sociology research project survey listening answers

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IELTS Listening Sample 21

Questions 1-5

Complete the form below.

Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER for each answer.

SOCIOLOGY RESEARCH PROJECT SURVEY

Example                                                                            Answer

Survey on:                                                                         commuting center

Age:                                                                                    1 ___________________

Postcode:                                                                           2 ___________________

COMPUTER FACILITIES ALREADY USED

Where?                                                                             3 ___________________

SPORTS FACILITIES ALREADY USED

Where?                                                                            4 ___________________

EDUCATION FACILITIES ALREADY USED

Where?                                                                            5 ___________________

Questions 6-10

IMPROVEMENTS FOR THE COMMUNITY CENTRE

New sports:                                                                 6_______________ and___________________.

Classes organized only for:                                        7_______________.

Education classes:                                                       8_______________ and __________________.

Willing to pay about:                                                  9£ ______________ for new classes.

Possible frequency of visits, if improvements made?

10 ______________ a week

Questions 11-15

Choose the correct letter, A, B or C.

11. The Dark which makes up Hampstead Heath is

A. very large. B. fairly large. C. fairly small.

12. According the sPeaker. Hampstead underground station is

A. the shallowest in the system. B. the deepest in the system. C. the oldest in London.

13. The speaker suggests that after their walk people might want to •

A. have a meal in the famous restaurants. B. avoid Hampstead village as it is very busy. C. visit Hampstead village to look at the shops.

14. The houses in the Vale of the Heath are built

A. on the edge of the heath. B. on the heath itself. C. opposite the heath.

15. The speaker advises walkers to remove their headphones to

A. hear the silence away from the traffic. B. ensure they are not being followed. C. listen to the noises in the park.

Questions 16-20

Which activity can be done at each of the following locations on the heath?

Choose FIVE answers below and write the correct letter, A-G , next to questions 16-20.

A. have picnics B. go fishing C. view London D. have a swim E. attend concerts F. watch plays C. have snacks

Locations on the Heath

16. Kenwood House

17. grassy slopes

18. open-air stage

20. Parliament Hill

Questions 21 -25

How do the speakers describe the green urban planning options?

Choose FIVE descriptions from the box and write the correct letter, A-G , next to questions 21-25 .

Descriptions

A. dangerous B. too expensive C too many objections D. disruptive F. unpractical G. unsuccessful

21. green belt

22. decentralization

23. newtowns

24. brownfield sites

25. pedestrianized zones

Questions 26-28

Choose the correct letter, A, B or C .

26 Which area is jack having the most problems with?

A. Understanding the statistics. B. The lack of material. C. The selection of statistics.

27 What has been central to Curitiba’s success?

A. Central government intervention. B. Working together with residents. C. Giving responsibility to strategists.

28 Why does the transport system work so well?

A. There are cheap fares for the poor and elderly. B. Bicycles can use the bus lanes. C. There is a low car ownership.

Questions 29 and 30 

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Which does the tutor suggest are the TWO areas Jack needs to focus on?

A. the amount of parkland

B. the employment strategy

C. the pedestrianized zones

D. the recycling scheme

E. the suburban areas

Questions 31-40

Complete the notes below.

Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer.

ECONOMICS COURSE GUIDELINES

During lectures

will receive information about economics and the 31 __________________ to concentrate on

will be provided with information about the subject will be provided with a framework for further study

will have an opportunity to be taught by a 32 ___________________ in the field

will take part in the learning culture in 33____________________.

Common problems students have with techniques used in lectures

may not develop 34 _________________: no immediate questions

newer techniques help improve 35 __________________ more than lectures

How to avoid problems and make learning easier

leave time to read 36____________________ on the booklist

test yourself with quizzes

if you have had a 37___________________, revise what you previously learned

use the web to do more 38____________________.

check the sources of information on the web are 39___________________.

40___________________ with your classmates

Answer keys:

3. (LOCAL) LIBRARY

4. SWIMMING POOL

5. (FURTHER EDUCATION) COLLEGE

6. BADMINTON, YOCA

7. PENSIONERS

8. ARTS AND CRAFTS

10. 3 TIMES

31. PRIORITIES

32. RESEARCHER

33. HIGHER EDUCATION

34. STUDENT UNDERSTANDING

35. LEARNING OUTCOMES

36. ALL ITEMS

37. CAP YEAR

38. BACKGROUND RESEARCH

39. RELIABLE

40. DISCUSS IDEAS

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IELTS Listening Practice Test 104 + Answers

Updated On Feb 19, 2024

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Limited-Time Offer : Access a FREE 10-Day IELTS Study Plan!

Did you know that questions often get repeated in the IELTS? So it is important that you practise using the questions that have already appeared in the test. Our IELTS listening practice tests are curated from previous year’s IELTS test papers, making them ideal for practice.

In the IELTS Listening Test, you will encounter a series of questions based on a short audio recording on a particular topic. To attempt the Listening test, you have to practice discerning the important information being relayed in the audio format and using it to answer the test questions. By practicing with past questions, you can ensure a good score on this Module of the IELTS.

In the Listening Test 104, you will hear 4 audio recordings and answer questions 1-40 based on said recordings.

Section 1 is a conversation between a sociology student who is doing research on the town’s new community centre and a resident.

Section 2 is an audio tour for Hampstead in the city of London.

Section 3 is a conversation between a tutor and a student talking about a case study.

Section 4 is a part of a lecture given to the economy students on how to make most of their course.

Audio Transcription

  download audio transcription.

Questions 1-10

Questions 1-5.

Complete the form below.

Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER for each answer.

SOCIOLOGY RESEARCH PROJECT SURVEY

Questions 6-10.

Complete the form below .

IMPROVEMENTS FOR THE COMMUNITY CENTRE

[do_widget id=custom_html-36]

Questions 11-20

Questions 11-15.

Choose the correct letter, A, B, or C  , and write answers next to 11-15  on your answer sheet. 

11 The Dark which makes up Hampstead Heath is

A very large.

B fairly large.

C fairly small.

12 According the speaker Hampstead underground station is

A the shallowest in the system.

B the deepest in the system.

C the oldest in London.

13 The speaker suggests that after their walk people might want to

A have a meal in the famous restaurants.

B avoid Hampstead village as it is very busy.

C visit Hampstead village to look at the shops.

14 The houses in the Vale of the Heath are built

A on the edge of the heath.

B on the heath itself.

C opposite the heath.

15 The speaker advises walkers to remove their headphones to

A hear the silence away from the traffic.

B ensure they are not being followed.

C listen to the noises in the park.

[do_widget id=custom_html-47]

Questions 16-20

Choose FIVE answers below and write the correct letter, A-G , next to questions 16-20.

Which activity can be done at each of the following locations on the heath?

A have picnics

B go fishing

C view London

D have a swim

E attend concerts

F watch plays

G have snacks

Locations on the Heath

16 Kenwood House

17 grassy slopes

18 open-air stage

20 Parliament Hill

Also check :

• IELTS Listening Answer Sheet
• IELTS listening recent actual test
• IELTS Listening tips
• IELTS Listening words
• How to Improve IELTS Listening Section 3 and 4?
• What is Signposting?

Questions 21-30

Questions 21-25.

Choose FIVE descriptions from the box and write the correct letter, A-G , next to questions 21-25 .

How do the speakers describe green urban planning options?

Descriptions

A dangerous

B too expensive

C too many objections

D disruptive

E unpractical

F unsuccessful

21 green belt

22 decentralization

23 new towns

24 brownfield sites

25 pedestrianized zones

Questions 26-28

Choose the correct letter, A, B or C . Write answers next to  26-28  on your answer sheet. 

26 Which area is jack having the most problems with?

A Understanding the statistics.

B The lack of material.

C The selection of statistics.

27 What has been central to Curitiba’s success?

A Central government intervention.

B Working together with residents.

C Giving responsibility to strategists.

28 Why does the transport system work so well?

A There are cheap fares for the poor and elderly.

B Bicycles can use the bus lanes.

C There is low car ownership.

Questions 29 and 30 

Choose TWO letters, A-E  , and write answers next to 29-30  on your answer sheet. 

Which does the tutor suggest are the TWO areas Jack needs to focus on?

A the amount of parkland

B the employment strategy

C the pedestrianized zones

D the recycling scheme

E the suburban areas

Questions 31-40

Complete the notes below .

Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer .

ECONOMICS COURSE GUIDELINES

During lectures.

will receive information about economics and the 31 __________________ to concentrate on

will be provided with information about the subject will be provided with a framework for further study

will have an opportunity to be taught by a 32 ___________________ in the field

will take part in the learning culture in 33 ____________________.

Common problems students have with techniques used in lectures

may not develop 34 _________________: no immediate questions

newer techniques help improve 35 __________________ more than lectures

How to avoid problems and make learning easier

leave time to read 36 ____________________ on the booklist

test yourself with quizzes

if you have had a 37 ___________________, revise what you previously learned

use the web to do more 38 ____________________.

check the sources of information on the web are 39 ___________________.

40 ___________________ with your classmates.

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Practice Test 103 << >> Practice Test 105

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Kasturika Samanta

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Posted on Nov 18, 2016

hi Huyquoc, Your listening tests are so useful for learners. Thanks a lot. But I wonderer if there is any way to download these tests because there are 104 tests.It would be much appreciative if you could send me through my email for all tests : [email protected] . Thanks a million.

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Complete the form below.

Write NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER for each answer.

SOCIOLOGY RESEARCH PROJECT SURVEY

Questions 6-10 Listen from here

IMPROVEMENTS FOR THE COMMUNITY CENTRE

Questions 11-15 Listen from here

Choose the correct letter, A, B or C.

Questions 16-20 Listen from here

Which activity can be done at each of the following locations on the heath?

Choose FIVE answers below and write the correct letter, A-G , next to questions 16-20.

Locations on the Heath

16. A B C D E F G Kenwood House

17. A B C D E F G grassy slopes

18. A B C D E F G open-air stage

19. A B C D E F G ponds

20. A B C D E F G Parliament Hill

Questions 21 -25 Listen from here

How do the speakers describe the green urban planning options?

Choose FIVE descriptions from the box and write the correct letter, A-G , next to questions 21-25 .

21. A B C D E F G green belt

22. A B C D E F G decentralization

23. A B C D E F G newtowns

24. A B C D E F G brownfield sites

25. A B C D E F G pedestrianized zones

Questions 26-28 Listen from here

Choose the correct letter, A, B or C .

Questions 29-30 Listen from here

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Which does the tutor suggest are the TWO areas Jack needs to focus on?

Questions 31-40 Listen from here

Complete the notes below.

Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer.

• Full IELTS Practice Tests
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Research Project

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Solution for: Research Project

Answer table.

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Exam Review

Hello, John. Come in and sit down.You're here to discuss your research project, are you? Yes. I've more or less decided what to do, but I'd like your opinion. Fine. You've chosen a topic? Yes, I want to look at how people use public services in their local area. Things like parks and swimming pools. Right. Well, the kind of information you'll get is very useful for town planning, of course. Do you have a special interest in public services? Not really. It's just that I found a report in the college library about an investigation that was done ten years ago, and I Thought it would be interesting to do a parallel one. 10 years is a relatively short space of time. What do you expect to find?Do you think things will be more or less the same as before? I think there will be some differences. For example, I think the number of people going to the library will have decreased. And I'd guess that older people are using the sports center more often than they used to. Fine.So those are your hypotheses.Now, what sort of data are you going to use? I was thinking of using official records from the management or the local council and analyzing them. They should be easy to obtain. I don't think that sort of information would be confidential. Yes, you're probably right.There might not be as much information as you'd like, but it would certainly be the easiest kind of data to work with. But have you considered using a questionnaire as well? It's okay to get data from more than one source? Absolutely.It's a bonus. You've already done the module on questionnaire design, haven't you? And it'll be good to get experience, because next year you'll have to do something similar for your final dissertation on a bigger scale. Okay. And what are the variables you'll be looking at?Are you going to look at people's level of education?Whether they have a degree, for example? I hadn't planned to.Do you think I should? Well, you might see some interesting patterns. Okay.And that'll tie in nicely with my plans to analyze the kind of work people do. What about the size of your sample? Have you got any thoughts on the number of questionnaires you might send out? The previous study surveyed 120 people. I don't think I can really analyze more than 50, working by myself, so I should probably distribute about  80 questionnaires altogether to allow for wastage.Do you think that's enough? Definitely. I know that your project guidelines recommend a minimum of 100, but that's an ideal number.And you're working by yourself. And anyway, this assignment is mainly about giving you practice in research methods. Right. and think of ways you can encourage people to actually complete the questionnaire. For example, to make sure that your questions make sense, you should try them out beforehand. Okay, that's no problem.My friends will help. Good.Sometimes you get unpredicted responses and you have to rephrase a question. And I know that you usually get a better return if you deliver questionnaires in person,but there will be too many. But I could enclose a stamped envelope for the return post.It's a bit expensive, but I think it would be worth it. Yes.Good. Some people say that another way of increasing returns is to make the questionnaires anonymous. But usually people put their names on anyway, so I don't think that would make much difference. Okay.And can you give me a bit more advice about the questionnaire? Would it be a good idea to have a short paragraph at the top explaining what I'm doing and why? Definitely. And don't forget you'll need to get a bit of information about your subjects, what age group they're in and perhaps how long they've lived in the area. So you'll need questions for that Yes, I suppose that will mean it takes a bit longer to complete. But should I give them my phone number in case there's anything they're not sure about? I wouldn't if I were you.No. Okay.And do I have to use open ended questions as well as closed questions? I know the books say it's better to have a mixture. Well, it depends.In this case, I'd stick to close questions. The results will be much more manageable like that. If I draft some questions tomorrow, would it be okay to bring them?

Question 1-6

Choose the correct letter, A, B or C.

1. How did John choose the topic of his research project?

A He thought the information would be useful for town planning.

B He has a special interest in the use of public services.

C He read about a similar study which had been done earlier. Answer: C

2. During his research, John is expecting to find that

A The use of public services has altered very little.

B A group of people has changed its habits.

C The most frequently used facility is the library. Answer: B

3. What is the problem with using official records?

A They may be lacking in detail.

B They may not be readily available.

C They may be difficult to analyse. Answer: A

4. What does the tutor think about John using a questionnaire to get information?

A He needs to do a course in questionnaire design first.

B   He should use this method instead of looking at public records.

C   He will find the practice he gets useful the following year. Answer: C

5. Which new variable does John agree to add to his investigation?

A    Occupation

B     Income group

C     Qualifications Answer: C

6. How many questionnaires will John distribute?

A         The same number as    in the   previous    study

B         A greater number than he needs for analysis

C       The number recommended  in the project guidelines  Answer: B

Question 7-8

Choose TWO letters, A-E

Which TWO strategies will John use to encourage people to fill out his questionnaire?

A         Using simple language

B         Delivering the questionnaires in person

C       Making the questionnaires anonymous

D         Providing return envelopes

E         Trialing the questionnaire on friends 7. Answer: D 8. Answer: E

Questions 9 and 10

Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Which TWO pieces of advice does the tutor give John about his questionnaire?

A         There should be a mixture of question types.

B         Some questions should elicit personal information.

C         There should be an introduction to explain the survey’s purpose.

D         A telephone number should be provided for queries.

E          The questions should only take a few minutes to answer. 9. Answer: B 10. Answer: C

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2.2 Research Methods

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

• Recall the 6 Steps of the Scientific Method
• Differentiate between four kinds of research methods: surveys, field research, experiments, and secondary data analysis.
• Explain the appropriateness of specific research approaches for specific topics.

Sociologists examine the social world, see a problem or interesting pattern, and set out to study it. They use research methods to design a study. Planning the research design is a key step in any sociological study. Sociologists generally choose from widely used methods of social investigation: primary source data collection such as survey, participant observation, ethnography, case study, unobtrusive observations, experiment, and secondary data analysis , or use of existing sources. Every research method comes with plusses and minuses, and the topic of study strongly influences which method or methods are put to use. When you are conducting research think about the best way to gather or obtain knowledge about your topic, think of yourself as an architect. An architect needs a blueprint to build a house, as a sociologist your blueprint is your research design including your data collection method.

When entering a particular social environment, a researcher must be careful. There are times to remain anonymous and times to be overt. There are times to conduct interviews and times to simply observe. Some participants need to be thoroughly informed; others should not know they are being observed. A researcher wouldn’t stroll into a crime-ridden neighborhood at midnight, calling out, “Any gang members around?”

Making sociologists’ presence invisible is not always realistic for other reasons. That option is not available to a researcher studying prison behaviors, early education, or the Ku Klux Klan. Researchers can’t just stroll into prisons, kindergarten classrooms, or Klan meetings and unobtrusively observe behaviors or attract attention. In situations like these, other methods are needed. Researchers choose methods that best suit their study topics, protect research participants or subjects, and that fit with their overall approaches to research.

As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire or an interview. The survey is one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

At some point, most people in the United States respond to some type of survey. The 2020 U.S. Census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Since 1790, United States has conducted a survey consisting of six questions to received demographical data pertaining to residents. The questions pertain to the demographics of the residents who live in the United States. Currently, the Census is received by residents in the United Stated and five territories and consists of 12 questions.

Not all surveys are considered sociological research, however, and many surveys people commonly encounter focus on identifying marketing needs and strategies rather than testing a hypothesis or contributing to social science knowledge. Questions such as, “How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?” or “Were the staff helpful?” are not usually designed as scientific research. The Nielsen Ratings determine the popularity of television programming through scientific market research. However, polls conducted by television programs such as American Idol or So You Think You Can Dance cannot be generalized, because they are administered to an unrepresentative population, a specific show’s audience. You might receive polls through your cell phones or emails, from grocery stores, restaurants, and retail stores. They often provide you incentives for completing the survey.

Sociologists conduct surveys under controlled conditions for specific purposes. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel, think, and act—or at least how they say they feel, think, and act. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates or reported individual behaviors (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits) or information such as employment status, income, and education levels.

A survey targets a specific population , people who are the focus of a study, such as college athletes, international students, or teenagers living with type 1 (juvenile-onset) diabetes. Most researchers choose to survey a small sector of the population, or a sample , a manageable number of subjects who represent a larger population. The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented by the sample. In a random sample , every person in a population has the same chance of being chosen for the study. As a result, a Gallup Poll, if conducted as a nationwide random sampling, should be able to provide an accurate estimate of public opinion whether it contacts 2,000 or 10,000 people.

After selecting subjects, the researcher develops a specific plan to ask questions and record responses. It is important to inform subjects of the nature and purpose of the survey up front. If they agree to participate, researchers thank subjects and offer them a chance to see the results of the study if they are interested. The researcher presents the subjects with an instrument, which is a means of gathering the information.

A common instrument is a questionnaire. Subjects often answer a series of closed-ended questions . The researcher might ask yes-or-no or multiple-choice questions, allowing subjects to choose possible responses to each question. This kind of questionnaire collects quantitative data —data in numerical form that can be counted and statistically analyzed. Just count up the number of “yes” and “no” responses or correct answers, and chart them into percentages.

Questionnaires can also ask more complex questions with more complex answers—beyond “yes,” “no,” or checkbox options. These types of inquiries use open-ended questions that require short essay responses. Participants willing to take the time to write those answers might convey personal religious beliefs, political views, goals, or morals. The answers are subjective and vary from person to person. How do you plan to use your college education?

Some topics that investigate internal thought processes are impossible to observe directly and are difficult to discuss honestly in a public forum. People are more likely to share honest answers if they can respond to questions anonymously. This type of personal explanation is qualitative data —conveyed through words. Qualitative information is harder to organize and tabulate. The researcher will end up with a wide range of responses, some of which may be surprising. The benefit of written opinions, though, is the wealth of in-depth material that they provide.

An interview is a one-on-one conversation between the researcher and the subject, and it is a way of conducting surveys on a topic. However, participants are free to respond as they wish, without being limited by predetermined choices. In the back-and-forth conversation of an interview, a researcher can ask for clarification, spend more time on a subtopic, or ask additional questions. In an interview, a subject will ideally feel free to open up and answer questions that are often complex. There are no right or wrong answers. The subject might not even know how to answer the questions honestly.

Questions such as “How does society’s view of alcohol consumption influence your decision whether or not to take your first sip of alcohol?” or “Did you feel that the divorce of your parents would put a social stigma on your family?” involve so many factors that the answers are difficult to categorize. A researcher needs to avoid steering or prompting the subject to respond in a specific way; otherwise, the results will prove to be unreliable. The researcher will also benefit from gaining a subject’s trust, from empathizing or commiserating with a subject, and from listening without judgment.

Surveys often collect both quantitative and qualitative data. For example, a researcher interviewing people who are incarcerated might receive quantitative data, such as demographics – race, age, sex, that can be analyzed statistically. For example, the researcher might discover that 20 percent of incarcerated people are above the age of 50. The researcher might also collect qualitative data, such as why people take advantage of educational opportunities during their sentence and other explanatory information.

The survey can be carried out online, over the phone, by mail, or face-to-face. When researchers collect data outside a laboratory, library, or workplace setting, they are conducting field research, which is our next topic.

Field Research

The work of sociology rarely happens in limited, confined spaces. Rather, sociologists go out into the world. They meet subjects where they live, work, and play. Field research refers to gathering primary data from a natural environment. To conduct field research, the sociologist must be willing to step into new environments and observe, participate, or experience those worlds. In field work, the sociologists, rather than the subjects, are the ones out of their element.

The researcher interacts with or observes people and gathers data along the way. The key point in field research is that it takes place in the subject’s natural environment, whether it’s a coffee shop or tribal village, a homeless shelter or the DMV, a hospital, airport, mall, or beach resort.

While field research often begins in a specific setting , the study’s purpose is to observe specific behaviors in that setting. Field work is optimal for observing how people think and behave. It seeks to understand why they behave that way. However, researchers may struggle to narrow down cause and effect when there are so many variables floating around in a natural environment. And while field research looks for correlation, its small sample size does not allow for establishing a causal relationship between two variables. Indeed, much of the data gathered in sociology do not identify a cause and effect but a correlation .

Sociology in the Real World

Beyoncé and lady gaga as sociological subjects.

Sociologists have studied Lady Gaga and Beyoncé and their impact on music, movies, social media, fan participation, and social equality. In their studies, researchers have used several research methods including secondary analysis, participant observation, and surveys from concert participants.

In their study, Click, Lee & Holiday (2013) interviewed 45 Lady Gaga fans who utilized social media to communicate with the artist. These fans viewed Lady Gaga as a mirror of themselves and a source of inspiration. Like her, they embrace not being a part of mainstream culture. Many of Lady Gaga’s fans are members of the LGBTQ community. They see the “song “Born This Way” as a rallying cry and answer her calls for “Paws Up” with a physical expression of solidarity—outstretched arms and fingers bent and curled to resemble monster claws.”

Sascha Buchanan (2019) made use of participant observation to study the relationship between two fan groups, that of Beyoncé and that of Rihanna. She observed award shows sponsored by iHeartRadio, MTV EMA, and BET that pit one group against another as they competed for Best Fan Army, Biggest Fans, and FANdemonium. Buchanan argues that the media thus sustains a myth of rivalry between the two most commercially successful Black women vocal artists.

Participant Observation

In 2000, a comic writer named Rodney Rothman wanted an insider’s view of white-collar work. He slipped into the sterile, high-rise offices of a New York “dot com” agency. Every day for two weeks, he pretended to work there. His main purpose was simply to see whether anyone would notice him or challenge his presence. No one did. The receptionist greeted him. The employees smiled and said good morning. Rothman was accepted as part of the team. He even went so far as to claim a desk, inform the receptionist of his whereabouts, and attend a meeting. He published an article about his experience in The New Yorker called “My Fake Job” (2000). Later, he was discredited for allegedly fabricating some details of the story and The New Yorker issued an apology. However, Rothman’s entertaining article still offered fascinating descriptions of the inside workings of a “dot com” company and exemplified the lengths to which a writer, or a sociologist, will go to uncover material.

Rothman had conducted a form of study called participant observation , in which researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, experience homelessness for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.

At the beginning of a field study, researchers might have a question: “What really goes on in the kitchen of the most popular diner on campus?” or “What is it like to be homeless?” Participant observation is a useful method if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside.

Field researchers simply want to observe and learn. In such a setting, the researcher will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, observations will lead to hypotheses, and hypotheses will guide the researcher in analyzing data and generating results.

In a study of small towns in the United States conducted by sociological researchers John S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd, the team altered their purpose as they gathered data. They initially planned to focus their study on the role of religion in U.S. towns. As they gathered observations, they realized that the effect of industrialization and urbanization was the more relevant topic of this social group. The Lynds did not change their methods, but they revised the purpose of their study.

This shaped the structure of Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture , their published results (Lynd & Lynd, 1929).

The Lynds were upfront about their mission. The townspeople of Muncie, Indiana, knew why the researchers were in their midst. But some sociologists prefer not to alert people to their presence. The main advantage of covert participant observation is that it allows the researcher access to authentic, natural behaviors of a group’s members. The challenge, however, is gaining access to a setting without disrupting the pattern of others’ behavior. Becoming an inside member of a group, organization, or subculture takes time and effort. Researchers must pretend to be something they are not. The process could involve role playing, making contacts, networking, or applying for a job.

Once inside a group, some researchers spend months or even years pretending to be one of the people they are observing. However, as observers, they cannot get too involved. They must keep their purpose in mind and apply the sociological perspective. That way, they illuminate social patterns that are often unrecognized. Because information gathered during participant observation is mostly qualitative, rather than quantitative, the end results are often descriptive or interpretive. The researcher might present findings in an article or book and describe what he or she witnessed and experienced.

This type of research is what journalist Barbara Ehrenreich conducted for her book Nickel and Dimed . One day over lunch with her editor, Ehrenreich mentioned an idea. How can people exist on minimum-wage work? How do low-income workers get by? she wondered. Someone should do a study . To her surprise, her editor responded, Why don’t you do it?

That’s how Ehrenreich found herself joining the ranks of the working class. For several months, she left her comfortable home and lived and worked among people who lacked, for the most part, higher education and marketable job skills. Undercover, she applied for and worked minimum wage jobs as a waitress, a cleaning woman, a nursing home aide, and a retail chain employee. During her participant observation, she used only her income from those jobs to pay for food, clothing, transportation, and shelter.

She discovered the obvious, that it’s almost impossible to get by on minimum wage work. She also experienced and observed attitudes many middle and upper-class people never think about. She witnessed firsthand the treatment of working class employees. She saw the extreme measures people take to make ends meet and to survive. She described fellow employees who held two or three jobs, worked seven days a week, lived in cars, could not pay to treat chronic health conditions, got randomly fired, submitted to drug tests, and moved in and out of homeless shelters. She brought aspects of that life to light, describing difficult working conditions and the poor treatment that low-wage workers suffer.

The book she wrote upon her return to her real life as a well-paid writer, has been widely read and used in many college classrooms.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the immersion of the researcher in the natural setting of an entire social community to observe and experience their everyday life and culture. The heart of an ethnographic study focuses on how subjects view their own social standing and how they understand themselves in relation to a social group.

An ethnographic study might observe, for example, a small U.S. fishing town, an Inuit community, a village in Thailand, a Buddhist monastery, a private boarding school, or an amusement park. These places all have borders. People live, work, study, or vacation within those borders. People are there for a certain reason and therefore behave in certain ways and respect certain cultural norms. An ethnographer would commit to spending a determined amount of time studying every aspect of the chosen place, taking in as much as possible.

A sociologist studying a tribe in the Amazon might watch the way villagers go about their daily lives and then write a paper about it. To observe a spiritual retreat center, an ethnographer might sign up for a retreat and attend as a guest for an extended stay, observe and record data, and collate the material into results.

Institutional Ethnography

Institutional ethnography is an extension of basic ethnographic research principles that focuses intentionally on everyday concrete social relationships. Developed by Canadian sociologist Dorothy E. Smith (1990), institutional ethnography is often considered a feminist-inspired approach to social analysis and primarily considers women’s experiences within male- dominated societies and power structures. Smith’s work is seen to challenge sociology’s exclusion of women, both academically and in the study of women’s lives (Fenstermaker, n.d.).

Historically, social science research tended to objectify women and ignore their experiences except as viewed from the male perspective. Modern feminists note that describing women, and other marginalized groups, as subordinates helps those in authority maintain their own dominant positions (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada n.d.). Smith’s three major works explored what she called “the conceptual practices of power” and are still considered seminal works in feminist theory and ethnography (Fensternmaker n.d.).

Sociological Research

The making of middletown: a study in modern u.s. culture.

In 1924, a young married couple named Robert and Helen Lynd undertook an unprecedented ethnography: to apply sociological methods to the study of one U.S. city in order to discover what “ordinary” people in the United States did and believed. Choosing Muncie, Indiana (population about 30,000) as their subject, they moved to the small town and lived there for eighteen months.

Ethnographers had been examining other cultures for decades—groups considered minorities or outsiders—like gangs, immigrants, and the poor. But no one had studied the so-called average American.

Recording interviews and using surveys to gather data, the Lynds objectively described what they observed. Researching existing sources, they compared Muncie in 1890 to the Muncie they observed in 1924. Most Muncie adults, they found, had grown up on farms but now lived in homes inside the city. As a result, the Lynds focused their study on the impact of industrialization and urbanization.

They observed that Muncie was divided into business and working class groups. They defined business class as dealing with abstract concepts and symbols, while working class people used tools to create concrete objects. The two classes led different lives with different goals and hopes. However, the Lynds observed, mass production offered both classes the same amenities. Like wealthy families, the working class was now able to own radios, cars, washing machines, telephones, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators. This was an emerging material reality of the 1920s.

As the Lynds worked, they divided their manuscript into six chapters: Getting a Living, Making a Home, Training the Young, Using Leisure, Engaging in Religious Practices, and Engaging in Community Activities.

When the study was completed, the Lynds encountered a big problem. The Rockefeller Foundation, which had commissioned the book, claimed it was useless and refused to publish it. The Lynds asked if they could seek a publisher themselves.

Middletown: A Study in Modern American Culture was not only published in 1929 but also became an instant bestseller, a status unheard of for a sociological study. The book sold out six printings in its first year of publication, and has never gone out of print (Caplow, Hicks, & Wattenberg. 2000).

Nothing like it had ever been done before. Middletown was reviewed on the front page of the New York Times. Readers in the 1920s and 1930s identified with the citizens of Muncie, Indiana, but they were equally fascinated by the sociological methods and the use of scientific data to define ordinary people in the United States. The book was proof that social data was important—and interesting—to the U.S. public.

Sometimes a researcher wants to study one specific person or event. A case study is an in-depth analysis of a single event, situation, or individual. To conduct a case study, a researcher examines existing sources like documents and archival records, conducts interviews, engages in direct observation and even participant observation, if possible.

Researchers might use this method to study a single case of a foster child, drug lord, cancer patient, criminal, or rape victim. However, a major criticism of the case study as a method is that while offering depth on a topic, it does not provide enough evidence to form a generalized conclusion. In other words, it is difficult to make universal claims based on just one person, since one person does not verify a pattern. This is why most sociologists do not use case studies as a primary research method.

However, case studies are useful when the single case is unique. In these instances, a single case study can contribute tremendous insight. For example, a feral child, also called “wild child,” is one who grows up isolated from human beings. Feral children grow up without social contact and language, which are elements crucial to a “civilized” child’s development. These children mimic the behaviors and movements of animals, and often invent their own language. There are only about one hundred cases of “feral children” in the world.

As you may imagine, a feral child is a subject of great interest to researchers. Feral children provide unique information about child development because they have grown up outside of the parameters of “normal” growth and nurturing. And since there are very few feral children, the case study is the most appropriate method for researchers to use in studying the subject.

At age three, a Ukranian girl named Oxana Malaya suffered severe parental neglect. She lived in a shed with dogs, and she ate raw meat and scraps. Five years later, a neighbor called authorities and reported seeing a girl who ran on all fours, barking. Officials brought Oxana into society, where she was cared for and taught some human behaviors, but she never became fully socialized. She has been designated as unable to support herself and now lives in a mental institution (Grice 2011). Case studies like this offer a way for sociologists to collect data that may not be obtained by any other method.

Experiments

You have probably tested some of your own personal social theories. “If I study at night and review in the morning, I’ll improve my retention skills.” Or, “If I stop drinking soda, I’ll feel better.” Cause and effect. If this, then that. When you test the theory, your results either prove or disprove your hypothesis.

One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment , meaning they investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach.

There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that more data can be recorded in a limited amount of time. In a natural or field- based experiment, the time it takes to gather the data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher.

As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens (cause), then another particular thing will result (effect). To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables.

Classically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might provide tutoring to the experimental group of students but not to the control group. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record of a student, for example.

And if a researcher told the students they would be observed as part of a study on measuring the effectiveness of tutoring, the students might not behave naturally. This is called the Hawthorne effect —which occurs when people change their behavior because they know they are being watched as part of a study. The Hawthorne effect is unavoidable in some research studies because sociologists have to make the purpose of the study known. Subjects must be aware that they are being observed, and a certain amount of artificiality may result (Sonnenfeld 1985).

A real-life example will help illustrate the process. In 1971, Frances Heussenstamm, a sociology professor at California State University at Los Angeles, had a theory about police prejudice. To test her theory, she conducted research. She chose fifteen students from three ethnic backgrounds: Black, White, and Hispanic. She chose students who routinely drove to and from campus along Los Angeles freeway routes, and who had had perfect driving records for longer than a year.

Next, she placed a Black Panther bumper sticker on each car. That sticker, a representation of a social value, was the independent variable. In the 1970s, the Black Panthers were a revolutionary group actively fighting racism. Heussenstamm asked the students to follow their normal driving patterns. She wanted to see whether seeming support for the Black Panthers would change how these good drivers were treated by the police patrolling the highways. The dependent variable would be the number of traffic stops/citations.

The first arrest, for an incorrect lane change, was made two hours after the experiment began. One participant was pulled over three times in three days. He quit the study. After seventeen days, the fifteen drivers had collected a total of thirty-three traffic citations. The research was halted. The funding to pay traffic fines had run out, and so had the enthusiasm of the participants (Heussenstamm, 1971).

Secondary Data Analysis

While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline through secondary data analysis . Secondary data does not result from firsthand research collected from primary sources, but are the already completed work of other researchers or data collected by an agency or organization. Sociologists might study works written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines, or organizational data from any period in history.

Using available information not only saves time and money but can also add depth to a study. Sociologists often interpret findings in a new way, a way that was not part of an author’s original purpose or intention. To study how women were encouraged to act and behave in the 1960s, for example, a researcher might watch movies, televisions shows, and situation comedies from that period. Or to research changes in behavior and attitudes due to the emergence of television in the late 1950s and early 1960s, a sociologist would rely on new interpretations of secondary data. Decades from now, researchers will most likely conduct similar studies on the advent of mobile phones, the Internet, or social media.

Social scientists also learn by analyzing the research of a variety of agencies. Governmental departments and global groups, like the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics or the World Health Organization (WHO), publish studies with findings that are useful to sociologists. A public statistic like the foreclosure rate might be useful for studying the effects of a recession. A racial demographic profile might be compared with data on education funding to examine the resources accessible by different groups.

One of the advantages of secondary data like old movies or WHO statistics is that it is nonreactive research (or unobtrusive research), meaning that it does not involve direct contact with subjects and will not alter or influence people’s behaviors. Unlike studies requiring direct contact with people, using previously published data does not require entering a population and the investment and risks inherent in that research process.

Using available data does have its challenges. Public records are not always easy to access. A researcher will need to do some legwork to track them down and gain access to records. To guide the search through a vast library of materials and avoid wasting time reading unrelated sources, sociologists employ content analysis , applying a systematic approach to record and value information gleaned from secondary data as they relate to the study at hand.

Also, in some cases, there is no way to verify the accuracy of existing data. It is easy to count how many drunk drivers, for example, are pulled over by the police. But how many are not? While it’s possible to discover the percentage of teenage students who drop out of high school, it might be more challenging to determine the number who return to school or get their GED later.

Another problem arises when data are unavailable in the exact form needed or do not survey the topic from the precise angle the researcher seeks. For example, the average salaries paid to professors at a public school is public record. But these figures do not necessarily reveal how long it took each professor to reach the salary range, what their educational backgrounds are, or how long they’ve been teaching.

When conducting content analysis, it is important to consider the date of publication of an existing source and to take into account attitudes and common cultural ideals that may have influenced the research. For example, when Robert S. Lynd and Helen Merrell Lynd gathered research in the 1920s, attitudes and cultural norms were vastly different then than they are now. Beliefs about gender roles, race, education, and work have changed significantly since then. At the time, the study’s purpose was to reveal insights about small U.S. communities. Today, it is an illustration of 1920s attitudes and values.

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Research Topics & Ideas: Sociology

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

If you’re just starting out exploring sociology-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of research ideas , including real-world examples from recent sociological studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Sociology-Related Research Topics

• Analyzing the social impact of income inequality on urban gentrification.
• Investigating the effects of social media on family dynamics in the digital age.
• The role of cultural factors in shaping dietary habits among different ethnic groups.
• Analyzing the impact of globalization on indigenous communities.
• Investigating the sociological factors behind the rise of populist politics in Europe.
• The effect of neighborhood environment on adolescent development and behavior.
• Analyzing the social implications of artificial intelligence on workforce dynamics.
• Investigating the impact of urbanization on traditional social structures.
• The role of religion in shaping social attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights.
• Analyzing the sociological aspects of mental health stigma in the workplace.
• Investigating the impact of migration on family structures in immigrant communities.
• The effect of economic recessions on social class mobility.
• Analyzing the role of social networks in the spread of disinformation.
• Investigating the societal response to climate change and environmental crises.
• The role of media representation in shaping public perceptions of crime.
• Analyzing the sociocultural factors influencing consumer behavior.
• Investigating the social dynamics of multigenerational households.
• The impact of educational policies on social inequality.
• Analyzing the social determinants of health disparities in urban areas.
• Investigating the effects of urban green spaces on community well-being.
• The role of social movements in shaping public policy.
• Analyzing the impact of social welfare systems on poverty alleviation.
• Investigating the sociological aspects of aging populations in developed countries.
• The role of community engagement in local governance.
• Analyzing the social effects of mass surveillance technologies.

Sociology Research Ideas (Continued)

• Investigating the impact of gentrification on small businesses and local economies.
• The role of cultural festivals in fostering community cohesion.
• Analyzing the societal impacts of long-term unemployment.
• Investigating the role of education in cultural integration processes.
• The impact of social media on youth identity and self-expression.
• Analyzing the sociological factors influencing drug abuse and addiction.
• Investigating the role of urban planning in promoting social integration.
• The impact of tourism on local communities and cultural preservation.
• Analyzing the social dynamics of protest movements and civil unrest.
• Investigating the role of language in cultural identity and social cohesion.
• The impact of international trade policies on local labor markets.
• Analyzing the role of sports in promoting social inclusion and community development.
• Investigating the impact of housing policies on homelessness.
• The role of public transport systems in shaping urban social life.
• Analyzing the social consequences of technological disruption in traditional industries.
• Investigating the sociological implications of telecommuting and remote work trends.
• The impact of social policies on gender equality and women’s rights.
• Analyzing the role of social entrepreneurship in addressing societal challenges.
• Investigating the effects of urban renewal projects on community identity.
• The role of public art in urban regeneration and social commentary.
• Analyzing the impact of cultural diversity on education systems.
• Investigating the sociological factors driving political apathy among young adults.
• The role of community-based organizations in addressing urban poverty.
• Analyzing the social impacts of large-scale sporting events on host cities.
• Investigating the sociological dimensions of food insecurity in affluent societies.

Recent Studies & Publications: Sociology

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual sociology-related studies to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies,  so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• Social system learning process (Subekti et al., 2022)
• Sociography: Writing Differently (Kilby & Gilloch, 2022)
• The Future of ‘Digital Research’ (Cipolla, 2022).
• A sociological approach of literature in Leo N. Tolstoy’s short story God Sees the Truth, But Waits (Larasati & Irmawati, 2022)
• Teaching methods of sociology research and social work to students at Vietnam Trade Union University (Huu, 2022)
• Ideology and the New Social Movements (Scott, 2023)
• The sociological craft through the lens of theatre (Holgersson, 2022).
• An Essay on Sociological Thinking, Sociological Thought and the Relationship of a Sociologist (Sönmez & Sucu, 2022)
• How Can Theories Represent Social Phenomena? (Fuhse, 2022)
• Hyperscanning and the Future of Neurosociology (TenHouten et al., 2022)
• Sociology of Wisdom: The Present and Perspectives (Jijyan et al., 2022). Collective Memory (Halbwachs & Coser, 2022)
• Sociology as a scientific discipline: the post-positivist conception of J. Alexander and P. Kolomi (Vorona, 2022)
• Murder by Usury and Organised Denial: A critical realist perspective on the liberating paradigm shift from psychopathic dominance towards human civilisation (Priels, 2022)
• Analysis of Corruption Justice In The Perspective of Legal Sociology (Hayfa & Kansil, 2023)
• Contributions to the Study of Sociology of Education: Classical Authors (Quentin & Sophie, 2022)
• Inequality without Groups: Contemporary Theories of Categories, Intersectional Typicality, and the Disaggregation of Difference (Monk, 2022)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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Principles of Sociological Inquiry

Chapter 4: beginning a research project, chapter 4 beginning a research project, choosing a topic.

Do you like to watch movies? Do you have a pet that you care about? Do you wonder what you and your peers might do with your degrees once you’ve finished college? Do you wonder how many people on your campus have heard of the BP oil spill of 2010, how many know that Barack Obama is our president, or how many know that their tuition may be raised by 20% next year? Have you ever felt that you were treated differently at work because of your gender? If you answered yes to any of these questions, then you may have just the sort of intellectual curiosity required to conduct a sociological research project.

4.1 Starting Where You Already Are

Learning objectives.

• Define starting where you are, and describe how it works.
• Identify and describe two overarching questions researchers should ask themselves about where they already are.

The preceding questions are all real questions that real sociology students have asked—and answered—in a research methods class just like the one that you are currently taking. In some cases, these students knew they had a keen interest in a topic before beginning their research methods class. For example, Beth All student names are pseudonyms. was a sociology and political science double major who wanted to know what her peers really knew about current events. Did they know about national events, such as the results of the most recent presidential election? Did they know about disasters that could affect their plans to enjoy the surf on the west coast of Florida over the summer? Did they know that local papers were reporting rumors of a tuition hike that could change their own ability to pay the rent? Matt, a sociology major, also started off with an interest in a focused topic. He had begun to worry about what he would do with his sociology degree when he graduated, and so he designed a project to learn more about what other sociology majors did and planned to do.

In other cases, students did not start out with a specific interest linked to their academic pursuits, but these students, too, were able to identify research topics worthy of investigation. These students knew, for example, how they enjoyed spending their free time. Perhaps at first these students didn’t realize that they could identify and answer a sociological research question about their hobbies, but they certainly learned that they could once they had done a little brainstorming. For example, Dirk enjoyed reading about and watching movies, so he conducted a project on the relationship between movie reviews and movie success. Sarah, who enjoyed spending time with her pet cat, designed a project to learn more about animal–human relationships.

Even students who claimed to have “absolutely no interests whatsoever” usually discovered that they could come up with a sociological research question simply by stepping back, taking a bird’s eye view of their daily lives, and identifying some interesting patterns there. This was the case for Allison, who made some remarkable discoveries about her restaurant job, where she had applied to work as a cook but was hired to work as a waitress. When Allison realized that all the servers at the restaurant were women and all the cooks were men, she began to wonder whether employees had been assigned different roles based on their gender identities. Allison’s epiphany led her to investigate how jobs and workplace stereotypes are gendered. Like Allison, Teresa also struggled to identify a research topic. Her academic experiences had not inspired any specific research interests, and when asked about hobbies, Teresa claimed to have none. When asked what really annoys her, it occurred to Teresa that she resented the amount of time her friends spent watch and discussing the reality television show The Bachelor . This realization led Teresa to her own aha moment: She would investigate who watches reality television and why.

In each of these cases, students did what sociologists refer to as starting where you are Having an interest in a topic already, identifying a hobby, or looking for patterns in your everyday life about which you can ask questions. , an idea eloquently described in previous research methods texts by John and Lyn Lofland (1995) Lofland, J., & Lofland, L. H. (1995). Analyzing social settings: A guide to qualitative observation and analysis (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. and by Kristin Esterberg (2002; MacLeod, 2008). Esterberg, K. G. (2002). Qualitative methods in social research . Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill; for a superb account of starting where you already are, see the appendix (On the making of Ain’t no makin’ it ) in Jay MacLeod’s book, Ain’t no makin’ it . Incidentally, the research on which MacLeod’s book is based began as his undergraduate sociology thesis. MacLeod, J. (2008). Ain’t no makin’ it: Aspirations and attainment in a low-income neighborhood (3rd ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Whether it was thinking about a question they’d had for some time, identifying a question about their own interests and hobbies, or taking a look at patterns in their everyday life, every student in these research methods classes managed both to identify a sociological research question that was of interest to them and to collect data to help answer that question. In this chapter we’ll focus on how to identify possible topics for study, how to make your topic sociological, how to phrase your interest as a research question, and how to get started once you have identified that question. In later chapters, we’ll learn more about how to actually answer the questions you will have developed by the time you finish this chapter.

Once you have identified where you already are, there are two overarching questions you need to ask yourself: how do you feel about where you already are, and what do you know about where you already are?

How Do You Feel About Where You Already Are?

Once you have figured out where you already are (perhaps not spiritually—we sociologists can’t help you there—but in terms of your interests and everyday activities), your next task is to ask yourself some important questions about the interest you’ve identified. Your answers to these questions will help you decide whether your topic is one that will really work for a sociological research project.

Whether you begin by already having an interest in some topic or you decide you want to study something related to one of your hobbies or your everyday experiences, chances are good that you already have some opinions about your topic. As such, there are a few questions you should ask yourself to determine whether you should try to turn this topic into a research project.

Start by asking yourself how you feel about your topic. Be totally honest, and ask yourself whether you believe your perspective is the only valid one. Perhaps yours isn’t the only perspective, but do you believe it is the wisest one? The most practical one? How do you feel about other perspectives on this topic? If you feel so strongly that certain findings would upset you or that either you would design a project to get only the answer you believe to be the best one or you might feel compelled to cover up findings that you don’t like, then you need to choose a different topic. For example, one student wanted to find out whether there was any relationship between intelligence and political party affiliation. He was certain from the beginning that the members of his party were without a doubt the most intelligent. His strong opinion was not in and of itself the problem. However, the rage that he expressed when he was asked to consider how he might feel if he found that the opposing party’s members were more intelligent than those of his party, combined with his utter refusal to grant that it was even a possibility, led him to decide that the topic was probably too near and dear for him to use it to conduct unbiased research.

Of course, just because you feel strongly about a topic does not mean that you should not study it. Sometimes the best topics to research are those about which you do feel strongly. What better way to stay motivated than to study something that you care about? I recently began a study of child-free adults—people who have made the explicit and intentional choice not to have or rear children—precisely because I’m a child-free adult myself.

Although I have strong opinions about my own child-free status, I also feel OK about having those ideas challenged. In fact, for me one of the most rewarding things about studying a topic that is relevant to my own life is learning new perspectives that had never occurred to me before collecting data on the topic. I believe that my own perspective is pretty solid, but I can also accept that other people will have perspectives that differ from my own. And I am certainly willing to report the variety of perspectives that I discover as I collect data on my topic.

If you feel prepared to accept all findings, even those that may be unflattering to or distinct from your personal perspective, then perhaps you should intentionally study a topic about which you have strong feelings. Sociology professor Kathleen Blee (2002) Blee, K. (2002). Inside organized racism: Women and men of the hate movement . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; Blee, K. (1991). Women of the klan: Racism and gender in the 1920s . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. has taken this route in her research. Blee studies hate movement participants, people whose racist ideologies she studies but does not share. You can read her accounts of this research in two of her most well-known publications, Inside Organized Racism and Women of the Klan . Blee’s research is successful because she was willing to report her findings and observations honestly, even those with which she may have personally taken strong issue. However, if, after honest reflection, you decide that you cannot accept or share with others findings with which you disagree, then you should study a topic about which you feel less strongly.

What Do You Know About Where You Already Are?

Whether or not you feel strongly about your topic, you will also want to consider what you already know about it. There are many ways we know what we know. Perhaps your mother told you something is so. Perhaps it came to you in a dream. Perhaps you took a class last semester and learned something about your topic there. Or you may have read something about your topic in your local newspaper or in People magazine. Maybe you saw a special on Dateline NBC or heard Snookie discussing the topic with her friends on Jersey Shore . We discussed the strengths and weaknesses associated with some of these different sources of knowledge in Chapter 1 “Introduction” , and we’ll talk about other sources of knowledge, such as prior research, a little later on. For now, take some time to think about what you know about your topic from any and all possible sources. Thinking about what you already know will help you identify any biases Predilections toward a particular perspective that may cause one to neglect alternative perspectives. you may have, and it will help as you begin to frame a question about your topic.

Key Takeaways

• Many researchers choose topics by considering their own personal experiences, knowledge, and interests.
• Researchers should be aware of and forthcoming about any strong feelings they might have about their research topics.
• There are benefits and drawbacks associated with studying a topic about which you already have some prior knowledge or experience. Researchers should be aware of and consider both.
• Do some brainstorming to try to identify some potential topics of interest. What have been your favorite classes in college thus far? What did you like about them? What did you learn in them? What extracurricular activities are you involved in? How do you enjoy spending your time when nobody is telling you what you should be doing?
• Check out the website thesocietypages.org. This site summarizes work published in Contexts , sociology’s public interest magazine. It also includes links to recent news stories featuring sociological work and a number of sociological insights that are likely to be of general interest. If you are having trouble identifying a topic of interest, this site could be of help.

Learn how other sociologists have started where they are by reading their blogs. A few worth reading include the following:

• Sociological Images: http://thesocietypages.org/socimages
• Sociology Improv: http://thesocietypages.org/improv
• Public Criminology: http://thesocietypages.org/pubcrim
• Sexuality and Society: http://thesocietypages.org/sexuality
• Marx in Drag: http://marxindrag.com/Marxindrag/Blog/Blog.html
• The Sociological Imagination: http://thesociologicalimagination.com
• Scatterplot: http://scatter.wordpress.com

4.2 Is It Empirical?

• Define empirical questions, and provide an example.
• Define ethical questions, and provide an example.

As you probably recall from Chapter 3 “Research Ethics” , sociologists do, indeed, consider questions of ethics during the research process. These questions have to do with a researcher’s behavior while gathering empirical data and reporting findings. But questions about sociologists’ professional behavior are distinct from sociological research questions. When it comes to research questions, sociologists are best equipped to answer empirical questions Questions that can be answered by real experience in the real world. —those that can be answered by real experience in the real world—as opposed to ethical questions Questions about which people have moral opinions and that may not be answerable in reference to the real world. —questions about which people have moral opinions and that may not be answerable in reference to the real world. While sociologists do study phenomena about which people have moral opinions, our job is to gather social facts about those phenomena, not to judge or determine morality.

Let’s consider a specific example. Early in my senior year of college, I took a class on comparative perspectives in health care. We started in the United States and then traveled to Austria, Hungary, and the Czech Republic to learn about how health care is administered in each country. One thing that struck me at the time was the differences in how funding for our health care system works compared to systems in the countries I visited. When I learned about how much our health care institutions depend on private donations to pay for needed equipment and facilities, I knew instantly what I would choose as the topic for a research project I had coming up that year. I wanted to learn what the most morally upstanding way to fund health care was—was it the US model or was it the European models I’d learned about?

I returned from my trip, visited my sociology advisor, and shared my research project idea. Much to my dismay, my advisor told me my question wasn’t sociological. “Not sociological,” I asked. But sociologists study inequality, I argued, and understanding the most morally upright way of administering health care certainly had something to do with issues of inequality. True, my advisor agreed. The problem was not with my topic per se but instead with my framing of the topic. I was asking an ethical question about health care when I should be asking an empirical question. He helped me tweak my research question to make it empirical by focusing not on the comparable morality of each approach to health care but instead on the process by which health care institutions in the United States obtain funding for needed equipment and facilities. While not as sweeping or as grand as I’d originally envisioned, my advisor’s help in bringing me down to earth and helping me identify an empirical question about the topic led to a more sociological project than I might have otherwise conducted.

Not too long ago I had another opportunity to think about the differences between ethical and empirical questions. In 2008, I was interviewed by a writer working on a piece for Marie Claire magazine on men who are sexually harassed in the workplace by women (Voss, 2008). Voss, G. (2008, May 26). Women harassing men. Marie Claire . Retrieved from http://www.marieclaire.com/sex-love/relationship-issues/articles/women-harassing-men-1 Because I had published several scholarly articles on this topic (with several wonderful collaborators), the writer wanted me to assert a position about what she viewed as a new and terrible phenomenon. While I don’t personally support the sexual harassment of anyone, woman or man, and even though I’ve been involved in the anti–sexual violence movement personally for many years, I wasn’t able to give the reporter the juicy quote about my feelings on the subject that she seemed intent on eliciting from me. Why? Because I was interviewed as a sociologist, not as a concerned member of the community. What I was able to talk about were the empirical findings from my research, including the finding that the stigma of reporting harassment can be quite high for men because of the cultural stereotype that men enjoy any and all forms of sexual attention.

In order to help you better understand the difference between ethical and empirical questions, let’s consider a topic about which people have moral opinions. How about SpongeBob SquarePants? Not familiar with SpongeBob SquarePants? You can learn more about him on Nickelodeon’s site dedicated to all things SpongeBob: http://spongebob.nick.com . In early 2005, members of the conservative Christian group Focus on the Family Focus on the Family. (2005, January 26). Focus on SpongeBob. Christianity Today . Retrieved from http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/januaryweb-only/34.0c.html denounced this seemingly innocuous cartoon character as “morally offensive” because they perceived his character to be one that promotes a “progay agenda.” Focus on the Family supported their claim that SpongeBob is immoral by citing his appearance in a children’s video designed to promote tolerance of all family forms (BBC News, 2005). BBC News. (2005, January 20). US right attacks SpongeBob video. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4190699.stm They also cited SpongeBob’s regular hand-holding with his male sidekick Patrick as further evidence of his immorality.

So can we now conclude that SpongeBob SquarePants is immoral? Not so fast. While your mother or a newspaper or television reporter may provide an answer, a sociologist cannot. Questions of morality are ethical, not empirical. Of course, this doesn’t mean that sociologists and other social scientists cannot study opinions about or social meanings surrounding SpongeBob SquarePants (Carter, 2010). In fact, a recent MA thesis examines representations of gender and relationships in the cartoon: Carter, A. C. (2010). Constructing gender and relationships in “SpongeBob SquarePants”: Who lives in a pineapple under the sea . MA thesis, Department of Communication, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL. In fact, sociologists may be among the most qualified to gather empirical facts about people’s moral opinions. We study humans after all, and as you will discover in the following chapters of this text, we are trained to utilize a variety of scientific data-collection techniques to understand patterns of human beliefs and behaviors. Using these techniques, we could find out how many people in the United States find SpongeBob morally reprehensible, but we could never learn, empirically, whether SpongeBob is in fact morally reprehensible.

• Empirical questions are distinct from ethical questions.
• There are usually a number of ethical questions and a number of empirical questions that could be asked about any single topic.
• While sociologists may study topics about which people have moral opinions, their job is to gather empirical data about the social world.
• Think of some topic that interests you. Pose one ethical question about that topic. Now pose an empirical question about the same topic.
• Read a few news articles about any controversial topic that interests you (e.g., immigration, gay marriage, health care reform, terrorism, welfare). Make a note of the ethical points or questions that are raised in the articles and compare them to the empirical points or questions that are mentioned. Which do you find most compelling? Why?

4.3 Is It Sociological?

• Identify and describe the three key insights that make sociology unique.
• Define social location.
• Understand the difference between sociological research questions and those of other, similar disciplines.

What is sociology? If you can’t answer that question, then it will be very difficult for you to conduct a sociological research project. It will also be very difficult to impress your friends with your sociology degree or to convince your parents or your partner that the sacrifices that helped put you through college were worthwhile. Even more, it could be quite a challenge to explain yourself and your qualifications to prospective employers if you cannot tell them simply and succinctly what it is you spent your college career studying. So let’s take a moment to consider what sociology is exactly. First, we will attempt to define sociology, and then we will consider how sociology is similar to and different from other disciplines. This exercise should help as we begin to turn our empirical interests into sociological research questions.

What Is Sociology?

As noted in Chapter 1 “Introduction” , sociology is the scientific study of humans in groups. But let’s go a little further and think about what makes sociology a unique discipline. There are several key insights that make sociology unique, and keeping these in mind will help you frame your research interest in a way that is sociological. First, sociologists recognize that who a person is and what he or she thinks and does is affected by the groups of which that person is a member. Second, sociologists accept that interaction takes place in a way that is patterned. Finally, sociologists acknowledge that while patterns are important, inconsistencies in patterns are equally important. By considering each of these key insights in a little more detail, we can begin to get a better grasp of what makes sociology unique and what makes the topics that sociologists study sociological.

As noted, sociologists recognize that who a person is and what he or she thinks and does is affected by the groups of which that person is a member. In particular, sociologists pay attention to how people’s experiences may differ depending on aspects of their identities. To help yourself think sociologically, look around you as you are out and about. Do you see people of different racial or ethnic identities from you? Different genders? Different class statuses? How might their experiences differ from yours? How might the very experience you are having at that moment differ for you if you were different somehow? What if you weighed twice as much as you do right now? What if you had green hair instead of brown? Sociologists study what such identities and characteristics mean, how and by whom they are given meaning, how they work together with other meanings, and what the consequences are of those meanings. In other words, sociologists study how people’s social locations A person’s place in society, generally determined by a combination of aspects of a person’s identity such as race, ethnicity, gender, sexuality, and social class status. shape their experiences and their place in society.

Sociologists also accept that social interaction is patterned. In fact, patterns exist even though the people involved in creating them may not have any conception of their contribution. Because sociologists are interested in aggregates, the individuals who collectively create patterns may be separated by many years or miles. As sociologists, however, we are trained to look for consistencies in social patterns across time and space. For example, societies all over the world have for many years created rules, socialized their members, and produced and distributed goods. It is the consistencies across such processes that sociologists aim to understand.

Of course, inconsistencies are just as important as patterns. When, for example, women began to enter the paid labor force in increasing numbers, sociologists became interested in what forces drove this change and what consequences individuals, families, employers, and societies might see as a result (Wolfbein & Jaffe, 1946). Interestingly, one of the earliest pieces from the American Sociological Review investigating such demographic changes in labor force participation was published in 1946 following the unprecedented influx of women into the labor force during World War II. Questions about how gender and work are intertwined are now so common in sociology that many campuses today offer gender and work courses, and the scholarly journal Gender, Work, & Organization was established in 1994 to distribute research on this topic alone. You can read more about this journal at its website: http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0968-6673&site=1 . Similarly, when mating and dating patterns shifted to include online match services, sociologists did not ignore this new way that humans had found to partner. Instead, they took note of it and considered how it worked, who utilized this new method of matching, and its impact on dating patterns more generally. In fact, according to Sociological Abstracts A database that indexes all major sociological research publications. , a database that indexes published sociological research (and which you’ll read more about later on in this chapter), 31 peer-reviewed articles on online dating had been published as of August 2010. As recently as 2004, however, there were no sociological articles on online dating indexed by this database. The increase in publications focusing on online dating very likely had something to do with the changing social landscape. In this case, societal changes, or inconsistencies, drove the sociological research. Want to learn more about the sociological perspective on online dating? Google the name “Pepper Schwartz.” Professor Schwartz is a sexologist and sociologist at the University of Washington whose sociological insights and observations have been featured in numerous magazines and newspapers including Glamour and the New York Times and on television shows such as Oprah . She is also the chief relationship expert for PerfectMatch.com, an online dating site.

What Is Not Sociology?

In addition to considering what sociology actually is as a way to help identify a sociological research topic, it is worth considering what sociology is not. While the differences between sociology and chemical engineering may be pretty clear, there are other disciplines A particular course of study; one division of several academic categories. with which sociology shares interests and the lines between these disciplines may get blurred at times. Thinking about sociology’s similarities to and differences from other disciplines can help us frame a research question that is indeed sociological.

For example, many students pursue double majors in sociology and psychology. While the two disciplines are complementary, they are not the same. Consider the topic of gang membership. While a psychologist may be interested in identifying what traumatic personal experiences or emotional state might drive a person to join a gang, a sociologist is more likely to examine whether there are patterns in terms of who joins gangs. Are members of some social classes more likely than others to join gangs? Does a person’s geographical location appear to play a role in determining the likelihood that he or she will join a gang? In other words, psychologists and sociologists share an interest in human behavior, but psychologists tend to focus on individuals while sociologists consider individuals within the context of the social groups to which they belong.

Philosophers and sociologists also share some common interests, including a desire to understand beliefs about the nature of good and bad. But while a philosopher might consider what general or logical principles make up a good or a bad society, a sociologist is more likely to study how specific social realities, such as the presence of gangs in a community, impact perceptions of that community as either good or bad. Other disciplines that share some overlapping interests with sociology include political science, economics, and history. The differences in approaches toward the study of gang membership between sociology and other similar disciplines are summarized in Table 4.1 “Sociology Compared to Similar Disciplines: The Study of Gangs”

Table 4.1 Sociology Compared to Similar Disciplines: The Study of Gangs

• Sociology is unique in its focus on the combination of social context, patterns, and social change.
• Though similar to several other disciplines, there are distinct features that separate sociology from each discipline with which it shares some similarities.
• Take a look around you the next time you are heading across campus or waiting in line at the grocery store or your favorite coffee shop. Think about how the very experience you are having in that moment may be different for those around you who are not like you. How might the amount of social space you take up differ if you were a different gender? How would a change in your physical capabilities alter your path across campus? Would you interpret the stares from the child sitting in her parents’ cart at the grocery store differently if you were a different race? What do your answers to these questions tell you about your social location?
• Think about all the classes you have taken over the course of your college career. What disciplines have you learned about? How are those disciplines similar to sociology? How do those disciplines differ from sociology? Now consider a topic that you might be interested in conducting research on. How would a sociologist think about your topic? How would a person studying another discipline approach your topic?

4.4 Is It a Question?

• Identify and explain the five key features of a good research question.
• Explain why it is important for sociologists to be focused when designing a research question.
• Identify the differences between and provide examples of strong and weak research questions.

Now that you’ve thought about what topics interest you and identified a topic that is both empirical and sociological, you need to form a research question A way of framing a scientist’s particular problem of interest. about that topic. For many researchers, forming hypotheses comes after developing one’s research question. We’ll discuss hypotheses in Chapter 5 “Research Design” . Here our focus is just on identifying a topic and a question. So what makes a good research question? First, it is generally written in the form of a question. To say that your research question is “child-free adults” or “students’ knowledge about current events” or “movies” would not be correct. You need to frame a question about the topic that you wish to study. A good research question is also one that is well focused. Writing a well-focused question isn’t really all that different from what the paparazzi do regularly. As a sociologist you need to be as clear and focused as those photographers who stalk Britney Spears to get that perfect shot of her while she waits in line at Starbucks. OK, maybe what we do as sociologists isn’t exactly the same, but think about how the paparazzi get paid. They must take clear, focused photographs in order to get paid for what they do. Likewise, we will not hit the sociological jackpot of having our research published, read, or respected by our peers if we are not clear and focused. I’ll say a little more about this after we consider three more features of good research questions.

In addition to being written in the form of a question and being well focused, a good research question is one that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. For example, if your interest is in gender norms, you could ask, “Does gender affect a person’s shaving habits?” but you will have nothing left to say once you discover your yes or no answer. Instead, why not ask, “ How or to what extent does gender affect a person’s feelings about body hair?” By tweaking your question in this small way, you suddenly have a much more fascinating question and more to say as you attempt to answer it.

A good research question should also have more than one plausible answer. The student who studied the relationship between gender and body hair preferences had a specific interest in the impact of gender, but she also knew that preferences might vary on other dimensions. For example, she knew from her own experience that her more politically conservative friends were more likely to shave every day and more likely to only date other regular shavers. Thinking through the possible relationships between gender, politics, and shaving led that student to realize that there were many plausible answers to her questions about how gender affects a person’s feelings about body hair. Because gender doesn’t exist in a vacuum she, wisely, felt that she needed to take into account other characteristics that work together with gender to shape people’s behaviors, likes, and dislikes. By doing this, the student took into account the third feature of a good research question: She considered relationships between several concepts. While she began with an interest in a single concept—body hair—by asking herself what other concepts (such as gender or political orientation) might be related to her original interest, she was able to form a question that considered the relationships among those concepts.

In sum, a good research question generally has the following features:

• It is written in the form of a question.
• It is clearly focused.
• It is not a yes/no question.
• It has more than one plausible answer.
• It considers relationships among multiple concepts.

Sociologists as Paparazzi?

As noted earlier, there are some similarities between the goals of sociologists and those of the paparazzi. A few years ago, shortly before leaving on a trip to New Orleans, I received one of those letters that most of us professional sociologists both dread and receive on a pretty regular basis: a rejection letter. The letter informed me that the paper I had recently submitted, while timely and well written, was being rejected. Apparently the paper lacked focus. In particular, the research question around which the paper was organized was not well focused. As I began to think about how to better focus my research question, and why such focus was so important in the first place, I licked my wounds and boarded a plane to join couple of friends in the Big Easy.

When our taxi pulled up to our lodging in the French Quarter, we noticed the street was lined with cars—and with people who appeared to be living in those cars. On closer examination, we also noticed that most of the car dwellers had cameras, all with very long, wide lenses. Our taxi driver explained that they were paparazzi who were there because Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie were in town—and that their house was right next to the building where we’d be staying. As the titleholder to the world’s longest crush on Brad Pitt, I was, needless to say, giddy. If you’ve found yourself asking what any of this has to do with research methods, fear not, we’re getting there. But presumably there are others of you out there who, like me, won’t complain about a brief diversion so long as it involves Brad Pitt.

One of my friends was giddy too—but not for the same reason as me. She decided that she would try to pay for her trip by taking the perfect photograph of Brad and Angelina and selling it to the highest bidder. She reasoned that the paparazzi had chosen our street because it must be the best location to photograph the superstars and their kids. In fact, we did see Brangelina a few times. Now I respect every person’s right to privacy, be they my long-standing crush or anyone else. Thus each time we saw Brangelina and kids, I’d jump in front of the camera while my friend tried to snap the perfect shot. As a result, instead of focusing in on Brad and Angelina, her camera always focused on my head. Needless to say, my friend never got a shot worthy of selling to pay for her trip. She did, however, get several of shots of my gigantic melon (my mother didn’t call me pumpkin head for nothing), with Brad, Angelina, and the kids usually blurred in the background. Figure 4.6 “Blocking the Shot” shows one such shot; Figure 4.7 “The Least-Blurry Photo My Friend Was Able to Get” shows the least-blurry photo she was able to get thanks to my sabotage.

Figure 4.6 Blocking the Shot

Figure 4.7 The Least-Blurry Photo My Friend Was Able to Get

So why am I sharing this story and these terribly unflattering photos? The point is that as a sociological researcher, your job is like that of the paparazzi. Just as the paparazzi don’t get paid unless they point their camera in the right direction and focus in on their subjects in exactly the right way, you will not hit the sociological jackpot unless you aim your sociological lens in the right direction and clearly focus your research question. You could be the most eloquent writer in your class, or even in the world, but if the research question about which you are writing is unclear, your work will ultimately fall flat. As I learned right before my trip to New Orleans, a poorly focused research question trumps all. The good news is that much of this text is dedicated to learning how to write, and then answer, a good research question. We’ve done this throughout the text and will continue to do so by considering specific research questions that sociologists have successfully asked and answered in the past. We’ll also do some brainstorming about questions that are of interest to you and consider ways of framing different questions about the same topic by exploring the variety of methodologies that sociologists use to answer their research questions.

Some Specific Examples

Throughout this chapter, you have seen a number of examples of research questions, and you’ve read about features that distinguish good sociological research questions from not-so-good questions. Putting all this advice together, let’s take a look at a few more examples of possible sociological research questions and consider the relative strengths and weaknesses of each. Table 4.2 “Sample Sociological Research Questions: Strengths and Weaknesses” does just that. While reading the table, keep in mind that I have only noted what I view to be the most relevant strengths and weaknesses of each question. Certainly each question may have additional strengths and weaknesses not noted in the table. Also, it may interest you to know that the questions in Table 4.2 “Sample Sociological Research Questions: Strengths and Weaknesses” all come from undergraduate sociology student projects that I have either advised in the course of teaching sociological research methods or have become familiar with from sitting on undergraduate thesis committees. The work by thesis students is cited.

Table 4.2 Sample Sociological Research Questions: Strengths and Weaknesses

• Most strong sociological research questions have five key features: written in the form of a question, clearly focused, beyond yes/no, more than one plausible answer, and consider relationships among concepts.
• A poorly focused research question can lead to the demise of an otherwise well-executed study.
• Name a topic that interests you. Now keeping the features of a good research question in mind, come up with three possible research questions you could ask about that topic.
• Discuss your topic with a friend or with a peer in your class. Ask that person what sorts of questions come to mind when he or she thinks about the topic. Also ask that person for advice on how you might better focus one or all the possible research questions you came up with on your own.

4.5 Next Steps

• Identify the aspects of feasibility that shape a researcher’s ability to conduct research.
• Describe Sociological Abstracts.
• Discuss how and why abstracts might be useful at the early stages of a research project.

Now that you have thought about topics that interest you and you’ve learned how to frame those topics empirically, sociologically, and as questions, you have probably come up with a few potential research questions—questions to which you are dying to know the answers. However, even if you have identified the most brilliant research question ever, you are still not ready to begin conducting research. First, you’ll need to think about and come up with a plan for your research design, which you’ll learn more about in Chapter 5 “Research Design” . As you prepare to design a sociological research project, your next step is to think about the feasibility of your research question and to make a visit to your campus library.

Feasibility

We learned about ethics and the limits posed by institutional review boards (IRBs) and disciplinary codes in Chapter 3 “Research Ethics” . Beyond ethics, there are a few practical matters related to feasibility that all researchers should consider before beginning a research project. Are you interested in better understanding the day-to-day experiences of maximum security prisoners? This sounds fascinating, but unless you plan to commit a crime that lands you in a maximum security prison, chances are good that you will not be able to gain access to this population. Perhaps your interest is in the inner workings of toddler peer groups. If you’re much older than four or five, however, it might be tough for you to access even that sort of group. Your ideal research topic might require you to live on a chartered sailboat in the Bahamas for a few years, but unless you have unlimited funding, it will be difficult to make even that happen. The point, of course, is that while the topics about which sociological questions can be asked may seem limitless, there are limits to which aspects of topics we can study, or at least to the ways we can study them.

Assuming you can gain IRB approval to conduct research with the population that most interests you, do you know that that population will let you in? Researchers like Barrie Thorne (1993), Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. who study the behaviors of children, sometimes face this dilemma. In the course of her work, Professor Thorne has studied how children teach each other gender norms. She also studied how adults “gender” children, but here we’ll focus on just the former aspect of her work. Thorne had to figure out how to study the interactions of elementary school children when they probably would not accept her as one of their own. They were also unlikely to be able to read and complete a written questionnaire. Since she could not join them or ask them to read and write on a written questionnaire, Thorne’s solution was to watch the children. While this seems like a reasonable solution to the problem of not being able to actually enroll in elementary school herself, there is always the possibility that Thorne’s observations differed from what they might have been had she been able to actually join a class. What this means is that a researcher’s identity, in this case Thorne’s age, might sometimes limit (or enhance) her or his ability to study a topic in the way that he or she most wishes to study it. Think about Laud Humphreys’s research on the tearoom trade. Would he have been able to conduct this work if he had been a woman?

In addition to your personal or demographic characteristics that could shape what you are able to study or how you are able to study it, there are also the very practical matters of time and money. In terms of time, your personal time frame for conducting research may be the semester during which you are taking this class. Perhaps as an employee one day your employer will give you an even shorter timeline in which to conduct some research—or perhaps longer. How much time a researcher has to complete her or his work may depend on a number of factors and will certainly shape what sort of research that person is able to conduct. Money, as always, is also relevant. For example, your ability to conduct research while living on a chartered sailboat in the Bahamas may be hindered unless you have unlimited funds or win the lottery. And if you wish to conduct survey research, you may have to think about the fact that mailing paper surveys costs not only time but money—from printing them to paying for the postage required to mail them. Interviewing people face to face may require that you offer your research participants a cup of coffee or glass of lemonade while you speak with them. And someone has to pay for the drinks.

In sum, feasibility is always a factor when deciding what, where, when, and how to conduct research. Aspects of your own identity may play a role in determining what you can and cannot investigate, as will the availability of resources such as time and money.

Field Trip: Visit Your Library

Library research, typically one of the early stops along the way to conducting original research, is also an excellent next step as you begin your project. While it is common to brainstorm about topics first, examining the literature will help you hone your specific research question and design. We’ll talk more about reading, evaluating, and summarizing the literature in Chapter 5 “Research Design” , but at this early stage it is a good idea to familiarize yourself with the resources your library has to offer. This will help you learn what sorts of questions other sociologists have asked about an area that interests you.

One of the drawbacks (or joys, depending on your perspective) of being a researcher in the 21st century is that we can do much of our work without ever leaving the comfort of our recliners. This is certainly true of familiarizing yourself with the literature. Most libraries offer incredible online search options, including access to Sociological Abstracts, a database that summarizes published articles in most all, but especially the most prestigious, sociology journals. Now is the time to play around with Sociological Abstracts. You can learn more from your professor or librarian about how to access Sociological Abstracts from your particular campus. Once you’ve done so, take a look. Using a keyword search, find a few articles that cover topics similar to those that interest you. At this stage, simply reading an article’s title and abstract (the short paragraph at the top of every article) will give you an idea about how sociologists frame questions about topics that are of interest to you. Hopefully, this in turn will give you some ideas about how you might phrase your research question.

Beyond searching the online resources, go visit your library, scan the shelves, and take a look at the most recent sociology journals the library has on display in its periodicals section. Walk through the social science stacks and peruse the books published by sociologists. This is where you’re likely to find the most fascinating monographs reporting findings from sociologists’ adventures in the field. Introduce yourself to the reference librarian. Being on her or his good side will serve you well as you begin your research project. Your reference librarian may also be able to recommend databases in addition to Sociological Abstracts that will introduce you to published social scientific research on your topic (e.g., Criminal Justice Abstracts, Family and Society Studies Worldwide, Social Services Abstracts, and Women’s Studies International).

Once you have had a chance to peruse the online resources available to you and to check out your library in person, you should be ready to begin thinking about actually designing a research project. We consider the stages of research design in Chapter 5 “Research Design” .

• When thinking about the feasibility of their research questions, researchers should consider their own identities and characteristics along with any potential constraints related to time and money.
• Becoming familiar with your library and the resources it has to offer is an excellent way to prepare yourself for successfully conducting research.
• Perusing the abstracts of published scholarly work in your area of interest is an excellent way to familiarize yourself with the sorts of questions sociologists have asked about your topic.
• Take yourself on a field trip to your campus library. Find out where the journals are kept and page through a couple of the most recent issues of sociology journals, such as American Sociological Review , Social Problems , Sociological Inquiry , Gender & Society , or Criminology , to name a few. Introduce yourself to your reference librarian and ask her or his advice on where to get started in searching for published articles on your topic. Walk through the stacks containing sociology monographs. Page through a few that interest you.
• Log into Sociological Abstracts or whatever other database your library offers that indexes social scientific publications (you can ask your librarian for help). Search for articles on your topic of interest. Read the abstracts of a few of those articles and see if you can identify the research question being answered in each article.
• Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods. Provided by : Saylor Academy. Located at : https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_principles-of-sociological-inquiry-qualitative-and-quantitative-methods/ . License : CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

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6.1: Populations Versus Samples

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Learning Objectives

• Understand the difference between populations and samples.

Who or What?

When I teach research methods, my students are sometimes disheartened to discover that the research projects they complete during the course will not make it possible for them to make sweeping claims about “all” of whomever it is that they’re interested in studying. What they fail to realize, however, is that they are not alone. One of the most surprising and frustrating lessons research methods students learn is that there is a difference between one’s population of interest and one’s study sample. While there are certainly exceptions, more often than not a researcher’s population and her or his sample are not the same.

In social scientific research, a population is the cluster of people, events, things, or other phenomena that you are most interested in; it is often the “who” or “what” that you want to be able to say something about at the end of your study. Populations in research may be rather large, such as “the American people,” but they are more typically a little less vague than that. For example, a large study for which the population of interest really is the American people will likely specify which American people, such as adults over the age of 18 or citizens or legal residents. A sample , on the other hand, is the cluster of people or events, for example, from or about which you will actually gather data. Some sampling strategies allow researchers to make claims about populations that are much larger than their actually sample with a fair amount of confidence. Other sampling strategies are designed to allow researchers to make theoretical contributions rather than to make sweeping claims about large populations. We’ll discuss both types of strategies later in this chapter.

It is quite rare for a researcher to gather data from their entire population of interest. This might sound surprising or disappointing until you think about the kinds of research questions that sociologists typically ask. For example, let’s say we wish to answer the following research question: “How do men’s and women’s college experiences differ, and how are they similar?” Would you expect to be able to collect data from all college students across all nations from all historical time periods? Unless you plan to make answering this research question your entire life’s work (and then some), I’m guessing your answer is a resounding no way. So what to do? Does not having the time or resources to gather data from every single person of interest mean having to give up your research interest? Absolutely not. It just means having to make some hard choices about sampling, and then being honest with yourself and your readers about the limitations of your study based on the sample from whom you were able to actually collect data.

Sampling is the process of selecting observations that will be analyzed for research purposes. Both qualitative and quantitative researchers use sampling techniques to help them identify the what or whom from which they will collect their observations. Because the goals of qualitative and quantitative research differ, however, so, too, do the sampling procedures of the researchers employing these methods. We will explore different sampling methods in the next sections.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• A population is the group that is the main focus of a researcher’s interest; a sample is the group from whom the researcher actually collects data.
• Populations and samples might be one and the same, but more often they are not.
• Sampling involves selecting the observations that you will analyze.
• Read through the methods section of a couple of scholarly articles describing empirical research. How do the authors talk about their populations and samples, if at all? What do the articles’ abstracts suggest in terms of whom conclusions are being drawn about?
• Think of a research project you have envisioned conducting as you’ve read this text. Would your population and sample be one and the same, or would they differ somehow? Explain.

Social Surveys: Questionnaires, Interviews, and Telephone Polls

A brief overview of three types of survey methods

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Surveys are valuable research tools within sociology and are commonly used by social scientists for a wide variety of research projects. They are especially useful because they enable researchers to collect data on a mass scale, and to use that data to conduct statistical analyses that reveal conclusive results about how the variety of variables measured interact.

The three most common forms of survey research are the questionnaire, interview, and telephone poll 

Questionnaires

Questionnaires, or printed or digital surveys , are useful because they can be distributed to many people, which means they allow for a large and randomized sample — the hallmark of valid and trustworthy empirical research. Prior to the twenty-first century, it was common for questionnaires to be distributed through the mail. While some organizations and researchers still do this, today, most opt for digital web-based questionnaires. Doing so requires fewer resources and time, and streamlines the data collection and analysis processes.

However they are conducted, a commonality among questionnaires is that they feature a set list of questions for participants to respond to by selecting from a set of provided answers. These are closed-ended questions paired with fixed categories of response.

While such questionnaires are useful because they allow for a large sample of participants to be reached at low cost and with minimal effort, and they yield clean data ready for analysis, there are also drawbacks to this survey method. In some cases, a respondent may not believe that any of the offered responses accurately represents their views or experiences, which may lead them to not answer or to select an answer that is inaccurate. Also, questionnaires can typically only be used with people who have a registered mailing address, or an email account and access to the internet, so this means that segments of the population without these cannot be studied with this method.

While interviews and questionnaires share the same approach by asking respondents a set of structured questions, they differ in that interviews allow researchers to ask open-ended questions that create more in-depth and nuanced data sets than those afforded by questionnaires. Another key difference between the two is that interviews involve social interaction between the researcher and the participants because they are either conducted in person or over the phone. Sometimes, researchers combine questionnaires and interviews in the same research project by following up some questionnaire responses with more in-depth interview questions.

While interviews offer these advantages, they too can have their drawbacks. Because they are based on social interaction between researcher and participant, interviews require a fair degree of trust, especially regarding sensitive subjects, and sometimes this can be difficult to achieve. Further, differences of race, class, gender, sexuality, and culture between researcher and participant can complicate the research collection process. However, social scientists are trained to anticipate these kinds of problems and to deal with them when they arise, so interviews are a common and successful survey research method.

Telephone Polls

A telephone poll is a questionnaire that is done over the telephone. The response categories are typically pre-defined (closed-ended) with little opportunity for respondents to elaborate their responses. Telephone polls can be very costly and time-consuming, and since the introduction of the Do Not Call Registry, telephone polls have become harder to conduct. Many times respondents are not open to taking these phone calls and hang up before responding to any questions. Telephone polls are used often during political campaigns or to get consumer opinions about a product or service.

Updated by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

• Pilot Study in Research
• Data Sources For Sociological Research
• The Differences Between Indexes and Scales
• The Different Types of Sampling Designs in Sociology
• How to Conduct a Sociology Research Interview
• 3 Surveys for Student Feedback to Improve Instruction
• Constructing a Questionnaire
• Abstract Writing for Sociology
• Teacher Interview Questions and Suggested Answers
• Cluster Sample in Sociology Research
• What Is Statistical Sampling?
• Tips on Conducting an Interview
• 15 Surveys for 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Graders to Practice Graphing
• An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods
• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• Correlation Analysis in Research