health policy brief assignment

Policy Briefs

What this handout is about.

This handout will offer tips for writing effective policy briefs. Be sure to check with your instructor about their specific expectations for your assignment.

What are policy briefs?

Imagine that you’re an elected official serving on a committee that sets the standards cars must meet to pass a state inspection. You know that this is a complex issue, and you’d like to learn more about existing policies, the effects of emissions on the environment and on public health, the economic consequences of different possible approaches, and more–you want to make an informed decision. But you don’t have time to research all of these issues! You need a policy brief.

A policy brief presents a concise summary of information that can help readers understand, and likely make decisions about, government policies. Policy briefs may give objective summaries of relevant research, suggest possible policy options, or go even further and argue for particular courses of action.

How do policy briefs differ from other kinds of writing assignments?

You may encounter policy brief assignments in many different academic disciplines, from public health and environmental science to education and social work. If you’re reading this handout because you’re having your first encounter with such an assignment, don’t worry–many of your existing skills and strategies, like using evidence , being concise , and organizing your information effectively , will help you succeed at this form of writing. However, policy briefs are distinctive in several ways.

In some of your college writing, you’ve addressed your peers, your professors, or other members of your academic field. Policy briefs are usually created for a more general reader or policy maker who has a stake in the issue that you’re discussing.

Tone and terminology

Many academic disciplines discourage using unnecessary jargon, but clear language is especially important in policy briefs. If you find yourself using jargon, try to replace it with more direct language that a non-specialist reader would be more likely to understand. When specialized terminology is necessary, explain it quickly and clearly to ensure that your reader doesn’t get confused.

Policy briefs are distinctive in their focus on communicating the practical implications of research to a specific audience. Suppose that you and your roommate both write research-based papers about global warming. Your roommate is writing a research paper for an environmental science course, and you are writing a policy brief for a course on public policy. You might both use the exact same sources in writing your papers. So, how might those papers differ?

Your roommate’s research paper is likely to present the findings of previous studies and synthesize them in order to present an argument about what we know. It might also discuss the methods and processes used in the research.

Your policy brief might synthesize the same scientific findings, but it will deploy them for a very specific purpose: to help readers decide what they should do. It will relate the findings to current policy debates, with an emphasis on applying the research outcomes rather than assessing the research procedures. A research paper might also suggest practical actions, but a policy brief is likely to emphasize them more strongly and develop them more fully.

To support these changes in audience, tone, and purpose, policy briefs have a distinctive format. You should consult your assignment prompt and/or your professor for instructions about the specific requirements of your assignment, but most policy briefs have several features in common. They tend to use lots of headings and have relatively short sections. This structure differs from many short papers in the humanities that may have a title but no further headings, and from reports in the sciences that may follow the “IMRAD” structure of introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Your brief might include graphs, charts, or other visual aids that make it easier to digest the most important information within sections.  Policy briefs often include some of these sections:

• Title: A good title quickly communicates the contents of the brief in a memorable way.
• Executive Summary: This section is often one to two paragraphs long; it includes an overview of the problem and the proposed policy action.
• Context or Scope of Problem: This section communicates the importance of the problem and aims to convince the reader of the necessity of policy action.
• Policy Alternatives: This section discusses the current policy approach and explains proposed options. It should be fair and accurate while convincing the reader why the policy action proposed in the brief is the most desirable.
• Policy Recommendations: This section contains the most detailed explanation of the concrete steps to be taken to address the policy issue.
• Appendices: If some readers might need further support in order to accept your argument but doing so in the brief itself might derail the conversation for other readers, you might include the extra information in an appendix.
• Consulted or Recommended Sources: These should be reliable sources that you have used throughout your brief to guide your policy discussion and recommendations.

Depending on your specific topic and assignment, you might combine sections or break them down into several more specific ones.

How do I identify a problem for my policy brief?

An effective policy brief must propose a solution to a well-defined problem that can be addressed at the level of policy. This may sound easy, but it can take a lot of work to think of a problem in a way that is open to policy action.

For example, “bad spending habits in young adults” might be a problem that you feel strongly about, but you can’t simply implement a policy to “make better financial decisions.” In order to make it the subject of a policy brief, you’ll need to look for research on the topic and narrow it down. Is the problem a lack of financial education, predatory lending practices, dishonest advertising, or something else? Narrowing to one of these (and perhaps further) would allow you to write a brief that can propose concrete policy action.

For another example, let’s say that you wanted to address children’s health. This is a big issue, and too broad to serve as the focus of a policy brief, but it could serve as a starting point for research. As you begin to research studies on children’s health, you might decide to zoom in on the more specific issue of childhood obesity. You’ll need to consult the research further to decide what factors contribute to it in order to propose policy changes. Is it lack of exercise, nutritional deficiencies, a combination of these, or something else? Choosing one or another of these issues, your brief would zoom in even further to specific proposals that might include exercise initiatives, nutritional guidelines, or school lunch programs.

The key is that you define the problem and its contributing factors as specifically as possible so that some sort of concrete policy action (at the local, state, or national level) is feasible.

Framing the issue

Once you’ve identified the problem for yourself, you need to decide how you will present it to your reader. Your own process of identifying the problem likely had some stops, starts, and dead-ends, but your goal in framing the issue for your reader is to provide the most direct path to understanding the problem and the proposed policy change. It can be helpful to think of some of the most pressing questions your audience will have and attempt to preemptively answer those questions. Here are some questions you might want to consider:

What is the problem?

Understanding what the problem is, in the clearest terms possible, will give your reader a reference point. Later, when you’re discussing complex information, your reader can refer back to the initial problem. This will help to ‘anchor’ them throughout the course of your argument. Every piece of information in the brief should be clearly and easily connected to the problem.

What is the scope of the problem?

Knowing the extent of the problem helps to frame the policy issue for your reader. Is the problem statewide, national, or international? How many people does this issue affect? Daily? Annually? This is a great place for any statistical information you may have gathered through your research.

Who are the stakeholders?

Who does this issue affect? Adult women? College-educated men? Children from bilingual homes? The primary group being affected is important, and knowing who this group is allows the reader to assign a face to the policy issue.

Policy issues can include a complex network of stakeholders. Double check whether you have inadvertently excluded any of them from your analysis. For example, a policy about children’s nutrition obviously involves the children, but it might also include food producers, distributors, parents, and nutritionists (and other experts). Some stakeholders might be reluctant to accept your policy change or even acknowledge the existence of the problem, which is why your brief must be convincing in its use of evidence and clear in its communication.

Effective policy-writing

This handout has emphasized that good policy briefs are clear, concise, and focused on applying credible research to policy problems. Let’s take a look at two versions of the introduction to a policy brief to see how someone might write and revise to achieve these qualities:

A “not-so-good” policy brief

Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia: A Call to Action

The Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia (2010), issued by Secretary of Health Dr. Polly Galver, served as a platform to increase public awareness on the importance of dermatologic health for adolescents. Among the major themes of the report are that dermatologic health is essential to general health and well-being and that profound and consequential dermatologic health disparities exist in the state of Outlandia. Dr. Galver stated that what amounts to a silent epidemic of acne is affecting some population groups–restricting activities as schools, work, and home–and often significantly diminishing the quality of life. Dr. Galver issued the Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health as a wake-up call to policymakers and health professionals on issues regarding the state’s dermatologic health. (“ Not so good policy brief ,” Reproduced with permission of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD.)

This paragraph introduces a relevant and credible source, but it fails to use that source to explain a problem and propose policy action. The reader is likely to be confused because the word “acne” does not appear until the middle of the paragraph, and the brief never states what action should be taken to address it. In addition to this lack of focus, the paragraph also includes unnecessary phrases like “among the major themes” that could be removed to make it more concise.

A better policy brief

Seeing Spots: Addressing the Silent Epidemic of Acne in Outlandia’s Youth

Acne is the most common chronic disease among adolescents in Outlandia (Outlandia Department of Health, 2010). Long considered a benign rite of passage, acne actually has far-reaching effects on the health and well being of adolescents, significantly affecting success in school, social relationships, and general quality of life. Yet large portions of the state’s population are unable to access treatment for acne. The Secretary of Health’s Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia (2010) is a call to action for policymakers and health professionals to improve the health and wellbeing of Outlandia’s youth by increasing access to dermatologic care (“ A Better Policy Brief” , Reproduced with permission of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD.)

This paragraph is far more focused and concise than the first version. The opening sentence is straightforward; instead of focusing on the source, it makes a clear and memorable point that is supported by the source. Additionally, though the first version was titled “a call to action,” it did not actually say what that action might be. In this version, it is clear that the call is for increased access to dermatologic care.

Keep in mind that clarity, conciseness, and consistent focus are rarely easy to achieve in a first draft. Careful editing and revision are key parts of writing policy briefs.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Smith, Catherine F. 2016. Writing Public Policy , 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Young, Eoin, and Lisa Quinn. n.d. “The Policy Brief.” University of Delaware. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blog.lrei.org/dist/c/104/files/2009/11/PolicyBrief-described.pdf .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Resources for Writing Briefs

Policy is an important tool for improving population health. Decision makers often look to public health professionals for surveillance data, research findings, and evidence-based interventions and guidelines to help inform policy decisions. CDC has identified four types of briefing documents that can be used to clearly communicate public health evidence. Public health professionals can use the resources below to develop briefs that succinctly inform decision makers and stakeholders of the best available evidence on a public health problem, policy, method, or approach.

Accelerating Science Impact: Four Types of Briefing Documents

The four types of briefing documents can be used to share evidence and inform decisions at every stage of the CDC Policy Process. Selecting the appropriate brief depends on the level of the evidence available and the stage in the policy process. As research evidence grows and more information becomes available, public health professionals can move from an Issue Brief on the public health problem up to a Policy Impact Brief on the potential health, economic, or budgetary impact of a policy. All four brief types are described below.

• An Information Brief provides a summary of the research on a policy method, approach, or other related topic like behavioral economics or the Health in All Policies approach.
• An Issue Brief provides a summary of the best available evidence on a public health problem with policy implications. An issue brief is most appropriate when no policy solutions are known to exist and the issue is still in the problem identification domain of the policy process.
• A Policy Brief builds on an issue brief by providing a summary of evidence-based best practices or policy options for a public health problem. A policy brief is appropriate for issues in domains two, three, four and five of the policy process: policy analysis, strategy and policy development, policy enactment, and policy implementation respectively.
• A Policy Impact Brief is the most in-depth briefing document and provides a summary of the best available evidence on health, economic, or budgetary impact of one or more policies for a public health problem. A policy impact brief is appropriate when evaluations and evidence exist on the health or economic impact of the policy.

Steps for Writing Briefs

Steps for Writing Briefs Infographic Text

When you’re ready to start developing your brief, consider the following steps.

• Identify your key audience. Potential audiences may be those who inform policy at the federal, state, or local level; federal, state, local, or nongovernmental decision makers; or other stakeholders.
• Conduct audience research. In order to translate the evidence in a way that is easy to understand, get to know your audience. Don’t guess or assume. Review data or, when possible, gather new data through formative research.
• Determine your purpose and make sure your material contains one obvious main message.
• Define and explain terms that may be unfamiliar to your audience. Avoid using jargon or technical terms unless absolutely necessary.
• A “chunk” is the amount of words or numbers people can hold in their short-term memory and group with other words or numbers. A chunk should be only one idea that people can connect to other, related ideas.
• Use headings to organize and label chunks.
• Use bulleted or numbered lists to break up text in the body of the material and make information easier to scan and read. Lists with more than seven items should be broken into sub-lists.
• Review the  CDC Clear Communication Index for other tips on communicating clearly with your intended audiences.
• Include at least one visual aid that conveys or supports the main message. Photographs, graphs, and infographics are visual aids. Simple, well-designed visual aids help people easily and quickly grasp information. Make sure words and visual aids convey the same message and reinforce each other.
• Include considerations for the key audience. Be clear about what the evidence might mean (as it relates to the issue at hand) but also what it might not mean (if relevant), and frame the evidence in a way that is accurate and easy for the audience to understand.
• Format your brief.  Finally, your brief should be concise, compelling, and visually appealing to your audience.

PDF Version – Steps for Writing Briefs Infographic [PDF – 479 KB]

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• Writing effective reports : Preparing policy briefs . This document has lots of examples of briefs and describes the format and contents.
• Policy Brief - The Writing Center at UNC. This link Includes specifics on formatting.
• Harvard Kennedy School. Policy Briefs .
• RAND Corporation. Research Briefs .
• OECD Policy Briefs
• Rasmussen Library FAQ: What is a briefing paper and how do I write one?
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How to write a nursing health policy brief, carla johnson.

• October 25, 2023
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What You'll Learn

How to Write a Health Policy Brief: A Guide for Nursing Students

Health policy briefs are an essential tool for nursing students to navigate the complex world of healthcare policies, regulations, and reforms. As future healthcare professionals, understanding how to write an effective health policy brief is crucial for advocating for positive changes in healthcare systems and improving patient care. This article aims to guide nursing students on how to write a health policy brief, from understanding the basics to crafting a compelling document.

Understanding the Basics

Before delving into the nitty-gritty of writing a policy brief, it’s important to define the purpose.

Define the Topic

Begin by defining the topic or global health issue you want to address in your policy brief. Are you advocating for a specific change in healthcare policy or highlighting a problem that needs attention? Clearly defining your topic will help you stay focused throughout the writing process.

Know Your Audience

Consider your target audience, which could be policymakers, healthcare administrators, public health professionals, or other relevant stakeholders. Understanding your audience’s needs and perspectives will help you tailor your brief effectively.

Research and Analysis

The heart of any good policy brief lies in its research and analysis section. This section outlines the key steps in gathering and analyzing relevant information.

Identify the Problem

Clearly define the healthcare issue or problem you intend to address. Use current data, statistics, and evidence-based research findings to support your claims. Credible sources, such as government reports, academic journals, and reputable websites, are invaluable for this step.

Assess Current Policies

Evaluate existing healthcare policies and regulations related to your global health topic. Conduct an examination of their strengths, weaknesses, and any gaps that need addressing. This critical analysis will form the basis for your policy recommendations.

Gather Stakeholder Perspectives

Collect insights from various stakeholders, including healthcare professionals, patients, advocacy groups, and policymakers. Understanding diverse perspectives will enrich your policy brief and make it more convincing.

Use Data and Evidence

Utilize evidence-based research to support your claims. Ensure that your data is current and relevant to your topic. Cite your sources properly and transparently, using a consistent citation style (e.g., APA or MLA).

Structuring Your Health Policy Brief

Now that you’ve gathered the necessary information, it’s time to structure your health policy brief in a clear format.

Executive Summary

The executive summary is the first section of your brief, but it’s often written last. It should provide a concise overview of the problem, your policy recommendations, and the anticipated policy implications of your proposed policy changes. Keep it clear, engaging, and limited to about one or two paragraphs.

Introduction

Begin your brief with an engaging introduction that explains the importance of the issue and its relevance to the healthcare system or global health policy. Clearly state your purpose and thesis.

Problem Statement

In this section, provide a detailed description of the problem, supported by relevant background information and data. Clearly articulate the scope of the issue and its impact on healthcare and patient outcomes.

Policy Recommendations

Lay out your policy recommendations or policy options clearly and concisely. Each recommendation should be well-justified, linking back to the analysis of existing policies and the problem statement. Use evidence and data to support your proposed changes.

Implementation Strategies

Discuss how your recommendations can be implemented effectively. Consider the practical aspects, potential challenges, feasibility, and the resources required for successful policy adoption.

Anticipated Outcomes

Describe the expected outcomes of implementing your policy recommendations . Will it improve patient care, reduce costs, enhance healthcare access, or have other policy implications? Use evidence to back up your predictions.

Summarize the main points of your brief, restate the importance of addressing the issue, and provide a compelling call to action to motivate your audience to consider your recommendations.

Writing and Presentation Tips

Keep it clear and concise.

Avoid using jargon and convoluted language. Write in a clear, concise, and straightforward manner to ensure your brief is accessible to a broad audience.

Use Visual Aids

Incorporate visual aids such as charts, graphs, tables, or illustrations to help readers visually interpret and understand complex data or concepts. Visuals can help your audience scan and comprehend key points quickly.

Be Solution-Oriented

Focus on presenting policy alternatives and solutions, not just problems. Your policy brief should offer practical, evidence-based recommendations for addressing the issue.

Acknowledge Counterarguments

Acknowledge potential counterarguments and address them in your brief. This demonstrates that you’ve considered various perspectives and strengthens your case.

Review and Edit

Proofread and revise your brief carefully to ensure it is error-free and well-organized. Consider seeking feedback from peers or instructors to improve the clarity, conciseness, and persuasiveness of your document.

Writing an effective health policy brief is a skill that every nursing student should master. It enables you to advocate for positive changes in healthcare systems, ultimately benefiting patients and the broader community. Understanding the basics, conducting thorough research, and structuring your brief are fundamental steps in creating a persuasive document.

In today’s rapidly changing healthcare landscape, nurses play a vital role in shaping healthcare policies. By honing your health policy brief writing skills, you can become a powerful advocate for change, addressing pressing healthcare issues and contributing to improved patient care.

We understand that crafting a health policy brief can be challenging, but you don’t have to go it alone. Our professional writing services are here to assist you in creating impactful and persuasive health policy briefs that make a difference. Contact us today to learn how we can support your advocacy efforts and help you develop top-notch policy briefs. Together, we can work towards a healthier and more equitable healthcare system.

Related articles: How to Write a Health Policy Brief

Q1: How do you write a policy brief?

To write a policy brief, you should: 1) Define the global health topic or issue 2) Research the topic using credible, evidence-based sources 3) Structure the document with an executive summary, introduction, problem statement, policy recommendations, implementation guidance, anticipated policy implications, and conclusion 4) Use a clear, concise format with relevant visuals to convey key information effectively

Q2: What is the difference between a briefing note and a policy brief?

A briefing note is a concise document providing key information and policy options for a specific decision or issue. In contrast, a policy brief is a more comprehensive document that informs, analyzes, and recommends specific policy changes and their potential implications.

Q3: What is a hook in a policy brief?

A “hook” in a policy brief is an attention-grabbing opening that engages the reader by highlighting the significance and relevance of the issue. It aims to compel the reader to continue reading the document.

Q4: What are the two types of policy briefs?

There are two primary types of policy briefs: 1) Advocacy Policy Briefs, which aim to convince decision-makers to adopt specific policies or changes 2) Informational Policy Briefs, which provide an objective overview and examination of an issue, research findings, and potential policy alternatives without explicitly advocating for one solution.

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How to write a health policy brief

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital Colorado, Eugene S. Farley, Jr. Health Policy Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine.
• 2 Department of Family Medicine, Eugene S. Farley, Jr. Health Policy Center, University of Colorado School of Medicine.
• 3 Robert Graham Policy Center.
• PMID: 27935727
• DOI: 10.1037/fsh0000238

Although many health care professionals are interested in health policy, relatively few have training in how to utilize their clinical experience and scientific knowledge to impact policy. Developing a policy brief is one approach that health professionals may use to draw attention to important evidence that relates to policy. This article offers guidance on how to write a policy brief by outlining 4 steps: (a) define the problem, (b) state the policy, (c) make your case, and (d) discuss the impact. The steps and tips offer a starting point for health care professionals interested in health policy and translating research or clinical experience to impact policy. (PsycINFO Database Record

(c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).

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Daniel Vanden Hoek

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NURS 412 Ethics, Law, Economics & Health Policy: Application to Quality Nursing Practice

One-Page Leave Behind Policy Paper

Purpose of the Assignment:

The purpose of this assignment is for the student to learn how to explore a health policy topic from a variety of perspectives, using this information as a foundation for policy development and advocacy. This assignment is designed to help you work in a group to identify a Health Policy Bill which you will use to prepare a Health Policy Brief.

Student Approach:

My entire health career has revolved around obesity and proactive prevention.  NURS 412 allowed us to examine various policies which strive to achieve a better outcome for various populations.  Many proposed laws are, unfortunately, in a state of limbo, with many not being read by a state legislator.  Working as a small group, we were to create a brief and detailed proposal to the designated legislator for a county (the determined legislator was chosen based on a group vote).  We decided that we wanted to propose the patient navigation assistance act for the Newport News legislator because the current system of using Managed Care Organizations (MCOs) are more complicated compared to Medicare.

Reason for Inclusion:

The assignment allowed us to examine various proposals and delve into the realm of law.  It allowed us to familiarize ourselves with our local legislators and what they stand for.  Ethics can be an interesting conundrum, posing a challenge for inquisitive nurses who are unfamiliar with healthcare law.  In all my years in healthcare, I have seen patients with chronic conditions struggle to contact their insurance.  Many patients within the Newport News have difficulty navigating their MCO with most not realizing their insurance may have changed.

Curricular Outcomes

Critical Thinking

Engages in creative problem solving.

MCO’s are a health care delivery system organized to manage cost, utilization and quality.  While they assist in helping patients learn about treatment options, many patients face difficulty in switching MCOs due to a lack of communication.   The proposal includes a recommendation section which attempts to remedy the situation with evidence and background information comparing the communication methods between MCOs and Medicare.

Nursing Practice

Demonstrates an awareness of complementary modalities and their usefulness in promoting health.

Many patients who require navigation have serious complications which can to difficulty navigating the various insurance holders.  The Navigation Assistance Act explains how a majority of the patients have cancer and possibly live by themselves, theoretically making communication with MCOs more difficult.  The proposal explains this, offering recommendations which can make the decision-making process easier physically and financially.

Communication

Adapts communication methods to patients with special needs.

Majority of the patients described in the Navigation Assistance Act have conditions that can impair their means of communication.  With the current use of MCOs relying solely on physical mail to contact patients, this can leave patients in limbo.  The recommendations seeks to improve means of communication, disregards the various MCO contact dates for a designated time like Medicare, and having more parties involved in the decision-making process.

Uses informatics to enhance one’s own knowledge base to support teaching.

The background on describing MCO’s, Medicare, and chronic conditions is supported with evidence retrieved from peer-reviewed articles and the websites associated with them.  The summary provides enough information to educate the reader as to why the issue needs to be addressed.

Shares research findings with colleagues.

I had to collaborate with another classmate for this assignment.  We both shared our findings for describing the issues presented in the Patient Navigation Assistance Act, the background, and evidence supporting our statements.

Assumes a leadership role within one’s scope of practice as a designer, manager, and coordinator of health care to meet the needs of populations

As nurses, we have to voice our concerns based on issues the population is facing.  In Newport News, many of the patients have chronic conditions and are at the age where most have difficulty understanding the different enrollment periods within the city.    The policy paper was submitted to the legislator, in hopes that enrollment for MCOs in Newport News will be easier in the future.

Professionalism

Advocates for professional standards of practice using organizational and political processes.

As nurses, we want to advocate for what the patient needs.  The assignment requires us to submit the one-page policy paper to the city’s legislator through their email.

Maintains an awareness of global environmental factors that may influence the delivery of health care services.

In the assignment, we had to explain the Patient Navigation Assistance Act and how it can improve the outcome of patient care.  In Virginia, MCOs enroll patients based on the county they reside in.  Each county has a different enrollment date due because it would allow MCOs to have more control over when people can enroll.  However, many problems arise from communication exclusively through physical mail.  Both recommendations strive to have a single enrollment period and offer more means of communication.

One Page Policy Paper

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Pubh 4050: public health and health policy.

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Books on policy analysis

Examples of Policy Briefs

• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Policy Briefs search The CDC website is searchable and contains many policy briefs that are available in full text.
• The University of Iowa, RUPRI Center for Rural Health Policy Analysis This organization has a catalog of policy briefs on various health-related topics.
• Health Systems Evidence database The world's most comprehensive, free access point for evidence to support policy makers, stakeholders and researchers interested in how to strengthen or reform health systems or in how to get cost-effective programs, services and drugs to those who need them. You can search, "policy brief" to find examples of policy briefs that are available in full text.
• European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies featured policy briefs

How-to resources for writing policy briefs

• How to Write a Health Policy Brief Wong, S. L., Green, L. A., Bazemore, A. W., & Miller, B. F. (2017;2016;). How to write a health policy brief. Families Systems & Health, 35(1), 21-24. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000238 This article offers guidance on how to write a policy brief by outlining 4 steps: (a) define the problem, (b) state the policy, (c) make your case, and (d) discuss the impact. The steps and tips offer a starting point for health care professionals interested in health policy and translating research or clinical experience to impact policy.
• Resources for Policy Briefs - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention CDC has identified four types of briefing documents that can be used to clearly communicate public health evidence. Public health professionals can use the resources on this webpage to develop briefs that succinctly inform decision makers and stakeholders of the best available evidence on a public health problem, policy, method, or approach.

• SUPPORT Tools for evidence-informed health Policymaking (STP) 13: Preparing and using policy briefs to support evidence-informed policymaking Authors:John N Lavis, Govin Permanand, Andrew D Oxman, Simon Lewin and Atle Fretheim Health Research Policy and Systems 2009 7(Suppl 1):S13 This article is part of a series written for people responsible for making decisions about health policies and programmes and for those who support these decision makers.
• Policy Briefs -- The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill offers tips for writing effective policy briefs

How to "do" policy analysis

• Collins, T. (2005). Health policy analysis: A simple tool for policy makers. Public Health (London), 119(3), 192-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2004.03.006 This paper is concerned with the analysis of policy content and offers some practical guidance regarding how to analyse health policy and link it to health outcomes. An eight-step framework for policy analysis is proposed that public health policy makers and public health practitioners may find especially useful due to its simplicity.
• CDC Polaris Policy Analysis CDC’s Policy Process website provides a systematic way to develop policies that can address public health problems in your community.

Policy research databases

The following library databases all contain reports, research summaries, policy briefs, and other relevant resources to support your policy analysis assignment. 

• Policy File Index Policy File Index is a resource for U.S. public policy research. Information is provided from public policy think tanks, nongovernmental organizations, research institutes, university centers, advocacy groups, and other entities. Foreign and domestic policy topics are included. Some records link directly to the full-text report, paper, document, or other source. Subject coverage includes social sciences, political science, public policy, international relations, public administration, and economics.
• CQ Press library Created and hosted by CQ Press, the CQ Press Library is the definitive reference resource for research in American government, politics, history, public policy, and current affairs. These reference products offer researcherswhether students, scholars, professionals, or interested citizensa range of tools for discovering and understanding CQ Press's content. Dates of Coverage: varies by source.

Additional policy resources

The following websites contain health policy information to support your policy analysis assignment. There are many more think tanks, foundations, and policy institutes on the web, but be aware that many may have a bias towards one end of the political spectrum or the other. That doesn't mean you shouldn't cite them, but you should be aware that political bias may influence the policy recommendations they make or the way that they frame the issues. Take that bias into consideration when doing your research. 

The websites here represent the federal government (Congressional Research Service), nonpartisan private foundations (Kaiser Family Foundation and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation), "think tanks" (Commonwealth, Urban Institute, and Pew Research Center) and independent scholars (JAMA). They all present reports and other information products informed by evidence and empirical research. 

• Congressional Research Service U.S. Congress' research arm that provides nonpartisan briefing papers. Search by topic to find detailed, thorough, and authoritative reports on a variety of health policy topics.
• JAMA Forum Archives Health policy research and commentary from the Journal of the American Medical Association Network
• Kaiser Family Foundation website Kaiser Family Foundation is a nonprofit organization focusing on national health issues, as well as the U.S. role in global health policy. KFF develops and runs its own policy analysis, journalism and communications programs and serves as a nonpartisan source of facts, analysis and journalism for policymakers, the media, the health policy community and the public.
• Commonwealth Fund A private foundation that funds independent research on health care, including cost, access, and quality in the U.S. and elsewhere.
• Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Philanthropy focused solely on health that funds studies of insurance issues.
• Urban Institute - health and health policy The Urban Institute studies health care costs, access, quality, and coverage to guide state and federal health policy. Using microsimulation tools and rigorous data analysis, experts predict the trade-offs of reform proposals and policy decisions and identify solutions to get the most value from our health care system.
• Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. Pew conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, content analysis and other data-driven social science research and they do not take policy positions.
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How to Write a Policy Assignment

What is a policy assignment, policy critique.

• Policy Brief/Briefing Note

Reading and Analyzing Policy

Writing policy assignments, research and writing process.

Understanding, evaluating, and writing policy documents are important competencies to develop as undergraduate students in a wide range of fields, spanning from Health Care to Environmental Science to Education. Policy is informed by strong research and accurate evidence, often compiled and presented by government and non-governmental organizations. Public policies include formal legislation, official plans, and regulations created by various levels of government. Each of these can act as guiding principles for governmental decision making and program delivery. Non-governmental and para-governmental organizations publish policy briefs, commission reports, and fact sheets to inform policy makers and recommend policy change.

Course instructors often ask students to analyze policy documents to better understand issues and policy alternatives, and students in many disciplines must write policy documents, including critiques and briefs or briefing notes. This guide offers steps to reading policy and keys for effective policy writing.

Types of Policy Assignments

In a policy critique, students are expected to read and critically analyze one or more policy documents that address a common issue. The goal of this assignment is to present an overall assessment of current or proposed policies and their efficacy or potential considering both scholarly theory and real-world, practical application with consideration of environmental, social, or economic contexts.

Proposed structure

• Issue: what is the policy in question?
• Background: where did it emerge? What problem does it try to address?
• Application: so far, based on evidence, how effective has it been?
• Limits: what are limits with the policy? How has it been adapted? What questions remain?
• Evaluation/potential: based on concepts and theories from course materials, what is the potential for this policy to address particular issue/problem?

Policy Brief (Briefing Note)

Policy briefs or briefing notes are documents written by governmental and non-governmental organizations to propose evidence-based policy solutions to a well-defined social, environmental, or economic issue. Briefs present findings from academic and grey literature to demonstrate the scope of an issue and to analyze its context and background. The brief is organized with clear headings and short sections, which are supported by figures or tables.

• Executive Summary: similar to an abstract, briefly explains the goal, findings, and recommendations. Although it is placed first in the document, it is written last.
• Issue Definition: identify and explain the key issue and its scope and significance.
• Policy Background: synthesize evidence to explain the context of the issue – its origins, key stakeholders, overlapping issues, and potential barriers – and any existing policy.
• Best Practices: describe relevant policies from other jurisdictions and introduce specific examples of policy and best practices that reinforce the argument your briefing note presents.
• Policy Options: synthesize your research to present a few policy options; for each option, describe the approach and present advantages, challenges, and potential barriers. Present one policy recommendation from these options.
• References: divide references into sections (e.g., academic sources, grey literature, policy documents etc.)

Each policy document is focused on a specific issue and establishes particular goals; when you read any policy document, you are working to understand and analyze the issue and how the policy addresses the issue. These messages are often presented in different ways. Policy briefs are, well, brief, but other policy documents or commissioned reports can be quite lengthy, so it is important to develop a reading strategy for each new document. Generally, it is best to follow this process: preview, plan, read and take notes, and assess within course context.

Because policy documents vary significantly in form and purpose, it is essential to preview the document prior to reading it: identify its author, its purpose, and its form. Take time to read the executive summary, which presents a short explanation of the issue and purpose of the document. Understand its authorship and the interests of the individual or organizational author.

Make a plan

Identify your goal in reading the document: do you wish to better understand the issue, to identify policy alternatives, to appreciate broader context, or to determine efficacy of policy? How will this document inform your understanding of the issue you are studying? What sections will be most useful or relevant?

Read and take notes

Your preview and plan can direct your reading and notetaking. Read closely to understand the policy or issue, its context, and the evidence used to support it. Identify stakeholders and their interests, the goals of the policy and how those goals are measurable and actionable. You may find it helpful to refer to the table of contents or index (or to use the ‘find’ tool in your browser) to seek out sections that contain relevant keywords in documents spanning more than 100 pages.

Assess policy within course context

Refer to theories, frameworks, and indices that you have discussed in class to assess a policy. Consider whether it follows a particular conceptual framework or achieves particular numerical targets. Compare it to other policies in similar contexts and analyze its parts to assess its adaptability to different contexts. Evaluate its fit to the specific issue and its relevance for various stakeholder needs or values.

Reading an Official Plan

An official plan is often a lengthy document that covers many topics and issues within a set of overarching goals for an organization, like a university, hospital, or municipality. Your aim should be to understand the overarching goals of the plan and its broader context, which are likely laid out in the executive summary and introductory sections. Then you may need to seek out references to a particular topic, issue, or stakeholder; the index, table of contents, or “find” tool can be helpful for this.

Reading a Policy Brief

The goal of a policy brief is to inform and persuade policy makers, so your aim should be to understand the issue the brief identifies and to analyze the policy it proposes. The structure and design of the policy brief will guide your reading. Take time to understand the context of the issue and the policy: who are the stakeholders, what are the goals, what is the process, and what are the barriers? Analyze the policy within the disciplinary concepts you’re learning in class; how does the policy fit particular frameworks, theories, or indices you’ve discussed? What is unique about this policy? How can this policy be adapted to different contexts? What is its potential to address the issue?

Successful policy assignments are focused, well-researched, analytical, organized, and concise. Therefore, it is important to take time to define the issue, understand the context of the issue, and seek out policy alternatives prior to identifying a recommended course of action.

• Focused Issue
• Using Research
• Demonstrating Analysis
• Organized, Concise, and Clear Writing

Focused issue

It is essential that you present a focused and clear issue, and that issue must be at the scale of policy action. For example, policy briefs can address ER wait times or agricultural pesticide use, but issues such as access to health care or the sustainability of food production are too complex for you to address in a short policy assignment. Often, course material and core concepts provide useful direction for you to narrow your issue.

In policy assignments, an issue is clearly defined and contextualized with evidence from scholarly and grey literature. It is important for you to explain how scholars, governments, or NGOs have discussed the issue, and numerical data or figures can demonstrate the scale of an issue or its projected trajectory. Provide details about the issue in its context: be specific about place, time, and stakeholders, and acknowledge any overlapping economic, environmental, or social issues.

Example: Effective issue definition 1

Age-friendly municipalities foster solidarity among generations within communities and reach out to older people at risk of isolation by making them feel socially included and involved (WHO, 2007). It is well documented that these trends are happening across Canada, and evidence suggests that local governments have a key role in enabling older people to live longer. It is unclear to what degree Aurora’s municipal government is prepared to support its expanding ageing population. It is essential to continue to examine new approaches to housing and transportation infrastructure within Aurora in order to improve public policy matters in regards to their ageing population.

• Issue is grounded by focused concept and evidence; writer demonstrates value of municipal policy to address the issue
• Writer precisely identifies the issue to be discussed in brief and the goals of the report

Example: Ineffective issue definition 1

In addition to the infrastructure issue in Peterborough, there is also an issue regarding how spread out the community is. The city is too big for residents to be able to walk the entire city. Amenities are also very spread out; it is unlikely that pedestrians would be able to access the required amenities within walking distance from their house. Ultimately, the main issues surrounding the walkability in the City of Peterborough are the lack of infrastructure and maintenance, as well as the lack of available activities near to peoples’ residences.

• Not grounded in conceptual framework or theory; writer needs to explain why walkability is an issue that a municipality should address
• Lack of precision or evidence to support claims about the size of the city or accessibility to amenities

Using research

Policy is informed by evidence from scholarly literature, government data, and research by various stakeholder organizations. Effective policy assignments synthesize evidence from academic and grey literature to create an accurate account of the issue and policy options. Common forms of evidence in policy writing include numerical and financial data, figures such as graphs and maps, excerpts from existing policies, recommendations from NGOs, and conceptual frameworks.

In policy writing, your goal is to present research both accurately and accessibly, as decision-makers in government and business may not be familiar with terminology or concepts presented by scholars. Make efforts to paraphrase the evidence you use and be sure to include citations in the form requested by your professor (footnotes or author-date systems are common).

One of the key factors in Municipal Cultural Planning is increasing cross-sectoral strategies by building new partnerships “…between the municipality and its community and business partners” (Municipal Cultural Plan, toolkit, 2011, p.21) for long term sustainability. Therefore, municipal cultural planning “…does not look at policy sectorally” (Gollmitzer, 2008, p.18), but instead strengthens and integrates “…cultural resources across all facets of government planning and decision making” (Municipal Cultural Plan Toolkit, 2011, p.21). Building new networks are supported by leveraging the sense of place within a community. Adopting a place-based planning approach allows “…government, community organizations and citizens to explore, measure and asses the values, resources and assets of the community” (Huhtala, 2016, p.66), in order to leverage them for economic prosperity.

• Writer synthesizes academic and grey literature to demonstrate how concepts are applied in policy.
• Writer also demonstrates analysis of evidence and its relevance to the brief’s focused issue.
• Use of direct quotation can feature the language of a policy if the writer wishes to analyze discourse; however, this excerpt relies too heavily on direct quotation, and it would be stronger if this evidence was paraphrased.

Demonstrating analysis

The quality of your policy assignment is closely tied to your analysis of the issue and the policy options you present. It is important to evaluate policy options as you research and to critically analyze how those options address the issue within its particular context. Take time to examine specific factors and parties involved in an issue and consider how these factors may facilitate or challenge each policy option; furthermore, you should also assess the advantages and disadvantages of each policy option and its impacts on these factors or parties.

You may find it valuable to consider theories, concepts, or frameworks from your course to develop your argument and to establish coherence throughout your assignment. If you assess all policy options through the same critical lens or theory, then your message will be clear and consistent throughout your document.

Integrating senior housing into the fabric of the inner core communities could make housing developments viable and situate seniors in settings where they can access these services by foot or nearby transit (Fang, 2013).  This concept can allow seniors, who may be considering downsizing, to remain within their community where they can keep active, live within easy access to medical and community services, and stay close to their support network that they have spent their lives establishing. However, the growing demand for these developments could put major pressure on the municipality.  City officials would have to amend current zoning by-laws to allow commercial and residential uses to be a part of mixed-use development and appropriate provisions need to be provided to ensure compatibility and to minimize potential negative impacts. 

• Writer presents both advantages and challenges of policy option within common concept of healthy aging communities.
• Writer also includes potential impacts and barriers of policy option, which demonstrates their consideration of the issue and its context.

Organized, concise, and clear writing

Policy writing should be well-organized and easy to follow. Use headings and subheadings to create structure and to support your reader. It is common to number sections and subsections to further clarify the order of your ideas. In addition, good paragraph structure also supports organization and clarity, so we encourage you to use specific topic sentences to introduce the main idea of a paragraph.

Well-written policy assignments employ a formal writing style and use third-person voice (e.g., they) rather than first-person (e.g., I, we) or second-person (e.g., you) voice. Further, they avoid jargon, but use specific and clear language. When you revise your draft, take time to consider each sentence and remove repetitive or redundant phrases and words.

Finally, it is important to pay attention to the details. Label any figures or tables in your document; make reference to these figures or tables in the text of your work (e.g., see Figure 1). Also be sure to follow assignment instructions for referencing evidence in your text (e.g., footnotes or author-date system) and in your list of sources, which is often categorized by type of source (e.g., academic, government, NGOs).

There are many ways to approach a policy assignment, but it is important to take time to research and analyze issues and policy options thoroughly prior to writing. Consider the following steps to complete your policy assignment:

• Read assignment instructions closely
• Preliminary research: review course materials, brainstorm, conduct environmental scan or site visit, consider current issues relevant to course concepts
• Define issue: consider questions and frameworks
• Research issue and context
• Research and evaluate policy alternatives in other places
• Analyze policy alternatives and consider fit for current issue and context; select policy options to present
• Outline sections: what evidence goes where? How does evidence work together?
• Write sections (leave Executive Summary until last)
• Revise for organization, analysis, and use of evidence. See Strategies for Revision and Proofreading.
• Edit for clarity, concision, and grammar
• Complete final proof of document
• These examples are not to be reproduced in whole or part. Use of the ideas or words in this example is an act of plagiarism, which is subject to academic integrity policy at Trent University and other academic institutions.

• EMU Library
• Research Guides

Selecting a Topic for a Policy Brief

Ace the assignment, what is a policy brief, think tanks for policy ideas, think tanks for criminology.

• Think tanks and advocacy organizations
• Reference and Information
• Locating Full Text
• Searching for News Articles
• Statistical Sources
• Legal Information
• Working with Sources
• Citing Sources

Success tip:  don’t just read the assignment, analyze it!

Professors expect students to follow directions carefully, but what do they actually mean by those directions? Figure out what an assignment is really asking, and you have the key to a successful paper.

• What Does the Professor Want? This free online book offers useful insights into university-level writing. more... less... Book Name: Writing in College Author: Amy Guptill Publisher: Open SUNY Textbooks Publication Date: 2016 Ebook ISBN: 978-1-942341-21-5
• Purdue OWL: Understanding Writing Assignments This online guide recommends starting on the right track by clarifying the purpose, audience and resources needed for your project.
• UNC Writing Center: Understanding Assignments This handout shows how to grab every nugget of insight from the assignment.
• Assignment Calculator Plan a schedule for completing a library research paper. Note: this is a general calculator, and the links to resources are not specific to EMU.
• Answering Assignment Questions This guide describes how to analyze the assignment in order to understand what the Professor expects.

Here are some examples and models of policy briefs.  Note: these examples might not follow the format expected by your professor or employer, so read your assignment carefully!

• International Centre for Policy Advocacy - Policy Brief resources
• Johns Hopkins Women and Children's Health Policy Center - Writing Policy Briefs module
• PolicyOptions.org - guide for an Issue Brief
• CIAO database search for Policy Briefs The CIAO database provides many types of articles, including nearly 7,000 policy briefs. Limit your search to policy briefs in the left-hand column of the main page.
• RAND corporation Provides a mixture of policy research, analysis and recommendations.

A Policy Brief should address a current social problem, or in Criminology, a problem related to crime or criminal justice. It is important to narrow down the problem to something that can be defined and measured.  Example: starting with the general problem of recidivism, after some exploring you might decide to focus on diversionary programs to reduce recidivism, but that is still too broad, so you might eventually develop a policy brief about a particular program: community reparations; and a particular population: juveniles. 

How to choose a topic:

• Consider the lectures and readings in your other courses.  Did something come up that you would like to know more about?
• Talk to experienced students about your interests and studies.
• Read newspapers and magazines such as:  New York Times (or the NYT Learning Network ), Wall Street Journal , New Yorker , Harpers , Atlantic , Popular Science , or similar.
• Explore the National Criminal Justice Reference Service ( NCJRS )
• Explore Political Science databases, especially CIAO
• Explore criminology databases and books such as the Springer Briefs series.
• Check the Encyclopedia of Social Work  

Try to find a topic that is not very common or very typical.  Usually the top topics in a database like CQ Researcher or Opposing Viewpoints are already over-worked.  Dig a little deeper to fnd something fresh.

Once you have some general ideas, it is time to focus .  In order to write a coherent brief, you must focus or sharpen your topic by exploring different aspects and problems, or by addressing a question. 

How to focus:

• Ask questions .  For example, if your topic is immigrants as crime victims, ask, what about it?  Ask yourself questions about definitions and characteristics, causes, and influences.
• Read to learn .  Later you will be reading for research, but start with reading to get an overview or outline of your topic.  Good places for this kind of reading might include the websites of advocacy organizations, articles or book chapters that give overviews of the topic, and for more advanced students, see the Annual Reviews series for your subject area, such as Sociology or Law & Social Science . Think Tanks and policy institutes are great resources to discover interesting social problems (see the Think Tanks section of this guide).

Even when you have focused your topic, you are still not quite done with this phase.  Now it's time to make sure you have something that is not too general and also not too narrow. 

How to check the focus :

• A policy brief is not an opinion paper. If you are simply arguing that something is good or bad, should or shouldn't be done or exist, you're not focused yet.
• A policy brief is not a report.  If you are only reporting or repeating information, then you do not have a good focus.
• If there is too much information, then limit to one particular part of the problem, a place, time or other aspect. For example, if bullying in schools has too much information, consider one time period, a particular kind of school, only indigenous people, or similar.
• Sometimes people get stuck with questions about which there is not enough information (such as "music therapy for nonviolent adolescent sexual offenders with autism") It is possible that research has not been done or data not collected, and you will find no information.  If this happens, then broaden to question to a wider area or more general problem.
• EMU guide to Michigan think tanks
• EMU guide to policy and advocacy groups
• MSU Library guide for Think Tanks
• Google: Think Tanks and Public Policy Groups This search engine searches Think Tanks and Public Policy websites.
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• List from Georgetown Univ
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Policy Brief

What is a policy brief?

A policy brief is a succinctly written document about a particular issue. It consolidates research on the context, causes, stakeholders, and impact of a situation or problem. A policy brief is designed to help decision/policy makers by presenting policy options and recommendations. Not all policy briefs have the same objectives; some advocate for one policy option, while some recommend a number of options to choose from. Check your assignment to make sure you are approaching yours correctly.

Length and tone:

A policy brief is typically 4-6 pages. The tone is professional (rather than academic) with clear explanations that are free of jargon.

Target audience:

Readers are typically policy makers from fields such as education, environment, politics, public health, or social work. Those who read policy briefs are invested in the issue but may not have in-depth knowledge of the topic. They are interested in getting the writer's insights and recommendations that are based on current evidence.

Step 1: Get started

A. understand your assignment.

Determine exactly what the assignment is asking you to do. Read the assignment carefully to determine the purpose, audience, scope, format, and length. For help, see Understanding your assignment .

Policy briefs can take various forms. For ideas and inspiration see these examples of policy briefs produced by different organizations.

B.  Download the policy brief template

• Policy brief outline (PDF)
• Policy brief outline (DOC)
• You can now modify the sections to match the ones given in your assignment.

C. Familiarize yourself with the issue

• In some instances you will have been assigned a specific topic and problem, in other instances you may have to choose the topic and problem.
• In either case do some general reading about the topic and problem.

Using traditional journalistic questions (who, what, where, when, why) can help you focus on aspects that will be the focus of your policy brief.  

Step 2: Research your policy issue

A. design your research strategy.

List terms/concepts associated with your policy issue. Isolate the main concepts. These are the terms you will enter into the library catalogue and databases to identify relevant books, journal and newspaper articles, and various types of reports. For more information on creating a strategy, see Effective research strategies (PDF) and contact the  librarian for your subject .

B. Find and evaluate sources

The sources you choose must be relevant and current. You need to make sure you are using academically sound sources such as peer-reviewed books and journal articles, but also sources such as government information, policy institute (think tank) documents, and material that relays the voice of the groups or people impacted by the issue, such as those who are marginalized or mistreated in some way.

Not all sources are equally relevant or truthfully representative. See  Evaluating information sources  for help discerning what will add real value to your assignment.

C. Select and organize what you've found

Gather your information and keep careful track of your sources as you go along. For help with this, see  Conducting research and note taking (PDF) .

Step3: Begin to organize your brief

Use your policy brief outline (retrieved in Step 1B) to fill in the sections of your policy brief with rough ideas you generate. Point form is fine. The following questions can help guide this work. Even though the executive summary comes at the beginning, notice that it makes more sense to do it at the end.

A: Who do you have to convince?

(Knowing this will influence how your write about the issue and layout the evidence.)

• Who are the informed but non-specialist readers of your brief?
• How are the readers likely to talk about/view this issue?
• What overall message do you want to convey that will resonate with them?
• Write this down in two sentences to help you stay on track.

B: Problem statement

• What is the extent/scope of the problem?
• What evidence can you present that demonstrates its impact, urgency, or magnitude?
• What facts, graphs, photos, quotations, statistics, or maps could you include here to support your points?

C: Stakeholders

• Who are all the stakeholders and how does the issue affect them?
• Keep in mind that individuals, marginalized or small communities, and underrepresented voiced may have different perspectives from government staffers and corporate leaders. You will want to include these perspectives if they are relevant to the issue and your recommendations.

D: Policy options

• Are you going to present multiple options and recommend one or present just one option? 
• What arguments and evidence can you provide to make your case?
• Who will be impacted by the option(s) and how?

E: Recommendations

• Which specific actions or measures are required and who needs to undertake them in order to bring about change?
• Are you going to close the paper with a closing call to action? This might be placed in the conclusion element if you have one.

F: Sources consulted

• Have you included a list of credible references that support the points you make?
• Have these point covered a range of perspectives?

G: Executive summary

• Have you included the key aspects of the rationale and problem?
• Does your summary entice the readers to read further?

Step 4: Write the first draft

Time to get writing! A first draft is an attempt to get ideas down on paper. It's okay if your ideas aren't completely formed yet. Let go of the need for perfection and write quickly. You can revise later.

For additional help, see  Writing a first draft (PDF) .

Step 5: Revise and proofread

A: evaluate your first draft and conduct additional research as needed.

Determine if there are any gaps in your draft. Do you have enough evidence to support your arguments? If you don't, you should conduct further research.

B: Revise your draft

Print out your brief and work from a hard copy. Read it carefully and look for higher-order problems first, such as organization, structure, evidence, and analysis. For help, check out these  tips for revision .

C: Evaluate your second draft and rewrite as needed

Narrow your focus to paragraph-level issues such as sentence flow and transitions. For help with this, see Transition words .

D: Proofread the final version of your brief

Last step! Read carefully to catch small errors. Here are some Proofreading strategies . Also, take time to make sure your brief adheres to the conventions of the style guide you are using or your instructor's requirements. Think about titles, margins, and page numbers. Is a cover sheet required?

Your list of sources should contain key items you used to write your brief. Follow the citation style guide recommended in your assignment or by your instructor. For help, take a look at the citation and style guides on the Library's website. Using reference management software  can also help you manage your citations as you write. Use tools such as RefWorks and Write-N-Cite for building your bibliography.

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• Medicare Advantage Plan Growth in Rural America: Availability of Supplemental Benefits Brief No. 2024-3
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• Distributional Analysis of Variation in Medicare Advantage Participation Within and Between Metropolitan, Micropolitan, and Noncore Counties Brief No. 2023-8
• Spatial Clustering of COVID-19 Mortality Rates across Counties and by Noncore, Micropolitan, and Metropolitan County Characteristics, December 2020–January 2021 Brief No. 2023-7
• Differences in the Merit-based Incentive Payment System (MIPS) Performance of Clinicians in Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Counties in 2018 Brief No. 2023-6
• COVID-19 Vaccination Rates Brief No. 2023-5
• Financial Risk Acceptance among Rural Health Care Providers Participating in the Quality Payment Program Brief No. 2023-4
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update 2022 Brief No. 2023-3
• Changes in Service Offerings Post-System Affiliation in Rural Hospitals Brief No. 2023-2
• COVID-19 Mortality Rates across Noncore, Micropolitan, and Metropolitan Counties by Community Characteristics, December 2020-January 2021 Brief No. 2023-1
• Health Insurance Marketplaces: Issuer Participation Trends in Non-Metropolitan Places, 2014-22 Brief No. 2022-4
• Update on Rural Independently Owned Pharmacy Closures in the United States, 2003-2021 Brief No. 2022-3
• Medicare Beneficiary Access to Prescription Drugs in Rural Areas Brief No. 2022-2
• Rural and Urban Pharmacy Presence – Pharmacy Deserts Brief No. 2022-1
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update 2021 Brief No. 2021-7
• COVID-19 Cases and Vaccination Rates Brief No. 2021-8
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update 2020 Brief No. 2021-6
• Sources of Insurance Coverage in Nonmetropolitan Areas: The Role of Public and Private Insurance Since 2009 Brief No. 2021-5
• Geographic Expansion of Medicaid Managed Care Organizations: Assessing Access to Primary Care in Nonmetropolitan Counties Brief No. 2021-4
• Availability of Supplemental Benefits in Medicare Advantage Plans in Rural and Urban Areas Brief No. 2021-3
• High-Functioning Rural Medicare ACOs - A Qualitiative Review Brief No. 2021-2
• Trends in Nursing Home Closures in Nonmetropolitan and Metropolitan Counties in the United States: 2008-2018 Brief No. 2021-1
• Pharmacy Vaccination Service Availability in Nonmetropolitan Counties Brief No. 2020-10
• COVID-19 Cases and Deaths, Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Counties Over Time Brief No. 2020-9
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update 2019 Brief No. 2020-8
• Telepharmacy Rules and Statutes: A 3-Year Update for all 50 States Brief No. 2020-7
• Access to Medicare Part D Plans: A Comparison of Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Areas Brief No. 2020-5
• County-Level 14-Day COVID-19 Case Trajectories Brief No. 2020-6
• Metropolitan/Nonmetropolitan COVID-19 Confirmed Cases and General and ICU Beds Brief No. 2020-4
• Health Care Professional Workforce Composition before and after Rural Hospital Closure Brief No. 2020-3
• Confirmed COVID-19 Cases, Metropolitan and Nonmetropolitan Counties Brief No. 2020-2     - Previous versions
• Rural Hospital Participation in Medicare Accountable Care Organizations Brief No. 2020-1
• Impact of the Medicare Disproportionate Share Hospital Payment Cap on Rural and Urban Hospitals Brief No. 2019-6
• Effects of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act on Coverage and Access to Care in Metropolitan vs. Non-Metropolitan Areas through 2016 Brief No. 2019-5
• Insurer Participation in Rural Health Insurance Marketplaces: Are Some Markets Intrinsically More Competitive Than Others? Brief No. 2019-4
• Primary Care Clinician Participation in the CMS Quality Payment Program Brief No. 2019-3
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update 2018 Brief No. 2019-2
• Comparing Rural and Urban Medicare Advantage Beneficiary Characteristics Brief No. 2019-1
• Changes to the Merit-based Incentive Payment System Pertinent to Small and Rural Practices, 2018 Brief No. 2018-6
• Trends in Hospital System Affiliation, 2007-2016 Brief No. 2018-5
• Spread of Medicare Accountable Care Organizations in Rural America Brief No. 2018-4
• Health Insurance Marketplaces: Issuer Participation and Premium Trends in Rural Places, 2018 Brief No. 2018-3
• Update: Independently Owned Pharmacy Closures in Rural America, 2003-2018 Brief No. 2018-2
• Medicare Accountable Care Organization Growth in Rural America, 2014–2016 Brief No. 2018-1      - Supplemental Tables and Maps
• Rural-Urban Enrollment in Part D Prescription Drug Plans: June 2017 Update Brief No. 2017-7
• Distribution of Disproportionate Share Hospital Payments to Rural and Critical Access Hospitals Brief No. 2017-6
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update - March 2017 Brief No. 2017-5      National and State Enrollment Tables and Maps
• Telepharmacy Rules and Statutes: A 50-State Survey Brief No. 2017-4      - Supplemental Table
• Issues Confronting Rural Pharmacies after a Decade of Medicare Part D Brief No. 2017-3
• Changing Rural and Urban Enrollment in State Medicaid Programs Brief No. 2017-2
• Rural Enrollment in Health Insurance Marketplaces, by State Brief No. 2017-1
• Medicare Accountable Care Organizations: Quality Performance by Geographic Categories Brief No. 2016-6
• Spread of Accountable Care Organizations in Rural America Brief No. 2016-5
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update 2016 Brief No. 2016-4
• Rural Medicare Advantage Market Dynamics and Quality: Historical Context and Current Implications Brief No. 2016-3
• Health Insurance Marketplaces: Premium Trends in Rural Areas Brief No. 2016-1
• Medicare Accountable Care Organizations: Beneficiary Assignment Update Brief No. 2016-2
• Rural Medicare Advantage Plan Payment in 2015 Brief No. 2015-12
• Medicare Value-based Payment Reform: Priorities for Transforming Rural Health Systems A RUPRI Panel Brief
• Rural Enrollment in Health Insurance Marketplaces, by State Brief No. 2015-11
• Rural Enrollment in Health Insurance Marketplaces Brief No. 2015-10
• 2015: Rural Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update Brief No. 2015-9
• Characteristics of Rural Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) – A Survey of Medicare ACOs with Rural Presence Brief No. 2015-8
• Health Insurance Marketplaces: Early Findings on Changes in Plan Availability and Premiums in Rural Places, 2014-2015 Brief No. 2015-7
• Characteristics of Rural Communities with a Sole, Independently Owned Pharmacy Brief No. 2015-6
• Hospital Views of Factors Affecting Telemedicine Use Brief No. 2015-5
• A Rural Taxonomy of Population and Health-Resource Characteristics Brief No. 2015-4    -  Technical Report    -  Maps and Tables
• Developmental Strategies and Challenges of Rural Accountable Care Organizations Brief No. 2015-3
• Surgical Services in Critical Access Hospitals, 2011 Brief No. 2015-2
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update: March 2014 Brief No. 2015-1
• Advancing the Transition to a High Performance Rural Health System      RUPRI Health Panel Paper      RUPRI Health Panel Brief
• Geographic Variation in Premiums in Health Insurance Marketplaces Brief No. 2014-10
• Facilitating the Formation of Accountable Care Organizations in Rural Areas Brief No. 2014-9
• The Effect of Medicare Payment Policy Changes on Rural Primary Care Practice Revenue Brief No. 2014-8     - Supplemental table
• Update: Independently Owned Pharmacy Closures in Rural America, 2003-2013 Brief No. 2014-7
• Trends in Hospital Network Participation and System Affiliation, 2007-2012 Brief No. 2014-6
• A Guide to Understanding the Variation in Premiums in Rural Health Insurance Marketplaces Brief No. 2014-5
• Extent of Telehealth Use in Rural and Urban Hospitals Brief No. 2014-4
• Medicare Accountable Care Organizations: Program Eligibility, Beneficiary Assignment, and Quality Measures Brief No. 2014-3
• The Uninsured: An Analysis by Age, Income, and Geography Brief No. 2014-2
• 2012 Rural Medicare Advantage Quality Ratings and Bonus Payments Brief No. 2014-1
• Assessing the Impact of Rural Provider Service Mix on the Primary Care Incentive Payment Program Brief No. 2013-16
• Demographic and Economic Characteristics Associated with Sole County Pharmacy Closures, 2006-2010 Brief No. 2013-15
• Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update: March 2013 Brief No. 2013-14
• Causes and Consequences of Rural Pharmacy Closures: A Multi-Case Study Brief No. 2013-11
• The Frontier Extended Stay Clinic Model: A Potential Health Care Delivery Alternative for Small Rural Communities Brief No. 2013-9       Appendix
• Accountable Care Organizations in Rural America Brief No. 2013-7       National and regional maps
• The Uninsured: An Analysis by Income and Geography Brief No. 2013-6
• Rural Implications of the Primary Care Incentive Payment Program Brief No. 2013-5
• September 2012: Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update Brief No. 2013-3
• Rural MA Enrollment and Premium Update: June 2012 Brief No. 2013-2
• Rural Pharmacy Closures: Implications for Rural Communities: February 2013 Brief No. 2012-5
• Update: Independently Owned Pharmacy Closures in Rural America: July 2012 Brief No. 2012-4
• Rural Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update Brief No. 2012-3
• Rural Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update Brief No. 2011-8
• Patient-Centered Medical Home Services in 29 Rural Primary Care Practices: A Work in Progress Brief No. 2011-6
• Rural Hospital Charges Due to Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions in the United States, by Insurance Type, 2000-2004 Brief No. 2011-4
• Independently Owned Pharmacy Closures in Rural America, 2003-2010 Brief No. 2011-5
• Rural Medicare Advantage: Growth in PPOs Dominates the Rural MA Market in 2011 Brief No. 2011-3
• Use of Health Information Technology in Support of Patient-Centered Medical Homes is Low Among Non-Metropolitan Family Medicine Practices Brief No. 2011-2
• Medicare Beneficiary Access to Primary Care Physicians — Better in Rural, but Still Worrisome Brief No. 2011-1
• Rural Medicare Advantage Enrollment Update Brief No. 2010-6
• Increases in Primary Care Physician Income due to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 - Continued Tweaking of Physician Payment Brief No. 2010-2
• Rural Medicare Advantage: Modest Enrollment Growth in 2010 Brief No. 2010-5
• A Dramatic Shift Away from Private Fee-for-Service Plans in Rural Medicare Advantage Enrollment Brief No. 2010-3
• Rural Medicare Advantage Enrollment Grows 15% in 2009 . Brief No. 2010-1

2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000

Department of Health Management & Policy - College of Public Health - N200 College of Public Health Building - The University of Iowa - Iowa City, IA 52246 - (319) 384-3830    © The University of Iowa 2020. All rights reserved.  |  Accessibility Statement

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School of Public Health

Policy briefs, better training will improve the health of homecare aides & their clients heading link copy link.

By Jing Zhang, PhD, senior research specialist, environmental and occupational health sciences;  Marsha Love, instructor, environmental and occupational health sciences; and  Dr. Susan Buchanan, clinical associate professor, environmental and occupational health sciences.

One of every 8 Illinoisans is over age 60. This number will rise to 1 in 5 by 2030. By 2030, Illinois is expected to have a 76% gain in the population aged 65 to 74, an 80% gain in those aged 75 to 84, and a 65% gain in those over 85. Nationally, Census Bureau projections predict continuing increases in the older adult population. With many older adults prefer staying in their own communities for long-term care. the role of homeware aides is increasing in importance.  However, homecare aids are generally underpaid and lack training to communicate with older adults with dementia, depression or memory loss.  Facing a variety of physical and mental health risks from their work, this brief recommends homecare aides need revised training curricula that include skills and resources necessary to reduce work-related injuries and health hazards.

• Read the policy brief

Illinois Should Create a Climate Change Task Force for the State Heading link Copy link

By Elena Grossman, research specialist, environmental and occupational health sciences and  Caitlin Donato, research associate, environmental and occupational health sciences.

Climate change is affecting Illinois’ health, agriculture, transportation, infrastructure, and the economy.  Rising temperatures and increasing precipitation are leading to a variety of negative health outcomes and increased stress on transportation infrastructure.  Flooding risks are threatening agricultural losses, and labor productivity faces potential declines as heat rises past human comfort levels.  To address these issues, the authors recommend the state should create a Climate Change Taskforce to develop a comprehensive climate change adaptation plan to assess how climate change affects different sectors and strategies to reduce the impact.

Illinois Should Develop a Comprehensive State Asthma Plan That Addresses “Upstream,” Root Cause Environmental Contributors Heading link Copy link

By Susan Kaplan, JD, research assistant professor of environmental and occupational health sciences.

This policy brief calls for  Illinois to develop a comprehensive approach to its 2021-2025 asthma plan that addresses the range of indoor and outdoor environmental contributors to asthma.   The state should include, but also go beyond, the 2015-2020 plan’s focus on asthma management and treatment, and on home-based education and interventions. The new plan should expand its focus on prevention and bring together all local, state and federal organizations whose actions impact asthma.

Workers’ Compensation Should Protect the Illinois Workforce Heading link Copy link

By Dr. Linda Forst, senior associate dean;  Emily Szwiec, research associate; and  Tessa Bonney, MPH in Health Policy and Administration ’16, PhD in Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences student.

Illinois workers’ compensation (WC) laws allow employees injured on the job to obtain medical care, wage replacement, and disability benefits. But the high cost of these benefits is a hot-button issue for Illinois governors, legislators, businesses and voters. Some argue that high insurance premiums, paid leave and high settlements are driving businesses and jobs out of Illinois. Others note that the law is not protective enough for workers and does not incentivize injury prevention.  This policy brief argues the state government needs to   review the Illinois Workers’ Compensation System to maximize potential to prevent injuries and reduce costs.

New Texas Patent-Case Assignment Order Targets ‘Related’ Cases (1)

By Lauren Castle

Patent cases filed in the Waco Division of the Western District of Texas will be randomly assigned among a dozen judges in the district under a new order to challenge plaintiffs seeking to try cases in Judge Alan Albright’s popular courtroom.

Those seeking to move their related cases to Albright’s one-judge Waco Division after being assigned to another judge will have to convince the assigned judge with “sufficient legal and factual justification,” Chief Judge Alia Moses said in a Thursday order .

Albright has received almost a third of the nearly 500 patent suits filed in the Western District in ...

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Bette Nash, World’s Longest-Serving Flight Attendant, Is Dead at 88

A Guinness record-holder, she started flying in 1957, and never stopped. Her regular route from Washington to Boston was nicknamed the Nash Dash.

By Clay Risen

Bette Nash, whose nearly seven decades of serving airline passengers aboard the Washington-to-Boston shuttle earned the route the nickname the Nash Dash and won her a spot in Guinness World Records as the longest-serving flight attendant in history, died on May 17. She was 88.

Ms. Nash never officially retired, and her death, from breast cancer, was announced on Saturday by her employer, American Airlines. It did not say where she died. She lived in Manassas, Va.

Ms. Nash entered service with Eastern Air Lines in November 1957, at the dawn of the jet age. Dwight D. Eisenhower was president, “I Love Lucy” was on TV and even short domestic flights were still a glamorous adventure.

Wearing white gloves, heels and a pillbox hat, Ms. Nash served lobster and champagne, carved roast beef by request and passed out after-dinner cigarettes.

Things have changed a lot since then — the smoking is gone, and so is the carved meat — but Ms. Nash remained largely the same.

After a brief stint in Miami, she began flying out of Washington in 1961, usually shuttle hops to New York and Boston — an assignment she preferred, even when seniority gave her the choice of routes, because she could return to her home in Northern Virginia every evening to care for her son, who had Down syndrome.

To do so, she set her alarm for 2:10 every morning to make the first flight, at 6 a.m., cheerily greeting passengers, many of them regulars. Every year she passed a safety and performance exam mandated by the Federal Aviation Administration.

She first entered the Guinness records in 2021, as the flight attendant with the longest career; she ultimately served for 67 years. A year later she entered the records again as the oldest active attendant.

By then she was something of a celebrity among those who regularly fly the friendly skies, and who gave her route its nickname. Passengers and passers-by in airport terminals would exclaim, “Are you the Bette Nash!?!” and insist on an autograph or a selfie.

At a ceremony at Reagan National Airport to mark her 60th anniversary, in 2017, American Airlines presented her with a pair of diamond earrings and a $10,000 donation to the food bank where she volunteered.

Then she went to work, loading passengers for the next shuttle to Boston. As the plane taxied to the runway, a pair of fire trucks doused the plane with a water-cannon salute, an honor usually reserved for retiring pilots.

Mary Elizabeth Burke was born on Dec. 31, 1935, to Frances (Eilers) and Martin Burke, an engineer with the military. She grew up in Pleasantville, N.J., a suburb of Atlantic City.

She had dreamed of being a flight attendant since her first time in the air, a trip with her mother from New Jersey to Dayton, Ohio, with a stop in Washington. She recalled watching flight crews marching through the terminal, their heads high and uniforms perfectly pressed.

“In a way at that time, it was like you were on the stage to a degree,” she told The Boston Globe in 2007. “It just looked so elegant. And romantic. It was the romance of the skies. You could take off and be in another world almost.”

She studied business at Sacred Heart College in Belmont, N.C., then returned to New Jersey. While preparing for her flight attendant exam, she worked as a legal secretary.

When the time came for her interview with Eastern, she took a bus from Atlantic City to Midtown Manhattan, in a dress borrowed from one of her sisters.

She got the job, but still had to attend what she called charm school — airline-mandated lessons in etiquette and dress, as well as in safety and flight protocols.

At the time, airlines — Eastern included — had very specific ideas about their all-female flight attendant corps.

“You put on a few pounds, and then you had to keep weighing yourself,” she said in an interview with the Washington television station WJLA in 2017. “And then if you stayed that way, they would take you off the payroll.”

Eastern eventually sold off its East Coast routes to Donald J. Trump’s short-lived airline, the Trump Shuttle; after it closed in 1992, the routes went to US Airways, which was bought by American in 2015. Ms. Nash remained in place the whole time.

She married James Nash in 1973. She is survived by their son, Christian.

Ms. Nash continued to fly, she said, because of the people — though she did miss the glamour of her early career.

“In the old days, we saw a lot of mink coats,” she said at her 2017 reception. “Today, we see a lot of flip-flops.”

An earlier version of this obituary referred incorrectly to WJLA, which broadcast an interview with Ms. Nash in 2017. It is a Washington television station, not a Washington radio station.

How we handle corrections

Clay Risen is a Times reporter on the Obituaries desk. More about Clay Risen