizing the data of 16 Sub-Saharan African countries over the period 1970–2012. Their results show that globalization, financial development, and economic growth affect life expectancy positively in 14 of 16 Sub-Saharan African countries.

The previous literature provides a lack of evidence in the context of globalization, democracy, and life expectancy relationship. There are also methodological weaknesses in previous empirical studies. First, it can be observed that previous studies are mostly based on traditional estimation methods. Second, the panel data analyses are based on the first-generation estimators that assume cross-sectional independence. This assumption is hard to satisfy due to integration among countries. In addition, ignoring the cross-sectional dependence results in inconsistent estimations. Particularly in empirical work in the context of globalization which refers to economic, political, and cultural integration among countries, considering the cross-sectional dependence becomes more important. Therefore, in order to make a methodological contribution to previous literature, we used second-generation panel time series methods considering cross-sectional dependence.

3 Methodology and data

According to the United Nations, achieving sustainable development goals requires global cooperation and partnership. Therefore, “partnerships for goals” has taken its place as the 17th sustainable development target. However, it was emphasized that some sub-goals should be realized in order to reach this goal. These include improving international resource mobility, helping developing countries to attain debt sustainability, promoting the transfer of information and technology between developed and developing countries, an open and rule-based free trade system, encouraging public–private and civil society partnerships, increasing transparency and accountability, and high quality and reliable data (United Nations 2019 ). In our empirical work, economic, social, and political globalization and democracy variables were used as proxies of the subcomponents of SDG17. In addition, the life expectancy at birth variable that mostly used in related literature as a proxy of health status and well-being, it is used in our study as a proxy of SDG3. In this study, we investigated the role of globalization and democracy in life expectancy in 16 low-income countries. Footnote 1 Following Barlow and Vissandjee ( 1999 ) and ( 2000 ), GDP per capita is used as a control variable in order to mitigate omitted variable bias. Our dataset is covering the period 1970–2017. Following the related literature, we present our model as follows:

where lex is life expectancy at birth which refers to the average number of years a newborn is expected to live. Life expectancy at birth data is provided by World Bank ( 2019 ) World Development Indicators. Life expectancy at birth indicates the number of years a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same throughout its life. The dataset is consisting of a weighted average of collected data from several co-founders. In Eq. 1 , X refers to the KOF Globalization Index developed by Dreher ( 2006 ). This index has been used in previous literature as a proxy of SDG17 (Saint Akadiri et al. 2020 ). The current version of the data published by the Swiss Economic Institute is revised by Gygli et al. ( 2019 ). The globalization variables are between 0–100, and 100 refers to the highest globalization level. In our analysis, we used subcomponents of globalization index such as economic (EC), social (SOS), and political (POL) globalization in addition to overall globalization (GLB). Due to high collinearity, the effects of different types of globalization are analyzed separately. Models 1, 2, 3, and 4 represent the estimations with overall, economic, social, and political globalization indexes, respectively. The democracy variable ( dem ) is provided from the Polity IV project dataset (Marshall and Jaggers 2002 ). While the increases in this indicator represent a more democratic regime, the decreases represent a more autocratic regime. Finally, gdp is real GDP per capita (constant 2010 $) and it is provided from World Bank World Development Indicators. All variables transformed to the logarithmic form except democracy due to negative values. In the estimation of the model, the panel data analysis methods are used.

3.1 Cross-sectional dependence

Traditional panel data methods are based on the assumption that no cross-sectional dependence exists among cross section units. However, this assumption is hard to satisfy due to rising economic, social, and political integration between countries. The estimations do not take this process into account may cause inconsistent results. Such results may also lead to incorrect inferences (Chudik and Pesaran, 2013 ). The existence of cross-sectional dependence in variables and the error term is obtained from the model analyzed with Pesaran ( 2004 ) ${\text{CD}}_{{{\text{LM}}}}$ and Pesaran et al. ( 2008 ) bias-adjusted LM test. These techniques are robust whether N > T and T > N. Therefore, ${CD}_{LM}$ and bias-adjusted LM ( ${LM}_{adj})$ tests are found to be appropriate and their test statistics can be calculated as follows:

Equation 2 shows the calculation of Pesaran ( 2004 ) ${CD}_{LM},$ and Eq. 3 is Pesaran et al. ( 2008 ) bias-adjusted LM test statistic. ${V}_{Tij}$ , ${\mu }_{Tij}$ , and ${\widehat{\rho }}_{ij},$ respectively, represent variance, mean, and the correlation between cross section units. The null and alternative hypothesis for both test statistics; ${H}_{0}$ : No cross-sectional dependence exist; ${H}_{1}$ : Cross-sectional dependence exist.

In the selection of stationarity tests and long-run estimators, the existence of cross-sectional dependence will be decisive. If the null of no cross-sectional dependence is rejected, second-generation methods that assume cross-sectional dependence should be used in order to provide unbiased and consistent estimation results.

3.2 Slope homogeneity

Pesaran and Yamagata ( 2008 ) proposed a method to examine slope heterogeneity in panel data analysis based on the Swamy ( 1970 )’s random coefficient model.

The calculation of the test statistic of Swamy’s model is given in Eq. 4 .

In Eq. 4 , ${\stackrel{\sim }{\beta }}_{i}$ and ${\overbrace{\beta }}_{WFE},$ respectively, indicate the parameters obtained from pooled OLS and weighted fixed effects estimation, while ${M}_{T}$ is the identity matrix. The test statistic obtained from Swamy’s model is improved by Pesaran et al. ( 2008 ) as follows:

where $\stackrel{\sim }{S}$ is the Swamy test statistic and k is a number of explanatory variables. ${\stackrel{\sim }{\Delta }}_{adj}$ is a bias-adjusted version of $\stackrel{\sim }{\Delta }$ . ${\stackrel{\sim }{Z}}_{it}$ =k and $Var\left({\stackrel{\sim }{Z}}_{it}\right)=2k(T-k-1)/T+1$ . The null and alternative hypothesis for both test statistics is given below.

The rejection of the null hypothesis shows that slope coefficients of Eq. 1 are heterogeneous. In the selection of panel data estimation methods, the results of those preliminary analysis are taken into account.

3.3 Unit root test

Pesaran ( 2006 ) suggested a factor modeling approach to solve the cross-sectional dependency problem. This approach is simply based on adding cross-sectional averages to the models as proxies of unobserved common factors. The Cross-sectionally Augmented Dickey–Fuller (CADF) unit root test developed by Pesaran ( 2007 ) is based on that factor modelling approach. This method is an augmented form of Augmented Dickey–Fuller (ADF) regression with lagged cross-sectional average and its first difference to deal with cross-sectional dependence (Baltagi, 2008 : 249). This method considers the cross-sectional dependence and can be used, while N > T and T > N. The CADF regression is:

${\stackrel{-}{y}}_{t}$ is the average of all N observations. To prevent serial correlation, the regression must be augmented with lagged first differences of both ${y}_{it}$ and ${\stackrel{-}{y}}_{t}$ as follows:

After the calculation of CADF statistics for each cross section ( ${CADF}_{i}$ ), Pesaran ( 2007 ) calculates the CIPS statistic as average of CADF statistics.

If the calculated CIPS statistic exceeds the critical value, it means that the unit root hypothesis is rejected. After the preliminary analysis of unit root, the existence of a long-run relationship between the variables in our model will be investigated via Westerlund and Edgerton ( 2007 ) cointegration test. After this, the long-run coefficients will be estimated using the continuous-updated fully modified (CUP-FM) estimator developed by Bai and Kao ( 2006 ) and Bias-adjusted OLS estimator developed by Westerlund ( 2007 ).

3.4 Cointegration test and long-run relationship

In this study, the cointegration relationship was investigated by Westerlund and Edgerton ( 2007 ) LM bootstrap test. This method considers cross-sectional dependence and provides robust results in small samples (Westerlund and Edgerton, 2007 ). This method is based on the following equation

where ${n}_{ij}$ is an independent and identically distributed process with zero mean and var( ${n}_{ij})$ = ${{\sigma }_{i}}^{2}$ . Westerlund and Edgerton ( 2007 ) suggested following LM test in order to test the null of cointegration

where ${S}_{it}$ is partial sum process of the fully modified estimate of ${z}_{it}$ and ${\widehat{w}}_{i}^{-2}$ is the estimated long-run variance of ${u}_{it}$ conditional on $\Delta {x}_{it}^{^{\prime}}$ . If the calculated LM statistic is below the critical value, the null of cointegration will be accepted. The critical values will be provided using the bootstrap method in order to prevent cross-sectional dependence.

In the estimation of long-run coefficients, the CUP-FM estimator was used and this method is based on the following regression

where ${\widehat{\lambda }}_{i}^{^{\prime}}$ refers to the estimated factor loadings and $\hat{y}_{{i,t}}^{ + } = y_{{i,t}} - \left( {\lambda _{i} ^{\prime } \hat{\Omega }_{{F \in i}} + \hat{\Omega }_{{\mu \in i}} } \right)\hat{\Omega }_{{ \in i}}^{{ - 1}} {{\Delta }}x_{{i,t}}$ indicates the transformation of the dependent variable for endogeneity correction. According to Bai and Kao ( 2006 ), CUP-FM estimator is robust under cross-sectional dependence. However, the assumption that the number of common factors (k) is known cannot be satisfied in practice (Westerlund, 2007 ). Therefore, Westerlund ( 2007 ) suggested a bias-adjusted estimator (BA-OLS) following the methodology of Bai and Kao ( 2006 ) except in the context of determining the number of common factors. The author suggested the estimation of k using an information criterion as

where $IC\left(k\right)$ is the information criterion. In this study, we determined the number of common factors via the Bayesian information criterion (BIC) as follows.

In the equation above, V(k) is the estimated variance of ${\widehat{u}}_{it}$ based on k factors. By minimizing the BIC, we obtain $\widehat{k}$ . Westerlund ( 2007 ) showed that the estimation of k provides better results compared to CUP-FM estimator assuming k is known. Both of the estimators require cointegrated variables in the long run.

3.5 Empirical results and discussion

The results of Pesaran ( 2004 ) ${CD}_{LM}$ and Pesaran et al. ( 2008 ) bias-adjusted LM tests are given in Table 1 .

The results given in Table 1 show that the null of no cross-sectional dependence is rejected at 1% according to both ${CD}_{LM}$ and ${LM}_{adj}$ test statistics in all variables. In addition, in the error terms obtained from models 1, 2, 3, and 4 the null of no cross-sectional dependence is rejected at 1%. These results show that the methods to be used in the analysis of the stationarity of the variables and the determination of the long-run relationship should consider the cross-sectional dependence.

The results of homogeneity tests developed by Pesaran and Yamagata ( 2008 ) are given in Table 2 . According to the results, the null of homogeneity is accepted at %1 in all models. Therefore, estimators assume parameter homogeneity are used in our analysis.

After the preliminary analysis of cross-sectional dependence, the CADF unit root test developed by Pesaran ( 2007 ) is found to be appropriate for our model because of its robustness under cross-sectional dependence. The results of the CADF unit root test are given in Table 3 .

In the analysis of unit root, constant and trend terms are both considered at level, while only constant term is added at first difference. Maximum lag level is determined as 3, while optimum lag level is determined by F joint test from general to particular. According to results, the null of unit root is accepted for all variables, while calculated CIPS statistics of first-differenced variables exceed 1% critical value. All variables have a unit root, and their first differences are stationary ( ${I}_{1})$ . Therefore, in order to determine the existence of a long-run relationship, we applied Westerlund and Edgerton ( 2007 ) panel cointegration test. This method considers cross-sectional dependence and can be used, while the series are integrated in the same order. The results are shown in Table 4 .

Constant and trend are both considered in the analysis of cointegration, and critical values are obtained from 5000 bootstrap replications. The results show that the null of cointegration is accepted for all models. There is a long-run relationship between life expectancy, globalization, democracy, and GDP per capita. After determining the cointegration relationship, we estimated long-run coefficients utilizing CUP-FM and BA-OLS estimators proposed by Bai and Kao ( 2006 ) and Westerlund ( 2007 ), respectively.

The long-run estimation results given in Table 5 show that overall, economic, social, and political globalization are positively associated with life expectancy at 1% significance level according to both CUP-FM and BA-OLS estimators. The results show that a 1% increase in globalization index increases life expectancy %0.014 and %0.015 according to CUP-FM and BA-OLS estimators, respectively. The impact of economic, social and political globalization indexes is 0.013%, 0.011%, and 0.015% according to CUP-FM estimation results while 0.014%, 0.012%, and 0.017% according to both estimators, respectively.

Our results confirms the findings of Owen and Wu ( 2007 ), Ali and Audi ( 2016 ), and Shahbaz et al. ( 2019 ) who found a positive relationship between globalization and life expectancy. Our empirical work also supports the evidence of Bergh and Nilsson ( 2010 ) in terms of positive effect of economic globalization on life expectancy. While the authors found no significant impact of social and political globalization on life expectancy, our results show that life expectancy is positively associated with both social and political globalization. The results we found contradict Tausch ( 2015 )’s evidences in 80 of 99 countries. However, according to his results, in 19 of 99 countries, globalization affects health positively. When these countries are examined, it is seen that 14 of them are countries in the low and lower-middle income groups. In this sense, it can be said that the evidence we found for low-income countries is in line with the author's evidence. As Dreher ( 2006 ) mentioned, despite its possible inequality effects, the net effect of globalization on development is mostly positive and our empirical work supports that idea. The effect of democracy on life expectancy is also positive and significant at 1% which confirms the findings of Franco et al. ( 2004 ) and Besley and Kudamatsu ( 2006 ). In electoral democracies, people living in poverty and suffering from health problems can easily attract the attention of policymakers compared to autocracies. This leads to the reallocation of resources to solve the primary problems of the society. In the context of sustainable development goals, our results show that there is no conflict between SDG3 (good health and well-being) and SDG17 (partnerships for the goals). The improvement of the health conditions of the poor countries depends on global partnership and economic, social, and political integration among countries. In addition, democracy is an important tool in achieving the goal of a healthy society, as it fosters accountability, transparency, and partnership between governments and the societies they rule. As stated in the introduction section, low-income countries show low performance in terms of health-related sustainable development goals, and their connections with global markets are weak compared to other countries. At the same time, democratic institutions are not developed. Our work supports the idea that in order to achieve SDG3, global partnership and democracy are required.

The GDP per capita that used as a control variable has a positive impact on life expectancy at a 1% level. These results support the evidence of Barlow and Vissandjee ( 1999 ), Or ( 2000 ), and Shahbaz et al. ( 2019 ). Individuals living in countries with high per capita income are expected to have higher welfare and have a longer life expectancy (Judge, 1995 ). In low-income countries where people still suffer from having difficulty in meeting basic human needs, increasing per capita income may lead to better nutritional status, easier access to advanced treatment methods and technology.

4 Conclusion

In this study, the effects of globalization and democracy on life expectancy are empirically investigated in low-income countries. While globalization and democracy indexes are used as proxy indicators of “Partnerships for the Goals (SDG 17),” life expectancy used a proxy of “Good Health and Well-Being (SDG 3).” With this, it is aimed to examine the existence of contradiction between those SDGs. In the estimation of the long-run relationship between the variables, second-generation panel data analysis methods that consider cross-sectional dependency are used. According to the results, the globalization index and its subcomponents such as economic, social, and political globalization are important instruments to achieve a healthier society. In addition, higher levels of democracy lead to higher levels of life expectancy. Finally, GDP per capita growth improves health status of countries.

The findings obtained from our study show that economic, social, and political integration of countries and democracy accelerate the process of achieving a healthier society. Therefore, it is seen that SDG3 and SDG17 targets are compatible with each other. In order to achieve SDG3, economic, social, and political integration between countries should be encouraged and democratic institutions should be improved. Policy makers should remove the barriers on globalization, and they should promote participation on international organizations and public–private and civil society partnerships.

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Guzel, A.E., Arslan, U. & Acaravci, A. The impact of economic, social, and political globalization and democracy on life expectancy in low-income countries: are sustainable development goals contradictory?. Environ Dev Sustain 23 , 13508–13525 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01225-2

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PRESENTATION ON THESIS OF GLOBALIZATION BY Prof. ARJUN APPADURAI

This presentation focuses on prof. Arjun biography, different definitions of globalization and it later highlights thesis of globalization by Professor Arjun appadurai as discussed on his essay ''Modernity at Large"

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This paper focus on the historical and contemporary globalization. It attempts to show how different scholars define Globalization in different perspectives. Globalization as a phenomena represents various processes of expansion across continents based on migration, trade, warfare, military alliances, conquest, exploration, colonization and technological advancement. Thus, it has a complex relationship with various contemporary aspects including the economic and financial dimension, the scientific and technological dimension and the interdependence of dimension. Generally, the aim of this paper is to analyse the similarities and differences of the two opposing school of thought (historical and contemporary) which view globalization as a process. This paper challenges the existentialist assumptions of the concept of globalization that are sacrosanct and frozen.

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Dr. G. YOGANANDHAM

Globalization is the most widely debated and discussed phenomenon in all over the world. The world opinion is divided on what constitute globalization and whether the globalization is good or bad? Handful of scholars’ perceived globalization as the only way to make the hunger free and prosperous. On the contrary evidences shows that poverty, both absolute and relative has increased in the countries where these policies are implemented. The various world bank reports supports those evidences. This has raised the serious doubt about achieving the millennium development goals, more particularly the first goals to ‘eradicate extreme poverty and hunger by the year 2015. Globalization whether good or bad almost every nation state is bound to become a part of a global economy. Some thinkers called it a ‘new world order’. In this so called new world order which does not exists today in its fullest form, what will be the stats of welfare and where would the poor go?. The privatization and liberalization of the Indian economy has shaken the very social fabric of the Indian society. The caste system in Indian which is based on the principle inequality whether those inequalities (social and economical) are going to diminished or perpetuated further in the period of globalization? Are they be able to compete with the changing scenario? What will happen with their occupation? Are they able to get quality education? What changes globalization has brought into their lifestyles? Do they have new skills so as to get the benefits of globalization? Is there any social and occupation mobility among them in view of globalization or are they stagnated? Etc. needs to be answered if they have to become a citizen of a global communitydreamed as a knowledge society. The neobuddhist in India are the most vulnerable group assumed to be severely affected by the policies of globalization. The earlier state policies of protective and positive led a microscopic section of that population to come up from the vicious cycle of poverty and discrimination. Few of them were on the verge of coming out of age old social and economics slavery. The sudden changed in the role of the state as a facilitator of economy has long-term implications for the poor and disadvantages section like neobuddhist in India. Dr.b.r.ambekar and his legacy to uplift rhea poor has suffered a set back. Akola district which comes under the vidarbha region in Maharashtra, even if, comically and industrially the district is relatively backward as compared to theother districts, on political front it has always been referred as a model of dalit Bahaman politics. The district came into liomelighr recently in connection with series of farmers suicides. There were some organized protests against the log by the delist based political parties and some social organization reported in the news papers. Akola being a native district of the researcher, had added advantage in understanding the various dimensions and the issues pertaining to the problem under study. Keeping this in mind the study was undertaken with the following objectives.

http://indusedu.org/

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The human society around the world, over a period of time, has established greater contact, but its pace has increased rapidly since the mid 1890's. The concept of globalization for the first time was introduced by Father of Economics, Adam Smith in his book 'An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations' (1776). Globalization is basically a socioeconomic term where people think locally and act globally. The phenomenon of globalization has many aspects and implications. It is referred to as a strategy of economic development where border of the countries does not matter for movement of commodities, services, capital, finance, labour, technology, ideas and information. This strategy generates a process of increasing economic integration and growing interdependence between countries of the world economy. The process of globalization in India started at large scale in July 1991 when government of India introducing great economic reforms. The objective of this paper is to analyze the process and effects of globalization on India economy by reviewing all polices of Government of India since independence. The whole study is based on the secondary data taken from Department of Industrial Policy, GOI, RBI, World Bank Repots, IMF etc. that leads to increase the process of globalization in India.

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Globalization is referred to as the process of interchange of people and ideas across boundaries. It may affect the social, cultural and economic lives but it does transcend into the international political system of the states. It is globalization that has led to the emergence of the Non – State actors both good and bad such as the Multi-National Companies and has in some ways also influenced the way we live, what we choose and the development of our country as it leads to generation of employment opportunities and arouses competition. The present research paper tries to understand the theoretical considerations about globalization and the perception of the masses about the process of globalization. The paper also intends to answer the question if the phenomenon of Globalization has in any form led to the making the native culture dilute. How it is seen by the natives of the country and what are the drawbacks of this phenomenon

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ABSTRACT It has been experienced that every step of movement towards economic, political and cultural modernization, taken by the state in India, is responded to by the people with an enhanced sense of self-consciousness and awareness of identity. Cultural modernization, sponsored by the forces of globalization, is resented if it encroaches upon or does not promote the core cultural values of society, its language, social practices and styles of life. The vigour of the renewed sense of self-awareness generated among the members of the local cultures and communities is such as to succeed in making adaptive reconciliation with the forces of globalization. The linkages both visible and invisible, defining the cultural interdependence among communities and regions in India which have existed historically, reinforce instead of threatening the national identity. These bonds seem to become stronger as India encounters the forces of modernization and globalization. Key Words: Globalization, Culture, Modernization, etc.

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Four Perspectives on Globalization

Introduction, general background information about globalization, hyperglobalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, transformationalist perspective, constructivism perspective, works cited.

Globalization has been a lengthy and frightening concern for the citizens of the United States. Even though the problem did not affect everyone in the United States, most individuals in the middle and lower classes have been affected by issues linked to globalization. “ There is growing uncertainty in industrialized countries about whether globalization means more opportunity or more risk” (Petersen & Jungbluth). Thus, the issue of globalization has been a concern for the United States well before the twentieth century. This essay will explore four perspectives of globalization: the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the hyperglobalist perspective, and the constructivist perspective.

Globalization concerns big corporations that establish relationships with other countries and do commerce that benefits both. Different countries benefit differently from globalization which creates different opinions. “The largest average income gains are found in Switzerland and Japan where they rose by an average of €1,900 and €1,500 per capita and year, respectively” (Petersen & Jungbluth). Naturally, the primary proponents of policies promoting unlimited freedom of economic activities are those who stand to benefit the most, with transnational corporations serving as direct beneficiaries. There are thousands of Transnational corporations (TNCs) globally, such as International Business Machines in the electronics sector and McDonald’s and Coca-Cola in the food and beverage sector. The global development of TNCs and operators aids developed countries in consolidating and strengthening their influence in other states (Pettinger 5). As a result, governments benefit significantly from it, and it is unsurprising that they fully support their TNCs’ operations in other nations.

The perspectives on globalization include the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the hyperglobalist perspective, and the constructivist perspective. Proponents of each of these perspectives see globalization and its processes differently. From a hyper-globalist perspective, individuals are typically excited about globalization and its prospects. “According to the hyperglobalist, transnational commercial networks of industry, trade, and finance circumvent nation-states, rendering them and their governments powerless to regulate market forces properly” (Geracie). The multinational company has exceeded that state and helped by increasing economic mobility, causing the government to be more pro-business and adopt free-market policies.

According to the hyperglobalist perspective, “people have achieved the end of geography, at least from the standpoint of the nation-state” (Geracie). Economic activity is free to move from one place to another internationally, located wherever the prices, regulatory environment, and infrastructure are most conducive to business. Globalization is irreversible and is seen positively according to this perspective. It is because it is considered a method of boosting the economic well-being of all people by permitting more effective resource allocation through the market and free commerce. At the same time, it is perceived to lessen government intrusion in people’s lives leading to more liberty and individual independence.

The skeptical perspective individuals draw upon various evidence that globalization is overstated, that it is a myth, as are those perceived benefits under globalization that the hyper globalists present. Skeptical perspective proponents present three essential claims; first, they contend that the world economy was more globalized from 1890 to 1914 than today in terms of commerce. Second, they argue that the “headquarters of the vast majority of multinational companies (MNCs) are still firmly embedded in particular nation-states, where you will also find a high share of assets and operations” (Geracie). They claim that most investment and trade still occur between mature economies and nations or within macro-regions such as the European Union (EU) and Southeast Asia.

From the skeptic perspective, globalization is viewed as a helpful political fiction to bolster the claims of free marketers and neo-liberals over those who argue for more significant government intervention and involvement as representatives of the people. “Third-world countries are not being integrated into the global economy with the same benefits as first-world countries” (Geracie). They claim that any growth in global economic integration that does not include governmental involvement or international collaboration would expand the gap between the rich and poor.

Transformationalist perspectives, like skeptics, recognize that globalization is a long-term historical process that began with the colonial expansion of Western European governments in the sixteenth century. “They differ from skeptics in their belief that the global economy is undergoing significant qualitative changes that redefine relationships between governments, firms, and communities” (Geracie). Transformationalists realize, in contrast to hyper-globalists, that the impacts of globalization are not as simply quantifiable. Transformationalists reject the hyperglobalists’ end-of-geography argument. Globalization does not make all locations the same; instead, it creates new types of differences.

Constructivism is when individuals think of the social environment through symbols, language, pictures, and interpretation. It is the product of a certain kind of awareness and how it is expressed. “A culture’s more profound social, economic, and cultural impacts may be traced back to second-order systems like production and government” (Burlacu et al. 124). Societal actors construct their reality by thinking about it and communicating it with one another, which is the focus of constructivist theory. People can form their views of the world and social norms via discussion and symbolic interactionism: Both the mind and the body are involved in the study of social geography.

Globalization is a long-term trend that is shifting and may be slowing. There are benefits and drawbacks to globalization’s promotion of more open borders and free commerce. The different perspectives on globalization include the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the hyperglobalist perspective, and the constructivist perspective. Globalization disproportionately impacts poorer and more vulnerable socioeconomic groups, especially developing countries. As a result, these organizations and nations must acquire a critical awareness and assessment of the nature and process of globalization and its societal repercussions. Individuals, corporations, and governments must evaluate all sides of the globalization perspective.

Burlacu, Sorin, et al. “Globalization, Pros and Cons – Researchgate.” Globalization–Pros and Cons. , Vol. 19, 2018, 122-125. Web.

Geracie, Michele. “Globalization Theories and Different Perspectives about It.” Michele Geraci – Economy, Society and the World.

Petersen, and Cora Jungbluth. “Globalization Report 2018: Who Benefits Most from Globalization?” Global & European Dynamics .

Pettinger, Tejvan. “What Caused Globalization?” Economics Help . Web.

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266 Globalization Essay Topics & Globalization Research Topics

Welcome to our list of globalization topics and essay ideas! Here, you will find plenty of current topics about globalization trends, benefits, and challenges. But that’s not all of it! In addition to topic ideas, you will also find examples of research papers and globalization essays. Check them out below!

🔝 Top 7 Globalization Topics for Research

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The Effects of Globalization to Employment and International Trade
Apple Inc. Affected by Globalization and Technology
Globalization’ Positive and Negative Effects
Evaluating Cultural Dimensions of Globalization
Globalization Impact on Sustainable Agriculture
Communication Technology and Globalization
Globalization and Its Impact on Society
Is Globalization a Threat or an Opportunity to Developing Countries? The topic on the effects of globalization has generated a lot of debate in trying to analyze its contribution to either the success or failure of some aspects of economies.
Contemporary Globalization and Its Impact As Shakespeare predicted a long time ago, the world is shrinking into a small global scene where everyone has a role to play.
Impacts of Globalization on the Developing Countries The paper evaluates how globalization impacts developing countries. It is the most debated issue in the modern world, with some people supporting and others opposing it.
Globalization and Diversity in TEDx Talk Shows This paper examines TEDx talk shows that discuss diversity and globalization issues and how globalization can reduce poverty levels in developing economies.
Globalization and Corporate Social Responsibility The topic chosen for this research is globalization and corporate social responsibility because it is a unique and novel concept for transnational businesses.
Globalization in Media: Pros and Cons Globalization in the media sphere is influenced by changes in political and cultural spheres bringing new economic opportunities and financial capitals to media giants.
Apple Inc.’s Globalization Strategy and International Trade This paper will discuss Apple’s globalization strategy, global actions advocated for by this company, and how it facilitates international trade.
The Effects of Globalization on Sports For many people in the world, globalization is the revolution of the future. Conversely, this is not true as globalization exists in the present day.
Globalization Impacts on Trade and Employment Globalization refers to the integration of the world markets. It facilitates smooth movement of goods and people from one country to another.
Americanization Is Not a Synonym for Globalization Globalization is the process of international integration, whereas Americanization means the influence of American culture on other countries’ cultural development.
The Impact of Technology on Globalization The paper states that advances in technology have contributed to the main forces behind globalization. Organizations are compelled to become global.
Globalization Advantages and Negative Cultural Impact This paper focuses on globalization. Drivers of the globalization agenda are multinationals corporations, international financial markets, and transnational agencies.
The Advantages of Globalization Globalization is the process of growth and interconnection of world economies and cultures, which are aided by transport and trade.
Dell Business Model: Globalization & Corporate Strategy The Dell Computer company research and development department is mandated with the task of advising the company on the nature of products it should manufacture.
Ford Motor Company’s Globalization Strategy This paper assesses Bangladesh and Rwanda as the two potential countries for Ford to globalize its operations. They are among the best fast-growing economies.
Coca-Cola Company’s Strategy & Globalization Issues Multinational corporations are increasing day by day and they are usually criticized because of issues like environmental stability, sustainability etc.
Impact of Globalization on Netflix Company Netflix made two significant strategic moves that led to its success. The company did not explore all the available markets at once but in phases.
Effects of Globalization: The Case of LuLu Group Int To summarize this paper, globalization is an unstoppable interstate integration process, leading to the erasure of national boundaries and the formation of a single cultural layer
Regional Integration Inconsistency with Globalization With the term of Globalization being in vogue and regional integration agreements being signed across the globe, the coalition of the concepts has been questioned.
Globalization and Cultural Hybridization Globalization affects all spheres of human activity starting from education, policy, management, and ending with art, culture, etc.
Pros and Cons of Globalization The advantages of globalization outweigh the disadvantages. The concept has enhanced the rapid developments of impoverished nations.
Coca – Cola: Business Strategy and Globalization The presence of the globalization phenomenon in the Company’s strategy can be proven by its effective presence in more then two hundred countries around the world.
Importance of Globalization on International Business Globalization is very important in that it promotes worldwide growth as well as promotes peaceful coexistence globally through understanding.
How Globalization Affects Governance? The process of globalization inevitably affects governance all over the world. In this paper, the peculiarities of the process of affecting governance by globalization will be addressed in detail.
Impact of Globalization on Australia Globalization has enhanced the quality of life in Australia due to the fact that foreign investors are allowed to open up ventures in the country.
Globalization and Human Resource Policies and Practices The current paper aims to discuss the concept of globalizing HR policies and the potential positive and negative outcomes of this process.
Globalization as a Phenomenon and Its Impacts Globalization is a phenomenon, which has been made possible due to the development of communication technologies and multifaceted relationships among countries.
Globalization Influence on Product Development This essay presents a critical analysis of the marketing strategies as they apply to the international marketing efforts of firms in the context of globalization.
Ways of Eating Around the World: Impact of Globalization Globalization is essentially to blame for the rapid rise in obesity and foodborne illness resulting from improved access to a diverse range of healthy foods.
Peru – Globalization, Environment, Crime and Disease The paper synthesizes a number of legitimate sources to focus on globalization and its effects on Peru with special relation to environmental issues, crime, and diseases.
The Impact of Racism on Globalization Racism is a great impediment to globalization, the bad blood between the said people of color and those of no color has dealt a big blow to development.
Globalization Affecting the Role of Leaders in Organizations Globalization is influencing leadership because of the way it affects society through its processes. It has caused changes in the political, social, and economical aspects.
Social Media Impact on Globalization Among the many drivers of globalization, the advancement of digital social media platforms has been one of the most influential.
Why Youth and Community Workers Should Understand Globalization?
What Has Been the Effect of Globalization on Terrorism?
Who Are the Main Losers in the Process of Globalization?
Why Is Customer Service Needed in the Globalization of Logistics?
Why Resisting Globalization Can Be Reasonable?
Why Are the Critics So Convinced That Globalization Is Bad for the Poor?
What Would Our Nation Do Without Globalization and International Trade?
What Are the Costs and Benefits of Globalization?
Why Globalization Manufacturing Since the 1980s Has Changed Labor Relations?
Why Did General Motors fail to Compete With Globalization?
What Are the Challenges of International Development in the Age of Globalization?
What Impact Does Globalization Have On E-commerce?
Does Globalization Benefit Both Developed and Developing Countries?
What the Public Should Know About Globalization and the World Trade Organization?
What Are the Positive and Negative Effects of Globalization?
Why Did Germany’s Hidden Champions Succeed in Globalization?
Who Benefits From Globalization of Labor?
Does Economic Globalization Affect Interstate Military?
What Does the Globalization of Drug Trade Benefit?
Why Does Globalization Generate Winners and Losers?
Globalization’s Role for Developing Countries: Zambia In this paper, the results of globalization and its positive and negative consequences are discussed through the case of Zambia and the condition of its economy.
Globalization of the SK-II Brand SK-II Brand has been said to concentrate on its core business through innovation, expanding penetration in developing countries and restructuring its existing business.
Bauman’s Concept of Globalization in Understanding the Rise in Human Displacement This paper discusses the concept of globalization as viewed by Bauman, assesses the concept of increasing numbers of refugees, asylum seekers, and economic migrants in the world.
The Impact of Globalization on World Politics Globalization as the process that creates preconditions for the eventual emergence of World Government, which will exercise an authority over planet’s natural and human resources.
Globalization and Health A planned urban society has access to safe and clean drinking water with appropriate sanitation and waste removal mechanisms.
Globalization of Video Games and Its Influence in the Society The research paper describes the positive impact of gaming, such as reducing flashbacks from posttraumatic stress defects and chronic pain reduction.
Ethics and Globalization in Business A business will only manage to keep up its reputation if it recognizes the established business ethics in its environment. Every firm must follow to the letter the code of conduct.
Impact of Globalization on Norms and Experiences around Gender Inequality is one of the most prolonged global debates that have refused to go away despite the great strides made through globalization
Globalization in Modern Business Along with the development of technology, communication, and transportation, it becomes easier for companies to expand the scope of their operations and enter new markets.
Economic Globalization and Daily Life The stated factors belong to the concept of economic globalization, which implies the process through which states and corporations expand to the global scale.
Globalization and Its Ethical Implications The paper states that the negative implications of globalization result in ethical dilemmas as people with diverse backgrounds participate in world development.
Relationship Between Urbanization, Globalization, and People The relationship between urbanization, globalization, and people is one of the most interesting and provocative topics in many discussions.
Globalization: More Positive Effects Than Negative Ones Globalization refers to the “increasing interconnectedness of people and places through the converging process of economic, political and cultural change.”
The Globalization of Walmart Back in the 1990s, Walmart planned to conquer nations with large populations and growing purchasing power: Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil, and China.
“The Globalization of Markets” by Theodore Levitt In his article “The Globalization of Markets,” Theodore Levitt anticipated the effects of globalization and advancement in technology to international business.
Globalization and Democratization Relationship This paper explores the existing relationship between democracy and globalization. It focuses on democratization, globalization and their imperativeness.
Globalization Theories in the Business Environment The paper elaborates on the neo-classical, Marxist and structuralist perspectives on globalization before closing with the most concurrent theorem out of the three perspectives.
John Deere Company in View of Globalization John Deere is one of the most successful agricultural machinery companies in the world today. In 1963, the company became the world’s largest manufacturer.
Globalization: Managing Across Cultures Managing across culture is a product of globalization, that expatriate from a foreign culture moves to a totally new culture and is required to manage people from diverse cultures and backgrounds.
Globalization and the Social Interest of Workers The paper sets out to demonstrate that globalization is not in the social interest of low-wage workers in developing nations and factory workers in the developed countries.
Reflection of “Globalization of Missions” Article The “Globalization of Missions: An Exegesis on the Great Commission” article is the author’s call for making proselytizing more aware of non-Western cultures.
“The Globalization of Eating Disorders” by Susan Bordo This paper analyzes the text of an article written in 2002 by Susan Bordo, an American professor, and philosopher, whose works are marked by several prestigious awards.
Globalization and Education – Economic, Political and Cultural Dimensions The surge in Information technology usage, increasing interest in the Internet, and global communication have melted the country’s borders in terms of education availability.
International Marketing – Impact of Globalization This paper seeks to identify the impact of globalization in international business and how companies can fully utilize the concept in order to attain their objectives
Globalization’s Impact on International Marketing Strategies International marketing strategies are influenced by globalization. The operations of multinational firms are shaped by the confrontation between standardization and adaptation.
Outsourcing and Globalization as Driving Force The major driving forces behind outsourcing include the force of globalization, cost of production, labor issues, and the problem of unionization.
Human Resources Management and How It Is Affected by Globalization and Technology? HRM functions have been widely affected by the changing trends around the world: various parts of the world are integrating, newer technologies and better concepts are evolving.
The Impact of Globalization on Immigration Control Globalization is one of the key factors that influence immigration. The effects are extensive to the extent of complicating the efforts of controlling immigration.
The Impact of Globalization Discussing globalization objectively in its entirety is a challenging endeavor, since it touches upon almost every aspect of the modern world, and its influences differ from one region to the other.
Globalization, Its Defenders and Critics Globalization is an ambiguous process with its advantages and disadvantages. It is impossible without significant changes in the ordinary life of people.
Evaluation of the Meaning and Impact of Globalization in Relation to Criminal Justice The globalization process has a significant impact on criminal justice. Globalization has led to increased interdependence among various economies.
Motivation and Globalization in Multinational Companies Motivation in the case of globalization becomes a burning issue of multinational companies as they should establish the most appropriate way to motivate their employees.
Qualitative Threshold: Globalization and Communication Technologies Globalization is a long-term phenomenon involving a gradual change of events. This process has occurred in distinct phases with each having unique characteristics.
Globalization and National Security Issues International security researchers have taken side of the big debate, with some arguing that globalization has indeed contributed to national and international security.
Globalization Essence by M. Steger and N. Bisley Globalization: A very short introduction by Manfred Steger and Rethinking globalization by Nick Bisley define the necessity to treat the globalization and consider its complexity.
Globalization and Cultural Diversity in the Workplace Cultural diversity should be incorporated into the company’s policies combined with teaching workers this fundamental issue in the business environment.
International Organizations Role in Globalization Process The representatives of international organizations have a common agenda: turning the world into a “global village” and prompting the world’s population to think of neoLiberalism.
Issues in the International Politics: Globalization Globalization in the international political system is considered to be centralized due to its impact on external links and close connection with political structures and mechanisms
Globalization’s Role in Improving Women’s Rights On the one hand, globalization unites people and makes them follow the same standards or use similar opportunities.
China’s Aviation Industry: Impact of Globalization This paper investigates the impact of globalization on China’s aviation industry. The report covers a wide range of topics, including history, global treaties, and critical forces.
Netflix’s Globalization in Brazil The modern world has become more connected due to globalization and multinational dependence on areas that support socioeconomic development.
The Social Media Impact on Globalization This paper explains the impact of media on globalization and how it has affected businesses. Many people are currently using social media to run business organizations.
Globalization in a Global Economy World economies and societies have come together to work as a global economy by having common means of transportation, communication, and marketing.
Total Quality Management: Impact of Globalization on Quality There are several ways to ensure that information technology (IT) has been implemented into a business process with respects to Total Quality Management (TQM).
Geographical Conditions’ Affect of Globalization The scholars of the 20th century conceptualized this idea, by creating the North-South divide – a geographic line between the countries that signifies the division on wealthy and emerging nations
Globalization and Christian Mission Globalization has changed the landscape of industrial and business environments, and religion was inevitably affected by it, as well.
Impact of New Technologies and Globalization on Literature The issue of globalization’s effect on the development of different countries has always been rather controversial.
Leadership in the Context of Globalization This paper aims to outline the issue of leadership in the context of globalization, conduct a GAP analysis, offer recommendations for developing necessary leadership competencies.
Globalization and Knowledge Management This paper outlines the knowledge management in the context of globalization and using personal experience with virtual learning.
Air Transport and Its Benefits for Globalization With excellent transportation systems, the world is exposed to better trading in terms of exports and imports of goods and services.
Globalization’s Impact on Education Globalization will likely diversify educational opportunities while diminishing the competitive advantages of weaker educational systems.
Interconnection of Globalization and Culture Despite serious issues, globalization has encouraged the funding of various initiatives in contemporary acts, contributing to the development of the market.
Process of Globalization and Nationalist Movements The transition between globalism and nationalism is frequently perceived as a threat to the government and its people.
The Positive and Negative Aspects of Globalization Globalization is the result of many socio-economic processes associated with the widespread use of information technology and new means of communication.
Globalization Negative Effects on Canadian Labour Union Globalization is directly and indirectly affected labor unions in Canada. Positive effect was in form of developing the country’s economy and creating job opportunities to Canadian citizens.
Globalization Impact on Trade and Employment One of the notable effects of globalization is heightened trade liberalization and opening up of global labor markets.
The Globalization Index and Singapore as the Leading State This paper discusses the Globalization Index and what challenges the United States or any other developed country would face if it attempted to replace Singapore in the top spot.
Modern Imperialism and Economic Globalization This paper discusses how does the study of modern imperialism help us to understand why some former colonies fear economic globalization today.
Globalization and Indigenous Communities in Canada In Canada, indigenous people feel both the austerities of environmental and cultural destruction and the potential for development.
Globalization and Technology Impacts on Ethics The evaluation will center on analyzing how technology and globalization have contributed to the spread of poverty in third-world nations, violated individuals’ rights to privacy.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution and Globalization The fourth industrial revolution has made it possible for countries and manufacturing companies to produce and stabilize their economies.
Globalization: Impact on Modern Society Globalization contributes to establishing relationships between individuals, independent social objects, and phenomena, embracing all spheres of people’s lives.
History of Globalization and World Integration The process of globalization is often viewed as an exclusively modern phenomenon that has arisen due to the development of multinational corporations.
Geographical Diversification and Globalization With current terms of business operations between countries, it has been possible for businesses to diversify their market by venturing into other local and international markets.
International Finance and Globalization The monetary authorities of a country can use monetary tools to keep the value of their currencies lower than the value which would have been set by the market forces.
Globalization in Anthropological Perspective The anthropological perspective is a powerful model that guides scholars to analyze human diversity and empower individuals from different backgrounds.
The Dark Side of Globalization Buoyancy on the Bayou: Shrimpers Face the Rising Tide of Globalization by Jill Ann Harrison explores the effect of globalization on local worlds.
“Globalization, Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society: Sociological Perspectives: 2” by Peter Jarvis The book by Peter Jarvis “Globalization, Lifelong Learning and the Learning Society: Sociological Perspectives: 2” is a research book with an overall perspective on the value of education.
The Impact of Globalization on Labor Market and Trade Globalization is the process that refers to the coming together of the international markets. This report examines the impacts of globalization on trade and employment.
Leadership and Globalization in the US and Japan Leadership is a social influence in which a person can motivate or influence others and acquire their support in order to work together and accomplish a certain task.
Spiritual Perspectives on Globalization by Ira Rifkin Cultural element of globalization describes regional side and national cultural peculiarities which are seen by the world society.
Netflix: Globalization and Information Research In a three-stage expansion process, Netflix could make strategic decisions and establish effective policies in those markets
Globalization and Geographic Information System Globalization is the process by which the globe becomes increasingly interconnected due to the exchange of commodities and services, information, knowledge, and cultural values.
Food and Water Security as Globalization Issues Globalization has several implications for the business environment, among which are the expanded access to resources, and the interdependence of international companies.
Globalization: Arguments For and Against The process of globalization continues today, and arguments both in support and against this phenomenon are expressed regularly.
Globalization and Health Systems in India This research paper examines the effects of globalization on India’s healthcare system. It explores various areas such as healthcare delivery, acquisition, financing, and ethics.
How Residents of Georgia Understand and React to Globalization In the case of the state of Georgia, the understanding and reaction to globalization focus on economic integration and social well-being.
Capitalism, Climate Change, and Globalization Globalization allowed significant corporations to put a substantial strain on the environment in developing countries.
Chinese Companies and Globalization Issues People are the driving force of a company; to unleash that force, the patrimonial approach should be changed to more liberal and liberating methods.
Market Globalization and Global Marketing Pitfalls Customization is fraught with several outcomes that may inhibit the further advancement of a company in the global economy.
Supply Chain Management in Globalization Era In the accelerating process of globalization, supply chain management is an integral part of most organizations which is essential to a company’s success.
Globalization Concept and Its Impact on the State Globalization does not make the state redundant. On the contrary, it makes it important for the full exploitation of the opportunities that come as a result of international integration.
Globalization Effect on Small and Medium Size Business This section will introduce the paper based on the concept that globalization and development of SMEs may not be separated from each other.
Hard Rock Café: E-Commerce and Globalization Hard Rock Café can utilize ICT and e-commerce models by hiring customer care executives working from home and submitting their work loads to the café’s head quarters.
Effects of Colonialism and Globalization During the era of colonialism, colonies were perceived to be a major source of raw materials for the industries of the developed nations.
Project Management Analysis and Globalization Technological supply chain management strategies and the development of dependable distribution systems in globalization are crucial components.
Cultural Globalization as the Americanization of the World’s Cultures Americanization as a significant part of globalization may still be possible major industries vow it as a source of financial rewards.
Tangible & Inevitable: Globalization as a Worldwide Phenomenon Globalization may be defined as the process of integration and interaction among countries worldwide and the growing interdependence of their economies, populations, and cultures.
Globalization and Immigration: Globalization Policies Leaders and citizens in such nations feel threatened by the influx of both legal and illegal immigrants into their nations.
Media Production and Connections in Globalization The question of an essay is how to promote films and create content that can be popular among the worldwide audience.
Ethics in Reporting: Globalization and Media Ethics in reporting tends to distance itself from the manipulation of the media, which advocates for a well-organized and political dichotomization in media reportage.
Identity Politics as a Response to Globalization Despite numerous positive outcomes that it promises, the concept of globalization as the basis for multicultural communication and learning is not fully devoid of certain issues.
Religion, Globalization, and Language in China This research paper examines the problems of religion, globalization, and language from the Chinese perspective.
Globalization and Use of Fossil Fuel as Environmental Threats Both the process of globalization and the burning of fossil fuels have been significant contributors to the deterioration of the environment’s health on a worldwide scale.
Reshaping Globalization and Digital Media Over the decades, distinctive events and activities have contributed to the construction of the current global spectrum.
Education Under Impact of Globalization The negative impact of globalization was the widening gap in access to education. Globalization has made English the main language of education, which can lead to discrimination.
Globalization and Technological Development Technological development continues to facilitate globalization, with individuals from third-world countries coming to the forefront of the modern workforce.
The Globalization Impact on Cultural Production Human culture is evolving in the context of globalization, as many states are no longer in colonial relationships. It leads to global hegemony and diminishing diversity.
Addressing Global Inequality in the Era of Globalization While globalization has led to social, political, and economic increase, it has also given rise to global inequality, particularly through the exploitation of developing countries.
Globalization: Impact on International Business With higher levels of globalization, the overall international business will be safer as there will be more suppliers and manufacturers on the market.
Response to Globalization Pressure This paper aims to introduce a plan of action to ensure my continued employability as a professional in the sphere of international affairs.
Globalization and its Impact on the World A phenomenon that gathered speed after World War II, globalization has tremendously impacted the international economy, society, and culture by enabling greater interconnectedness and cross-border exchange of people and ideas. Globalization is a complex phenomenon that has benefited developed countries economically while unfairly distributing wealth to underdeveloped nations and disenfranchising…
The Globalization Impact on the US Foreign Policy The ability of the US to use its influence to alter international events is limited by globalization. America cannot deal with the issues brought on by globalization on its own.
Globalization Challenges in Developing Countries and Japan The participation of nations in global trade has several benefits, even though various problems impede countries from accessing global markets.
Globalization and Democratic Peace Theory In the context of globalization, it is necessary to consider the theory of democratic peace, which recognizes democracy as the best form of government for society.
Globalization: Climate Crisis and Capitalist Ideology One of the main features of the development of the world community in recent decades has been globalization as part of integration processes that are changing the world structure.
Globalization and Its Pros and Cons It is hard to disagree that there is probably nothing universally positive or negative in this world. Everything has a price.
The Phenomenon of Terrorism and Its Relation to Globalization This paper states that the phenomenon of terrorism is tightly connected to the concept of inequality of globalization.
Globalization and Its Scale in the World Regardless of all opportunities provided by technological progress, the world remains less globalized than the majority of people expect.
Globalization and Poverty: Trade Openness and Poverty Reduction in Nigeria Globalization can be defined as the process of interdependence on the global culture, economy, and population. It is brought about by cross-border trade.
The Impact of Globalization on Business in India and the USA Since globalization started to affect the economy of the USA and India, it has had various positive and negative impacts on business.
Impact of Progressive Globalization One of the key processes in the development of the world economy on the verge of the XX-XXI centuries is the progressive globalization.
Globalization After World War I The emergence of the global economy corresponds to the aftermath of World War I, and the battle of governments and markets for control over the field brought unexpected results.
Researching the Concept of Globalization The paper aims to analyze the global playing field and support it with arguments why it is considered to be level.
Globalization: Beauty Sculpt for You Today society is filled with the obsession with promoting a self-image of beauty and perfection. Individuals take extreme measures to reach the goal of a flawless body.
Ethnic Violence in the Era of Economic Globalization Economic globalization refers to the interdependence of the world’s financial giants due to increased technology and trade across the borders.
Globalization Impact on Socioeconomic Inequality This paper analyzes the link between globalization and socioeconomic inequality, and how the inequality problem can be mitigated.
Solving Problems Through Globalization The paper discusses the importance of uniting to create a global world. Globalization makes it easier to solve universal challenges that affect populations.
Globalization and Personal Identity Intersection The conditions dictated by globalization actualize the problem of cultural uniqueness and cultural self-determination, including identity.
Negative Sentiments Against Trade and Globalization Although the authors’ views are robust and applicable to developed economies, rising negative sentiments against trade and globalization remain relevant in developing countries.
Anthropocene and Its Role in Globalization
Globalization Opportunities and Challenges for Companies
Globalization Strategies for Multinational Enterprises
Human Sense of Place in the Context of Globalization
American Dominant Minority Relations and Impact of Globalization
Hip Hop’s Globalization and Influence of Hip-Hop Music in Japan
The Effects of Globalization on the Environment
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Globalization
Wireless Industry and Globalization for US Economy
Global Poverty and Economic Globalization Relations
“Globalization” by Peter Temin: Article Analysis
Globalization Effect on Social Movements
Globalization and Technology in Health Care
Economics: The Impact of Globalization
Globalization of Nursing: Infant Mortality Rate in the US and Other States
Foreign Direct Investment: Globalization of Production
Globalization: On the Importance of ICT & Transnational Corporations
Economic Globalization and Labour Rights
The Facets of Globalization in Internet Security
Globalization and American Productivity
Globalization and Economic Inequality
Globalization and Competition: The USA, Western Europe, Japan
Pop Culture as a Potent Globalization Tool
The Financial Crisis and Its Connection With Globalization
The Effects of Globalization on Trade
Why Globalization Causes Turbulence and Disruption
Globalization of Healthcare in the US and Haiti
Globalization and Related Environmental Issues
Globalization and the Formation of New Claims
Overcoming CSR Challenges in the Age of Globalization
Present Day Resistance Historical Roots to the Trade Globalization
Energy Crisis: The Processes of Globalization and the Unification
Long-Term Impacts of the Chinese-American Trade War and Globalization of the World Economy
Free Trade as a Fundamental Principle of Modern Globalization
Global Governance Institutions in Context of Globalization
Leadership and Organizational Change: Diversity and Globalization
Globalization and Career of University of East London’s Students
Globalization: Impact and Consequences
Role of Globalization in Asian Market
Globalization and Its Effects on World Economies
Economic Globalization: The Role of Geography
Globalization and Transformative Process Drivers
“The Globalization of American Law” by R. D. Kelemen and E. C. Sibbitt
Education With Regard to Globalization Issues
Whether Globalization Makes Consumer Powerless?
World Is Flat: Globalization Effect
Globalization and Its Impact on Firms
Environment: Rapid Increasing in Industrialization and Globalization
Ethics In The Business Globalization
Contemporary Globalization Since 1914
Asian Film Industry Globalization
Survival of Minority Ethnic Groups in Globalization
“Globalization, Poverty and Inequality” by Kaplinsky
Globalization’s Impact on Banks in Canada
Global Politics: Women’s Rights, Economy, Globalization
TNCs Contribution to Globalization of Retail Industry
Globalization and Cultural Difference of Societies
Globalization, the Sex Trade and HIV-AIDS
International Economy. Oakley’s Globalization Theory
China’s Impact on Globalization and International Security
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Master's Theses

The affect of globalization on terrorism.

Philip R. Passante , University of New Haven

Date of Submission

Document type, degree name.

Master of Science in National Security

National Security

Jeffrey Treistman, Ph.D

Committee Member

Robert A Sanders, LP.D

Christopher Haynes, Ph.D

Globalization, Terrorism, Ideologies

Terrorism and globalization, Ideology

This thesis proposal will dive into the concept of terrorism and how it is an act of force and has proven to be detrimental to the modern world. In addition, this thesis will analyze the concept of terrorism as well as the rationale behind it. It is important to understand and study this as terrorism is a complex entity made up of different themes. The concentration of this thesis will highlight how globalization has affected the phenomena of terrorism in the past, present, and ultimately the future. Globalization and terrorism have a relationship that many scholars and researchers have noticed. Historical events as well as data patterns have proved this to be accurate as well. Terrorism is a phenomenon that has been around for centuries, taking different forms as it has evolved. Due to gradual change, terrorist groups organize their attacks based on ideologies primarily. It is at the forefront of problems not only the United States faces, but the world too. This concept has spread across the world causing fear and chaos to innocent civilians. This gradual change that has changed the dynamic of terrorism is globalization. Globalization has allowed for many exchanges between people around the world. These exchanges include people, goods, ideologies, religion, etc. Based on this claim, it can be inferred that globalization has provided a positive outcome to the world by bringing together countries and people. However, it is crucial to note that while many people have felt globalization has benefited them, there are many people around the world that have felt threatened by the spread of this concept. Globalization has benefited heinous acts like terrorism through involvement of modern technologies. My thesis statement is “Globalization has affected terrorism in the way it has made terrorism easier, more accessible, and has impacted the frequency in which attacks occur.” The iv findings provided in the literature review and data analysis support the evidence that globalization does impact terrorism through different factors that affect countries daily. In other words, is there a significant relationship between globalization factors and rates of terrorism globally?

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Passante, Philip R., "The Affect of Globalization on Terrorism" (2021). Master's Theses . 180. https://digitalcommons.newhaven.edu/masterstheses/180

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Drivers of Globalization. For globalization to take place, it must be driven by certain factors. The first factor that drives globalization is competitiveness in the market, which focuses on aspects such as global competitors, interdependence among countries and high two-way trade. The second factor that drives globalization is the government.
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emphasizing the role of globalization. The books are complementary: Milanovic provides an ambitious broad-brush picture, with some intriguing hypotheses on the processes at work; Bourguignon provides a deep and suitably qualified economic analysis. This paper questions the thesis of both books—that globalization has been
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In its general definition, globalization can be defined as an extensive network of. economic, cultural, social and political interconnections and processes which goes beyond. national boundaries ...
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This thesis consists of three essays. The rst essay studies the role of resource reallocation and globalization in economic development for China. Recent literature on economic growth empha-sizes the misallocation of resource at the micro level could reduce TFP at the macro level. Both structural transformation and globalization in China con-
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In this initial sense of the term, globalization refers to the spread of new forms of non-territorial social activity (Ruggie 1993; Scholte 2000). Second, theorists conceive of globalization as linked to the growth of social interconnectedness across existing geographical and political boundaries.
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Globalization is a complex and dynamic phenomenon. What make this phenomenon more complex are the contradictory justifications on the origin of globalization, conflicting ways of defining the ...
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For example, according to some, the period between 1920 and 1945 was a period of "de-globalization" in terms of diminishing interdependence among nations. Others disagree with the thesis of "de-globalization" on the grounds that the world wars were a manifestation of military globalization and the globalization of different worldviews.
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Globalization has, within academic, political and business circles alike, become a prominent buzzword of the past decade, conjuring a diversity of associations, connotations and attendant mythologies. The literature devoted to the issue of globalization is both vast in scope and diverse in nature, becoming increasingly
The impact of economic, social, and political globalization and
Therefore, the positive impact of globalization on health first emerged with its positive effects on economic growth (Labonté et al. 2009: 10). The effects of globalization on growth were mostly driven by free trade, international specialization, technology transfers, knowledge spillovers, and competitive markets.
The effects of globalization on English language learning: Perspectives
This Honors Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Lee Honors College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion ... Globalization can be defined as "the interconnections of global economic, political, cultural and environmental processes that continually transform present conditions"
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2185 Words. 9 Pages. Open Document. Globalization is an undeniable phenomenon of our modern societies. Global patterns keep spreading in many fields of our everyday life: food, economy, marketing, and last but not least, culture. Cultural products are indeed very often produced following the American pattern and exported to various places ...
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Globalization refers to the economic, political, social, cultural, and technological exchanges among peoples, nations, and regions, which create a more interconnected and interdependent world. In a modern context, it is most often associated with business enterprises. From ancient ties among early civilizations, the exchanges of goods, customs ...
PRESENTATION ON THESIS OF GLOBALIZATION BY Prof. ARJUN APPADURAI
The present research paper tries to understand the theoretical considerations about globalization and the perception of the masses about the process of globalization. The paper also intends to answer the question if the phenomenon of Globalization has in any form led to the making the native culture dilute.
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I, Rachelle Simpson, declare that the PhD thesis entitled "A Comparative Study of the Impact of Globalisation on the Development of Bangladesh and Tanzania" is no more than 100,000 words in length including quotes and exclusive of tables, figures, appendices, bibliography, references and footnotes.
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Thus, the issue of globalization has been a concern for the United States well before the twentieth century. This essay will explore four perspectives of globalization: the transformationalist perspective, the skeptical perspective, the hyperglobalist perspective, and the constructivist perspective. We will write a custom essay on your topic.
Globalization's Cultural Consequences
By ROBERT HOLTON. ABSTRACT: Globalization has been associated with a range of cul-. tural consequences. These can be analyzed in terms of three major. theses, namely, homogenization, polarization, and hybridization. The. homogenization thesis proclaims that global culture is becoming. standardized around a Western or American pattern.
Globalization Essay (2022 Example)
Thesis Statement. Globalization is a powerful force that can change the world and the lives within it very rapidly. It's crucial to adequately understand how globalization work, the assets it provides and the challenges it creates in order to be able to harness its immense power. Essay Body Advantages of Globalization
Thesis: What is Globalization
Sample Thesis Paper. Globalization is the process of the expansion and simultaneous integration of the world (Cooper, Kirton, & Schrecker, 2007). The term globalization attempts to define the process through which economies and cultures around the world are expanding and yet being influenced by technology in such a manner that they are coming closer than ever before.
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Globalization is playing an increasingly important role in the developing. countries. It can be seen that, glob alization has certain ad vantages s uch as economic processes, tec hnological ...
266 Globalization Essay Topics & Globalization Research Topics
Globalization and Corporate Social Responsibility. The topic chosen for this research is globalization and corporate social responsibility because it is a unique and novel concept for transnational businesses. Globalization Impacts on Trade and Employment. Globalization refers to the integration of the world markets.
"The Affect of Globalization on Terrorism" by Philip R. Passante
Passante, Philip R., "The Affect of Globalization on Terrorism" (2021). Master's Theses. 180. This thesis proposal will dive into the concept of terrorism and how it is an act of force and has proven to be detrimental to the modern world. In addition, this thesis will analyze the concept of terrorism as well as the rationale behind it.
(PDF) Globalization
Globalization is an important asset of the world, effects incre asing by day by on economic, social, political, cultural, environmental and technological dimensions so on. The scope of ...

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