natural phenomena essay

25 of the most mind-boggling natural phenomena on Earth

• From Pele's hair  to kaleidoscopic clouds , our planet is filled with unbelievable natural phenomena.
• You have to be at the right place at the right time to witness many of these events.
• Here are some of the most mind-boggling phenomena Earth has to offer , and the science behind them.

The world is full of wonders, many of which are offered by nature. 

Here is a list of 25 of the most amazing natural phenomena offered by our planet, from burning lakes to fire tornados to goat trees. 

1. Volcanic lightning

That's right, volcanoes  can produce lightning .

It's pretty hard to study, but researchers have a few ideas about what causes it. One of the most common is that during an eruption, ash picks up so much friction that the build-up of static electricity causes lightning.

Like fire rainbows, halos require just the right formation of ice crystals in clouds high above the surface of the Earth to bend light from the sun into a perfect ring.

The same phenomenon can also happen with moonlight , although moon halos are usually white and sun halos can be rainbow-colored, like this one.

3. Fire whirls, aka fire tornadoes

It's pretty clear how this phenomenon got its nickname: It looks like a tornado, but it's made of fire. They form when wind patterns twist an active fire into a column.

Fire tornadoes have been reported to grow as wide as 1,000 feet . 

4. Penitentes

These ice spikes, called penitentes, form in high altitudes, where sunlight turns ice directly into water vapor, rather than melting it to water.

Sunbeams vaporize small dimples in the snow's surface. Then, the uneven surface directs the sun into the dips and away from the peaks, exacerbating the trend.

Penitentes can grow as tall as 15 feet .

5. Pele's hair lava

Wind can catch individual droplets of lava from a volcanic eruption and stretch them into long, thin glass wires . These strands  — which are called Pele's hair — can reach as long as 6 feet.

In Hawaii,the phenomenon is named for Pele, the goddess of volcanoes. It's also found in Norway, where it's known as Witch's Hair .

6. Synchronized hordes of cicadas

Periodical cicadas are insects that emerge as broods every 13 or 17 years. They spend most of their life underground,  sucking the juice out of plant roots  — in fact, they're North America's  longest-living insect .

Once a brood emerges, they're singing to mates, mating, laying eggs, and dying, all over the course of a few short weeks.

7. Salar de Uyuni

Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is both the world's largest salt flat (it's about 4,000 square miles) and the home of half the planet's lithium, a key component in most  batteries .

The wet season turns the salt flat into a perfectly reflective lake.

8. Combustible lakes

Some lakes are so chock-full of methane that you can light them on fire. 

Thermokarst lakes are usually found in areas that have been stuck in permafrost for millennia. As these lakes melt, they belch highly-combustible methane that rises to the surface, meaning with a well-placed spark, you can set these lakes on fire . 

But it's not all fun and games. Scientists worry that as more of these lakes thaw, they'll release more methane, which is a potent greenhouse gas . 

9. Thunderstorms brewing in wildfire smoke

Wildfires can be so hot that thunderstorms can appear in the clouds of smoke billowing above them. 

So-called pyrocumulonimbus clouds can create their own lightning. 

10. Bismuth crystals

Bismuth is a dense, super-shiny grey metal that is found in predictable places like safety valves and paintings , but also Pepto-Bismol .

11. Blood Falls

Blood Falls, in one of the driest regions of Antarctica, is fed by an underground lake . It's full of bacteria scientists want to study because they fuel themselves with sulfates .

The water has so much iron in it that it literally rusts when it meets air, giving the waterfall its trademark color.

12. Rainbow eucalyptus

Hailing from the Philippines and Indonesia, the rainbow eucalyptus, also known as the rainbow gum , is probably the most colorful tree on Earth. Its striped look is caused by bark turning colors and peeling away as it ages.

The youngest bark is bright green because it contains chlorophyll (usually found in leaves), then turns first purple then red then brown as it gets older, loses chlorophyll, and picks up tannins (also found in wine).

In an ironic twist, huge amounts of rainbow eucalyptus wood pulp are turned into white paper every year.

13. Eye of the Sahara

Formally known as the " Richtat structure ," the Eye of the Sahara is in Mauritania . Scientists think it's the eroded remains of a giant dome of rock. 

Each band of the ring is made of a different type of rock that erodes at a different speed . It's also the "almost home" signal for astronauts landing in Florida. In fact, astronauts are mostly responsible for teaching us there's something there in the first place, since the formation is difficult to recognize when you walk over it.

14. Giant snake orgies

Tens of thousands of harmless snakes waiting out the winter in underground limestone dens in Manitoba, Canada, home to the highest concentration of snakes in the world, according to National Geographic .

In May, they slither out of their nests to mate, with dozens of smaller male snakes lurking, waiting to ambush larger females.

15. Bright red Lake Natron

Lake Natron, in Tanzania, can hit 140 degrees Fahrenheit. Thanks to a nearby volcano , it has alkalinity at the level of pure ammonia.

That means it's almost deserted, except for a particularly hardy fish, the microbes that make it look red, and flamingos. The birds actually use the lake as their only breeding ground because there aren't very many predators around to eat the chicks.

But animals that do die in the lake end up so coated in baking soda and similar chemicals that they look like they've been turned to stone .

16. Waterspouts

Waterspouts look like liquid tornadoes, but while they can form during storms, they can also develop on calm, open ocean  — swirling towers of wind climbing up from the water to the sky.

They are most common in the Florida Keys, although they've also been spotted on the Great Lakes.

17. Clonal tree groves

What looks like a forest is actually a singular tree. This grove, nicknamed Pando , in found in central Uthal. It is one of the oldest and largest organisms in the world.

Although the grove looks like its made up of 47,000 trees from above, it is actually a collection of shoots that all come from a single organism, called the quaking aspen, named after its fluttery leaves. 

The quaking aspen usually grows into groves of identical clones, although it can reproduce sexually on special occasions .

All of the shoots are actually connected underneath the soil by a dense network of roots.

18. Lake Maracaibo, lightning capital of the world

Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela sees more lightning strikes than anywhere else on Earth: In fact, the lake is struck by lightning more than 200 times a year, most commonly between the hours of midnight and 5 a.m. in late spring and autumn.

19. Eternal flame falls

In upstate New York, near the Canadian border, there is a small waterfall hiding a big surprise: a shoot of fire about eight inches tall .

Behind the waterfall is a natural gas seep that feeds the flame.

It's sheltered enough by the waterfall to stay lit pretty reliably, although hikers do re-light it if they see it's been blown out. (We should note that it's not 100% natural — but too cool to skip.)

These burning gas seeps are actually fairly common , but this one is  more interesting and younger than most — and very photogenic.

20. Spotted Lake

Canada's Spotted Lake's water actually every summer leaving behind large spots, which are colorful deposits of a dozen minerals .

21. Goats in trees

Moroccan goats have learned to climb trees in order to better snack on their tasty Argan fruit.

Local farmers like the goats so much that they've brought more goats in to enjoy the buffet.

22.Luminescent waves

Waves can glow with brilliant colors at night during a bioluminescent bloom . 

This natural phenomenon is caused by phytoplankton a type of algae that emits bright light when they are agitated. 

It can be spotted in select locations all around the world, from California to Hong Kong. 

23. Nacreous clouds

Usually spotted only near the poles, nacreous clouds form very high in the atmosphere where the air is particularly cold and dry.

The colorful shine comes from the setting sun being lower in the sky than the cloud. As the clouds reflect the sunbeams back toward Earth, they diffract the light. 

24. Green sand beaches

This probably isn't what comes to mind when you dream of tropical beaches. Papakolea , also known as Green Sand Beach in Hawaii is one of only a couple beaches in the world with green sand.

The remarkable hue comes from olivine rock that was formed during eruptions of the nearby volcano .

25. A starling murmuration, aka a 'black sun'

Hundreds or thousands of starlings together turn into an incredible dance known as a murmuration and nicknamed a " black sun ."

The flocks can be seen in the US and Europe, particularly in England .

The flock's complex choreography boils down to just a couple simple rules , like follow your neighbor.

• Main content

What Are the Causes of Climate Change?

We can’t fight climate change without understanding what drives it.

Low water levels at Shasta Lake, California, following a historic drought in October 2021

Andrew Innerarity/California Department of Water Resources

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At the root of climate change is the phenomenon known as the greenhouse effect , the term scientists use to describe the way that certain atmospheric gases “trap” heat that would otherwise radiate upward, from the planet’s surface, into outer space. On the one hand, we have the greenhouse effect to thank for the presence of life on earth; without it, our planet would be cold and unlivable.

But beginning in the mid- to late-19th century, human activity began pushing the greenhouse effect to new levels. The result? A planet that’s warmer right now than at any other point in human history, and getting ever warmer. This global warming has, in turn, dramatically altered natural cycles and weather patterns, with impacts that include extreme heat, protracted drought, increased flooding, more intense storms, and rising sea levels. Taken together, these miserable and sometimes deadly effects are what have come to be known as climate change .

Detailing and discussing the human causes of climate change isn’t about shaming people, or trying to make them feel guilty for their choices. It’s about defining the problem so that we can arrive at effective solutions. And we must honestly address its origins—even though it can sometimes be difficult, or even uncomfortable, to do so. Human civilization has made extraordinary productivity leaps, some of which have led to our currently overheated planet. But by harnessing that same ability to innovate and attaching it to a renewed sense of shared responsibility, we can find ways to cool the planet down, fight climate change , and chart a course toward a more just, equitable, and sustainable future.

Here’s a rough breakdown of the factors that are driving climate change.

Natural causes of climate change

Human-driven causes of climate change, transportation, electricity generation, industry & manufacturing, agriculture, oil & gas development, deforestation, our lifestyle choices.

Some amount of climate change can be attributed to natural phenomena. Over the course of Earth’s existence, volcanic eruptions , fluctuations in solar radiation , tectonic shifts , and even small changes in our orbit have all had observable effects on planetary warming and cooling patterns.

But climate records are able to show that today’s global warming—particularly what has occured since the start of the industrial revolution—is happening much, much faster than ever before. According to NASA , “[t]hese natural causes are still in play today, but their influence is too small or they occur too slowly to explain the rapid warming seen in recent decades.” And the records refute the misinformation that natural causes are the main culprits behind climate change, as some in the fossil fuel industry and conservative think tanks would like us to believe.

Chemical manufacturing plants emit fumes along Onondaga Lake in Solvay, New York, in the late-19th century. Over time, industrial development severely polluted the local area.

Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, Detroit Publishing Company Collection

Scientists agree that human activity is the primary driver of what we’re seeing now worldwide. (This type of climate change is sometimes referred to as anthropogenic , which is just a way of saying “caused by human beings.”) The unchecked burning of fossil fuels over the past 150 years has drastically increased the presence of atmospheric greenhouse gases, most notably carbon dioxide . At the same time, logging and development have led to the widespread destruction of forests, wetlands, and other carbon sinks —natural resources that store carbon dioxide and prevent it from being released into the atmosphere.

Right now, atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane , and nitrous oxide are the highest they’ve been in the last 800,000 years . Some greenhouse gases, like hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HFCs) , do not even exist in nature. By continuously pumping these gases into the air, we helped raise the earth’s average temperature by about 1.9 degrees Fahrenheit during the 20th century—which has brought us to our current era of deadly, and increasingly routine, weather extremes. And it’s important to note that while climate change affects everyone in some way, it doesn’t do so equally: All over the world, people of color and those living in economically disadvantaged or politically marginalized communities bear a much larger burden , despite the fact that these communities play a much smaller role in warming the planet.

Our ways of generating power for electricity, heat, and transportation, our built environment and industries, our ways of interacting with the land, and our consumption habits together serve as the primary drivers of climate change. While the percentages of greenhouse gases stemming from each source may fluctuate, the sources themselves remain relatively consistent.

Traffic on Interstate 25 in Denver

David Parsons/iStock

The cars, trucks, ships, and planes that we use to transport ourselves and our goods are a major source of global greenhouse gas emissions. (In the United States, they actually constitute the single-largest source.) Burning petroleum-based fuel in combustion engines releases massive amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Passenger cars account for 41 percent of those emissions, with the typical passenger vehicle emitting about 4.6 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. And trucks are by far the worst polluters on the road. They run almost constantly and largely burn diesel fuel, which is why, despite accounting for just 4 percent of U.S. vehicles, trucks emit 23 percent of all greenhouse gas emissions from transportation.

We can get these numbers down, but we need large-scale investments to get more zero-emission vehicles on the road and increase access to reliable public transit .

As of 2021, nearly 60 percent of the electricity used in the United States comes from the burning of coal, natural gas , and other fossil fuels . Because of the electricity sector’s historical investment in these dirty energy sources, it accounts for roughly a quarter of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.

That history is undergoing a major change, however: As renewable energy sources like wind and solar become cheaper and easier to develop, utilities are turning to them more frequently. The percentage of clean, renewable energy is growing every year—and with that growth comes a corresponding decrease in pollutants.

But while things are moving in the right direction, they’re not moving fast enough. If we’re to keep the earth’s average temperature from rising more than 1.5 degrees Celsius, which scientists say we must do in order to avoid the very worst impacts of climate change, we have to take every available opportunity to speed up the shift from fossil fuels to renewables in the electricity sector.

The factories and facilities that produce our goods are significant sources of greenhouse gases; in 2020, they were responsible for fully 24 percent of U.S. emissions. Most industrial emissions come from the production of a small set of carbon-intensive products, including basic chemicals, iron and steel, cement and concrete, aluminum, glass, and paper. To manufacture the building blocks of our infrastructure and the vast array of products demanded by consumers, producers must burn through massive amounts of energy. In addition, older facilities in need of efficiency upgrades frequently leak these gases, along with other harmful forms of air pollution .

One way to reduce the industrial sector’s carbon footprint is to increase efficiency through improved technology and stronger enforcement of pollution regulations. Another way is to rethink our attitudes toward consumption (particularly when it comes to plastics ), recycling , and reuse —so that we don’t need to be producing so many things in the first place. And, since major infrastructure projects rely heavily on industries like cement manufacturing (responsible for 7 percent of annual global greenhouse gas), policy mandates must leverage the government’s purchasing power to grow markets for cleaner alternatives, and ensure that state and federal agencies procure more sustainably produced materials for these projects. Hastening the switch from fossil fuels to renewables will also go a long way toward cleaning up this energy-intensive sector.

The advent of modern, industrialized agriculture has significantly altered the vital but delicate relationship between soil and the climate—so much so that agriculture accounted for 11 percent of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2020. This sector is especially notorious for giving off large amounts of nitrous oxide and methane, powerful gases that are highly effective at trapping heat. The widespread adoption of chemical fertilizers , combined with certain crop-management practices that prioritize high yields over soil health, means that agriculture accounts for nearly three-quarters of the nitrous oxide found in our atmosphere. Meanwhile, large-scale industrialized livestock production continues to be a significant source of atmospheric methane, which is emitted as a function of the digestive processes of cattle and other ruminants.

Stephen McComber holds a squash harvested from the community garden in Kahnawà:ke Mohawk Territory, a First Nations reserve of the Mohawks of Kahnawà:ke, in Quebec.

Stephanie Foden for NRDC

But farmers and ranchers—especially Indigenous farmers, who have been tending the land according to sustainable principles —are reminding us that there’s more than one way to feed the world. By adopting the philosophies and methods associated with regenerative agriculture , we can slash emissions from this sector while boosting our soil’s capacity for sequestering carbon from the atmosphere, and producing healthier foods.

A decades-old, plugged and abandoned oil well at a cattle ranch in Crane County, Texas, in June 2021, when it was found to be leaking brine water

Matthew Busch/Bloomberg via Getty Images

Oil and gas lead to emissions at every stage of their production and consumption—not only when they’re burned as fuel, but just as soon as we drill a hole in the ground to begin extracting them. Fossil fuel development is a major source of methane, which invariably leaks from oil and gas operations : drilling, fracking , transporting, and refining. And while methane isn’t as prevalent a greenhouse gas as carbon dioxide, it’s many times more potent at trapping heat during the first 20 years of its release into the atmosphere. Even abandoned and inoperative wells—sometimes known as “orphaned” wells —leak methane. More than 3 million of these old, defunct wells are spread across the country and were responsible for emitting more than 280,000 metric tons of methane in 2018.

Unsurprisingly, given how much time we spend inside of them, our buildings—both residential and commercial—emit a lot of greenhouse gases. Heating, cooling, cooking, running appliances, and maintaining other building-wide systems accounted for 13 percent of U.S. emissions overall in 2020. And even worse, some 30 percent of the energy used in U.S. buildings goes to waste, on average.

Every day, great strides are being made in energy efficiency , allowing us to achieve the same (or even better) results with less energy expended. By requiring all new buildings to employ the highest efficiency standards—and by retrofitting existing buildings with the most up-to-date technologies—we’ll reduce emissions in this sector while simultaneously making it easier and cheaper for people in all communities to heat, cool, and power their homes: a top goal of the environmental justice movement.

An aerial view of clearcut sections of boreal forest near Dryden in Northwestern Ontario, Canada, in June 2019

River Jordan for NRDC

Another way we’re injecting more greenhouse gas into the atmosphere is through the clearcutting of the world’s forests and the degradation of its wetlands . Vegetation and soil store carbon by keeping it at ground level or underground. Through logging and other forms of development, we’re cutting down or digging up vegetative biomass and releasing all of its stored carbon into the air. In Canada’s boreal forest alone, clearcutting is responsible for releasing more than 25 million metric tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year—the emissions equivalent of 5.5 million vehicles.

Government policies that emphasize sustainable practices, combined with shifts in consumer behavior , are needed to offset this dynamic and restore the planet’s carbon sinks .

The Yellow Line Metro train crossing over the Potomac River from Washington, DC, to Virginia on June 24, 2022

Sarah Baker

The decisions we make every day as individuals—which products we purchase, how much electricity we consume, how we get around, what we eat (and what we don’t—food waste makes up 4 percent of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions)—add up to our single, unique carbon footprints . Put all of them together and you end up with humanity’s collective carbon footprint. The first step in reducing it is for us to acknowledge the uneven distribution of climate change’s causes and effects, and for those who bear the greatest responsibility for global greenhouse gas emissions to slash them without bringing further harm to those who are least responsible .

The big, climate-affecting decisions made by utilities, industries, and governments are shaped, in the end, by us : our needs, our demands, our priorities. Winning the fight against climate change will require us to rethink those needs, ramp up those demands , and reset those priorities. Short-term thinking of the sort that enriches corporations must give way to long-term planning that strengthens communities and secures the health and safety of all people. And our definition of climate advocacy must go beyond slogans and move, swiftly, into the realm of collective action—fueled by righteous anger, perhaps, but guided by faith in science and in our ability to change the world for the better.

If our activity has brought us to this dangerous point in human history, breaking old patterns can help us find a way out.

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Nature Essay for Students and Children

500+ words nature essay.

Nature is an important and integral part of mankind. It is one of the greatest blessings for human life; however, nowadays humans fail to recognize it as one. Nature has been an inspiration for numerous poets, writers, artists and more of yesteryears. This remarkable creation inspired them to write poems and stories in the glory of it. They truly valued nature which reflects in their works even today. Essentially, nature is everything we are surrounded by like the water we drink, the air we breathe, the sun we soak in, the birds we hear chirping, the moon we gaze at and more. Above all, it is rich and vibrant and consists of both living and non-living things. Therefore, people of the modern age should also learn something from people of yesteryear and start valuing nature before it gets too late.

Significance of Nature

Nature has been in existence long before humans and ever since it has taken care of mankind and nourished it forever. In other words, it offers us a protective layer which guards us against all kinds of damages and harms. Survival of mankind without nature is impossible and humans need to understand that.

If nature has the ability to protect us, it is also powerful enough to destroy the entire mankind. Every form of nature, for instance, the plants , animals , rivers, mountains, moon, and more holds equal significance for us. Absence of one element is enough to cause a catastrophe in the functioning of human life.

We fulfill our healthy lifestyle by eating and drinking healthy, which nature gives us. Similarly, it provides us with water and food that enables us to do so. Rainfall and sunshine, the two most important elements to survive are derived from nature itself.

Further, the air we breathe and the wood we use for various purposes are a gift of nature only. But, with technological advancements, people are not paying attention to nature. The need to conserve and balance the natural assets is rising day by day which requires immediate attention.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Conservation of Nature

In order to conserve nature, we must take drastic steps right away to prevent any further damage. The most important step is to prevent deforestation at all levels. Cutting down of trees has serious consequences in different spheres. It can cause soil erosion easily and also bring a decline in rainfall on a major level.

Polluting ocean water must be strictly prohibited by all industries straightaway as it causes a lot of water shortage. The excessive use of automobiles, AC’s and ovens emit a lot of Chlorofluorocarbons’ which depletes the ozone layer. This, in turn, causes global warming which causes thermal expansion and melting of glaciers.

Therefore, we should avoid personal use of the vehicle when we can, switch to public transport and carpooling. We must invest in solar energy giving a chance for the natural resources to replenish.

In conclusion, nature has a powerful transformative power which is responsible for the functioning of life on earth. It is essential for mankind to flourish so it is our duty to conserve it for our future generations. We must stop the selfish activities and try our best to preserve the natural resources so life can forever be nourished on earth.

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1.2: Science as a Way of Understanding the Natural World

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Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you will be able to

• Describe the nature of science and its usefulness in explaining the natural world.
• Distinguish among facts, hypotheses, and theories.
• Outline the methodology of science, including the importance of tests designed to disprove hypotheses.
• Discuss the importance of uncertainty in many scientific predictions, and the relevance of this to environmental controversies.

The Nature of Science

Science is a way of knowing about the world around us. Environmental science focuses on gaining an understanding of how the environment, with all of its biotic (living)  and abiotic (non-living)  components, functions as well as how humans impact it or are impacted by it. In other words, our actions may alter the environment in a way that impacts us, such as when we pollute water through our industrial activities and later discover that there are health implications that arise from being exposed to or consuming that polluted water. 

The broad goals of science are to understand natural phenomena and to explain how they may be changing over time. To achieve these goals, scientists carefully observe natural phenomena and conduct experiments.

All science begins with observation , so a keen sense of awareness is the primary tool of the scientist. Some science is purely observational in nature and is often referred to as descriptive science. To learn more about how the environment functions, scientists often rely on the scientific method .

Scientific investigations may be pure or applied. Pure science is driven by intellectual curiosity – it is the unfettered search for knowledge and understanding, without regard for its usefulness in human welfare. Applied science is more goal-oriented and deals with practical difficulties and problems of one sort or another. Applied science might examine how to improve technology, or to advance the management of natural resources, or to reduce pollution or other environmental damages associated with human activities.

The Scientific Method

Most of us are already familiar with the scientific method because it closely mirrors the thought process we undergo in solving a problem.  Let’s say for example that you have a coffee maker that operates on a timer and that you are used to waking up in the morning to the smell of brewed coffee. One day you awake to find that although you set the timer the night before, there is no coffee in the pot.  That observation is the very first step in beginning to solve a problem and it is also the very beginning of employing the scientific method.

Next, your mind may jump to the question of why the coffee maker did not make the coffee. You may then begin to search for a solution. Here is where the scientific method slows down a bit. While you may immediately think, did I forget to put water in the coffee maker? The scientific method is going to take this step by step. The first step is going to be to develop a hypothesis , or a proposed explanation (there is no coffee because there is no water in the machine). A prediction based on the hypothesis is then generated (adding water to the coffee maker will solve the problem). And finally, this prediction is tested (add water to the coffee maker to determine if that was the problem).

The results generated by applying the scientific method are then used to refine the process and narrow down the number of possible explanations. If there was water in the coffee maker all along, and adding water did not solve the problem, then the hypothesis is not supported and a new hypothesis is proposed. If, however, adding water gets you the coffee you have been waiting for, then your hypothesis is supported and your problem solved. In the world of science, this would not be the end of the application of the scientific method, because there is always more to learn. When studying the world around us, we always strive to build large bodies of evidence so experiments are generally replicated as a means of making for more robust conclusions. 

Facts, Hypotheses, and Experiments

A fact is an event or thing that is definitely known to have happened, to exist, and to be true. Facts are based on experience and scientific evidence. In contrast, a hypothesis is a proposed explanation for the occurrence of a phenomenon. Scientists formulate hypotheses as statements and then test them through experiments and other forms of research. Hypotheses are developed using logic, inference, and mathematical arguments in order to explain observed phenomena. However, it must always be possible to refute a scientific hypothesis. Thus, the hypothesis that “cats are so intelligent that they prevent humans from discovering it” cannot be logically refuted, and so it is not a scientific hypothesis.

A theory is a broader conception that refers to a set of explanations, rules, and laws. These are supported by a large body of observational and experimental evidence, all leading to robust conclusions. It is important to note that the term 'theory' is used differently in science than in common language. What people generally mean then they say they have a 'theory' is that they have an idea. This most closely resembles a scientific hypothesis. In science, theories are widely supported and accepted. The following are some of the most famous theories in science:

• the theory of gravitation , first proposed by Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
• the theory of evolution by natural selection , published simultaneously in 1858 by two English naturalists, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
• the theory of relativity , identified by the German–Swiss physicist, Albert Einstein (1879-1955)

Celebrated theories like these are strongly supported by large bodies of evidence, and they will likely persist for a long time. However, we cannot say that these (or any other) theories are known with certainty to be true –some future experiments may yet falsify even these famous theories. Thus, science is always considered to be provisional.

The scientific method is only used to investigate questions that can be critically examined through observation and experiment. Consequently, science cannot resolve value-laden questions, such as the meaning of life.

An experiment is a test or investigation that is designed to provide evidence in support of, or preferably against, a hypothesis. A natural experiment is conducted by observing actual variations of phenomena in nature, and then developing explanations by analysis of possible causal mechanisms. A manipulative experiment involves the deliberate alteration of factors that are hypothesized to influence phenomena. The manipulations are carefully planned and controlled in order to determine whether predicted responses will occur, thereby uncovering causal relationships. In a manipulative experiment, there are two types of variables. The first is the variable that is altered by the scientist in order to ascertain its effect. this is called the independent variable . The second is the variable that was measured in order to see what the effect was - the dependent variable .

By far the most useful working hypotheses in scientific research are designed to disprove rather than support. Thus, null hypotheses are often formulated to enhance our progress toward understanding a particular phenomenon. A null hypothesis is a specific testable investigation that denies something implied by the main hypothesis being studied. Unless null hypotheses are eliminated on the basis of contrary evidence, we cannot be confident of the main hypothesis.

To demonstrate this point, we will draw an example from a philosopher named Karl Popper (1902-1994). Let’s suppose that we have observed that every swan we have ever seen in nature has been white. Since we are trying to build on our scientific understanding of biodiversity, we can propose the hypothesis that ‘all swans are white’ and set about testing it. In order to validate our hypothesis, we can begin looking in all of the lakes and ponds where we would expect to see swans and take observational data, counting the number of swans and noting their color. The limitation in terms of science is that no matter how many white swans we encounter, we will never have proven that all swans are white, because we must always be open to the possibility that there is a swan of another color out there. Some of you are right now thinking, aren’t some swans black? Indeed they are. And how many black swans did we need to observe to prove our hypothesis wrong?

Just one. 

There are two take-home messages in this story. The first is that science does not progress by proving itself right, as many suppose. Observing one more white swan does not really add substantially to our body of knowledge. We do, however, learn something useful by proving ourselves wrong. A single black swan observation disproved our hypothesis. 

The next message is that even if we didn’t see that black swan, we need to be open to there being one somewhere in the world. As evidence is accumulated for a given explanation, our confidence in that conclusion grows, but it will never reach one hundred percent. In fact, scientists generally cannot claim anything is one hundred percent certain. The public has been misled by the claim in the past, as when a scientist was asked if he was one hundred percent certain that climate change was caused by humans. This is the reason why, even when a strong body of evidence, absolute certainty is not possible.  

Statistical tests are often invoked to assess this level of certainty, thus relieving the scientist from making a judgement, which may open the door to bias. 

This is an important aspect of scientific investigation. For instance, a particular hypothesis might be supported by many confirming experiments or observations. This does not, however, serve to “prove” the hypothesis – rather, it only supports its conditional acceptance. As soon as a clearly defined hypothesis is falsified by an appropriately designed and well-conducted experiment, it is disproved for all time. This is why experiments designed to disprove hypotheses are a key aspect of the scientific method.

Principles of Scientific Inquiry

In the world of science, research and conclusions are held to very high standards. Scientific research must undergo peer review before it can be published. During this process, experts in the specific field subject the research findings to an exhaustive review to ensure that the research is properly conducted, the results are accurate, and that the conclusions are justified.  As a result, published science is considered to be a very reliable source of information.

Another characteristic of science is that it should be unbiased . Researchers should not let vested interests guide their research endeavors or conclusions. This is an area in which complications often arise. Researchers, even when they are employed at public research institutions, often must solicit funding to pursue their research projects from government agencies or private donors (often corporations). One the one hand, in order to get funded, they must cater their research to the interests of the funding agencies, and further, they may fear that if their results are not in the interest of their donors, they may lose funding. One might imagine that a chemical corporation that makes large donations to a university would not appreciate a researcher from that institution publishing a study showing that the chemicals manufactured by that company are linked to cancer.

One way that researchers avoid bias is through transparency. Scientific studies that are published generally consist of four separate sections: In Introduction, Methods, Results and Conclusion or Discussion.  The Methods section includes an exhaustive account of how the study as conducted so that other researchers can replicate the study as a means of verifying or contradicting the results. The Results section includes the findings of the study, or in graphic or tabular form. This allows readers to ascertain what the basis is for the conclusions that were drawn in the study. 

When science undergoes rigorous peer review, the publications are considered to be a primary resource and are considered to carry a significant amount of authority. Most of the public, however, has very little exposure to these resources. You will not find them in bookstores or at community libraries for the most part. To access them directly, you generally need to have access to a college or university library, where they are often available as digital resources. Alternatively, you may subscribe to them directly, but they are generally not free.

How is scientific information disseminated to the public then? Usually by way of secondary literature . These are magazines, newspapers or websites that report on new advances in science. While they are often quite accurate, they are not as authoritative because they are not written by the expert in the field and do not undergo peer review. Within this category, there are also a number of publications that are demonstrably inaccurate and misleading. This places the burden of developing a very discerning eye for what constitutes an accurate portrayal of scientific information on the general public. Some questions to ask are, is this a publication or website that I am familiar with and that I know to be reputable? Does it have a thorough list of references that I can refer to? Is the author a reputable figure in the field? Keep in mind that the internet has no constraints on the factual nature of what can be posted, and the resources that appear first when you conduct a search are not necessarily the most accurate ones. 

Government agencies and research bodies may also be reliable sources of information, but they are prone to the same pitfalls and biases as other realms of science. In essence, the political climate at a given time may impact the presentation of information. While government reports are often posted online for public consumption, they have not necessarily undergone peer review.

It is always a good idea to approach information, particularly when it relates to an issue that is either contentious or political in nature with a healthy bit of skepticism. One advantage of achieving a working level of scientific literacy is that it qualifies you to be a discerning judge of the validity of the information you read.

Conclusions

The procedures and methods of science are important in the identifying, understanding, and resolving environmental problems. At the same time, however, social and economic issues are also vital considerations. Although science has made tremendous progress in helping us to understand the natural world, the extreme complexity of biology and ecosystems makes it difficult for environmental scientists to make reliable predictions about the consequences of many human economic activities and other influences. This context underscores the need for continued study of the scientific and socio-economic dimensions of environmental problems, even while practical decisions must be made to deal with obvious issues as they arise.

Questions for Review

• Outline the reasons why science is a rational way of understanding the natural world.
• Why are null hypotheses an efficient way to conduct scientific research? Identify a hypothesis that is suitable for examining a specific problem in environmental science and suggest a corresponding null hypothesis that could be examined through research.

Questions for Discussion

• What are the key differences between science and a less objective belief system, such as religion?
• What factors result in scientific controversies about environmental issues? Contrast these with environmental controversies that exist because of differing values and world views.
• Many natural phenomena are highly variable, particularly ones that are biological or ecological. What are the implications of this variability for understanding and predicting the causes and consequences of environmental changes? How do environmental scientists cope with this challenge of a variable natural world?

Exploring Issues

• Devise an environmental question of interest to yourself. Suggest useful hypotheses to investigate, identify the null hypotheses, and outline experiments that you might conduct to provide answers to this question.
• During a research project investigating mercury, an environmental scientist performed a series of chemical analyses of fish caught in Lake Canuck. The sampling program involved seven species of fish obtained from various habitats within the lake. A total of 360 fish of various sizes and sexes were analyzed. It was discovered that 30% of the fish had residue levels greater than 0.5 ppm of mercury, the upper level of contamination recommended by Health Canada for fish eaten by humans. The scientist reported these results to a governmental regulator, who was alarmed by the high mercury residues because of Lake Canuck’s popularity as a place where people fish for food. The regulator asked the scientist to recommend whether it was safe to eat any fish from the lake or whether to avoid only certain sizes, sexes, species, or habitats. What sorts of data analyses should the scientist perform to develop useful recommendations? What other scientific and non-scientific aspects should be considered?

References Cited and Further Reading

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 1990. Science for All Americans. AAAS, Washington, DC.

Barnes, B. 1985. About Science. Blackwell Ltd ,London, UK.

Giere, R.N. 2005. Understanding Scientific Reasoning. 5th ed. Wadsworth Publishing, New York, NY.

Kuhn, T.S. 1996. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. 3rd ed. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.

McCain, G. and E.M. Siegal. 1982. The Game of Science. Holbrook Press Inc., Boston, MA.

Moore, J.A. 1999. Science as a Way of Knowing. Harvard University Press, Boston, MA.

Popper, K. 1979. Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.

Raven, P.H., G.B. Johnson, K.A. Mason, and J. Losos. 2013. Biology. 10th ed. McGraw-Hill, Columbus, OH.

Silver, B.L. 2000. The Ascent of Science. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

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Super Typhoon Haiyan devastated Tacloban city in central Philippines November 10, 2013. One of the most powerful storms ever recorded… © Erik de Castro – Reuters

Natural phenomena, human disasters

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• Access to water
• Natural disasters
• Sanitation and hygiene

The evaluation of the factors that define disasters caused by nature´s violent phenomena is the first step to avoid them. The understanding of the concepts of exposure and vulnerability is the base of any prevention and action policy. In all cases, the access to water and sanitation is always the core idea of any emergency actions and key factors of resilience.

On the 8th November 2013, at 4.30 am, the super typhoon Haiyan burst into the Visayas of the Philippines with winds reaching 235 km per hour, wiping out these islands and the majority of the central area of the country. Meteorologists were impressed: in terms of the drop of atmospheric pressure, it was the most intense cyclone registered on dry land and the one to generate the highest sustained wind speed in one minute in history. The devastation caused by Haiyan made it necessary to rethink the risk, vulnerability and resilience factors that are essential to prevent and palliate meteorological disasters and that allow the recovery of affected areas, where the first thing to be recovered is the access to water and to sanitation.

Coastal damage caused by Hurricane Patricia in Colima, Mexico. © P. R. Mexicana

Climate change: less but more violent cyclones

Two years later, in October 2015, Hurricane Patricia broke the sustained speed record held by Haiyan on the Mexican shore, being registered at the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) as the most intense hurricane ever registered in the Western hemisphere. Both phenomena were shown at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) as a clear consequence of climate change and as a confirmation of the predictions included in its Fifth Evaluation Report (AR5), which was the base of the work of the COP 21, in December 2015 in Paris.

According to the forecasting models, the percentage of violent cyclones will increase by 2%-11% globally in the next four decades. However, the same forecasts indicate that although they will more intense they will happen less often.

Streets and pathways are flooded after the passing of Hurricane Tomas in Gonaives, north of Port-au-Prince, Haiti. © UNICEF/Marco Dormino

Phenomena and disasters

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction ( UNISDR ) differentiates between disasters and the phenomena that cause them. For the UNISDR the term “natural disaster” can be misunderstood, as disasters are the result of the lack of prevention and planning in the presence of natural phenomena. Phenomena are natural, but the disasters are produced by human action in his environment. For instance, the flooding of a flood plain caused by an overflowing river is a natural phenomenon; the presence of human settlements in the area creates the possibility of a disaster.

There are two different types of natural phenomena that cause disasters: the geological ones and those caused by climate. Earthquakes, tidal waves, and volcanic eruptions are among the first ones; all the extreme meteorological phenomena (hurricanes, tornados and storms), droughts and the rising of the sea level due to the melting of polar ice would be examples of the second category. A mixed origin between geological and climatic can be found in some avalanches, which combine excessive melting and landslides. According to the World Bank, disasters caused by climate phenomena have caused two thirds of the global economic and human losses in the last 44 years and have provoked 3.5 million deaths all around the world.

Exposure, vulnerability and risk

Although especially violent phenomena often exceed the forecasting capability, human errors in the planning of human settlements are often the main cause of disasters, especially those caused by extreme meteorological phenomena. As explained by the architect Eric Cesal , Special Projects Director of the Curry Stone Foundation and specialist in disasters, “ there are two increasing megaphenomena in the world: climate change and urbanization. Once both coincide, there is a possibility and inevitability of greater and more severe disasters occurring .”

There are key factors to understand and manage a situation with which we will have to coexist in the world, and which are the base of the success of any prevention strategy in the most affected countries.

The first ones are the concepts of exposure and vulnerability in face of the danger of a phenomenon that end up shaping the risk factor. In many cases exposure and vulnerability are erroneously considered as synonyms. Both factors are anthropogenic, that is, caused by man, but with a very different meaning.

Exposure can be defined as the presence of people, homes, buildings, service facilities or any economic, social or cultural good in areas where violent phenomena might occur. Vulnerability is the inclination to all of it being damaged. For instance, a house in the Philippines is exposed to a typhoon, but it is vulnerable because it has been deficiently built. In fact, the Philippines is the second most exposed country to the dangers of violent meteorology, with an average of 22 annual typhoons.

As it is easy to understand, vulnerability has a direct relationship with poverty: the deficient water and sanitation facilities, the shanties and the overcrowding in shacks are factors that increase the vulnerability to phenomena.

The disaster risk combines exposure and vulnerability. The IPCC defines it as the probability of a community suffering severe alterations in its normal operation and human, economic and environmental damages caused by dangerous physical events that occur in vulnerable social conditions. To continue with the Filipino example, due to its location, physical geography and poverty levels, the archipelago is a high risk area of meteorological disasters.

A girl stands surrounded by water in Raboto, a slum area of Gonaives, in the Artibonite Region of Haiti. Hurricane Tomas heavily hit the town, flooding streets and houses and retarding the response to an outbreak of cholera that has spread across the country. ©UNICEF/Marco Dormino

Water and sanitation, the major lines of resilience

These damages require the immediate emergency response to meet critical human needs. From the start, this aid needs to be conceived to develop immediate recovery plans and to achieve the resilience of the affected community. In all cases the access to water and the restoration of the sanitation is the main starting point.

In the projects of the We Are Water Foundation we can see examples of these procedures. After Typhoon Haiyan, one of the emergency aid actions consisted of something as simple as the distribution of canisters  (and purification tablets) to collect water and to purify it; in the recovery aid the restoration of the access and sanitation systems was essential to prevent the population from getting contaminated water. After the earthquake that devastated Nepal, the distribution of canisters was also a priority to provide families with 4 liters per person and day, the minimum quantity required to drink and cook, as well as the shipping of material to rebuild the sanitation facilities.

Prevention provides benefits

A quick response to emergencies is vital, but it is essential to invest in prevention. In the last 44 years, disasters caused by climate conditions have provoked 3.5 million deaths, costing more than 2 trillion dollars. In 2016, the most costly disasters caused by meteorology occurred in Asia and America: the flooding that affected China in the middle of the year was responsible for 20 billion dollars´ worth of damages; and Hurricane Matthew resulted in $10 billion worth of damage, according to the reinsuring company Munich RE .

A study by United Nations for Latin America reveals that each dollar invested in the reduction of disaster risks results in savings of 9.5 dollars, as the recurrent losses due to violent meteorological phenomena are eliminated. In a similar way, the European Union calculates that each euro spent in the protection against flooding in Europe results in savings of 6 euros. Prevention saves lives and is profitable. But in order to prevent it is necessary to raise awareness in society of the dangers, providing the population with action protocols, planning facilities and the settlements in exposed areas and investing in scientific research of prediction and warning technologies. The future of climate compels us to be alert.

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20 of the strangest natural phenomena in America

As the fourth-largest country in the world, the United States has a vast assortment of picture-perfect natural scenery to flaunt. From the Alaskan Tundra to the Gulf of Mexico, Niagara Falls to the Hawaiian Islands, the contrasts between the 50 American states and five territories are fascinating and sometimes enigmatic.

Geological, physical, chemical, and biological phenomena have rational explanations, but some are so rare they seem to be a figment of a science fiction screenwriter's imagination. Nonetheless, understandable or not, they do—unmistakably—indulge the senses.

From features in national parks to regional quirks,  Stacker compiled a list of 20 of the strangest natural phenomena in the U.S. Anyone hoping to catch a glimpse of these phenomena must remain mindful of the risks they face in the wilderness and also of the damage they could inflict on the environment. Government and community organizations manage the grounds where many of these natural happenings occur—and are often available to guide visitors through their journey.

So, revel in that which only nature can offer, buckle up for a jaw-dropping adventure, and enjoy the ride.

Death Valley's sailing stones

Death Valley National Park was established as a natural monument in 1933. Although its name could be more inviting, its beauty is undeniably unique. Its main attraction is the geological phenomenon known as the sailing stones—a mystery that kept scientists and explorers in awe for decades.

In the early 2010s, time-lapse photographs and rigorous investigations uncovered the enigma. The rocks, ranging from weighing a few ounces to over 700 pounds, move every winter without human or animal intervention when the wind blows strong enough to slide them over thin sheets of melting ice. The ice melts and moves when exposed to warm morning sunlight, a process known as ice shove.

Florida's colorful swamp

When oils released by decaying vegetation drift into the pooled water of the Sunshine State's wetlands, a rainbow-colored phenomenon decorates the scenery:  Florida's colorful swamp . The spots of oil slick reflect sunlight into trees and bushes, making them look multihued and vibrant. The natural spectacle can appear in any swamp and any time of the year, but it is rather notorious under a cloudless sunny sky and when humidity is at its highest.

Lunar rainbows

Much rarer than rainbows but just as marvelous, moonbows or lunar rainbows can appear when the moon is in or near its full phase and positioned low in the sky, most likely an hour before sunrise or after sunset. As with rainbows, water droplets must be in the air—from waterfalls, rain, or breaking waves—on the opposite side of the light-reflecting celestial body for the iridescent visual phenomenon to happen.

Great Smoky Mountains' lightning bugs

Sometime between the third week of May and the third week of June, the beetle species, officially known as  Photinus carolinus , will enter its mating season in the Great Smoky Mountains. Male fireflies synchronize their flashing lights so females can recognize them. The spectacle put on by millions of lightning bugs blinking simultaneously in the dark forest nights attracts hundreds of tourists who plan their visit several months in advance.

To this day, there is no agreement among the scientific community about why 2% of people hear a low-frequency hum in the small town of Taos, New Mexico, and its surroundings since the 1990s. The explanations for the mystery range from plain boring—such as tinnitus—to amusingly creative, like secret government mind control experiments. Real or not, it seems like the only way to find out if there is a humming sound in the historic Taos area is to pay a visit and formulate your own hypothesis.

Yellowstone's geysers

The attractions of Yellowstone Park have been in the making for over half a million years. Geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, and mud pots result from the interaction between underground volcanic activity and groundwater. The superheated water of hot springs—trapped in channels leading to the surface—erupts when the steam in the inner layers of the volcanic caldera (where Yellowstone lays) lifts the cooler water in the upper layers causing the flashy phenomenon called geysers. The most famous performer of the geothermal show is Old Faithful, a highly predictable geyser that erupts every 45 to 100 minutes.

Horsetail Fall in Yosemite

Every summer night for almost a century, burning hot embers were poured from Glacier Point in Yosemite National Park down the cliff to the valley below. The 3,000-foot drop of incandescent coal put on a magnificent show that attracted growing crowds from 1872 to 1968. Nowadays, a natural spectacle evocative of the man-made fire has taken center stage: Horsetail Fall in Yosemite , an evanescent waterfall that sometimes—during the two last weeks of February—turns bright orange when backlit by the sunset gleam.

Thor's Well

An hour before high tide, the Oregon Coast near Cape Perpetua seems peaceful and innocuous. As the minutes go by and the Pacific Ocean climbs closer to the shore, a 20-foot-deep sinkhole, known as  Thor's Well , begins to swallow the seawater. Not long after, the water overflows and starts erupting to heights of 25 feet. The water flowing and ejecting through the slippery basalt rock cavity during winter storms is a natural performance worthy of bearing the name of the mighty god of thunder. However, keep your distance: The phenomenon can be as dangerous as it is sensational.

Mendenhall Glacier

Alaska's scenery is unparalleled. Many of nature's finest exhibits call the northernmost state home. One is  Mendenhall Glacier , an enormous glacier that flows from the Juneau Icefield, a 1,500-square-mile stretch of rock, snow, and ice. The frozen giant started retreating three centuries ago when its annual melting began exceeding its annual accumulation of ice. Nevertheless, it would take hundreds of years for the glacier to disappear completely, so there is more than enough time to visit it and admire its greatness.

San Diego bioluminescent shore

Neon blue, glowing sparkles light up San Diego's beaches during the nights of the last weeks of summer. The eye-opening event occurs when microorganisms named Dinoflagellates travel back and forth on the ocean waves. Images of surfers, boaters, and even dolphins splashing through the glimmering water are all over the internet. Still, nothing beats the experience of seeing the  bioluminescent shores with your own eyes. The occurrence is not exclusive to San Diego; it can be seen on several beaches along California's coastline.

New York's ice volcano

Letchworth State Park in western New York hosts a yearly natural event known as the  ice volcano . In the middle of winter, constant frosty temperatures allow the water of a fountain (fed by a natural pond uphill) to freeze until it reaches heights of 20 to 50 feet. The cone-shaped structure forms next to the Glen Iris Inn, once the mansion of an iron magnate and philanthropist after whom the scenic park was named.

Singing sands at Great Sand Dunes National Park

The air pushing through the sand grains of an avalanche at the  Great Sand Dunes National Park creates sounds similar to those made by certain birds or insects. The singing or booming sands usually occur during sandstorms or when people push the sand down the dunes. Due to the various applications of this sound in song and ritual, it is a natural phenomenon that has attracted adventurers, artists, and mystics to the San Luis Valley in south-central Colorado for decades.

Petrified lightning at Great Sand Dunes National Park

The sculptures made when dry sand is struck by lightning are called fulgurites . Even though they look like rocks—which gives them the nickname of petrified lightning—they truly are glass tubes covered by burnt sand. The largest dunes in the U.S. found in the Great Sand Dunes National Park are the ideal place to find these whimsical pieces of natural art. However, if you ever find yourself in the desert during a thunderstorm, get away from the dunes immediately.

Sounds of Coqui frogs in Puerto Rico

Mother Nature was quite generous when creating the paradisiacal island of Puerto Rico. Breathtaking beaches and luscious tropical forests are the main attractions of the Caribbean nation, yet the top prize of Puerto Rican pride goes to a tiny and noisy little frog: the coquí . Tourism advertisements and pop culture have made the coquí famous for its "singing." The name of these tiny amphibians is an onomatopoeia, resembling their cheerful song pretty accurately.

Overwintering monarchs in California

As autumn settles in, thousands of  monarch butterflies leave the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains to spend the cooler months in the central coast region of California. The bright-colored insects gather mostly at Pismo State Beach in San Luis Obispo County, roughly midway between Los Angeles and San Francisco, but can also be found in several other locations down the Pacific coast. The amalgam of a massive number of overwintering monarchs and the green foliage is a delightful sight that impresses spectators, especially the younger ones.

Pennsylvania's ringing rocks

In a 123-acre park on the eastern border of Pennsylvania—where the Delaware River separates it from New Jersey—a field of boulder rocks ring like bells when hit with a hammer. Although the main course of  Ringing Rocks Park is the attraction to which it owes its name, the riverside forest is also an ideal destination for hiking, biking, and picnicking. To round up a trip on a different note, Bucks County —where the park is located—is home to several long-standing breweries, wineries, and distilleries.

Bioluminescent fungi in Appalachia

Most of us are familiar with pixie dust, but have you heard about fairy fire? Deep in the woods of the Appalachian Mountains, a rare phenomenon takes place in the dark:  bioluminescent fungi illuminate the forest bed and decaying tree logs with a bright green glow. This state of brightness is caused by an oxidative enzyme called luciferase , which can be so potent that the radiance might remain visible even when the fungi are taken out of the forest. Conditions for the mushrooms to light up are very particular, so you might only sometimes find foxfire, as it is also known. Nonetheless, there are better chances if you explore the southern Appalachians.

Mother-of-pearl clouds in Alaska

Officially named polar stratospheric clouds , this natural event only happens when the temperature above the Arctic Circle falls below minus 114 degrees F, causing widely spaced water molecules to blend and form ice crystals in the otherwise dry stratosphere. High-altitude sun rays beam into the ice, reflecting rainbow-hued light into the clouds. Since the only U.S. state that is part of the Arctic Circle is Alaska, it's the only one where you might be able to catch a glimpse of this mesmerizing color display.

Pittsburgh's Gravity Hill

Many claim that cars roll uphill when put on neutral at an apparently ordinary intersection in the Pittsburgh area. Though no scientific research has been conducted to confirm or deny the assertions, plenty of videos of the incident exist on the internet. The location is known as  Gravity Hill , since the most agreed-upon explanation of the phenomenon is a glitch in the planet's gravitational field.

Nebraska's Chimney Rock

The monumental natural tower known as Chimney Rock is a prehistoric formation embellishing Nebraska's North Platte River Valley. Towering at 480 feet, it is a symbolic point of the Oregon Trail. Many pioneers and migrants mentioned Chimney Rock in the written and oral recollections of their journeys to the West, making it an unassuming protagonist of an emblematic portion of American history. (It is not to be confused with the scenic viewpoint in North Carolina that goes by the same name.)

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The Power of Mathematics: Unveiling its Influence on Nature and Phenomena

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Natural Phenomena: What are they?, Causes, Examples and more

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The Natural Phenomena , constitute the developments and advances of transformations, alterations and modifications that arise in nature. Incessantly, without being generated by the intervention of the human being. Find out here all about this important topic.

Natural Phenomena

Establish what are natural phenomena , is to refer to all unusual, amazing and unforeseen situations. That happen in the field of nature and that cause a variation, disturbance and modification of the previous conditions. Where the action did not occur as a result of the participation of man.

Being remarkable that these can be raised periodically, recurring, frequent or repetitive, as well as being the action of a reaction to the physical transformations of the globe.

Mainly, these natural phenomena are presented as infrequent facts or events, which have the particularity of being visible, appreciable and perceptible in the different areas of geography. Where they carry various Types of environmental impact , constituting an effect, repercussion and consequence in the ecosystem of Planet Earth.

Natural phenomena are characterized by responding to principles, norms, foundations, natural forces and procedures that direct, lead or guide the sphere of the globe. Without the incidence of the individuals that inhabit it. However, there is the continuous repercussion that this imposes after the continuous and indiscriminate contamination.

Usually the natural phenomena they present themselves in a different way, without generating consequences, but as a normal event or perhaps a cycle. But just as it can be a circumstance without repercussion, it can on the other hand cause the greatest damage. Both for people, animals, plants and the environment itself. Where, when they happen causing damage is when a natural disaster occurs.

What is Natural Disaster?

Natural disasters are caused by freaks of nature that cause deterioration, havoc, destruction, devastation and affections. Having that its size and importance directly affects the human being and everything that surrounds him. Where in turn, these are often due to an indirect effect or influence in which people have a powerful intervention.

Therefore, the human being would be becoming an indirect protagonist of these, along with natural phenomena as such. Bearing in mind that these situations are the response to the countless impacts that, in one way or another, individuals do not stop to analyze, constituting a tragedy the experience developed, with losses that are normally of lives of people, animals, the environment and materials.

What is the greenhouse effect?

This is one of the natural atmospheric phenomena, which corresponds to an increase in temperature in it, being the result of the accumulation of gases, mainly carbon dioxide.

What is global warming?

Global warming is what occurs after the excessive accumulation of the greenhouse effect, generating heat retention and its emission. Causing climate change that affect the Earth and the ecosystem.

Types of Natural Phenomena

The classification or types of natural phenomena are distinguished according to their incidence and where they come from, giving the result, which is the repercussion that they cause. Having then, the following, the what are the natural phenomena significant and transcendental for the ecosystem:

• Astronomical: They originate in the universe, affecting absolutely everything, both on Earth and on the other planets of the Solar System.
• Atmospheric or Meteorological: Natural atmospheric or meteorological phenomena are those that occur in the different layers of the atmosphere. From what is the wind, to the ozone layer. Being those who in turn have the domain of establishing what is the climate that is perceived in the ecosystem.
• Biological: These, on the other hand, are the ones that experience alterations and modifications, transforming any process that has to do with evolution, development, functioning, among others. That they execute the living beings, that is to say, the people, the animals and the plants. Species, their possible impact and extinction, as well as migration.
• Geological: They are carried out in the internal part or solid conformation of the Earth, without leaving aside, what belongs to its surface. They have to do explicitly with the movement of tectonic plates. In this are also the action of the volcanoes.
• Hydrological: Natural hydrological phenomena are manifested in any body of water on the globe, where tides and any other movement or displacement of water stand out.
• Opticians: This type of natural phenomenon has its manifestation through light, altering or modifying its characteristics, mechanism of incidence or action. As well as the exchange with matter.

Prototypes of Natural Phenomena

They are prototypes of natural phenomena the following:

• Astronomical: Lunar eclipse, Solar eclipse, movement of the Earth, that is, its rotation and translation. Meteor showers, lunastice, solstice, moonlight, occultation, implosion, astronomical impact. Moon phases, light echo, equinox, solar radiation, among others.
• Atmospheric: Rain, storms, lightning, hurricanes, snow, electrical storms, rainbows, wind, aurora borealis, parhelio, crepuscular rays, zodiacal light, noctilucent cloud, hail, green lightning, tornadoes, aurora borealis, tropical cyclone, among others.
• Biological: Animal migration, fish oviposition, animal extinction, human fertilization, animal evolution, photosynthesis, diseases, epidemics, pandemics, red tide, famine, plagues, metamorphism, appearance of flowers, among others.
• Geological: Landslides, erosion, sedimentation, transport, weathering, cementation, lithification, earthquakes, landslides, hydrothermalism, volcanic eruptions, avalanches or landslides. Plate subduction, continental drift, orogenesis, metasomatism, lifting of the earth's crust, among others.
• Hydrological: Marine currents, tsunamis, waterfalls, waves, meanders, rapids, ocean currents, tides, among others.
• Opticians: rainbows, halos, mirages, light reflection, light diffraction, light scattering, among others.

Causes of Natural Phenomena

Today, both Planet Earth and the rest of the Solar System are affected by the alterations and modifications produced after the effect of climate change. Because everything arises from this one, which is shown as the most devastating, causing a destructive effect.

It is terrifying that the figures handled, throw in a study, which includes the beginning of this millennium to the present day. Because of the impact of climate change. 90% of the events that occur come from or are caused by this unstoppable force, both directly and indirectly. Also knowing that the natural disasters that govern natural phenomena have sadly doubled during the time of research.

It is for this reason that the UN calls for the establishment of measures that initially address the Environmental awareness . That until now is still lost and terribly affects the ecosystem in general. In which all nations must be integrated, in order to form strategies, as well as attack forces for the benefit of all.

How are Usual Natural Phenomena Produced and Affected?

The way in which the usual natural phenomena experienced in the ecosystem, are the following:

Astronomical

Regarding this natural phenomenon we have:

• Solar radiation: This corresponds to a natural astronomical phenomenon that comes from the Sun, causing an incidence on both the Earth and the Moon. Knowing that its action on the globe affects the ecosystem.
• Movements of the Earth of Rotation and Translation: This is a natural phenomenon, which is what responds to what is visualized as day, night and the passing of time. Not leaving aside its influence on the development of the seasons of the year.
• Moon phases: This corresponds to a response of the movement of this with respect to the Earth and the Sun.

Some are as follows:

• Orogenesis: This is what is normally visualized in the prolonged passage of time. As an evolution and development of a succession of mountains, which are linked to each other, forming a set.
• Coal, Oil and Gas: The formation of these is the action that undergoes the transformation of organic matter and that only becomes possible with the passage of time.

Hydrological

Conclusion natural phenomena Frequent hydrologic events, some of the following:

• Waterfalls, Rapids and Meanders: They are the response to the movement of the waters through the various channels.
• Ocean Currents: These are the reaction of the movement of the great masses of water contained in the oceans.
• Waves: They are the response of the movement of water, where the wind exerts an important incidence in relation to its formation.

atmospheric

Among the usual ones are:

• Wind: It is caused by the movement of air masses, with atmospheric pressure having a great impact on them.
• Rain: It is the answer to the Hydrological Water Cycle, where the water that reaches the Earth's surface comes from the clouds. It can be in liquid form, which is rain, or in solid form, which is snow or hail.
• Ray: Lightning strikes are natural phenomena, product of electrical discharges, which are generated in the atmosphere and reach the earth's surface.

Biological and Ecological

The natural phenomena , which are normally carried out are the following:

• Evolution of Species: They are all the physical and genetic transformations that give the answer to new individuals.
• Animal Migration: This corresponds to the movement of animals from one habitat to another in response to a need.
• Species Extinction: This is the one produced after various effects, where animals of the same species disappear entirely.
• Fertilization: Fertilization is the response to the union of gametes, both female and male, through sexual reproduction, thus having a new individual.

What are Natural Disasters of Natural Phenomena?

Some of the following are natural disasters, according to their origin:

Disasters produced in the interior of the Earth

The most common are the following:

• Earthquakes: These are the responses to the displacement of the tectonic plates, which in this sense shake the earth, destroying everything due to their incidence.
• Tsunami or Tidal Wave: It is produced after the movement or displacement of the earth's crust from the seabed, causing waves of considerable height that reach the coast. Entering populated sites generating destruction.
• Volcanic eruption: This is produced or has its origin in the interior of the earth and is the response to the melting of rocks. Arriving on Earth together with ashes and gases, generating tragedies to the ecosystem.

Disasters Produced by Dynamic Effects of the Earth's Surface

Of these, the following are recurring:

• Ground slides: It is the detachment of vegetation, generally by the action of rain, totally changing its structure.
• Collapse: This is caused by a landslide or the collapse of buildings.
• Avalanche: They are the response to the slides of the snow layers contained in a slope, which can in turn drag the vegetal layer where it rested.

Disasters Produced by Meteorological Phenomena

In this category, the usual ones are:

• Flood: It is the progressive irruption of water from rivers and lakes, in response to its accumulation after heavy precipitation. This can also come from the rupture of a man-made reservoir.
• Drought: This is the lack of moisture in the various Types of soil , that is, it is produced by the scarce atmospheric precipitation.
• Hurricanes: They are produced after the union of both cold and hot and humid air masses, where the cold ones come from the Pacific or Atlantic oceans.
• Storms: This occurs after electrical discharges originating in the atmosphere.
• Hailstorm: It is when raindrops in a solid state reach the earth's surface after precipitating.
• Tornadoes: It corresponds to the winds that move in a rotating way at very high speed.

Biological Origin Disasters

These are caused by the following:

• Pandemics: It is the spread of an infectious disease, which affects the health of people in a massive way causing numerous deaths.
• Pests: These come after the cultivation of harmful animals.
• Epidemics: It is the spread of an infectious disease in a localized manner.

Examples of Natural Phenomena

Animal migration.

Animal migration is a response to natural phenomena biological. Where the same, is carried out through the movement of animals from one place to another changing their habitat, that is, settling in another place. For a given time, no matter how far you have to go. This occurs in various species, both in aerial, terrestrial and aquatic animals.

The reason that causes it can be of different kinds, such as the search for food, the change of seasons, mating, among others. Among the animals that migrate are, for example, green turtles, salmon, elephants, sea lions, swallows, dragonflies, monarch butterflies, wildebeests, caribou. Microscopic organisms such as plankton, among others.

Human Fertilization

Human fertilization is one of the biological phenomena that is experienced constantly. It consists of the union of male and female gametes. This corresponds to the response of the action carried out in sexual reproduction, with the union of a male sperm and the female egg, where a new individual will develop. It should be noted that the new individual will contain the genes of both parents.

Moon phases

The phases of the Moon, corresponds to one of the natural phenomena astronomical, which are generated incessantly. Where we humans appreciate it from Earth, due to the various positions it experiences during its process. Which are the following nine:

New Moon, First Quarter, First Quarter, First Gibbous, Full Moon, Last Gibbous, Last Quarter, Last Quarter and Black Moon.

Volcanic eruption

The volcanic eruption is the natural geological phenomenon, characterized by the melting of magma, together with the emission of gases and ash movements. That is caused or produced by the increase in temperature in the magma and the pressure of the gases that contain it. Generating an explosion and expulsion of lava, gases and ashes, which pollute the environment, destroy everything in its path and cause numerous deaths.

The halo is a natural phenomenon, where the particularity of the formation of a ring is presented, either around the Moon or around the Sun. This causes an optical effect, where it is produced by the ice particles that They are suspended in the layer of the atmosphere called the troposphere.

Which come to cause a refraction of light that in turn results in a spectrum of colors. This event, produced by this category of natural phenomena , has been viewed in the nations of Russia, Greenland, Colombia, Canada, Mexico, among others.

Rain corresponds to the type of natural phenomena of the atmospheric order produced or generated after the condensation of water vapor that is a part of the Hydrological Water Cycle. The condensation of the water, is what in turn allows the clouds to form, which when they are ready during the cycle, the precipitation of the water takes place, which is what is observed and felt in the form of Rain water .

On the other hand, the rain provides benefits for the ecosystem, because the plants are irrigated, leading to their growth and development. It also helps human beings in the collection of drinking water for consumption and use in daily tasks. The environment is refreshed, generating the necessary humidity, among others.

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How Schools Can Turn the Solar Eclipse Into an Unforgettable Science Lesson

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If the weather cooperates, science students of all ages could be in for quite a show on April 8. The first sign will be a sudden temperature drop. The sky will darken, and winds will shift. A dark shadow will appear on the horizon. Faint waves of light may waft across the ground. A ring of bright light will shine from the outer edges of the otherwise darkened sun. Then the moon will cover the sun completely and, for a few seconds, a thin red layer may appear around its outer rim.

This fantastical display describes a total solar eclipse, which happens in the same place on the planet only an average of once every 366 years, according to experts . It’s also the sort of once-in-a-lifetime occurrence that can get kids super excited about science—a worthwhile goal, especially amid a barrage of reports of disengaged students and sky-high rates of absenteeism .

The impending total solar eclipse raises several questions for educators—from how best to expose students to both its sheer magnificence and its value as a learning tool to, more broadly, how to infuse other ‘real world’ science lessons into the classroom. To get answers to these questions, Education Week reached out to science education guru Dennis Schatz, a senior fellow at the Institute of Learning Innovation, past president of the board of directors for the National Science Teaching Association, and advisor to the Smithsonian Science Education Center.

Schatz advocated for a carnival-like atmosphere to celebrate the coming eclipse; even, as he noted, several school districts will cancel school that day. He also shared his general thoughts on how teachers can generate interest in ‘real-world’ science learning and the obstacles that too often prevent it. Here’s an edited version of the conversation.

What is your overarching philosophy of science education?

A fundamental philosophy of mine is to make science life-long, life-wide, and life-deep.

What do you mean by ‘life-deep’?”

There’s the workforce development focus of this; that is, the demand for STEM professionals. But life-deep also means getting involved and interested in science at a level that’s appropriate for you. You may be an accountant, but you may like to watch the National Geographic Channel or read science books and, if so, that’s an appropriate depth for you.

Where does engagement in science start?

Having been involved in schoolwide reform efforts, I’ve done a lot of work with teachers in the classroom, although I’ve never actually taught in one. Making science more engaging for students is probably the biggest challenge at the elementary school level, because not many elementary school teachers are trained in science. So the real goal, especially at the elementary level, is how to build enthusiasm in teachers so they can then get students excited.

So, what works?

It can start by getting teachers to think about how to use their local environment, or local community, to generate interest in science. For example, in the Northwest, salmon is a big issue [ declining numbers in recent years have been blamed on climate change and human development], so that can be a way to generate interest—either from an environmental perspective or a food perspective. There are a lot of different real-world connections to be made with salmon for people who live in the Northwest.

What about getting students excited to experience the solar eclipse?

Absolutely, the solar eclipse can be awe-inspiring, and it can be fun. I was talking to a teacher recently who said: I don’t want to make it like a fire drill, where you take the students outside, with their glasses, take a look at the eclipse, and go back in. There’s a whole range in how districts are treating the [upcoming] eclipse. It takes two and a half hours, from beginning to end. Watching the eclipse slowly go across the sun is like watching ice melt. So you want to think about ways in which you can make it into a fun experience. Enlightened administrators will encourage building an entire event around it: Think art activities, food, music.

How far in advance would you suggest teachers begin preparing students for the solar eclipse?

It’s about two weeks out, and in the back of my mind, I’m saying: It’s way too late. I guess you could try to cram it all into just one day, but I would recommend spending more time in advance. Ideally, well before the eclipse, teachers will bring some science activities into class that model what’s happening with the phenomenon. There are many other real-life examples to draw from: Every six months, there’s at least one lunar and one solar eclipse somewhere on the Earth.

Will most schools use the eclipse as a learning opportunity?

A huge number of districts are canceling school for a variety of reasons; one is liability. In the Midwest and Northeast, the eclipse happens at the end of the school day, and people are worried about safety issues and higher-than-normal traffic during the point of totality [when the moon passes between the Earth and the sun]. In these cases of school closures, teachers who plan in advance can share information with students about how to experience the eclipse safely , and they can in turn go home and teach their parents.

How do you recommend students experience the eclipse?

I think glasses are overrated. When you look through a pair of glasses, you get this little yellow dot. There are so many indirect ways to view the eclipse. One of my favorites is with a basic kitchen colander . If you stand with your back to the sun and hold the colander so the sun’s light shines through it onto the ground or a wall, inside the colander’s shadow you’ll see many tiny images of the eclipsed sun.

Other tips for good viewing of the eclipse?

You want to find a place in the sun that’s not obscured by shadows, somewhere away from tall buildings. At most schools, this might be a playground area. I recommend going out a couple days ahead of time and finding out where the shadows are going to be, so you can avoid them. And of course, the most important element is clear weather.

When the eclipse is over, how can science teachers maintain students’ excitement about the natural world?

There are so many phenomena to observe and study—certainly in astronomy, from meteor showers to lunar eclipses—and all kinds of weather events, like hurricanes and earthquakes. You have to be sensitized, as a teacher, to think: I’m going to use these events to motivate an interest in science.

What resources do you suggest for teachers who want to stay informed about real-world science lessons?

The NSTA publishes three journals for educators, targeting elementary, middle, and high school students. I also like the New York Times’ science section. There’s also Scientific American magazine, which has moved from being a journal for scientists and now is much more geared for the lay audience.

So, if resources are available, what gets in the way of teaching real-world science lessons?

For teachers, it’s often a matter of figuring out: How do I feel like I have the freedom to move away from what I’m supposed to teach? Things are so standards-driven these days, there’s just no time or ability to deviate. Plus, you’re worrying about how kids are going to do on tests, and so many other things—social-emotional learning, safety. But if you aren’t generating an ongoing interest in the scientific phenomena that you can see and experience, then you’re doing a disservice to students.

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Stephen King’s First Book Is 50 Years Old, and Still Horrifyingly Relevant

“Carrie” was published in 1974. Margaret Atwood explains its enduring appeal.

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By Margaret Atwood

Margaret Atwood is the author of “The Handmaid’s Tale” and many other books. Her latest, “Paper Boat: New and Selected Poems: 1961-2023,” will be published in October. This essay is adapted from her introduction to the anniversary edition of “Carrie,” published this month by Vintage.

• March 25, 2024

Stephen King’s “Carrie” burst upon an astonished world in 1974. It made King’s career. It has sold millions, made millions, inspired four films and passed from generation to generation. It was, and continues to be, a phenomenon.

“Carrie” was King’s first published novel. He started it as a men’s magazine piece, which was peculiar in itself: What made him think that a bunch of guys intent (as King puts it) on looking at pictures of cheerleaders who had somehow forgotten to put their underpants on would be riveted by an opening scene featuring gobs of menstrual blood? This is, to put it mildly, not the world’s sexiest topic, and especially not for young men. Failing to convince himself, King scrunched up the few pages he’d written and tossed them into the garbage.

But his wife, Tabitha — a dauntless soul, and evidently of a curious temperament — fished them out, uncrinkled them, read them, and famously convinced King to continue the story. She wanted to know how it would come out, and such desires on the part of readers are perhaps the best motivation a writer can have.

King proceeded. The novel grew into a book with many voices. First, of course, there is Carrie herself: Picked on by her religious fanatic of a mother, by her fellow high school students and by the entire town of Chamberlain, Maine, she is clumsy, yearning, pimply, ignorant and, by the end, vengefully telekinetic. But we also hear from the next-door neighbor who witnessed a violent display of the toddler Carrie’s telekinetic manifestations; from various journalistic pieces, in Esquire and in local papers, about Carrie’s unusual powers and the destruction of the town by fire and flood; from Ogilvie’s Dictionary of Psychic Phenomena and from an article in a science yearbook (“Telekinesis: Analysis and Aftermath”); from Susan Snell, the only one of Carrie’s female classmates to attempt to atone for the wrongs they did to her; and from the academic paper “The Shadow Exploded: Documented Facts and Specific Conclusions Derived From the Case of Carietta White.”

Then there are the inner voices of various other characters, as overheard by Carrie, who toward the end of her life becomes telepathic and can listen in on the silent thoughts of others, as well as broadcasting her inner life to them. Together, the many voices tell the horrifying tale.

What is it about “Carrie” that has intrigued me? It’s one of those books that manage to dip into the collective unconscious of their own age and society.

Female figures with quasi-supernatural powers seem to pop up in literature at times when the struggle for women’s rights comes to the fore. H. Rider Haggard’s “She” appeared toward the end of the 19th century, when pressure for more equality was building; its electrically gifted heroine can kill with a pointed finger and a thought, and much verbiage is expended on male anxieties about what might happen — especially to men — should She-Who-Must-Be-Obeyed train her sights on world domination. (Naomi Alderman, whose novel “The Power” coincided with the rise of the #MeToo movement, went one better and gave most young girls the ability to kill by shooting out energy rays, like electric eels.)

“Carrie” was written in the early 1970s, when the second-wave women’s movement was at full throttle. There are a couple of nods to this new form of feminism in the novel, and King himself has said that he was nervously aware of its implications for men of his generation. The male villain of “Carrie,” Billy Nolan, is a throwback to the swaggering hair-oiled tough-male posturing of the 1950s, which is seen as already outmoded, though still dangerous. The female villain, Chris Hargensen, is the archetypical Queen Bee cruelty ringleader of high school drama, the negative version of Sisterhood Is Powerful.

A side note on names. “Chris” — for “Christine,” for “Christ” — is self-evidently ironic: Chris is an anti-savior. “Carrie White” is an interesting combination. “Carrie,” as King takes pains to point out, is not a nickname for Carol or Carolina. Carrie’s given name is “Carietta,” an unusual variant of “Caretta,” itself derived from “caritas,” or “charity” — loving and forgiving kindness, the most important virtue in the Christian triad of faith, hope and charity. This kind of charity is noteworthily lacking in most of the townspeople of Chamberlain. (Yes, there is a real Chamberlain, Maine, and I wonder how its inhabitants felt when they discovered in 1974 that they’d be obliterated in 1979, the year in which “Carrie” is set.)

Most particularly, charitable loving kindness is entirely absent from Carrie’s mother, nominally a devoted Christian, who knows about Carrie’s superpowers, believes she has inherited them from an eldritch, sugar-bowl-levitating grandmother, and ascribes them to demonic energies and witchcraft, thus viewing it as her pious duty to murder her own child. Carrie herself wavers between love and forgiveness and hate and revenge, but it’s the hatred of the town that channels itself through her, tips her over the edge and transforms her into an angel of destruction.

As for “White,” you might be inclined to think “white hat, black hat,” as in westerns, or “white” as in innocent, white-clothed sacrificial lamb, and yes, Carrie is an innocent — but also please consider “white trash.” In fact, read the book of that name by Nancy Isenberg; and, for added raw and gritty details, read the novel “The Beans of Egypt, Maine,” by Carolyn Chute. The white underclass has existed in America from the beginning, and white trashers going back generations are thick on the ground in Maine, Stephen King’s home territory — a territory he has mined extensively over the course of his career.

He based the situation of Carrie on two girls from that underclass whom he knew at school, both of them marked by poverty and decaying clothing, both of them taunted and despised and destroyed by their fellow students. Everyone in the town was an underdog in the carefully calibrated class structure of America — not for them the fancy private schools and university educations, unless they got really, really lucky — but there are no dogs so under that they don’t welcome another dog even lower in the social scheme, to be made use of as a blank screen onto which all the things they dislike about their own positions may be projected. Given a choice between dishing out the contempt and rejection and being the recipient of it, most will choose to dish out. And so it was with King, and so it is with Sue Snell, though both later repent.

King is a visceral writer, and a master of granular detail. As Marianne Moore said, the literary ideal is “imaginary gardens with real toads in them,” and boy, are there a lot of toads in King’s work! He writes “horror,” the most literary of forms, especially when it comes to the supernatural, which must perforce be inspired by already existing tales and books. All the quasi-scientific hocus-pocus about the genetic inheritability of telekinesis is just cover-up (as is the “natural” source of Ayesha’s powers in “She,” and the something-in-the-drinking-water, experiment-gone-wrong stuff in “The Power”: You can’t just say “miracle” or “witch” anymore and get instant credibility).

But underneath the “horror,” in King, is always the real horror: the all-too-actual poverty and neglect and hunger and abuse that exists in America today. “I went to school with kids who wore the same neckdirt for months, kids whose skin festered with sores and rashes, kids with the eerie dried-apple-doll faces that result from untreated burns, kids who were sent to school with stones in their dinnerbuckets and nothing but air in their Thermoses,” King says in “On Writing.” The ultimate horror, for him as it was for Dickens, is human cruelty, and especially cruelty to children. It is this that distorts “charity,” the better side of our nature, the side that prompts us to take care of others.

I think this is part of King’s widespread appeal. Yes, he shows us weird stuff, but in the context of the actual. The clock, the sofa, the religious paintings on the walls — all the daily objects that Carrie explodes during her rampage — these are drawn from life, as is the everyday sadism of the high school kids that makes “Carrie” feel as frighteningly relevant as ever.

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