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The Major Leadership Theories

The 8 Major Theories of Leadership

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Karen Cilli is a fact-checker for Verywell Mind. She has an extensive background in research, with 33 years of experience as a reference librarian and educator.

Verywell / Brianna Gilmartin 

• "Great Man"

Contingency

• Situational
• Participative
• Relationship

What Kind of Leader Are You?

What is it that makes some people excel in leadership roles? Leadership theories seek to explain how and why certain people become leaders. Such theories often focus on the characteristics of leaders, but some attempt to identify the behaviors that people can adopt to improve their own leadership abilities in different situations.

Early debates on the psychology of leadership often suggested that such skills were simply abilities that people were born with. In other words, these theories proposed that certain people were simply "born leaders." Some more recent theories propose that possessing certain traits may help make people nature leaders, but that experience and situational variables also play a critical role.

A Closer Look at Leadership Theories

As interest in the psychology of leadership has increased over the last 100 years, a number of different leadership theories have been introduced to explain exactly how and why certain people become great leaders.

What exactly makes a great leader? Do certain personality traits make people better suited to leadership roles, or do characteristics of the situation make it more likely that certain people will take charge? When we look at the leaders around us—be it our employer or the President—we might find ourselves wondering exactly why these individuals excel in such positions.

People have long been interested in leadership throughout human history, but it has only been relatively recently that a number of formal leadership theories have emerged. Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century.

Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill levels. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types.

"Great Man" Theories

Have you ever heard someone described as "born to lead?" According to this point of view, great leaders are simply born with the necessary internal characteristics such as charisma, confidence, intelligence, and social skills that make them natural-born leaders.

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent—that great leaders are born, not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic, and destined to rise to leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.

Such theories suggest that people cannot really learn how to become strong leaders. It's either something you are born with or born without. It is very much a nature ( as opposed to nurture ) approach to explaining leadership.

Trait Theories

Similar in some ways to Great Man theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities and traits that make them better suited to leadership. Trait theories often identify a particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. For example, traits like extroversion , self-confidence, and courage are all traits that could potentially be linked to great leaders.

If particular traits are key features of leadership, then how do we explain people who possess those qualities but are not leaders? This question is one of the difficulties in using trait theories to explain leadership.

There are plenty of people who possess the personality traits associated with leadership, yet many of these people never seek out positions of leadership. There are also people who lack some of the key traits often associated with effective leadership yet still excel at leading groups.

Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.

Leadership researchers White and Hodgson suggest that truly effective leadership is not just about the qualities of the leader, it is about striking the right balance between behaviors, needs, and context.

Good leaders are able to assess the needs of their followers, take stock of the situation, and then adjust their behaviors accordingly. Success depends on a number of variables including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.

Situational Theories

Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variables. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

For example, in a situation where the leader is the most knowledgeable and experienced member of a group, an authoritarian style might be most appropriate. In other instances where group members are skilled experts, a democratic style would be more effective.

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Consider it the flip-side of the Great Man theories. Rooted in behaviorism , this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.

Participative Theories

Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

Management Theories

Management theories, also known as transactional theories , focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards and punishments. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded and when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Relationship Theories

Relationship theories, also known as transformational theories, focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. Transformational leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task.

These leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want every person to fulfill their potential. Leaders with this style often have high ethical and moral standards.  

Try our fast and free quiz to find out your usual leadership style.

There are many different ways of thinking about leadership, ranging from focusing on the personality traits of great leadership to emphasizing aspects of the situation that help determine how people lead.

Like most things, leadership is a highly multi-faceted subject and it is a mixture of many factors that help determine why some people become great leaders. Learn more about some of the things that make people strong leaders is one way of potentially improving your own skills.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Ethical Leadership Models and Theories Term Paper

Introduction, contingency theories, trait theory, behavioral theories.

Many faces of leadership have been talked about in the management literature for a long time like difference between leadership and other forms of management; the empirical essence of leadership and the situational leadership; and the systemic characteristics which shape the leadership into legal, practical and ethical considerations (Prestera, 2002, Para 2).

Earlier thoughts of leadership were influenced by trait theory which says that leadership qualities are not by birth. This thought entailed that leadership could not be trained, taught or developed. The World War II brought changes in this concept of trait theory where behavioral researchers established such a model of leadership in which leadership behavior could be developed.

After that contingency theory said that leadership depends upon situation. There are some other leadership models which have come recently into existence, counting visionary leadership, charismatic leadership and transformal leadership (Prestera, 2002, Para 3).

As the time is changing we are relating many things with leadership. During 1980s the leadership was associated with spiritual beliefs. In the late 1990s the events of Bill Clinton and Monica and the O.J. Simpson trial changed the dimensions of leadership and made it as ethical (Ollhoff, Para 6).

The term ethics mean that position of conduct which carries a particular role in society. It is not necessary what is ethical behavior in one profession will be ethical in other too. Prestera (2002, Para 18) gives an example if a journalist reports a congressman’s secret health problem will not be unethical on his part but if the doctor of that congressman reveals that it will be unethical on his part (Prestera, 2002, Para 18).

Moral ambiguity faces difficulty to accumulate socio cultural pressure on individuals to be conventional with moral obligations. It accepts unethical behavior which is good for normalizing this behavior. The leaders like Richard Nixon (Watergate), Ronald Reagon (Iran-Contra) and Bill Clinton (perjury), who have been very prominent leaders of their times, have been involved not only in unethical behaviors but also in criminal acts still they were able to get full justice.

Bill Clinton is supposed to be the highest paid speakers (Prestera, 2002, Para 20).The behaviors and intentions of such kinds of leaders were not given much heed as the American mantra says, ‘let’s just put it behind us’. It was said that ‘ If heads of state and political leaders can not maintain then there is no hope from a CEO of a disturbed company, a middle manager or a grocery store clerk” (Prestera, 2002, Para 20).

Bass & Avolio (1994) discover that the organizational leaders who are transformational and have strong passion for morals and ideals are avoided in the organizational hierarchy (Prestera, 2002, Para 21).

Druker says that the society is becoming very pluralistic and the slow destruction of community has dimmed the fate of previous pluralistic societies. We need to analyze this situation and see that same fate should not be repeated. We have to observe building communities towards building community. Leaders require checking the immediate system where they work and operate for the common good of society (Prestera, 2002, Para 26).

Fred Fiedler developed contingency theory in 1960s in parallel to situational leadership. He observed the styles of many leaders which were both effective and ineffective.

He divided the leaders’ behavior in two parts: task motivation and relationship motivation. The task motivated leaders focus on achieving a goal; the relationship motivated leaders focus on interpersonal relations. To comprehend the task or relationship orientation, Fred made an inventory where the leaders describe their experiences with the persons with whom they had difficult time (Ollhoff, Para 31).

The strongest point of contingency theory is that it is based on broad research. This theory does not say that there is only one way of leadership instead it focuses on different styles of leadership, which are effective in different situations (Ollhoff, Para 32).

Still contingency theory has some drawbacks in its framework: how some individuals are effective in some situations not others. This model has complicated process. This model does not say about organizational changes (Ollhoff, Para 33).

Trait theory is the very first model of the entire organizational models, which came into existence in 20 th century. This model analyzed those qualities and actions which the leaders already had. It was supposed to be ‘the great man theory’ of leadership. It was first assumed that the great leaders are great by birth. If they were born with certain characteristics they could be the great leaders. Then the authors suggested that the leaders could be taught also. Many studies were done to understand the universal characteristics of leadership. Though this is the oldest model still it is popular as many leadership definitions are based on characteristics only (Ollhoff, Para 8-9).

DuBrin states some traits as the synonymous of leadership: sense of humor, warmth, trustworthiness, enthusiasm, assertiveness, passion, courage, intelligence, empathy, self-awareness, creativity, strong work ethic, charisma, insight, emotional stability and conceptual thinking (Ollhoff, Para 10).

As this theory is easiest to understand it is still in existence. The drawback of this model is the lack of operational definitions, lack of focus on context and vague studies. These drawbacks deteriorate this model (Ollhoff, Para 12).

Behavioral leaders have developed the list of leader behaviors since 1940s. The list is very beneficial not only for selecting leaders but also to train future leaders. Robbins (1998) has given four major perspectives that can be associated with behavioral theories (Prestera, 2002 Para 4):

• Initiating structure and consideration: initiating structure focuses on that degree where leaders try to achieve a goal. The leader assigns tasks, sets exceptions and follows up on deadlines. Consideration focuses on such kind of behavior where mutual trust can be established. This leader is concerned of the well being, status and the satisfaction of his followers (Prestera, 2002 Para 5.)
• Employee oriented and production oriented: Employee oriented leaders are concerned with their subordinates’ personal needs, whereas production leaders on the technical related jobs (Prestera, 2002 Para 6).
• Concern for people and production: Blake and Mouton (1964) adopted this perspective that shows two critical dimensions of leadership (Prestera, 2002 Para 7).
• Development orientation: The behavioral research which has been done for almost 60 years, says that involving in behaviors like where leaders show care for the work of their subordinates is dangerous for the success of leaders (Prestera, 2002 Para 8).

Thomas (1998, Para 1) says that the Clinton-Gore model focuses on changing the federal bureaucracy which says that organizational culture is the chief determining element of organizational performance. Gore (1993, 1) states that this model was executed in 1993 when President Clinton announced, “Our goal is to make the entire federal government both less expensive and more efficient, and to change the culture of our national bureaucracy away from complacency and entitlement toward initiative and empowerment” (Thomas, 1998, Para 1).

Ollhoff, J. Leadership Models and Theories: Classic and Traditional Perspectives. Web.

Prestera, G (2002). Organizational Leadership. Knowledge Base. Web.

Thomas, J. (1998). Reinventing Government: Does Leadership Make the Difference? Public Administration Review. Vol. 58. Web.

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Leadership in Surgery pp 27–36 Cite as

Leadership Theories and Styles

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Leadership theories and styles have evolved over time. In order to become an effective leader, it is helpful to understand the core leadership theories and the leadership styles that emerged from these theories, how they evolved, and how to implement different styles of leadership depending on the environment, situation, or need of the leader and the team members. This chapter will provide a description of core leadership theories and the leadership styles that have emerged from these theories. The leadership styles commonly adopted for surgical leadership will also be discussed.

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Kibbe, M.R. (2019). Leadership Theories and Styles. In: Kibbe, M., Chen, H. (eds) Leadership in Surgery. Success in Academic Surgery. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19854-1_3

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6 Common Leadership Styles — and How to Decide Which to Use When

• Rebecca Knight

Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances call for different approaches.

Research suggests that the most effective leaders adapt their style to different circumstances — be it a change in setting, a shift in organizational dynamics, or a turn in the business cycle. But what if you feel like you’re not equipped to take on a new and different leadership style — let alone more than one? In this article, the author outlines the six leadership styles Daniel Goleman first introduced in his 2000 HBR article, “Leadership That Gets Results,” and explains when to use each one. The good news is that personality is not destiny. Even if you’re naturally introverted or you tend to be driven by data and analysis rather than emotion, you can still learn how to adapt different leadership styles to organize, motivate, and direct your team.

Much has been written about common leadership styles and how to identify the right style for you, whether it’s transactional or transformational, bureaucratic or laissez-faire. But according to Daniel Goleman, a psychologist best known for his work on emotional intelligence, “Being a great leader means recognizing that different circumstances may call for different approaches.”

• RK Rebecca Knight is a journalist who writes about all things related to the changing nature of careers and the workplace. Her essays and reported stories have been featured in The Boston Globe, Business Insider, The New York Times, BBC, and The Christian Science Monitor. She was shortlisted as a Reuters Institute Fellow at Oxford University in 2023. Earlier in her career, she spent a decade as an editor and reporter at the Financial Times in New York, London, and Boston.

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5 key essentials of adaptive leadership.

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Tree growing out of human brain. Silhouette illustration about the ways to Build a Growth Mindset ... [+] and good Attitude.

Marcus Aurelius wrote, "Obstacles do not block the path, they are the path." Adaptive leaders with a growth mindset do not just embrace this philosophy. They use it as fuel for their journey to ignite change in people and the organizations they lead.

During the 2010 Chilean mine collapse, 33 miners were trapped underground for 69 days. This crisis demanded adaptive leadership from both the miners and their rescuers. One remarkable story of adaptive leadership emerged in the form of the miners' shift foreman, Luis Urzúa.

Urzúa's ability to adapt, innovate, and navigate through constant change was evident from the start. Despite the dire circumstances, he maintained order and morale among the trapped miners, implementing strict routines and resource management strategies to ensure their survival. Urzúa fostered a sense of unity and collaboration, encouraging his fellow miners to work together and support each other emotionally and mentally.

As the rescue efforts unfolded, Urzúa continued to demonstrate adaptive leadership by coordinating with the rescue teams above ground. He provided crucial information about the miners' condition and collaborated on the development of the rescue plan. When the time came for the daring rescue operation, Urzúa's leadership was instrumental in ensuring the successful extraction of all 33 miners.

This story highlights the power of adaptive leadership in the face of extreme adversity. Luis Urzúa's ability to adapt through constant change not only saved lives but also inspired people around the world with his unwavering determination and resilience.

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In today's fast-paced and ever-evolving world, leadership is no longer just about maintaining the status quo. Instead, it requires leaders to take an entirely different approach. This is where the concept of adaptive leadership comes into play. Adaptive leadership is not merely a set of skills; it's a mindset, a way of thinking, and a practice that empowers leaders to thrive in uncertain environments. In this article, we delve into the essence of adaptive leadership, its principles, and how it can be applied in various contexts.

Understanding Adaptive Leadership

Adaptive leadership, a philosophy originated by Ronald Heifetz - Founding Director of the Center for Public Leadership at Harvard Kennedy School - and his colleagues, offers a framework for tackling complex challenges by encouraging flexibility, experimentation, and learning.

Unlike traditional leadership models that emphasize stability and control, adaptive leadership acknowledges that change is inevitable and that leaders must adapt their strategies accordingly. The following principles are a reflection of our experience and research at Taking Point Leadership.

5 Key Principles of Adaptive Leadership

• Embrace Uncertainty: Adaptive leaders not only acknowledge uncertainty but also actively seek it out. They understand that embracing uncertainty is not a sign of weakness but rather an opportunity for growth and innovation. By acknowledging the unpredictable nature of their environment, adaptive leaders cultivate a mindset that encourages exploration and experimentation. They view uncertainty as a catalyst for change, driving them to seek new perspectives and challenge existing assumptions. Rather than rigidly adhering to a predefined plan, adaptive leaders remain flexible in their approach, ready to pivot and adapt their strategies as new information emerges. This adaptability allows them to capitalize on unexpected opportunities and navigate through turbulent times with confidence and resilience.
• Foster a Culture of Learning: Learning lies at the heart of adaptive leadership, serving as the engine for growth and development within an organization. Adaptive leaders understand that innovation thrives in environments where curiosity is nurtured, and mistakes are embraced as valuable learning experiences. They actively promote a culture of continuous learning, encouraging their teams to explore new ideas, experiment with different approaches, and learn from both successes and failures. By creating a safe space for open dialogue and constructive feedback, adaptive leaders foster a sense of psychological safety where individuals feel empowered to take risks and push the boundaries of what is possible. This culture of learning not only fuels creativity and innovation but also builds resilience, enabling the organization to adapt and thrive in the face of uncertainty and change.
• Empower Others: Adaptive leaders recognize that the collective intelligence and diverse perspectives of their team members are invaluable assets in navigating complex challenges. Instead of relying solely on their expertise, they empower those around them by delegating authority, providing autonomy, and fostering collaboration. By distributing leadership responsibilities across the organization, adaptive leaders tap into the unique skills and insights of each team member, unlocking their full potential and driving collective success. They create an environment where individuals feel valued, empowered, and motivated to contribute their best work. Through effective delegation and empowerment, adaptive leaders not only lighten their own workload but also cultivate a sense of ownership and accountability among their team members, leading to greater innovation and resilience in the face of adversity.
• Build Resilience: In a rapidly changing world, resilience is the key to enduring success. Adaptive leaders understand that setbacks and challenges are inevitable but believe that resilience can be cultivated and strengthened over time. They proactively support their teams in building resilience by providing them with the necessary tools, resources, and emotional support to overcome obstacles and bounce back from adversity. Adaptive leaders foster a culture of optimism and determination, instilling confidence in their teams' ability to weather any storm. They lead by example, demonstrating resilience in the face of adversity and inspiring others to do the same. By nurturing resilience within their teams, adaptive leaders ensure that they are well-equipped to navigate through uncertainty and emerge stronger on the other side.
• Lead with Purpose: At the core of adaptive leadership lies a clear sense of purpose and values that guide decision-making and inspire action. Adaptive leaders communicate a compelling vision that transcends short-term goals and resonates with the deeper aspirations of their teams. They articulate a clear and inspiring purpose that answers the question of "why" their work matters, rallying individuals around a shared cause and motivating them to go above and beyond in pursuit of a common goal. This sense of purpose serves as a guiding force, providing direction and clarity in times of uncertainty and ambiguity. It acts as a North Star, helping individuals and teams navigate through challenges and make difficult decisions with confidence and conviction. By leading with purpose, adaptive leaders create a sense of meaning and fulfillment that fuels engagement, fosters resilience, and drives sustainable success over the long term.

Applications of Adaptive Leadership

Adaptive leadership can be applied in many contexts from the battlefield, the boardroom and politics to education and healthcare.

On the battlefield, the most effective leaders are masters at maintaining situational awareness, communicating the best information at the right time to the appropriate people, and building teams that can lead and execute at every level.

In business, adaptive leaders drive organizational change by promoting innovation, agility, and resilience. They anticipate market trends, respond to customer needs, and empower employees to contribute their ideas.

In politics, adaptive leaders navigate through complex social and economic challenges, seeking consensus and finding creative solutions to pressing issues. They build coalitions, bridge divides, and mobilize support for their initiatives.

In education, adaptive leaders foster a culture of continuous improvement, promoting innovation in teaching and learning. They empower educators to experiment with new methodologies and technologies, adapting to the evolving needs of students.

In healthcare, adaptive leaders navigate through dynamic regulatory environments, changing patient demographics, and advances in medical technology. They promote collaboration among healthcare providers, policymakers, and patients, ensuring that healthcare delivery remains responsive to evolving needs.

In a world characterized by uncertainty and rapid change, adaptive leadership is more important than ever. By embracing uncertainty, fostering a culture of learning, empowering others, building resilience, and leading with purpose, adaptive leaders can navigate through complex challenges and drive meaningful change. Whether in the military, business, politics, education, healthcare, or any other sector of life and work, adaptive leadership offers a powerful framework for thriving in today's dynamic environment.

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• Published: Apr. 11, 2024, 9:53 a.m.

New York Jets quarterback Aaron Rodgers. AP

• Bridget Hyland | NJ Advance Media for NJ.com

Jets quarterback Aaron Rodgers , who was floated as a potential VP pick for Robert F. Kennedy Jr., has never held back in sharing his opinions about those in charge of the country.

In a recent appearance on the “ icanfly ” podcast, Rodgers talked about supporting Kennedy in the upcoming election. And while praising the presidential candidate, he slipped in an insinuation that Hillary Clinton could be connected to John F. Kennedy Jr.’s death.

“So Bobby loses his uncle, JFK, his father, RFK,” Rodgers said. “His cousin dies in a plane crash when he was running against Hillary Clinton — I’m not saying that was a conspiracy, but it’s kind of a weird coincidence. Bobby’s in danger, he’s putting himself on the line. Why? Because he f---ing believes in this country.”

Rodgers says it’s not a conspiracy, but he was sure to quickly float the implication.

WFAN played the clip on the Boomer & Gio show Thursday morning.

“Did he just imply that the Clintons killed JFK Jr.?” asked Boomer Esiason .

“When it comes to him, I’m not saying anything anymore,” said Gregg Giannotti. “Because did he say that? No. Did he kind of insinuate it? Yes.”

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Bridget Hyland may be reached at  [email protected] .

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