research topics on performance management

Performance Management Research Paper Topics

Performance management research paper topics are an area of academic inquiry that delves into the methods, strategies, and challenges involved in the evaluation, motivation, and enhancement of employee performance within an organizational context. This field is multifaceted and intersects with various disciplines such as human resources, organizational behavior, psychology, and leadership studies. This page aims to provide an exhaustive list of research paper topics in performance management, divided into ten distinct categories. Additionally, it includes a comprehensive article elucidating performance management principles and the breadth of research paper topics it encompasses. Guidance on how to choose and write a research paper in this field is also provided, along with an overview of iResearchNet’s custom writing services, offering expert assistance for those in need of tailored support for their academic endeavors in performance management.

100 Performance Management Research Paper Topics

The field of performance management is a dynamic and expansive area that bridges various domains such as human resources, organizational behavior, leadership, and technology. The study of performance management helps in understanding the strategies, tools, and methodologies used to assess, enhance, and sustain employee performance within an organization. This comprehensive list of performance management research paper topics is organized into ten distinct categories, each focusing on different aspects of performance management. These topics can serve as a starting point for students, researchers, and practitioners to explore new avenues and contribute to this growing field.

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• Designing Effective Performance Appraisal Systems
• Biases in Performance Evaluation
• 360-Degree Feedback Mechanisms
• The Role of Self-Assessment in Performance Evaluation
• Peer Evaluation and Team Performance
• Integrating Technology in Performance Appraisals
• Legal and Ethical Considerations in Appraisals
• Aligning Performance Appraisal with Organizational Goals
• Continuous versus Annual Performance Reviews
• The Relationship between Appraisal and Employee Motivation
• Aligning Performance Management with Organizational Strategy
• Role of Leadership in Performance Management
• Performance Management in Non-Profit Organizations
• Integrating KPIs within Performance Management Strategy
• Role of Organizational Culture in Performance Management
• Global Performance Management Strategies
• Implementing Balanced Scorecard Approach
• Managing Performance in Virtual Teams
• The Impact of Mergers and Acquisitions on Performance Management
• Performance Management in Family-Owned Businesses
• Identifying and Fostering High-Potential Employees
• Career Development and Performance Management
• Performance Management for Remote Workers
• The Role of Mentoring in Employee Development
• Individual Development Plans and Performance
• Employee Empowerment and Performance Management
• Customized Training Programs and Performance Enhancement
• Integrating Soft Skills Development in Performance Management
• Cross-Functional Training and Performance
• Managing Underperformance and Performance Improvement Plans
• AI and Machine Learning in Performance Management
• Utilizing Big Data in Performance Analysis
• Mobile Technologies for Continuous Performance Management
• Integrating HRIS Systems for Performance Tracking
• Privacy and Security Concerns in Performance Management Technology
• Automation and Performance Management
• The Impact of Social Media on Performance Management
• Cloud-Based Performance Management Solutions
• Virtual Reality Training and Performance Enhancement
• Technology Adoption and Change Management in Performance Systems
• Transformational Leadership and Performance
• The Role of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Performance
• Authentic Leadership and Employee Performance
• Ethical Leadership and Performance Management
• Coaching Leadership and Performance Enhancement
• Gender Differences in Leadership and Performance
• Leadership Styles and Organizational Performance
• Developing Leadership Talent within an Organization
• Cross-Cultural Leadership and Global Performance Management
• Succession Planning and Leadership Performance
• Performance Management in Healthcare
• Educational Institutions and Performance Management
• Performance Management in the Public Sector
• Performance Management in Manufacturing Industries
• Hospitality Industry and Performance Management
• Performance Management in Start-ups
• Retail Sector and Performance Metrics
• Performance Management in the Gig Economy
• Outsourcing and Performance Management
• Performance Metrics in the Entertainment Industry
• Ethical Considerations in Performance Appraisal
• Whistleblowing and Organizational Performance
• Managing Ethical Dilemmas in Performance Management
• Sustainability and Performance Management
• Corporate Social Responsibility and Performance Metrics
• Ethical Leadership and Organizational Performance
• Integrating Ethics into Organizational Performance Culture
• Transparency and Fairness in Performance Evaluation
• Ethical Treatment of Underperforming Employees
• Social Ethics and Performance Management in Multinational Corporations
• Building High-Performance Teams
• Team Dynamics and Performance Metrics
• Conflict Management within Teams
• Cross-Functional Team Performance Management
• Virtual Team Performance Metrics
• Team Diversity and Performance
• Agile Teams and Performance Management
• Measuring Team Creativity and Innovation
• Team Collaboration Tools and Performance
• Rewards and Recognition in Team Performance
• Global Performance Standards and Metrics
• Cross-Cultural Performance Management
• Performance Management in Multinational Corporations
• Managing Expatriate Performance
• Global Talent Management and Performance
• Local vs. Global Performance Appraisal Methods
• Cultural Intelligence and Performance Management
• Managing Performance in Global Virtual Teams
• Performance Management Challenges in Emerging Markets
• Global Leadership and Performance Management
• Emerging Trends and Challenges in Performance Management
• Performance Management in the Post-COVID World
• The Role of Well-being and Mental Health in Performance
• Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Performance Management
• Integrating Millennials and Gen Z into Performance Culture
• Resilience and Agility in Performance Management
• The Future of Performance Management with AI
• Gamification and Employee Performance
• Gig Economy and Performance Management Challenges
• Remote Work and Performance Management Post-COVID
• Sustainability and Green Performance Metrics

The exploration of performance management research paper topics is an ongoing journey that reflects the evolving nature of organizations and the workforce. These topics offer a rich array of research opportunities that cater to different interests, backgrounds, and expertise levels. The multifaceted nature of performance management ensures its relevance and applicability across various sectors and geographical contexts. It is hoped that this comprehensive list of topics will inspire new insights, stimulate creativity, and contribute to the ongoing discourse in this vital area of management studies. Whether a novice researcher or an established scholar, there is a plethora of avenues to explore within the domain of performance management that can lead to meaningful contributions to both theory and practice.

Performance Management and the Range of Research Paper Topics

Introduction to performance management.

Performance Management is a continuous, dynamic process that aims to enhance organizational efficiency by aligning individual performance with organizational goals and values. It’s not just about assessing employee performance but also about understanding, managing, and optimizing that performance to achieve strategic objectives. It involves setting clear goals, continuously monitoring and evaluating performance, providing feedback, developing employee skills, and fostering a positive work environment.

This article will explore the intricate world of performance management, discussing key principles, concepts, and the extensive range of research paper topics it offers. From the traditional methods of performance appraisal to the contemporary integration of technology and ethics in managing performance, this field is rich with potential for exploration and innovation.

Key Principles and Concepts

• Alignment with Organizational Goals: One of the primary purposes of performance management is to ensure that individual and team goals are in harmony with the overall objectives of the organization.
• Continuous Monitoring and Feedback: Performance management is not a one-time event but a continuous process. Regular feedback helps employees understand their areas of strength and opportunities for improvement.
• Employee Development: Performance management plays a crucial role in identifying the training and development needs of employees. It allows for personalized development plans that help employees grow within the organization.
• Motivation and Engagement: By recognizing and rewarding outstanding performance, and by providing support and guidance where needed, performance management can significantly enhance employee motivation and engagement.
• Fair and Transparent Evaluation: Ethical considerations, including fairness, transparency, and consistency, must be upheld in performance evaluations to ensure trust and credibility in the system.
• Integration of Technology: The use of technology, such as AI and big data analytics, is transforming the ways in which performance is monitored and analyzed, offering more accurate and real-time insights.

Range and Depth of Research Paper Topics

Performance management is a multifaceted field that offers an extensive array of research topics. Here’s a glimpse into some areas:

• Performance Appraisal and Evaluation: This area explores various methods, tools, and approaches used in evaluating employee performance. It may include studies on biases in evaluation, legal aspects, 360-degree feedback, etc.
• Technology and Performance Management: How is technology transforming performance management? Research topics here could include the use of AI in performance analysis, privacy concerns in using technology, and the effectiveness of virtual reality training.
• Leadership and Performance Management: The role of leadership in shaping and driving performance within an organization is paramount. Topics in this area might include transformational leadership, ethical leadership, and the impact of different leadership styles on performance.
• Ethics and Performance Management: Ethics in performance management ensures that evaluations and processes are conducted with integrity and fairness. This might involve research into ethical dilemmas, corporate social responsibility, and transparency in performance evaluation.
• Performance Management in Different Sectors: Performance management practices can differ widely across sectors such as healthcare, education, manufacturing, and public administration. Studies can explore the unique challenges and solutions within these sectors.
• Emerging Trends and Challenges: The field of performance management is continually evolving. Topics in this category might include performance management in the gig economy, integration of mental health considerations, and post-COVID changes in performance management.

Performance management is an integral aspect of modern organizational life. It transcends mere evaluation, encompassing a wide range of practices aimed at maximizing both individual and organizational performance. Its complexity and dynamism offer rich opportunities for scholarly research across a multitude of areas.

The range of research paper topics in performance management reflects the breadth and depth of this field. Whether examining the role of leadership, the impact of technology, ethical considerations, or sector-specific challenges, there is a vast landscape to explore and contribute to.

Understanding performance management is not only vital for business leaders and HR professionals but also offers a compelling and wide-ranging field of study for academics and students alike. The diversity of topics and the continuous evolution of practices ensure that performance management will remain a vibrant and essential area of study and application in the foreseeable future.

How to Choose Performance Management Research Paper Topics

The selection of a research paper topic is not just a random choice; it is the foundational step in the research process that can define the success of the entire project. When it comes to performance management—a field that is multifaceted and ever-changing—choosing a relevant and engaging topic can be both exciting and challenging. Below, you’ll find guidance on how to select a topic in the area of performance management that resonates with your interests, aligns with academic requirements, and contributes to the body of knowledge in this field.

1. Understand Your Interest and Passion:

• Identify what aspect of performance management genuinely interests you.
• Consider what themes, theories, or practices you are eager to explore.
• Reflect on personal experiences or observations that might inspire a specific focus.

2. Consider the Scope and Relevance:

• Evaluate if the topic is broad enough to explore in detail but narrow enough to handle within the constraints of your paper.
• Ensure that the topic is relevant to your field of study and current trends in performance management.

3. Assess Available Resources and Feasibility:

• Consider whether sufficient resources, data, and literature are available for your chosen topic.
• Assess if the research can be conducted within the given timeframe and with the resources at your disposal.

4. Align with Academic and Career Goals:

• Choose a topic that aligns with your academic goals and contributes to your future career.
• Think about how this research might fit into your broader educational or professional trajectory.

5. Check for Originality and Contribution:

• Seek topics that offer a new perspective, approach, or insight into performance management.
• Consider how your research might fill gaps in existing literature or contribute to the field.

6. Seek Guidance from Faculty or Professionals:

• Consult with professors, advisors, or professionals in the field to get insights and recommendations.
• Use their expertise to refine your topic and ensure it is academically sound.

7. Review Existing Literature:

• Conduct a preliminary literature review to understand what has already been studied.
• Identify areas that need further exploration or where you can offer a fresh perspective.

8. Consider Ethical Implications:

• Ensure that the chosen topic complies with ethical standards, especially if it involves human subjects.
• Consider the societal implications and responsibilities tied to your research.

9. Reflect on Practical Applications:

• Think about how your research might have real-world applications or implications.
• Consider the potential impact of your findings on organizational practices or policies.

10. Validate with a Research Proposal:

• Create a brief research proposal outlining your topic, research questions, and methodology.
• Use this proposal to validate the feasibility and relevance of the topic with peers or faculty.

Choosing a research paper topic in the domain of performance management is an intricate task that demands careful consideration and thoughtful planning. By understanding your interests, evaluating the scope, ensuring originality, and aligning with both academic and real-world relevance, you can select a topic that not only fulfills academic requirements but also contributes to the broader discourse in performance management. Whether you are exploring technological innovations, ethical dilemmas, leadership influences, or sector-specific challenges, the key lies in choosing a topic that resonates with you and adds value to this multifaceted field. These tips serve as a roadmap to guide you through this critical phase of your research journey, ensuring that the topic you select is engaging, achievable, and impactful.

How to Write a Performance Management Research Paper

Writing a research paper on performance management requires more than just a basic understanding of the subject. It demands a structured approach, thoughtful analysis, critical thinking, and adherence to academic standards. Performance management, being a multifaceted field that covers various aspects like employee evaluation, performance metrics, leadership strategies, organizational behavior, and technological advancements, offers a rich landscape for scholarly investigation. This section provides comprehensive guidance on how to craft a research paper in this domain, from the initial stages of idea formulation to the final draft, ensuring academic rigor and relevance.

1. Identify Your Research Focus and Questions:

• Define the Problem: Clearly state the problem or issue you plan to investigate within performance management.
• Develop Research Questions: Formulate specific research questions that guide your investigation, focusing on ‘what’, ‘how’, and ‘why’ aspects.
• Set Objectives: Outline the aims and objectives of your research, providing direction and purpose.

2. Conduct an Extensive Literature Review:

• Search Reputable Sources: Utilize academic databases to find peer-reviewed articles, books, and journals related to your topic.
• Analyze Previous Studies: Evaluate existing research to identify gaps, controversies, trends, and key theories in performance management.
• Synthesize Findings: Provide an organized summary of the existing literature, highlighting the relevance to your research.

3. Develop a Research Methodology:

• Choose the Research Design: Decide whether to conduct qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods research based on your questions and objectives.
• Select Tools and Techniques: Determine the appropriate data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments.
• Ensure Ethical Compliance: Follow ethical guidelines, especially if your research involves human subjects.

4. Collect and Analyze Data:

• Gather Relevant Data: Use systematic techniques to collect data that directly answers your research questions.
• Analyze Data Thoroughly: Apply statistical or thematic analysis to interpret the data, looking for patterns, relationships, or insights.
• Ensure Accuracy: Validate the findings by cross-referencing with the literature or using triangulation.

5. Construct a Strong Thesis Statement:

• Define Your Argument: Develop a clear, concise thesis statement that encapsulates the main argument or insight of your paper.
• Position Your Thesis: Place the thesis at the end of the introduction, ensuring it aligns with the research focus and questions.

6. Organize the Paper Effectively:

• Create an Outline: Develop a logical structure, including introduction, methodology, findings, discussion, conclusion, and references.
• Use Subheadings: Divide the content into coherent sections with subheadings, facilitating readability.
• Incorporate Visuals: Use charts, graphs, or tables if they enhance understanding.

7. Write with Clarity and Precision:

• Use Formal Language: Maintain an academic tone, avoiding colloquial expressions or jargon.
• Be Concise: Express ideas clearly and succinctly, avoiding unnecessary complexity.
• Maintain Coherence: Ensure that sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly, supporting the overall argument.

8. Cite Sources Properly:

• Follow Citation Style: Adhere to a specific citation style (APA, MLA, etc.), maintaining consistency throughout.
• Give Proper Credit: Cite all sources accurately to avoid plagiarism and to lend credibility to your argument.

9. Revise and Edit:

• Review for Content: Check that the content aligns with the research focus and that arguments are well-supported.
• Edit for Grammar and Style: Look for grammatical errors, typos, and stylistic inconsistencies.
• Seek Peer Review: Consider getting feedback from peers or faculty to ensure objectivity and quality.

10. Consider Practical Implications:

• Discuss Real-world Relevance: Highlight how your findings can be applied in practical settings or contribute to the field of performance management.
• Make Recommendations: Provide actionable recommendations or suggestions for further research.

Crafting a research paper on performance management is an intellectually stimulating and academically rewarding process. It requires careful planning, in-depth research, critical thinking, and meticulous writing. By following these ten detailed tips, aspiring researchers can navigate the complexities of the subject matter, producing a paper that not only meets academic standards but also contributes valuable insights to the field of performance management. Whether investigating leadership effectiveness, employee motivation, performance metrics, or technological interventions, the key lies in a methodical approach, intellectual curiosity, and scholarly integrity. This guide serves as a comprehensive resource to aid students in this academic endeavor, fostering excellence in research, writing, and practical application.

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• Custom Written Works: Every research paper at iResearchNet is crafted from scratch, based on the unique requirements, topic, and academic level of the student. We pride ourselves on delivering original and plagiarism-free work, reflecting your individual perspective, insights, and voice, making each paper truly unique.
• In-Depth Research: Our writers conduct comprehensive research using credible and up-to-date sources to support your thesis and arguments. By integrating the latest trends, findings, and methodologies in performance management, we ensure that your paper stands out for its depth of analysis and relevance to current industry practices.
• Custom Formatting: Adherence to specific formatting styles is paramount in academic writing. We meticulously follow the formatting guidelines prescribed by your institution, whether it’s APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, or Harvard style. Every citation, reference, and structural element is carefully aligned with the required standards.
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90 Performance Management Research Topics

🏆 best essay topics on performance management, 👍 good performance management research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting performance management research titles, ❓ research questions on performance management.

• Amazon Approach to Management and Performance Evaluation
• The Amazon Company’s Performance Management
• Performance Appraisal and Human Resource Management
• Performance Management and Strategic Planning
• TD Canada Trust Bank’s Performance Management
• Hotel Management: Performance Improvement Plan
• Google Inc.’s Performance Management System
• Leadership, Management Style and Organizational Performance The focus on globalization and multiculturalism has emphasised the importance of understanding Organizational productivity and team effectiveness.
• Nike Company’s Performance Management & Logistics The conceptualization of Nike as a company dates back to the year 1962 when its founders, Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight.
• Performance Management and Appraisal Systems The performance management process is important. During it the HR team works together with other members of the company towards achieving organizational goals.
• Portfolio Management: Stock Selection and Portfolio Performance The paper covers the performance of the portfolio, stock selection criteria, each stock performance, and the returns of the portfolio for the period.
• Metrics and Performance Measurement in Operations Management Metrics is indeed a powerful management tool in aligning company strategies and objectives and ensuring people are working towards a common direction.
• Human Resource Management and Performance of the Organization The success of the company relies on the proper management of its people because the workforce of a company is the major factor that runs the business.
• Employee Performance Management System In human resource management, it is important to ensure that employees are motivated and satisfied with their work. It can achieve by carrying out employee performance management.
• Performance in Safety Management Systems (SMS) The study will collect data on improvement patterns of SMS regulations and technologies as two qualitative independent variables and risk factors.
• Performance Management in Business Performance has now been integrated into the quality management system of the organization. Effective performance measurement influences efficacy of the use of information.
• Informative Speech On Business Performance Management In the troubled days of economic crisis and recession the only way companies have to survive economic uncertainty is by making good use of business “performance management”.
• Why Performance Management Appraisals Fail Performance management appraisal may fail due to judgment by top management and the supervisors. The top management and supervisors sometimes experience errors.
• Information Systems and Project Management Performance The authors assert that requirements instability and requirements diversity are related to stakeholder perception gaps and this can be tied in with project performance.
• Performance Management and KPIs in a Management Measurement System Performance management is a dynamic process that requires timely reports so that procedures are drawn to guarantee that corporate goals are achieved.
• Performance Management Issues of the Organization There is a significant relationship between compensation and performance management. This is because compensation can be a way of performance management.
• Strategic Human Resource Management and Performance For successful performance, human resource managers have to ensure that they recruit employees with potential and possess qualifications that will enable them to create value.
• Performance Management System: Role and Advantages Performance management systems play an important role in the achievement of organisational goals, mission, and vision
• Performance Management Issues: Types and Factors Performance management aims to ensure the effectiveness and growth of the organization through the definition of strategic objectives and management activities.
• Options Consulting Solutions Company’s Performance Management Options Consulting Solutions is a recruiting firm headquartered in Toronto, Ontario. The firm was started more than two decades ago.
• Management: Effective Teamwork Role for Organizations Performance Groups usually pass several important stages: forming, storming, norming, and performing. Depending on the stage, teams and groups demonstrate unique organizational features.
• Performance Management System: Personal Experience Managers collect the data systematically based on each department’s performance. In other words, the performance is measured by the results.
• Strategic Performance Management Plan for a Sales Manager The paper creates a strategic performance plan for the Dialogue Direct and recognizes the attributes that will be rated regarding the position of the sales manager.
• Negative Performance Management Managers should possess strong planning and problem-solving skills to establish clear goals and strategies to achieve goals on time without losing quality.
• Performance Management and Working Relationships Performance management is an area of execution, and benefits may not be obvious at the project planning stage.
• Quality Management and Performance Improvement in Healthcare There are a number of healthcare quality issues affecting the performance improvement of various caregiving centers.
• Performance Management System in Healthcare The Joint Commission enhances the level of the healthcare services provided to the public. The entity ensures that hospitals have a good performance management system.
• Importance of Performance Management in Organizations The paper explores the concept of benefits management at the organization plumbing supply company in Olean, New York.
• Balanced Scorecard: Performance Management Tool This essay presents an assessment of a balanced scorecard used by an organization in a real estate business environment.
• Business Intelligence and Performance Management Business Intelligence encompasses software tools for querying, reporting and analysing. It may be summarised as the processes and tools that turn data into information.
• Organizational Management and Performance: Inter-Organizational Relationships Organization as a system entails that there must be inputs which are to be processed in order to give an output. This output is optimal goal the organization strives to accomplish
• Earned Value Performance Management for Projects In the earned value management system, the project performance is measured by taking into account the actual cost spent for the baseline plan.
• Performance Management: Aspects and the Levels Performance management is a cyclical process that is usually aimed at improving the performance of either under performing group, individuals, to further improve good performers.
• Performance Management: Term Definition Performance management is assessing the process of achieving goals and objectives to unsure that it is successful through communication and taking the right action.
• Management: Performance Measurement in Organizations Performance measurement is vital in all organizations because the organizations need to verify the validity of the selection methods and to improve the productivity.
• Performance Management: Employee Performance Documentation Organizations that succeed in effective documentation of employee performance can feel secure in the current economic realities.
• Performance Management and Appraisal Plan The Office of Human Resources presents a Management by Objectives (MBO) performance appraisal plan and process that will be implemented in the next month.
• Management Functions for Better Company Performance Managing an organization is not easy when one has to the role of a leader, the role of a manager, and the role of an HRM specialist.
• New Employee’s Success and Performance Management Once a new employee is selected, strategies of how best to maximize employee success on the new job should be put in place.
• Performance Management: Warehouse Performance Measurement The analysis of the costs taken by the organization can be viewed as the first step towards identifying the changes in the warehouse business performance.
• Issues Concerning the Use of Social and Environmental Indicators for Performance Management
• Performance Management and Performance Measurement in the Education Sector
• The Relationship Between Performance Management and Organizational Goals
• Effective Performance Management With the Balanced
• Major Constraints and Possible Solutions for Performance Management in Korea
• Performance Management and Key Performance Indicators for Higher Education Institutions in Serbia
• Differences Between Cost-effectiveness and Performance Management
• Performance Management Strategy and Broader Issues of Organizations
• Linking Performance Management Strategy To Corporate Management Strategy
• Relationship Between Hrm and Organisational Performance Management
• Effective Leadership Practices Can Lead to High-Performance Management
• The Difference Between Performance Management and Performance Appraisal
• Performance Management Practices, Employee Attitudes, and Managed Performance
• Factors Influencing Software Team Performance Management
• Power and Performance Management of GPUs Based Cluster
• Strategic Performance Management and Creative Industry
• Global Performance Management Systems: The Role of Trust as Perceived by Country Managers
• Effective Team and Performance Management
• Developing High Performance: Performance Management in the Australian Public Service
• Performance Management and Incentive Plan Design
• Does the Company Size Affect Performance Management System?
• Why Is Strategic Performance Management Important?
• How Is Performance Management Related to Learning and Development?
• What Are the Benefits of Performance Management?
• How Are Performance Management Systems Used for Dual Purposes?
• Why Is Team Performance Management Important?
• Can Performance Management Improve the Skills of an Individual?
• What Is the Impact of Performance Management on Employees?
• How Has Sainsbury’s Used Performance Management to Increase Their Quality of Service?
• What Can Performance Management Offer to Learning and Development Practice Within an Organization?
• How Does Performance Management Help Employees to Learn?
• What’s the Purpose of Performance Management?
• Why Are Learning and Development Important for Performance Management?
• How Does Performance Management Encourage Employee Development?
• What Are the Primary Objectives of Performance Management?
• How Can Performance Management Improve Productivity?
• Why Should HR Connect Performance Management and Learning?
• What Is an Effective Performance Management System?
• How Does Performance Management Work in an Educational Institution?
• What Are the Possible Outcomes From Effective Performance Management?
• How Does Performance Management Contribute to the Output of an Organization?
• What Is the Main Feature of Performance Management?
• How Does Performance Management Add Value?
• What Is the Difference Between Performance Management and Performance Appraisals?
• Why Is Performance Management Important in Training and Development?

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These essay examples and topics on Performance Management were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on December 28, 2023 .

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Performance Management

The invisible barriers holding top talent back.

New research shows that learning about hidden workplace inequities can shift perceptions of fair employment practices.

Alyssa Tedder-King and Elad N. Sherf

Return-to-office mandates: how to lose your best performers.

Executives should be focusing on employee outcomes and accountability rather than performative in-office appearances.

Brian Elliott

Technology implementation, how tech fails late-career workers.

Age-related cognitive changes can hinder workers’ technology use, but these strategies can help managers support them.

Stefan Tams

What we’re still getting wrong about performance management.

Measuring and improving employee performance are different tasks most effectively addressed by two separate processes.

Amy Leschke-Kahle

Skills & learning, the why, what, and how of skills-based talent practices.

A presenter at an MIT SMR symposium answers questions about using skills, not degrees, as the benchmark for hiring.

Beth Berwick

Thriving in the new world of work.

A presenter from MIT SMR ’s Work/23 symposium answers questions about resilience and self-efficacy.

Gabriella Rosen Kellerman

Talent management, dismantle career roadblocks for more equitable outcomes.

A presenter at an MIT SMR symposium answers questions on how gender, age, and race can affect career advancement.

Haig R. Nalbantian

How robots can enhance performance management for humans.

Researchers describe how having robots work alongside humans can help companies measure performance more accurately.

Bryan Hong and Lynn Wu

Flexible and effective: leadership strategies for the hybrid workplace.

Brian Elliott, a presenter at MIT SMR ’s Work/23 symposium, answers questions about going hybrid.

Work-Life Balance

The four-day workweek: how to make it work in your organization.

Andrew Barnes, a presenter at MIT SMR ’s Work/23 symposium, answers questions about reducing the length of the workweek.

Andrew Barnes

It’s time to face the three challenges of learning.

Learning needs to be personalized, presented in a hybrid manner, and focused on transferable skills.

Lynda Gratton

Algorithmic management: the role of ai in managing workforces.

The delegation of managerial functions to algorithms transforms management practices.

Mohammad Hossein Jarrahi, Mareike Möhlmann, and Min Kyung Lee

Job, career, or purpose.

Leaders should learn to manage — and value — employees whose sense of purpose comes from outside the organization.

Charn P. McAllister and Curtis L. Odom

Reimagining hr for better well-being and performance.

Historically siloed HR teams should collaborate to proactively support employee thriving and mental health.

Gabriella Rosen Kellerman and Martin Seligman

Platforms & ecosystems, intentionally orchestrating workforce ecosystems.

The 2023 MIT SMR -Deloitte Future of the Workforce global survey finds top workforce managers excel at eight activities.

Elizabeth J. Altman, David Kiron, Robin Jones, Susan Cantrell, Steven Hatfield, and Allison Ryder

Rethinking hierarchy.

Managerial authority and hierarchy should be redesigned for business today, but they won’t disappear.

Nicolai J. Foss and Peter G. Klein

How to help high achievers overcome imposter syndrome.

Managers can help employees turn fears into fleeting thoughts as opposed to permanent restraints.

Morela Hernandez and Christina Lacerenza

Flexibility is key to integrating meaning and work.

Giving employees flexibility is becoming crucial to reducing stress and building their confidence in the organization.

Bad Apples or Bad Leaders?

Before they can address workplace deviance, leaders need to recognize the role they may be playing.

Charn P. McAllister, Jeremy D. Mackey, B. Parker Ellen III, and Katherine C. Alexander

What outperformers do differently to tap internal talent.

Companies and employees can benefit when open jobs are filled by internal lateral hires rather than external candidates.

Nithya Vaduganathan, Ben Zweig, Colleen McDonald, and Lisa Simon

180 Performance Management Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best performance management topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on performance management, 💡 interesting topics to write about performance management, 📌 simple & easy performance management essay titles, 🔎 most interesting performance management topics to write about, ❓ research questions on performance management system.

• Starbucks Quality Management and Performance Improvement The company specializes in the sale of coffee. The quality culture in this organization is deeply engrained in the DNA of some of its employees.
• Samsung Performance Management and Appraisal Report To do the foregoing, the company has a performance appraisal system that involves self-evaluation, competence evaluation and performance evaluation. One of the main benefits of performance appraisal at Samsung is that, the company is able […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Apple’s Performance Management Methodology The main advantage that Apple Inc.stands to benefit from this training methodology is the integration of the human capital development into the overall performance management system of the company.
• Performance Management in McDonald’s The publishing of the term McJobs in the dictionaries stimulated the need for McDonald’s to redefine its image through concentration on branding of employees.
• International Human Resource Management Practices and Performance The processes of matching the organization with the internal and the external demands may affect the consistency of the practices of the firm.
• Performance Management System in Hospital This will be carried out through interviews with managers of various hospitals and employees, in order to have a clear picture of how the sector is influenced by the existing performance management system.
• Employee Performance in Management It is also during this step that the managers shall set the objectives of the organization and the purposes that the same shall seek to fulfil.
• Electronic Performance Management Techniques Modern work with the staff must be carried out in strict accordance with specific management standards to ensure that the team is aware of the tasks and can timely respond to any necessary changes.
• Employee Motivation as a Component of Performance Management Therefore, one of the areas that are given a lot of attention in strategic human resource management is the management of the expectations and demands of employees in organizations. Of critical relevance in employee motivation […]
• Management Information Systems in Organizational Performance The information system has enabled the organisation to solve problems like inappropriate use of time, increased expenditure, and customer dissatisfaction. Management information system is an important tool that can be used to shift the cost […]
• Apple Inc. Performance Management Apple has not been able to launch a new major product in 2013 even though it has reported a large sales volume of iPhones and iPads in the last quarter. Apple increasingly financed its activities […]
• Three Methods of Performance Appraisal in HR Management When straight ranking is to be done it is expected of the evaluator in terms of those who have the best attributes to those who have the worst attributes and those who are effective in […]
• Lego Company’s Performance Management Being one of the leaders in the selected sphere, the Lego Group could use some changes to its organizational management regarding the values and corporate ethics for decision-making, as well as the current value chain […]
• Four Seasons Company Motivation and Performance Management The research on the company’s management performance proves that Four Seasons have successfully put the theory of equity into practice. As a result, one might conclude that the implementation of the most effective motivation approaches […]
• Performance Management: Employee Participation Initially, the employees in the organization were also dissatisfied with the approach used in goal-setting and feedback to manage their job performance.
• Performance Management and Evaluation System The goals of both performance appraisal and the compensation plans are to improve the performance of the workers, which in effect improves the goals of the organization.
• Performance Management: Key Strategies and Practical Guidelines The goals in this line help to indicate the direction to be followed and do form the central frame work of reference and aid to identify success as well as clarify issues and expectations of […]
• Fundamentals of a Performance Management System The report entails analysis of the purposes which motivate firms to incorporate the concept of performance management system in their operation.
• Total Quality Management and Firm Performance The author moves on to describe the early attempts, at the end of the 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, to research TQM.
• Southwood School’s Performance Management System The drawbacks of the previous one consequently led to the creation of the new system that will satisfy the staff and will ease the working process.
• Performance Management for FashionFusion The implication is that the salary they get is directly tied to the money they manage to bring to the company.
• Total Quality Management and Performance Measurement Blocher et al.define TQM as “the unyielding and continuous effort by everyone in the organization to understand, meet, and exceed the expectations of customers”.
• Analysis and Criticism of Performance Management The article “Why Most Performance Evaluations Are Biased, and How to Fix Them” is an analysis of the performance approach in management.
• Research Justification: Mentoring as Performance Management Tool For instance, leaders in the business world have been on the frontline to identify emerging concepts from the fields of theology, education, and medicine to transform organizational performance.
• Performance Management Models and Purchasing In the article, the authors study the correlation of performance measurement systems in terms of purchasing power. In conclusion, the Performance management models and purchasing: Relevance is still lost; the authors came up with a […]
• Key Performance Indicators in Inventory Management in Logistics In an organization Key Performance Indicators are used to measure the performance of factors that are critical to the success of the organization.
• Communication Plan and Performance Management One of the benefits of a performance management system is that it increases employees’ motivation as they understand their performance and areas that need improvement.
• Employee Performance Management Our mission is to improve and conserve the environment in South Florida through the businesses and citizens of Dade and Broward counties.
• Optimal Business Performance and the Risk Management Globalization has become a phenomenon that has driven many businesses to expand their operations in the global market to seek access to resources new opportunities and lower costs.
• Nosocomial Infections and Performance Management The root cause of the rise in the rates of nosocomial infections was found to be improper allocation of bed space to patients closely followed by the failure of our sterilization procedures and equipment.
• Healthcare Services and Performance Management While that was a good sample size, the challenge stemmed from the distribution of the sample. A descriptive analysis was utilized in the evaluation of effectiveness and the multi-variate analysis.
• Performance Management: Creating a Healthy System We have to keep in mind the rules of establishing and maintaining a system that will be fair and effective. The ways for improvement may not be limited to those mentioned above, and we should […]
• Art Audit: Performance Management The work can be done in a studio, an office, a warehouse, a gallery, or any other place and therefore one needs to come up with a systematic process to ensure that all the artwork […]
• Leadership and Performance Management Organisational citizenship behaviour refers to those components of employees’ behaviour that are not acknowledged and recognised by the traditional reward. The most important aspect of citizenship behaviour that needs to be encouraged is altruism because […]
• Vincent Thomas Lombardi: Performance Management and Workforce Diversity Strategies Leadership being the epicentre of the team, need to be able to transform the traditional team to a more performance oriented, resilient, and endowed.
• Career Management and Performance in Companies The task of exploring opportunities with each employee is mandated by the principle that performance management rests on the dual themes of evaluating performance to date and accommodating aspirations for future growth.
• Performance Management System in the United States Army The main purpose of this report is to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the performance management system in the United States Army and make recommendations, which may improve the system.
• Human Resources Management System and Organisational Performance The authors cite seminal works in the field to explain the background of the study and provide a comprehensive review of the material.
• Air India’s Performance Management for the Fiscal Year 2017-2018 The next section of the report will discuss how regular capital infusion by the government of India affects the performance of private players in the domestic aviation sector.
• Enterprise and Corporate Performance Management In order to reach the best outcomes, it is crucial to employ the basics of enterprise and corporate performance management. To promote such an agreement in Conair, it is necessary to make sure that each […]
• UAE: Stress Management and Organizational Performance The goal of the paper is to examine the phenomenon of workplace stress and its relation to the organizational performance of employees in the UAE context.
• Performance Management Methods It can be described as a set of activities focused on the improvement of productivity, and its purpose is to ensure that the goals of the company are achieved.
• Performance and Reward Management: Best Practices When employees put a lot of effort into their work and attain high results in the performance of their duties in time, as it pertains to the timeliness set for the specific projects, the employee […]
• Performance Management With the Balanced Scorecard Due to the fact that new products may require new equipment, the organization should take care of the new loans that should be created to cover all the expenditures.
• Leadership and Management: Performance Appraisal Performance appraisal is important to the firm as it provides the firm with the basis to award employees. Below is an example of performance appraisal form that is used to evaluate the performance of employees […]
• Performance Management of the Ageing Workforce Within the past decade, organisational theorists have explored how performance management can be applied to the ageing population to maximise productivity.
• Seychelles People Defense Force’s Performance Management To analyze the application of this indicator, the Seychelles people defense force will be considered as a structural unit where the quality of performed work largely depends on the effectiveness of control and the involvement […]
• Performance Management and Organizational Efficacy The efficacy of any organization invariably relies on the intelligibility of the performance management decisions instituted in the management of the organization.
• Earth Ltd.’s Management Accounting and Performance In the current report, the cash budget of Earth Ltd.is prepared based on its cash inflows and cash flows. The data of Earth Ltd.is used for preparing different budgets including production budget, sales budget, direct […]
• Popular Management Techniques and Organizational Performance Thus, the major purpose of this research is to explore the utilization of fashionable management techniques in order to identify what effect they produce on organisational performance.
• Air Arabia Company: Performance Management The primary goal of performance management and its related set of activities is to guarantee that the organizational objectives are consistent with the business strategy.
• Performance Management: Key Learning Points The organization needs to ensure the safety of both the products and employees who are involved in handling the products. It is unlike in the past before the introduction of automated manufacturing systems.
• Management of Competitive Advantage and Performance While the main emphasis is put on the role of the customer and supplier, the way companies communicate with one another is largely dependent on the products and services that are involved in the supply […]
• R&R Retailer’s Employee Performance Management At this point, the top manager of R&R recognizes the importance of the lawsuit and needs to develop a strategy for satisfying the sales associates.
• Performance Management in Healthcare The role of the finance manager is to oversee the finance operations at the facility. The Finance Department is responsible for all the financial operations at the health center.
• Value Trust’s Performance and Miller’s Management It is also essential to point out the fact that another factor inviting caution is that the growing size of the fund is likely to threaten the sustainability of Miller’s approach in the future. In […]
• Effective Management and Its Effect on Performance The focus of this paper is the management and some of the aspects that affect performance and output. Two main categories of EI exist based on ability and traits, and three models apply in the […]
• Council of Cooperative Health Insurance: Performance Management The PMS underscores the need to measure these outcomes as a vital component of evaluating the value of employees and management activities in assisting the agency to assume a proactive and client-focused approach in regulating […]
• Performance Index and Quality Management Innovation The objective of the study is to determine the relationship between the innovation performance and innovation quality. As mentioned in the previous section, the additional metrics of the research will focus on the micro-level of […]
• Tenore Presentium Solutions Performance Management To be sure that the individual and the company are prepared for this assignment, and the ways to maintain proper performance management are defined, the peculiarities of executive, line and HR management will be discussed.
• Balme Library’s Performance Management The analysis of the Balme Library case shows that one of the principal drawbacks of the implemented management strategy is poor performance measurement.
• Abu Dhabi Health Authority: Performance Management System In addition to this, performance measurement systems also help the company in restricting their projects. Performance management systems also allow the managers in HAAD to recognize some of the essential skills that their employees need.
• Performance Management in a Diverse Workforce in Australia Mor-Barak is of the opinion that one of the core concepts of diversity management entails ensuring the provision of equal opportunities to all individuals within the workplace regardless of their differences.
• Denmix Limited Company: Transition Performance Management The current changes at Denmix Limited Company require a new performance management system to be made internally due to the failure of the existing PMS to meet the standards of the company.
• Haier Company’s Performance Management However, one of the less moving points is the idea of exposing the manager’s performance to the juniors, as they might not respect a poor performer.
• Performance Management: Purposes, Components, Relations One of the purposes of performance management is the enhancement and the maintenance of the workers’ achievements on the top level.
• High-Performance Pit Crews Management Secondly, role specialization will be one of the desirable qualities to find in the team because the team is not new.
• Performance Management and Appraisal Regardless of the size of an entity or the type of business an organization is involved in, it is very important for any organization to have the required tools to measure the progress and efficiency […]
• Strategy and Performance Management at DSM Melamine In this process, the focus will be on the low cost and security of sales. This firm has realized that the best way of remaining competitive is to align its strategies to the performance measures.
• Performance and Employees’ Management Tools This has been attributed to a number of advantages which presumably outweigh the disadvantages associated with adopting and implementing the use of these employee evaluation systems.
• Business Function Integration: Linking Marketing and Human Resource Management to Enhance Performance In focusing on the two business functions, employers seek to develop a positive image of the firm in the midst of the employees in order to enhance their performance at their places of work.
• Stress Management and Work Performance in the UK The goal of the study is to establish the relationship between stress management and work performance and the best approach to manage stress to meet organizational goals.
• Organisational Design and Performance Management It also evaluates the e-business models and approaches adopted by the two companies and how the models and approaches have enhanced innovation, growth, and service provision of the two companies.
• The Performance of Workplace Management Thus for the managers of the corporation to motivate their employees in the work place in all the branches where they are operating, they need to consider these programs.
• Performance Management System Plan This paper further elaborates the recommendation made in the PMS plan, the outcomes expected from the system and the means to estimate its effectiveness.
• Performance Management Systems: Human Resource In the implementation of a new performance management system various issues need to be factored such as the capability of the system to promote or facilitate the achievement of the set goals.
• Transforming Performance Management The education provided to its workforce should be aligned to its business strategy and the content should be locally-determined to meet the expectations and the standards of the company.
• HR Management and Task Performance Whatever the terms used to explain the concept, however, Chandrakumara argues that the concept refers to an organization’s capabilities to match the skills and competencies of the workforce to the needs and characteristics of an […]
• Designing a Performance Management Plan Despite the fact that the interview with the CEO of the Clapton Commercial Construction, Marylee Luther, has revealed some major issues with the way in which the company is run, especially regarding the evaluation of […]
• Performance Management at Verve Ideal Medicates For that, the results showed by the workers are to be carefully researched, monitored, and analysed as the performance of the workers comprises the viability of the whole company.
• Management Information System and Strategic Performance According to his assumption, the higher the demographic diversity in top management team, the greater the contribution of accounting system to strategic performance.
• The Performance Management Concept The performance management is the prescribed course of actions that contains the expectations of the organization and the manner in which employees will be evaluated on how they have performed against the expectations of the […]
• Management Styles and Organizational Performance The manager’s role is not to make decisions, but to act as a leader, organizer and facilitator in the process of decision-making.
• Management Performance System: Human Resources The purpose of the performance benchmarks in an organisation is to evaluate the workmanship of employees within the organisation by looking at certain aspects of the employees’ performance.
• Performance Management in a Diverse Workplace The headline of most newspapers especially the right wing press normally depicts the black minority as the agents of action despite of the fact that most of the blacks are victims of aggressions.
• Effective Performance Management The organizational values that the employee has to exhibit Means, procedures or processes the employee is expected to use in the job When focusing on performance expectations, the employee needs to know the reason for […]
• The Effect of Management Practices on Firm Performance These personnel are the driving force that stresses the need of everyone adopting to the firm’s objectives and policies. This is the cornerstone in the sense that it ensures the workforce aligns to specific chores […]
• Role of Knowledge Management in Improving Performance of Operations Departments However, this has changed in the course of the last decade and knowledge management has emerged as an important field that provides the rationale for managing knowledge in order to achieve the increased productivity of […]
• Performance Management: One Part of Human The process involves the stakeholders sitting down to categorize and illustrate the job tasks and tie them to the assignment and goals of the organization. The strategic purpose of the performance management is to tie […]
• Performance Management: Goals and Objectives Besides there must be annual performance review that should entail all the employees and managers of an organization to establish the organizational achievements and the manner in which they have been met.
• Management-Employee Misalignment and Performance Implications The following will form the specific objectives: Critically evaluate the sources of management-employee misalignment within the industry; Critically evaluate the performance implications occasioned by management-employee misalignment within the industry; Critically evaluate the industry’s best practices […]
• Performance Management Scheme When recruiting, human resources look for a certain attribute, qualification and talent with employees; the attribute will be used to fill a certain vacuum within the organization, after deploying the employee to the needed position, […]
• Does Performance Management Work? This will ensure that the performance management is supported from the top before it trickles down to the supervisors and employees in the organization. In addition, the performance management shall be able to calibrate employee […]
• Human Resource Management Performance Appraisal Performance appraisal is the process of evaluating the performance of employees within a certain time frame. The best performance appraisal to be used in evaluating the performance of a secretary is the graphical rating scale […]
• RBS Citizens Performance Management Effective performance management practice requires the approach to be in line with the organization’s strategy. This organization uses effective performance management in the managerial process.
• Performance Management Fundamentals The authors used the term “plumbing-in” to denote the appropriate method that can help managers implement the best performance management systems.
• Stress Management and Work Performance in the United Kingdom In this society, it is very important for the management of various firms and governmental organizations to take care of the interests of the employees.
• Performance Management System in an Organization Employees cannot be motivated to work without targets and as such this forms a key weakness of the system. To start with, the organization needs to clearly define its overall strategy and goals upon which […]
• Performance Management and Appraisal This encourages employees to improve their performance and engaged in all the activities of the organization. In addition, reviews detract employee engagement when they are not linked to the goals of an organization.
• Ba Ba Lu Bar Performance Management To address all the challenges of the rapidly developed field of the bar and restaurant business and preserve the high position in the market, the managers of Ba Ba Lu Bar & Restaurant are inclined […]
• Strategic Human Resource Management Enhances Organizational Performance in Both Good and Bad Economic Times They acknowledged that there are ways of showing the connection between competitive strategies and practices of the HRM so as to enable prediction, modification, study, and refinement of HRM practices and strategies in given situations.
• The Impact of Human Resource Management on Organizational Performance It is the duty of the HR department to know the position of the organization in terms of finances and if they will be able to afford the services for the benefit of the organization […]
• Performance Management Systems Linked to Reward The performance management can be used to evaluate the performance of employees, a department within the organisation or the performance of the whole organisation in general.
• Performance Management Trends According to Grumman 2005, the day-to-day management of employees’ performance is the key to effective employee performance management. There is changing trend in the evaluation of employee performance in the use of systems.
• Performance Management System in Midal Company Thus, a company may use this program simulation to carry out comparative costing to accurately track and monitor the flows in costs since the ABC simulation offers the application that can facilitate activity-based costing for […]
• Performance Management Program A good performance management system is purposely for the elevation of employees’ performance and in effect, improves on business productivity hence the management should endeavor to find a good system that delivers the object of […]
• Individual Motivation and Performance Management An effective method of upgrading the performance in the organization should encompass employees’ involvement and motivation. Asking employees to participate in the decision-making in an organization can be instrumental in upholding of their self-esteem.
• External Assessment in Performance Management For better results, the integrity test will be administered in the form of multiple-choice questions and presented on a paper or computer.
• Quality and Performance Management: Value Chain While estimating the price for the product, the management tries to take into account those properties of the product that are of the greatest importance for the customer, for instance, the serviceable life of the […]
• Human Resources Management’s Incentive and Compensate for Performance Incentive Plans are for the most part used in commerce managing to encourage human resources and in sales in order to create a center of attention and hold on to clientele.
• Analyzing Performance Management and Health Informatics
• Appraisal Process and Performance Management
• How Performance Management Systems Benefit an Organisation’s Efficiency and Effectiveness
• How Can an Organisation Ensure Successful Implementation of Performance Management Systems
• Assessing Performance Management Output Enhancement Models
• The Value and Challenge of Performance Management
• Balanced Scorecard Strategy and Performance Management Management
• Best Practice Performance Management Schemes
• Building Performance Management Through Employee Participation
• Business Needs to Improve Performance Management Activities
• Tools and Decision Making for Ongoing Performance Management
• Competitors and Strategic Performance Management
• Conceptual Framework for Performance Management
• Corporate and Performance Management Strategies
• Corporate Social Responsibility and Impact on Company Performance Management
• Defining Performance Management and the Role It Plays
• Delegation Empowerment and Team Performance Management
• Differences Between Cost-Effectiveness and Performance Management
• The Performance Management of the Project Cycle
• Differs Between Performance Management and Performance Appraisal
• Enterprise Performance Management: Conception, Model, and Mechanism
• Factors Which Influence Team Performance Management
• Financial Analysis for Performance Management
• Human Behavior and the Performance Management Process
• Implementing Performance Management Within an Organization
• Incentives and Their Dynamics in Public Sector Performance Management Systems
• Increasing Services Quality Through Environmental Performance Management
• Lagging and Leading Indicators in Developing a Performance Management Strategy
• Legal Aspects Associated With Performance Management Programs
• Managing People and Performance Management Process
• Mission Goals and Performance Management
• Need for Employee Performance Management for Organisational Growth
• Organizational Design for Performance Management
• Perfect Remuneration and Performance Management System
• Performance Management Assessment Model for Sustainable Development
• Process Design Matrix and the Summary for Performance Management
• Relationship Between Motivation and Performance Management
• The Concepts and Concerns About Performance Management
• The Human Resource Practices of Performance Management and Recruitment
• Performance Management for the Senior Management Service
• What Does a Performance Management System Need Most?
• How Do Performance Management Objectives Help in Planning a Strategy to Achieve the Organization’s Goals?
• What Are the Main Types of Performance Management?
• Is Performance Management Part of Organizational Development?
• Who Is Responsible for Performance Management in the Organization?
• How Does Performance Management Affect Culture?
• What Are the Purposes of a Performance Management System?
• Does the Size of the Company Affect the Performance Management System?
• What Can Performance Management Offer to Learn and Development in the Organization?
• How Are Performance Management Systems and Human Resource Management Practices Related?
• What Are the Goals and Objectives of the Performance Management System?
• Is Performance Management Important to Achieving Organizational Goals?
• What Do the Authors from a Critical Management Studies Perspective See as a Function of Performance Management?
• How Many Levels of Performance Management Are There in the Organization?
• What Tools Are There for Ongoing Performance Management?
• Should Performance Management Be an Annual Event or an Ongoing Process?
• What Is the Relationship Between Performance Management and Organizational Learning and Development?
• How Can You Manage an Ongoing Performance Management Problem?
• What Is the New Performance Management System of Network Solutions?
• Does Performance Management Affect Organizational Success?
• What Organizational Context Factors Affect Procedural Justice in a Performance Management System?
• How Do Organizations Measure the Effectiveness of Performance Management Processes?
• What Are the Organizational Benefits of Effective Performance Management?
• Is There a Relationship Between Performance Management and Organizational Goals?
• What Is the Role of Performance Management in Organizational Development?
• How to Improve Performance Management to Ensure Continuous Improvement?
• What Are Performance Management Tools and What Is Their Importance?
• Is the Implementation of a Performance Management System Effective in a South-Eastern European Country with a Transition Economy?
• What Are the Main Problems of the Performance Management System?
• How Can an Organization Improve Its Performance Management Culture?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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Harnessing the power of performance management

These days, performance management is a source of dissatisfaction at many organizations. Large shares of respondents to a recent McKinsey Global Survey on the topic say their organizations’ current systems and practices have no effect—or even a negative one—on company performance. 1 1. The online survey was in the field from July 18 to July 28, 2017, and garnered responses from 1,761 participants representing the full ranges of regions, industries, company sizes, functional specialties, and tenures. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP. Moreover, they do not see positive returns on investment for the time spent on performance management. Yet the results also show that when executed well, performance management has a positive impact on employees’ performance and the organization’s performance overall.

Stay current on your favorite topics

Our analysis indicates that the key to reaping positive business outcomes from performance management is to establish a system that employees and managers perceive as fair. 2 2. As McKinsey’s Scott Keller and Mary Meaney write in Leading Organizations: Ten Timeless Truths , “We believe people aren’t against being evaluated, and, in fact, they want to know where they stand. They just want the process to be fair. They want a process that differentiates without false precision, that is both forward- and backward-looking, that happens far more frequently than once a year (but not so much as to create feedback fatigue), that involves an honest, two-way conversation, that is based on more data and input than just the boss’s view, that considers not just what was achieved, but also how, and links rewards and consequences to performance.” For more, see Scott Keller and Mary Meaney, Leading Organizations: Ten Timeless Truths , first edition, London: Bloomsbury Business, 2017. To ensure that perception, managers should master three critical practices: linking individuals’ goals with business priorities, coaching effectively , and differentiating compensation across levels of performance.

Disappointed and seeking to improve quickly

On the whole, respondents express doubt that their current performance-management systems foster strong performance. In fact, more than half of respondents believe performance management has not had a positive effect on employee or organizational performance (Exhibit 1).

Accordingly, many respondents say their companies are making changes. Two-thirds report the implementation of at least one meaningful modification to their performance-management systems in the past 18 months. These results also show that companies are making a wide variety of adjustments. No more than one-third of respondents report implementing even one of the three most commonly cited changes—simplifying ratings, streamlining formal review processes, and separating conversations about performance and compensation (Exhibit 2).

Despite the lack of consensus on where to focus improvements, the responses clearly indicate that performance management, when done well, boosts overall performance. Respondents who say their companies’ performance-management systems have a positive impact on both employee and business performance are much likelier than others to report better business outcomes. 3 3. We measured business outcomes based on respondents’ reporting of how their organization performed in the past three years, relative to peers. The outperforming companies are those that, according to respondents, have performed much better or somewhat better than their competitors. Among respondents who consider their companies’ performance-management systems effective, 60 percent say their companies have outperformed their peers in the past three years—nearly three times the share of respondents who rate their companies’ performance management as ineffective.

Three practices for successful performance management

From the results, we have identified three practices that correlate most closely with the key factor of performance management’s effectiveness: the perceived fairness of the system . These practices are linking performance goals to business priorities , effective coaching by managers, and differentiating compensation across levels of performance (Exhibit 3).

What’s more, these practices are mutually reinforcing: implementing one practice well can have a positive effect on the performance of others and leads to more effective performance management overall. In fact, among respondents who say their organizations perform well on all three practices, 84 percent report a positive impact on performance management (Exhibit 4). They are 12 times likelier to report effective performance-management systems than respondents who say their companies have not implemented any of the three.

Linking performance goals to business priorities. The first practice of the three, linking individual employees’ performance goals to business priorities, not only correlates with a higher level of perceived fairness but also helps companies achieve their strategic goals. Where employees’ goals are linked to business priorities, 46 percent of respondents report effective performance management, compared with 16 percent at companies that don’t follow this practice.

The results suggest that performance goals, besides being linked to strategy, should be adaptable and revisited as market conditions change or extenuating circumstances occur. The regular review of goals helps ensure that individuals in the organization continue to believe that the system is fair and also has a positive impact on performance management. Of respondents who report effective performance management, 62 percent say their companies revisit goals at least twice a year or on an ad hoc basis.

Manager coaching. Our analysis indicates not only that effective coaching is the strongest driver of perceived fairness but also that there is a direct relationship between effective managers and the effectiveness of a company’s performance-management system. When managers effectively coach and develop their employees—a practice that less than 30 percent of all respondents report—74 percent say their performance-management systems are effective, and 62 percent say their organizations’ performance is better than that of competitors. Where respondents do not see managers as effective coaches, only 15 percent report effective performance management, and just 30 percent report outperformance relative to competitors.

On specific coaching methods, the results suggest that ongoing development conversations between managers and employees also support better outcomes. In fact, 68 percent of respondents agree that ongoing coaching and feedback conversations have a positive impact on individual performance. Respondents who say that ongoing discussions take place are ten times likelier than others to rate performance-management systems at their companies as effective, and they are nearly twice as likely to say their companies have outperformed competitors. So if organizations do nothing else to improve performance management, they should invest in managers’ capabilities and communicate their expectations for having high-quality coaching and development conversations with employees.

Other results suggest that respondents, on the whole, understand the value of strong manager capabilities . When asked about changes their companies have made to existing performance-management systems in the past 18 months, the change that links most closely to improved employee performance is resetting manager expectations around coaching and development . And among the actions that respondents say their organizations will take in the next 18 months, the most common is more frequent coaching conversations.

Differentiating compensation. The third practice is meaningful differentiation of compensation among low, midlevel, and high performers. Less than half of all respondents agree that at their organizations, employee pay is meaningfully different across levels of performance—and the results confirm that this practice links closely with outperformance. Of the respondents reporting differentiated compensation at their companies, 54 percent rate their performance-management systems as effective, compared with only 16 percent at companies without meaningfully different compensation. Among those following the practice, 52 percent say their organizations have performed better than their peers in recent years.

Also on compensation, the results suggest that effective performance management is more likely when organizations separate compensation conversations from formal evaluations. Of the respondents who say their companies separate discussions about performance from discussions about compensation, 47 percent report effective performance management—compared with 30 percent at companies that don’t separate such discussions.

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While multiple factors contribute to a perceived sense of fairness, the previous three practices have the most impact on whether respondents say their companies’ performance-management systems are considered to be fair. And of all the organizational practices the survey asked about, perceived fairness correlates most closely with positive business outcomes. Among respondents who agree that their performance-management systems are perceived as fair, 60 percent report an overall effective system. 4 4. Thirty-eight percent of respondents rate their performance-management systems as effective (that is, they say that performance management has had a positive impact both on individual employees’ performance and on their organizations’ performance). Of their peers who do not agree, only 7 percent report an overall effective system. What’s more, the respondents reporting perceived fairness are nearly twice as likely as those who don’t (52 percent, compared with 27 percent) to say their companies are outperforming competitors.

Beyond these key points, the responses also indicate a few secondary—but important—practices that can encourage effective performance management. One is the use of technology to revamp performance-management systems. Respondents say their organizations are using technology for a wide variety of performance-management interventions, from tracking progress against performance goals to monitoring completion of development conversations. Yet other than the completion of forms for formal performance reviews, none of the other applications is used moderately or greatly by a majority of respondents. The value of technology seems to be clear, though, for the companies that have already implemented it. At companies that have launched mobile technologies to support performance management in the past 18 months, 65 percent of respondents say this change has had a positive effect on both employee and company performance. But while technology can certainly enable effective performance management, the most important measures to get right are the three best practices that foster a sense of fairness across the organization.

The contributors to the development and analysis of this survey include Sabrin Chowdhury, a consultant in McKinsey’s New Jersey office , Bill Schaninger , a senior partner in the Philadelphia office , and Elizabeth Hioe, an alumna of the New Jersey office.

They wish to thank Lili Duan and David Mendelsohn for their contributions to this work.

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Performance Management

Ivan Andreev

Demand Generation & Capture Strategist

ivan.andreev@valamis.com

March 14, 2022 · updated April 2, 2024

17 minute read

Increasingly, organizations are understanding that their management systems must be brought into the 21st century if they are going to be competitive in the current market.

Research shows that previous systems, such as yearly appraisals, are outdated and can even serve to decrease employee engagement and motivation. In light of this, more companies are turning to performance management than ever before.

This dynamic and strategic approach to developing improved performance in employees is gaining ground in companies large and small, including many Fortune 500 and industry-leading organizations.

What is performance management?

The importance of performance management, the purpose and goals of performance management, the benefits of performance management, 15 employee performance management best practices, 5 real-world examples of performance management, what is the difference between performance management and performance appraisals.

Performance management is a strategic approach to creating and sustaining improved performance in employees, leading to an increase in the effectiveness of companies.

By focusing on the development of employees and the alignment of company goals with team and individual goals, managers can create a work environment that enables both employees and companies to thrive.

Based on the definition of performance management, a system is built within an organization to measure and improve the performance of the people in that organization.

In practice, performance management means that management is consistently working to develop their employees, establish clear goals, and offer consistent feedback throughout the year.

In contrast to other systems of reviewing employee performance, such as yearly performance appraisals , employee performance management is a much more dynamic and involved process with better outcomes.

For the Human Resources department, performance management is an important system for onboarding , developing and retaining employees, as well as reviewing their performance.

It is increasingly understood that a yearly performance appraisal system does not effectively engage employees, fails to consistently set and meet company objectives, and does not result in a strong understanding of employee performance.

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Why is performance management important?

In any organization, no matter the size, it is important to understand what your employees are doing, how they are doing it, and why they are doing it.

Without a system in place to define roles, understand individual strengths and weaknesses, provide constructive feedback , trigger interventions and reward positive behavior, it is much more difficult for managers to effectively lead their employees.

Smart organizations pair their performance management with an incentive management process. The two systems have a lot in common, from defining roles and setting goals to reviewing and rewarding employee behavior, and as such, do very well when run simultaneously. Using incentive management also means that the all-important ‘reward’ step of performance management is done properly.

Talent management is an important part of every organization. Three of the main problems that organizations face are:

• keeping employees engaged
• retaining talent
• developing leaders from within

These are the issues that performance management very effectively targets.

1. Keeping employees engaged

Engagement of employees is a focus of any management team. In a yearly appraisal system, goals would be given at the beginning of the year and then revisited 12 months later to see if they had been met. This long stretch of time without feedback or check-in is an almost certain engagement killer.

In fact, 94% of employees would prefer their manager gives them feedback and development opportunities in real-time, and 81% would prefer at least quarterly check-ins with their manager, according to the Growth Divide Study .

Studies show that employees do best with feedback on a monthly or quarterly basis, with regular check-ins serving as a zone to problem solve, adjust goals as necessary, and to refresh their focus on the goal. In fact, companies where employees meet to review goals quarterly or more frequently are almost 50% more likely to have above-average financial performance.

When surveyed, employees had some negative feelings about a yearly appraisal system:

• 62% of employees feel that their performance review was incomplete
• 48% did not feel comfortable raising issues with their manager in between performance reviews
• 61% feel that the process is outdated
• 74% feel that they would be more effective with more frequent feedback
• 68% of executives don’t learn about employee concerns until the performance review

All of this adds up to a lot of missed opportunities to solve problems and increase employee performance and engagement.

As employee engagement rises, nine key performance indicators show successful outcomes. Absenteeism, turnover, shrinkage, safety incidents, patient safety incidents and defects in quality are lessened by at least 25%, and often more, across the board. Customer experience, productivity and profitability all show positive outcomes.

This study, by Gallup , was conducted across a broad range of industries, showing that employee engagement is a critical factor, no matter the industry.

2. Retaining talent

Employees who have frequent meetings with management to discuss performance, solve problems and receive training are more likely to stay with the company.

If employees see that their management team is putting in the work to develop them professionally, help them succeed with their goals, and reward performance on a consistent basis, then they are more incentivized to both stay with the company and work harder.

3. Developing leaders from within

This consistent development and partnership between managers and employees allow for the development of leaders from within the company.

Recruiting costs can be extremely high, as are costs for onboarding and training new employees. To be able to groom leaders from within the company means that there is already a proven culture fit with this individual and that training costs and resources spent developing this person into an asset are not lost.

This leadership path also serves as a motivating force for employees, who can see that their hard work will be rewarded with promotions and other benefits.

Performance management also creates a need for management to consistently focus on company objectives and goals, and to consider how best to achieve them. This continual revisiting of goals means that they are more likely to stay relevant, as goals will be adjusted in light of new technology, changes in the market, or other factors throughout the year.

According to Forbes , ‘companies that set performance goals quarterly generate 31% greater returns from their performance process than those who do it annually, and those who do it monthly get even better results.’

The purpose of performance management is to give both managers and employees a clear and consistent system within which to work that, in turn, will lead to increased productivity.

• This system shows employees the pathway to success, allows for the measuring of performance coupled with feedback and offers training and development opportunities.
• Performance management allows management to understand what their employees are doing and track progress on company objectives while providing consistent feedback.

There are five main objectives of performance management:

• Develop clear role definitions, expectations and goals
• Increase employee engagement
• Develop managerial leadership and coaching skills
• Boost productivity through improved performance
• Develop a performance reward program that incentivizes accomplishment

These performance management goals show a clear path from the developing of goals to the rewarding of increased accomplishment. If one of these performance management objectives is not done well, then the others will suffer as a result.

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Performance management has a multitude of benefits for employees and managers, as well as for the company as a whole. If a company can successfully create an environment of engagement where customers are equally engaged by employees on the front line, their outcome is even better.

When organizations successfully engage their customers and their employees, they experience a 240% boost in performance-related business outcomes compared with an organization with neither engaged employees nor engaged customers. – Gallup

• Having well-defined roles and performance standards makes hiring an easier process, as candidates know what is expected of them, and HR can more easily understand if a candidate is a right fit for the role.
• Those well-defined roles and standards make training easier, as trainers know exactly which areas need to be covered, and which information is nonessential.
• Consistent developing and revisiting of goals ensure that the organization keeps up with changing market forces easily, and reacts quickly as a whole, regardless of the size of the organization.
• Clear expectations and roles set employees up for achieving goals from the start, providing a springboard to success.
• Employees who feel that their company is invested in their success stay with their companies, increasing employee retention.
• Consistent feedback and coaching from managers lead directly to increased engagement from employees while developing the ability to provide good coaching and feedback leads to more skilled managers.
• As employees become more skilled, they can move up through the company, creating a leadership pipeline.
• Productivity will increase thanks to increased engagement, clear goals and upskilling of employees.
• Employees remain incentivized to perform long-term, as they are properly rewarded for their hard work.

While performance management can sound deceptively simple, with just four steps as outlined above, the process itself is very complicated. That’s why we have put together this list of best practices for performance management.

Think of it like the essentials of performance management – these will help make sure that your employee performance management system is performing the way it should.

1. Identify the goals of your performance management initiatives

As you are creating your performance management program, you need to understand what you want to accomplish.

Asking the following questions can help you:

• Is increased productivity a priority?
• Does your organization want to identify leaders from within and develop them?
• Do you want to streamline the compensation process?
• Are you seeking to improve employee retention or engagement?

If you know what you want your program to do, it will be easier to build it to accomplish that goal.

2. Define and describe each role

We mentioned this above, but it bears repeating. It is much harder for an employee to be successful if they don’t know exactly what is expected from them, how they should do it, and what the end result should look like.

3. Pair goals with a performance plan

As you set goals, develop a performance plan to go alongside. Year-long goals often fail, as they are too large and employees can get overwhelmed before they start. A performance plan helps them visualize their path, making it much more likely that they will meet their goal.

4. Monitor progress towards performance targets

Review key areas of performance. Use metrics and analytics to your advantage, tracking how goals are progressing to make sure that interventions can happen early, if necessary.

5. Coaching should be frequent

The point of coaching is to help identify and solve problems before they get too big. If it’s not frequent, it’s not going to help at all. Monthly or quarterly meetings should be held to help keep employees on the right track.

6. Use guidelines to your advantage

Guidelines should be created for each role as part of the first stage of the performance management cycle. These policies or guidelines should stipulate specific areas for, or limits on, opportunity, search and experimentation. Employees do their jobs better when they have solid guidelines to follow.

7. Build a performance-aligned culture

Make sure your workplace has shared values and cultural alignment. A sense of shared values, beliefs and expectations among employees creates a more harmonious and pleasant workplace. Employees should be committed to the values and objectives outlined, and exemplified by, top management.

8. Organize cross-functional workshops

This helps employees – and managers – understand what other departments do, how they think and what their strengths and weaknesses are. They can discover something new and find new connections, which can help them in future work.

9. Management should offer actionable feedback

During these coaching meetings, tensions can arise if the feedback is not given in a constructive, actionable manner. It is not very important to look backward and point fingers, rather management should guide employees towards future success.

10. Keep it professional, not personal

Giving less-than-stellar feedback is hard on both managers and employees, it’s one of the reasons that performance appraisals tend to be a least-liked task. Managers should make sure to keep feedback professional and remember to focus on behavior, rather than characteristics.

For example, pointing out that David regularly turned in important reports late is feedback about a behavior. Saying that David is lazy, and that’s why the reports were often late is feedback about a characteristic. One of these can help an employee own their role in a project’s success (or lack thereof) and the other will make them defensive instantly.

11. It’s not only employees that need training

Management should be trained too. Coaching and offering good feedback are not easy jobs, which is why there are so many specialist coaches out there. For managers to be able to lead well, they should be trained in these skill sets.

12. Take advantage of multiple-source feedback

Ask employees to write feedback for each other. This will give management a more holistic view on employee performance, understand the challenges that teams are facing, and be able to better offer feedback.

13. Don’t depend only on reviews

While the review process is important, it is only one part of the system as a whole. Planning, coaching, and rewarding employees are equally key parts of the system.

14. Problems are not always employee-based

It can be easy to assume that problems are always caused by employees, but that simply is not the case. Problems can arise from external factors such as availability of supplies, internal processes that are causing issues, or organizational policies. Seek out the source of problems as precisely as you can in order to fix them.

15. Recognize and reward performance publicly and frequently

Management cannot expect employees to stay motivated if they are never rewarded, yet many companies overlook this key step. Make sure that employees are compensated and recognized for their hard work, and they will continue delivering for your organization.

Of course, it’s one thing to understand the theory of what performance management is, but it’s another thing to use it in a real company. Let’s take a look at some real-world examples of the performance management process in action:

It’s no surprise that Google would show up on a list of companies that use a newer, innovative system of management. This company has always been a trendsetter, and their performance management process is one that relies on data and analysis, as well as making sure that their managers are well trained.

When assessing their performance management system, Google launched a project dedicated to assessing their managers, which has led to a thorough training and future development process that sets managers, and thus employees, up for success.

They also use a system of setting goals that have caught on across multiple industries. Using their Objectives and Key Results (OKRs) system, they reframe the goal-setting process, with great results.

Another tech trendsetter, Facebook has a performance management process that puts a heavy emphasis on peer-to-peer feedback. In semi-annual reviews, they are able to use that feedback to see how well teams are performing and understand where collaboration is happening – and where it is not. They also have developed an internal software to provide continuous, real-time feedback. This helps employees solve issues before they become problems.

Cargill is a Minnesota-based food-producer and distributor with over 150,000 employees and serves to demonstrate that even huge companies can ditch unwieldy performance appraisals and institute a new system. In following the latest research on the dissatisfaction of management with outdated performance management process, Cargill created their ‘Everyday Performance Management’ system. The system is designed to be continuous, centered around a positive employee-manager relationship, with daily activity and feedback being incorporated into conversations that solve problems rather than rehash past actions.

The Everyday Performance Management system had overwhelmingly positive results, with 69% of employees stating that they received feedback that was useful for their professional development, and 70% reporting that they felt valued as a result of the continuous performance discussions with their manager.

Adobe calculated that managers were spending about 80,000 hours a year on performance reviews, only to have employees report that they left those reviews demoralized and turnover was increasing as a result.

Seeing a system that only produced negatives, Adobe’s leadership team made a bold leap into a performance management system that began by training managers how to perform more frequent check-ins and offer actionable guidance, then the company gave managers the leeway they needed to effectively lead.

Management was given much more freedom in how they structured their check-ins and employee review sessions, as well as more discretion in salaries and promotions. Employees are often contacted for ‘pulse surveys’ – a way for the leadership team to make sure that individual managers are leading their teams well. One of the many positive results of this has been a 30% cut involuntary turnover due to a frequent check-in program.

Accenture is a massive company – over 330,000 people, so changing their systems means a huge effort. When they switched to their new system, they got rid of about 90% of the previous process. Now, they are using a more fluid performance management process where employees receive ongoing, timely feedback from management. This has been paired with a renewed focus on immediate employee development and an internal app for communicating feedback.

There are common threads in all of these examples. Each company has built a system that works for them, rather than following a one-size-fits-all approach. What works for one company might not work for another – it depends on the industry, the speed and flexibility of the company, and the overall goal of the system itself.

With similar names and purposes that sometimes align, it is no surprise that some people find it hard to spot the difference between performance management and performance appraisals.

In fact, performance appraisals are often part of the performance management process , although some companies still rely on performance appraisals alone.

An easy way to understand the difference between the two is that performance appraisals are reactive, and performance management is proactive.

A performance appraisal looks at all of the past actions of the employee within a set amount of time , and rates how well they performed in their role and how many goals they met.

Performance management looks at the present and future of the employee, and what can be done to help future performance and meet future goals . Performance management is focused on the development and training of an employee, and how that can benefit both the employee and the company.

A performance appraisal is a formal, operational task, done according to rigid parameters and in a quantitative manner. HR leads performance appraisals, with input from management. Performance management is much more informal and strategic, led by management with input from the employees in a more flexible manner.

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Integrating strategic planning and performance management in universities: a multiple case-study analysis

• Open access
• Published: 13 March 2022
• Volume 26 , pages 417–448, ( 2022 )

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• Lucia Biondi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3284-5919 1 &
• Salvatore Russo 2  

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This article has been updated

Over time, public universities have been involved in a process of modernisation based on a new concept of governance and managerial methods for increasing efficiency and effectiveness, as well as transparency and accountability. This paper aims to investigate the link between strategic planning systems and performance management systems in Italian universities by answering the following research question: to what extent do strategic planning tools contribute to performance management systems and, vice versa, to what extent can performance management systems help in the reshaping of universities’ strategies? To this end, we adopt a qualitative approach by conducting a multiple case-study analysis in the Italian context. Data are gathered through documentary analysis and interviews as primary research methods. Since scholars have mainly focused their attention on strategic planning or performance management in universities in isolation, the originality of this research lies in the attempt to connect these two important research fields, whose mutual interdependences are still to a certain extent unexplored. The implications of this study concern recommendations and suggestions for universities’ governance bodies to support their decision-making processes in the definition of their long-term objectives and performance management systems.

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1 Introduction

Over the last 20 years, in Italy, as in the rest of Europe, a series of systemic changes has occurred in the university sector. These have strongly promoted the adoption of new governance models and consequent strategic choices. The determinants include: the instances of change triggered by reforms in the governance of the main public sector organisations; and the need to make higher education organisations more effective and efficient. This has required systemic structural interventions both in organisational models and internal decision-making mechanisms.

The wider process of modernisation has been inspired by the reforms following the pervasive wave of New Public Management (NPM) (Hood, 1991 ; Lapsley, 2009 ; Pollitt, 2007 ) and in subsequent movements such as New Public Governance (Osborne, 2006 ). From this perspective, there has been increasing focus on the need to strengthen the governance of public organisations by providing them with strategic tools able to support decision-making processes and, at the same time, the need to appropriately monitor the efficiency and effectiveness of the services offered, ensuring transparency in administrative actions and accountability (Broadbent & Laughlin, 2009 ; Jansen, 2008 ).

The reforms of university governance in Italy culminating in Law 240/2010 (the so-called “Gelmini reform”), which is characterised by a centralised and top-down structure and by considerable uncertainties regarding certain central nodes of the new governance envisaged for universities, are set in this context. In this sense, the analyses carried out attempt to distinguish between the systemic governance orientation, which concerns the contextualisation of universities in their affiliation to the public sector, and specific university governance, which is more focused on examining the tools available for internal decision-making and organisational mechanisms.

The reform of universities has increasingly encouraged the definition, from a multi-year perspective, of development guidelines, pushing for the implementation of a planning process and, at the same time, introducing a performance management cycle, similar to other public administrations. In fact, the regulations for university planning have concerned the adoption of a Three-Year Planning Document (TYPD), which can be revised annually, consistent with the ministerial guidelines that divide the specific objectives to be reached and the possible lines of action, alongside the related operational indicators. As documents with a strong strategic value, they assume therefore a central role in achieving the main objectives related to a university’s mission.

Seizing the opportunity related to regulatory changes, the most proactive universities have attempted to develop a real Strategic University Plan (SUP) with the same time horizon. This choice is part of a managerial dynamism that several universities have chosen to adopt by reconfiguring the tools and boundaries of strategic governance. In this way, they have been able to demonstrate the degree of the spread of “managerialism” within their complex organisational structures, which are required to support innovation but are often subject to constraints and rules that limit their action.

Simultaneously, the performance management cycle is being affected by another important three-year planning document, the Performance Plan (PP), which is a tool that should define the objectives, indicators, and targets of universities’ activities. The PP establishes the main elements for the annual measurement, assessment, and reporting of performance, which, at the end of the year, should be expressed in the Performance Report (PR).

In this context, this paper investigates the link between the two dimensions (strategic planning and performance management) within universities by answering the following research question: to what extent do strategic planning tools contribute to performance management systems and, vice versa, to what extent can performance management systems help in the reshaping of universities’ strategies?

The remainder of this paper is organised as follows. Sections 2 and 3 provide a review of the relevant literature regarding the topics of strategic planning and performance management, respectively, both starting from public sector organisations in general and then focusing on universities in particular. Section 4 details the research methodology adopted. Section 5 presents the results of the analysis conducted for the three case studies. Finally, Section 6 discusses the results and presents the conclusions.

2 Strategic planning in public sector organisations and universities

The use of a strategy in public sector organisations, while the focus of significant debate in the literature, has met with broad consensus regarding its implications for performance. In particular, this has happened at a time when the functioning of public organisations has attracted the attention of results-oriented management. Recent studies in this field confirm that “managerial autonomy” and “result control” have independent and positive effects on an innovation-oriented culture in public sector organisations (Wynen et al., 2014 ).

In order to establish trajectories and make objectives measurable, strategic guidance and co-ordination instruments are needed. According to Boyne and Walker ( 2010 , p. 186), “strategy is believed to set a direction for collective effort, help focus that effort toward desired goals, and promote consistency in managerial actions over time and across parts of the organisation”. Indeed, the focus has been on using strategic planning as a precursor to the implementation of a more pervasive, process-oriented approach, such as strategic management. Although strategic management is often discussed as an extension of strategic planning, and the two terms often are confused and used interchangeably, they are by no means synonymous (Poister & Streib, 1999 ).

Strategic planning has been defined as a disciplined effort to produce fundamental decisions and actions that shape and guide an organisation (Bryson, 1988 ). It blends futuristic thinking, objective analysis, and the subjective evaluation of goals and priorities to chart future courses of action that will ensure the long-run vitality and effectiveness of the organisation. According to Bryson and Edwards ( 2017 , p. 320), “strategic planning consists of a set or family of concepts, procedures, tools, and practices meant to help decision makers and other stakeholders address what is truly important for their organisations and/or places”. The underlying assumption that drives public organisations to use strategic planning is often considered to be that it guarantees a result-oriented approach and better performance.

However, the relationship between strategic planning and strategic management needs to be further investigated and understood. In its broader vision, the system considers strategic planning as the first step in a model oriented towards the measurement and evaluation of results. In particular, in public sector organisations, the use of strategic plans is a way of reducing the political-institutional meaning of choices through strategic guidelines and objectives. In this sense, the strategic plan enables the application of performance management.

Strategic planning is normally considered the main element, but not the essence, of strategic management, which instead uses several phases considered outside of the realm of planning (in the strictest sense of the term) that are related instead to resource management, the implementation of activities and processes, and control and evaluation (Bryson, 2011 ; Poister & Streib, 1999 ). Strategic planning should be understood as a set of concepts, processes, and tools to determine “what an organisation is”, “what an organisation does”, and “why it does it” (Bryson, 2004 ).

From this perspective, strategic planning has been widely used in strategic management applied to the public sector (Barzelay & Jacobsen, 2009 ; Bryson, 2011 ; Poister & Streib, 2005 ). In addition, strategic management tools, such as the balanced scorecard (Kaplan & Norton, 1996 ) and strategic mapping (Kaplan & Norton, 2000 ), have proven to be particularly useful in the public sector because they are able to make the public value more perceptible for the various stakeholders (Talbot, 2011 ).

Since its conceptualisation in the 1960s (Bolland, 2020 ), strategic management has become a diversified field that ranges from the analysis of strategy in businesses to that of strategies in non-profit organisations and the public sector. Its adoption was partly a response to environmental turbulence in the 1970s, which made the traditional planning approach antiquated, and partly a reaction to the non-functioning of some management models, such as the Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System (PPBS), with strong demands in terms of information processing and management capacity (Johnsen, 2015 ). Since the 1980s, therefore, public sector organisations have also begun to make more consistent use of strategic management concepts and techniques and it is now common in the public sector in many countries and at different levels of government (Boyne & Walker, 2004 ; Bryson et al., 2007 ; Poister & Streib, 1999 ).

According to Poister and Streib ( 1999 , p. 308), “effective public administration in the age of results-oriented management requires public agencies to develop a capacity for strategic management, the central management process that integrates all major activities and functions and directs them toward advancing an organisation’s strategic agenda”.

While it is assumed that organisations in general will attract the attention of different stakeholders, it is important to consider how public sector organisations are by their very nature more prone to political processes than other organisations, thus needing to use tools such as stakeholder analysis to analyse actors, interests, and power relations, as well as to find ways other than business to motivate employees (Wright & Pandey, 2011 ) and associates. This is appropriate when the use of documents with a strong strategic purpose becomes part of the set of tools available to public organisations, comprising elements, structures, and methods borrowed from those used in for-profit organisations.

As far as universities are concerned, starting from the 1990s, studies such as that of Conway et al. ( 1994 ) have emphasised the importance of the role of users in defining strategic plans and, in particular, of students in outlining the mission of tertiary education organisations, as well as from a competitive point of view in relation to the surrounding environment; more generally, some contributions have highlighted how to shape a process of mid- to long-term planning in universities (and why this is necessary) (Holdaway & Meekison, 1990 ; Lerner, 1999 ; Rowley, 1997 ). More recently, some studies on the theme have focused on specific territorial contexts, confirming the close link between strategy and the reference environment (Howes, 2018 ; Kenno et al., 2020 ; Luhanga et al., 2018 ; Moreno-Carmona et al., 2020 ; Mueller, 2015 ). With reference to the relationship between the strategic dimension and performance, strategic management is certainly at a higher level and can be interpreted as a performance management process at the strategic level (Poister, 2010 ). The role of strategic management focuses on the actions to be taken to position the organisation so that it can move into the future, while performance management is largely concerned with the management of current programs and current operations. Performance management in public organisations, specifically in universities, will be discussed in the following section.

Traditionally, because of the specific nature of their activities, universities have been considered different institutions from businesses and other public sector organisations. For this reason, studies on universities have, for a long time, not focused on how they operate, how they are managed, or how they conduct their decision-making processes. In these organisations, inputs, outputs, and outcomes are often not clearly established and consequently the measurement system appears severely limited. In the late 1990s, a pioneering study aimed at detecting the presence of strategic planning in European universities found that just over half of the universities surveyed had strategic plans in the form of written documents designed to prioritise objectives; in most cases, however, the strategic plans had an incentivising rather than a prescriptive function (Thys-Clément & Wilkin, 1998 ).

Although the literature on university strategies is not still well developed, some studies have shown that the mere focus on strategic planning in practice may not be particularly relevant. Such practice would be resolved in verifying that the goals achieved fit the objectives. It would, therefore, have a formal or neutral role. Other studies have proposed strategic planning as an indispensable tool for improving performance in these organisations, with particular reference to colleges and universities (Cowburn, 2005 ; Dooris et al., 2004 ; Fathi & Wilson, 2009 ; Ofori & Atiogbe, 2012 ).

In addition, applied proposals to implement performance measurement systems appear to be applicable and capable of measuring the achievement of results in these organisations (Johnes, 1996 ; Johnes & Taylor, 1990 ). The higher education literature identifies several limitations in higher education performance: the lack of data availability; the presence of too many indicators that are not particularly useful in representing performance; and confusion between input, processes, and outcomes (Layzell, 1999 ).

Because of their specific nature, universities would require as a priority “models and systems of strategic awareness, management and progress that recognize the issues, contexts and processes that actually shape their strategic change” (Buckland, 2009 , p. 533).

3 Strategic implications for performance management in public sector organisations and universities

Strategic planning and performance management are closely interconnected. In fact, if on the one hand it is difficult to achieve good results without an adequate strategic planning process, on the other hand it would make no sense to define mid- or long-term objectives, and the corresponding operational actions, without then verifying if, how, and to what extent they have actually been met and what results they have produced (Bryson, 2003 , 2004 ).

Despite this indisputable link, research in public management has mainly focused on performance rather than on strategy (Cepiku, 2018 ). This is probably due in part to the reforms that, over the last 30 years, have introduced this concept (of Anglo-Saxon origin) into the public sector by increasingly formalising its reporting (Bouckaert & Halligan, 2008 ).

Performance measurement (and management) systems are normally aimed at identifying performance targets, enabling the assessment of individuals, and informing managers when to take action to prevent deterioration in performance or when it becomes apparent that targets have not been met (Neely et al., 1994 ). The result is the need for organisations to allow the performance measurement system to support the achievement of objectives and the efficiency and effectiveness of the strategic process.

Several contributions have focused on performance management in the public sector in general (Arnaboldi et al., 2015 ; Broadbent & Laughlin, 2009 ; Cepiku et al., 2017 ; Dal Mas et al., 2019 ; de Bruijn, 2002 ; Jansen, 2008 ; Kearney & Berman, 2018 ; Lee Rhodes et al., 2012 ; Van Dooren et al., 2010 ; Van Dooren & Van de Walle, 2016 ). Others, however, have dealt with the topic of performance in specific public organisations. To name just a few, Smith ( 2005 ) analysed the topic in the healthcare sector, Mussari et al. ( 2005 ) discussed the performance of local public companies, Grossi and Mussari ( 2008 ) attempted to identify the possible different dimensions of local governments’ performance, Cohen et al. ( 2019 ) focused on the relations between local government administrative systems and their accounting and performance management information, highlighting the existence of a mismatch between the two, Bracci et al. ( 2017 ) examined the implementation of a performance measurement system in two public entities, Papi et al. ( 2018 ) elaborated and tested a model for measuring public value in a municipality, and Xavier and Bianchi ( 2020 ) investigated how performance management systems can support governments in crime control.

These studies have sometimes highlighted the important difference between performance measurement and performance management systems (Arnaboldi et al., 2015 ; Broadbent & Laughlin, 2009 ). In fact, the effort to translate results into numbers should not be a mere bureaucratic exercise but should result in the opportunity to use these data to improve the provision of services to the public (Jansen, 2008 ; Van Dooren & Van de Walle, 2016 ).

On this point, Bouckaert and Halligan ( 2006 ) specified that a complete performance management system should follow a logical sequence with three main steps: (i) measuring; (ii) integrating; and (iii) using. Merely measuring, which means collecting and processing performance data into information, is insufficient if such information is not incorporated within a broader system of documents, procedures, and discourses and subsequently used to improve decision-making, strategies, results, and accountability.

Incorporation, which is what this paper investigates, deals with including performance information in the policy, financial, and contract cycles (Van Dooren et al., 2010 ). Specifically, the policy cycle starts from the strategic plan (which defines major objectives and targets for resources, activities, outputs, and outcome), continues with the implementation, then the monitoring, followed by the evaluation (the reports from which incorporate performance information), and this feeds into the next strategic plan. The financial cycle includes budgeting and is ideally embedded in the policy cycle.

Regarding performance in higher education, this theme has attracted the attention of many scholars who have investigated the peculiarities of performance measurement tools in universities (Balabonienė & Veþerskienė, 2014 ) or how they are applied in some territorial contexts. For example, Higgins ( 1989 ) explored the case of British universities, Modell ( 2003 ) dealt with the subject in Swedish tertiary education, Guthrie and Neumann ( 2007 ) outlined the establishment and mechanisms of a performance-driven Australian university system, Ter Bogt and Scapens ( 2012 ) focused on the case of the universities of Groningen in the Netherlands and Manchester in the UK, Kallio et al. ( 2017 ) emphasised the problems of measuring quality aspects in academic work in the Finnish case, and Dobija et al. ( 2019 ) provided experiences from Polish universities. These contributions highlight that different types of performance management are used in universities and that its scope varies among different actors, depending on diverse external and internal factors. Moreover, measuring performance is difficult in knowledge-intensive organisations, where quantitative indicators may fail in catch the complexity of such institutions. Often, performance management is adopted by a university simply to comply with regulations or gain external legitimation, rather than to make a real change in the use of resources to the enhance efficiency and effectiveness of their activities.

Aversano et al. ( 2017 ) examined the evolution of performance management systems in the university context. Their study confirmed that, beyond the desired intentions, the focus is still strongly on the production of the data rather than its use to provide a holistic view of university performance that can guide strategies, programs, and activities.

Moreover, as pointed out by several authors (Bower & Gilbert, 2005 ; de Bruijn, 2002 ; Francesconi & Guarini, 2018 ; Goh et al., 2015 ; Van Thiel & Leeuw, 2002 ), one of the distinctive characteristics of strategic planning and performance management in public organisations, including universities, is connected to the issues encompassing resource allocation and budgeting practices. In fact, assigning adequate resources through the budgeting process is crucial in order to translate strategic objectives into operational objectives. Further, a feedback loop exists as, especially in recent years, the results achieved (as measured via performance management) are increasingly used by the governance body in decision-making related to budgeting.

Recently, Deidda Gagliardo and Paoloni ( 2020 ) took a snapshot of the state of the art of performance management in national universities, highlighting its strengths and weaknesses as well as predicting future challenges.

Examining the Italian context, the Italian experience has been marked by a reform in 2009 (Decree no. 150/2009), which highlighted the inadequacy of existing planning and control systems, as well as the absence or insufficiency of mechanisms for measuring and managing performance in public sector organisations. Nevertheless, to date, there remains no empirical evidence of the concrete usefulness of the tools introduced and their effective capacity to produce improvements in terms of effectiveness and efficiency in public administrations (Arnaboldi et al., 2015 ).

As illustrated, academic literature on the two research topics (strategic planning and performance management in universities) taken in isolation is quite extensive. However, the review of the literature highlights how few contributions directly link the two streams of research, looking for their interconnections (Biondi & Cosenz, 2017 ; Campedelli & Cantele, 2010 ; Cosenz, 2011 ; Francesconi and Guarini, 2018 ). In particular, the study conducted by Bronzetti et al. ( 2011 ), examining the planning methods of Italian public universities and analysing the related strategic plans under the dual dimension of process and content, identified as a future study trajectory the need to investigate the use of this document for decision-making purposes also in relation to the PP. The current paper attempts to join the debate by answering this call.

4 Methodology

In order to address our research question, this paper adopts the case study as a qualitative approach. Case study research is described as a method with which: “[…] the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bound systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information, and reports a case description and case themes. The unit of analysis in the case study might be multiple cases (a multisite study) or a single case (a within-site case study).” (Creswell, 2013 , p. 97).

Our analysis is carried out through a comparative study of the strategic planning tools and their degree of influence on the performance management systems of three Italian state universities, identified as case studies.

We applied a multiple case studies methodology with an exploratory purpose to understand “how” and “why” certain phenomena occur in a specific economic-social context (Stake, 2005 ; Yin, 2003 ).

Our decision was also motivated by interest in analysing both the single universities in detail and comparatively, in order to investigate similarities, differences, and patterns across the cases (Gustafsson, 2017 ). In this sense, the analysis is also comparative (Yin, 1993 ).

The choice of cases was driven by selecting universities that have been early adopters of these planning tools, thus being pioneers in the Italian context. This made it possible to carry out a longitudinal study for at least two complete planning cycles, highlighting their development characteristics from a temporally consistent perspective (Pauwels & Matthyssens, 2004 ). Although each university examined belongs to a different complexity group according to a recent classification (Rostan, 2015 ), the choice of strategic planning was unrelated to this dimension.

The study was based on the same level of observation, focusing on how the three universities proceeded with the introduction of the strategic planning system over time and which framework they have been using to link it to the performance management system. For all three universities, the analysis took as reference at least two programming cycles, albeit with a different time horizon.

The analysis is supported by the different context and dimensional variables of the three universities (see Table  1 ). These universities are differentiated by year of foundation (one founded in the second half of the nineteenth century, the other two more than a century after), by being located in different geographical areas (North, Central, and South Italy) and therefore having different direct competitors, as well as by size, in terms of student population, departmental articulation, active study courses, tenured teaching staff, and technical-administrative staff.

The research design is structured into different phases. Initially, we created an interpretative framework that could homogeneously highlight the areas under investigation. Hence, the variables that could better highlight the elements characterising the three universities were identified. Subsequently, the three case studies were reconstructed and illustrated. To this end, data were collected through a triangulation of sources. First, we carried out a documentary review of secondary sources, namely institutional documents (Corbetta, 2003 ) pertaining to strategic planning and the performance management cycle of the three universities. Specifically, we reviewed:

three-year planning documents;

strategic plans;

three-year and annual budgets;

reports on periodic monitoring;

performance plan and/or integrated plans;

performance reports;

minutes of the meetings of the academic bodies; and

quality manuals.

These documents are publicly available from the institutional websites of the universities.

Subsequently, evidence was complemented using primary sources, namely semi-structured interviews (Longhurst, 2003 ; Qu & Dumay, 2011 ). The interviews were with academic administrative managers involved in the strategic planning and performance management processes, and who actively participated in the drafting of these documents in each of the universities investigated. The interview protocol was based on open questions agreed by the authors, aimed at investigating “how” and “why” these processes have been developed over time. The answers helped the authors to understand the content of the documents and the dynamics underlying their elaboration.

Evidence gathered from the three case studies is presented according to the following structure, aimed at facilitating the comparison and highlighting the peculiarities among them:

the development of strategic planning process;

articulation and content; and

linking strategic planning with the performance management cycle.

5.1 The development of the strategic planning in the three cases

The three case studies may be considered as early adopters of a structured strategic planning process, in line with the relevant regulation (Law no. 240/2010). However, they have different starting dates. The first SUP of University A was issued in 2012 (although the process began in 2010), while University B’s first SUP was issued in 2013. University C can be considered not just a pioneer but a precursor of what the regulation would require, in that it started the formalisation of its planning process even before the reform came into force, in 2009.

University A’s SUP was entitled “Towards 2018” to symbolise the far-sightedness of a vision aiming for strong innovation. In the preface, according to the Rector’s assertion, the document represents a challenge to enable the university to “ compete and collaborate, with the most prestigious universities to fulfil all three of its institutional missions: research, teaching, and innovation ” (SUP 2012–2014, p. 1).

Since its inception, the SUP has been considered a document to support the Rector in his mandate by involving the top management of the organisational structures considered crucial for the university regarding its preparation (from the central structure to the individual departments, schools, and research centres). A special team was created to work on this, comprising an internal expert in corporate strategy and various collaborators. This team was also supported by the “Planning and Evaluation” Office, an organisational unit of the “Strategic Planning and Programming” area. The SUP of University A is, therefore, the result of meetings, discussions, and comparisons with the main competitors, which creates a shared strategic view of the governance of that university. Creating such “shared strategic ambition” is fundamental to mapping the strategic paths to be adopted and makes it possible to consider the plan as an actual guiding document for the university, shared by all the organisational units.

Hence, the strategic planning process of University A passes through several stages. As mentioned above, the first stage involves mapping the strategic ambition of the main subjects in charge of the university’s governance (phase 1) to verify their degree of alignment (phase 2). These two “interlocutory” phases are followed by an “objective” analysis of the internal and external environment (phase 3) to verify, in the case of conflicting subjective perceptions regarding a topic or objective, which is the correct one, but also in case of agreement, to test the validity of the concordant “subjective” perceptions. In the opinion of those who have experienced it first-hand, this is a critical “dialogical” stage in which different actors participate and discuss to reach a joint agreement. This makes it possible to reach a greater degree of alignment (phase 4) on which University A’s strategic goals should be based, which are then submitted for the attention of stakeholders before creating the final draft of the plan (phase 5). Moreover, University A has also used external consultants for specific aspects of the plan for which there was no in-house expertise.

Regarding University B’s strategic planning process, this happens in a somewhat different way. In fact, the starting point of the process is not the SUP but the TYPD. The TYPD is issued by the Rector considering the programmatic indications coming from the relevant Ministries, the proposals of the Academic Senate (SA), and the indications of the Evaluation Board. The TYPD is part of a multi-year planning process that aims to achieve the university’s effective strategic governance and management. The TYPD is an act of political direction since, drawing inspiration from the university mission, it illustrates the reference values of the government action and, from them, at the strategic level, the general objectives to be pursued regarding the typical institutional functions (research, teaching, third mission), as well as the transversal and support functions (personnel, construction, communication). The planning process then continues with the drafting of a SUP. This document defines in a more concrete and detailed way what is reported in the TYPD. In the preparation of such a document, the Rector is assisted by the Vice-Rectors (covering the areas of: teaching; research; university networks; schools, societies and institutions; relations with the labour market; innovation and technology transfer; infrastructural and workplace safety policies; and relations with university governing bodies and regulatory matters). From the analysis of the last TYPD and SUP, a link emerges between these two strategic planning documents and the document that formalises the performance cycle [called the Integrated Plan (IP), which will be discussed later]. In fact, it has been established that the SUP will undergo a periodic review, and that the TYPD itself may undergo revisions, on an annual basis, concerning the preparation of the IP.

However, the planning process seems less structured and participatory than in University A. As required by the regulations, and as confirmed in the words of one of the managers interviewed: “ The political office is responsible for political guidance, while the administration is responsible for administrative management and assists the political office. On the one hand, the SUP and TYPD are both policy documents and are, therefore, within the sphere of competence of the governing bodies. They are drawn up by the Rector and Vice-Rectors, and then approved by the Board of Directors. On the other hand, the Integrated Plan is an administrative document .”

Nevertheless, it is likely that the Vice-Rectors informally consult the General Director (GD) also regarding the definition of strategic programming documents.

Another difference from University A is that, in University B, the entire process is carried out internally, without involving external consultants. Moreover, we did not find any evidence regarding periodic monitoring of the SUP at University A. In contrast, University B draws up an intermediate monitoring document to check to what extent the objectives have been achieved and, if necessary, to modify decisions and actions. This check takes place one and a half years after the approval of the SUP. A final report is then issued at the end of the three years. While the strategic planning process is top-down (since once the SUP is approved, the departments have to draw up their own strategic plans), drafting the report on the implementation of the SUP is a bottom-up process. Each structure, starting from its strategic plan, verifies in itinere the achievement of the objectives for teaching, research, and the third mission, respectively. These reports are then consolidated and summarised at the central level by the relevant Vice-Rectors.

Moving on to the strategic planning process of University C, as highlighted, this is the university that started the formalisation of its planning process earliest, in 2009. The first SUP had a time horizon of five years and included the triennial strategic guidelines (2010–2012). This is a peculiarity in comparison with the other cases, in that the TYPD is not a separate document but embedded in the strategic plan itself.

As declared in the document, the process to issue the SUP involves much participation and different actors are engaged (like University A). In fact, the aim is to gain consensus among all the university’s stakeholders (students, academics, administrative staff), support the governance, and facilitate decision-making processes and activities, based on participation and shared ideas (SUP 2010–2014, p. 4). This first document was drawn up by a Commission made up of delegates and experts, with an advisory and consultative function of the Rector, with a specific mandate to support the preliminary stage of the university’s strategic planning documents. The document was then presented to the university’s governing bodies, ultimately incorporating the requests that emerged from its public presentations. As stated by an interviewee: “ The whole academic organisation is involved in providing the data; departments have also to adapt their strategic plan to the university’s plan ”.

This path of elaboration, redefinition, and involvement, although taking more time than expected, enhances legitimation, and strengthens consensus regarding its strategic vision by defining quite detailed and shared lines of action. For University C also, the entire process was carried out without involving external consultants.

The drawing up of this document started from the analysis of the university’s current situation, measured through the principal indicators adopted for the assessment of the university system. At the same time, the SUP considered the need for financial sustainability and enhanced efficiency and effectiveness of the university’s activity. Coherently, the delegate of the Rector for strategic planning pointed out that the main objective of University C for the next five years was enhancing the quality of performance by reducing costs and increasing revenues.

In the preface of the document, written by the Rector, we learn that the SUP will also assist in providing the main variables to be used in the next triennial strategic guidelines. In fact, the Ministry assesses and finances higher education entities based on their performance indicators and their improvement according to the objectives. This is an interesting point, which highlights a strong link between the SUP and the triennial strategic guidelines: the strategic plan initially includes the previous triennial strategic guidelines, and at the same time, conversely, is the basis for extracting information to create subsequent guidelines. Moreover, as we will see better later, the SUP also refers to the IP.

Unlike University B, the achievement of objectives is not periodically evaluated, or at least it is not formalised in any way.

5.2 Articulation and content of the documents in the three cases

The three case studies show the SUPs’ different approaches and content. These differences depend on the meaning that each university has given to the SUP, what the motivation is, and what the relationship is with the TYPD. The relationship with the latter is, in fact, a conditioning factor for the entire content of the SUP.

In University A, as already mentioned, the process of formulating the SUP began with several meetings and discussions to map and compare the subjective perceptions of the main subjects in charge of strategic governance (Rector, Vice-Rectors, Faculty Chairs, chairman of the Board of Departmental Directors, GD). To formulate a document involving the strategic nodes of the university’s future, several critical variables were considered regarding the definition of a common strategic ambition: internal structure; external structure and specific context (sector, competitors, potential entrants, complementary companies, customers, suppliers, financing bodies, communities, etc.); mission and vision; internal and external objectives; and strategies and three-year actions. As highlighted in the methodological attachment to the SUP 2012–2014 (p. 3), this document, which precedes all forms of planning and programming for the whole organisation, has been designed in such a way that it can be linked to the strategic guidelines identified, the TYPD, and the PP.

People involved were asked to describe in narrative terms their perception of University A’s strategic ambition, based on which a strategic map was created, leading ultimately to the issuing of the final SUP. The final version was based on the identification of ten objectives to be achieved through specific strategies: strategic reorganisation of research and educational activities; improving University A’s local, national, and international visibility; integration with other close universities and higher education institutions; integration with the territory; improving University A’s student services and attractiveness; enhancing the teaching staff’s potential; enhancing the technical and administrative staff’s potential; reorganising the internal structure; providing new and better spaces; and assuming a transversal sustainability orientation.

As well as focusing on the three macro areas (teaching, research, and third mission), this document also examines each objective in relation to strategies achievable through specific actions (measured via indicators).

The second strategic planning experience was developed under different conditions and initially appeared to have fewer expectations. Moreover, governance conditions had changed [turnover of the Rector and Board of Directors (BoD)] and the change in the SUP’s style appeared to be an element in distancing itself from the previous approach, while maintaining a common basis.

This emerges clearly from examining the document and the responses gathered from those who collaborated in drafting both SUPs.

The second SUP was also developed through a co-owned process that involved the entire academic community and took place in two phases. This is a completely different document, less voluminous in its content and without any methodological details, although the approach has changed.

The first phase was dedicated to identifying the university’s objectives by sharing strategic guidelines and defining the actions to be pursued in 2016–2020. The Vice-Rectors were primarily involved and, in collaboration with the reference structures, helped identify the primary objectives and strategies by dedicating ample space for all the university’s components to collaborate. The second phase was aimed at systematising the collected material, clearly defining the vision, mission, objectives, strategies, actions, and monitoring indicators, and subsequently preparing the final document.

In this sense, the interviews show that the strategic planning in these different periods was emblematically the reflection of the two different styles of governance. In the first SUP, the university wanted to demonstrate strong choices and changes, justified by work carried out with a scientific method but that also ended up creating important breaking points within the organisation. The second SUP focused more on the concept of inclusion, utilised a different leadership approach, focused on objectives other than transversal, and focused on the central administrative apparatus’s functioning. The structure of the document was based on the identification of five macro-objectives: promoting impactful research; creating a transformative study experience; acquiring an international dimension; acting as a catalyst for innovation; and guaranteeing a sustainable academic future. Subsequently, each macro-objective was broken down into objectives for which strategies and actions were identified, confirming the structure followed in the first SUP.

In University B, the SUP is divided into three separate sub-documents in more detail: a Strategic Research Plan (SUP-R); a Strategic Teaching Plan (SUP-D); and a SUP for the Third Mission (SUP-TM). These plans were prepared by the Vice-Rectors; in particular, as far as the third mission is concerned, University B has decided to establish three Vice-Rectorates who together promote and monitor: innovation and technology transfer activities; relations with schools, companies, and institutions (so-called public engagement); and relations with the world of work. As stated by an interviewee: “ The idea behind the choice of the strategic plan, articulated by areas, is to favour comprehensiveness, taking care of each area of detail. The strategic plan must be firmly linked to the lines of academic innovation; it also requires to be based on a broad consensus implemented through an increasingly participatory and inclusive procedure, involving the collegiate governing bodies, departments and schools. ”

Unlike the other two cases, which are more deeply rooted in time, the first SUP relates to the period 2015–2017, while the following SUP refers to the 2018–2020 three-year period. Analysing the two documents from a longitudinal perspective, they are identical regarding the division into the three macro-areas with which the university is concerned (this division was agreed at a central level in adherence with the three institutional activities). However, there are small changes in structure and content, partly due to natural refinements in preparing the document, and partly resulting from a change in governance (Rector and Vice-Rectors). As far as the SUP-R is concerned, its structure mirrors the two programming cycles, defining the general strategic objectives starting from the TYPD, which in turn are then translated into specific strategic objectives for which indicators are identified and actions to support them are suggested. The SUP-D, in its first formulation, after explaining the mission and vision for teaching, indicated objectives, actions, and monitoring/success factors. The second version, however, begins with the formulation of the overall strategy for the university’s didactics, moving to an “as is” analysis based on data derived from the university’s Indicators Sheet (made available by ANVUR, the Italian National Agency for the Evaluation of the University and Research Systems) to identify strengths and weaknesses, subsequently identifying four general “strategic objectives” (called “general lines”), each with (specific) “objectives” and “actions”. The SUP-TM has undergone major changes in the transition from one three-year period to another. In its first formulation, the SUP-TM 2018–2020 was a descriptive report of the initiatives conducted by the university (e.g. activities related to lifelong learning, the Palladium theatre, the Job SOUL platform, summer schools, and social reporting); the SUP-TM 2018–2020 is much more structured, articulating the three established Vice-Rectorates’ third mission areas and indicating for each of them the general strategic objectives (called “lines of intervention”), outlined in actions and a proposal of indicators for evaluating their achievement.

There is no direct evidence of how the Vice-Rectorates proceeded operationally in elaborating the individual plans, although in his policy document the Rector encouraged a “participative” process and, from the minutes of approval of the last SUP by the SA and the BoD, it can be seen that: “ the document is the result of collective work, which has been widely participated and shared ”.

It is only in the SUP-TM 2018–2020 that it is clearly stated that, in order to draw up the document, “ it was considered appropriate to schedule meetings with the individual Departments with the intention of carrying out a complete survey of the experiences and good practices in progress, as well as to submit the main strategic lines represented here, in order to gather possible stimuli and suggestions for improvement from the departmental realities that have so far largely contributed to the development of the Third Mission ” (SUP-TM 2018–2020, p. 40). The data appear to be important as they show how the content of the document is the expression of sharing and participation with the individual departments representing the main driving force of the university, despite their autonomy.

The administrative bodies also participated, as it emerged that the Vice-Rectors, despite having prepared their respective plans without consulting the offices, informally consulted the GD and various structures. This is evident both from the interviews and the minutes mentioned above, where it is stated that the Rector, in addition to thanking the Directors, also thanked the GD as well as the BoD “ for having contributed effectively, each for the aspects within his or her competence, to the drafting of the Plan ”.

In University C, regarding the first document issued in in 2009, by integrating the strategies outlined in the triennial strategic guidelines, the Rector declared: “ The document outlines the roadmap of the university’s actions in the main areas, namely education, student services, research and knowledge transfer, internationalisation, human resources, organisational structure and building plan ”.

The initial aim was to address areas considered of absolute strategic importance, i.e. the three macro-areas (teaching, research, and the third mission), focusing on describing the university, context analysis, and identifying objectives and related targets and indicators. This immediately clarified the meaning to be given to the instrument. Transversal to the whole document, in contrast to the other two cases considered, is the financial dimension and the link between objectives and the forecast of financial flows in and out. As claimed by an interviewee: “ The key point for the university is the improvement of all the university’s performances in relation to parameters of the ordinary financing fund, parameters of the three-year plan, but also to all those parameters that can bring the university back to a better position in national and international rankings ”.

The SUP is articulated in different sections. It begins by describing the university (number of students, professors and lecturers, administrative staff, etc.) and then illustrates its situation “as is” through a SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis. The SWOT analysis represents the starting point for the elaboration of the SUP. The SWOT analysis, used as a method to define strategy, focuses primarily on the following points: training, student services, and internationalisation; research and knowledge transfer; and human resources.

Consequently, the document then highlights seven “strategic lines” of interventions: teaching; students services; research and knowledge transfer; internationalisation; human resources; organisational structure; and building plans. For each strategic line, different indicators are derived from the current legislative regulations. Finally, a summary table synthesises objectives, actors, starting year, and human and financial resources allocated for each strategic line.

In the conclusions, the Commission states that the plan is intentionally concise, and it is not further expanded on or detailed in order to allow the governing bodies to define methodologies and responsibilities for implementation. It is also stated that an essential condition for initiating, sustaining, and continuing the process is a control both for the implementation and monitoring of the plan.

The second SUP shortens its time horizon to three years (2014–2016). The document appears less readable, has no summary, is full of tables, and has few descriptions. It includes again a SWOT analysis and subsequently describes the strategic lines, which are almost the same as in the previous SUP. However, unlike the previous SUP, it does not contain a summary table with the objectives, actors, timing, and resources for each strategic line. Moreover, no final considerations or conclusions are displayed; there is only an initial page, written by the delegate for strategic planning, quickly commenting on “how” what they planned in the SUP 2009–2013 had been achieved, and stating that the university had to manage the shortfall, which was worse than expected. Overall, it considers that the general objective of “ enhancing the quality of performance by reducing costs and increasing revenues ” was achieved.

This document appears to be less focused than the first plan and was probably less participatory.

The SUP 2016–2018 starts with the macro-objectives for the following three years: enhancing the quality of teaching, research, and internationalisation; increasing commitment toward the third mission; and pursuing and implementing the university’s quality assurance system. Again, it opens with an analysis of the context, subsequently identifying the strategic lines: didactics; student services; research; internationalisation; third mission; and staff required. For each there are now clearly highlighted objectives, related actions, and coherent indicators. The document also appears to be more understandable thanks to summary tables for each strategic line.

The current SUP (2019–2021) is the shortest in length (35 pages). It appears as an extract from the minutes of the BoD. Both the format and the content are similar to the previous SUP. The only significant difference relates to the strategic lines, with the inclusion in the summary tables of a column highlighting the target.

From the documentary analysis of University C and the interviews, it emerges that there is no real TYPD among the planning documents. The triennial strategic guidelines are somehow included in the SUP. This entails that it is not easy to understand the relation between the two, i.e. whether the strategic planning documents’ strategic objectives are derived from the triennial strategic guidelines or vice-versa.

In all three cases, the SUPs were created in response to the needs arising from governance reforms and different decision-making and management tools at their disposal. In University A, the SUP’s adoption is more than a methodological and recognition exercise, as evidenced by the document that preceded the first concrete plan. The document also makes explicit the decision to promote integration between the TYPD and the PP, as opposed to between the SUP and the PP. This is largely different in Universities B and C, in which this relationship is more linear and the choice of the SUP, in addition to choosing explicit values, objectives, and expected results, becomes a choice of thematic areas on which to work pragmatically.

In University A, as the former Rector states in the prologue to the formulation document, “ the university has gone beyond the regulatory wanted to formulate a Strategic Plan to clearly define the values in which it believes, its mission values in which it believes, the mission it has set itself and, above all, its vision and related objectives, the strategies to achieve them and the necessary actions the necessary actions ”. In University B, although the methodological value of the preamble to the SUP explains the articulation of the components, the document immediately focuses on the three main areas (teaching, research, and third mission). In University C, the drafting methods, while providing an explicit methodological basis, identify various strategic lines, similar to University A.

5.3 Linking strategic planning with performance management in the three cases

From the analysis of the data gathered through the documentary analysis and the interviews, it is possible to attempt to identify a link between strategic planning and performance management systems in the three cases analysed, as well as with the allocation of financial resources.

In University A, as already mentioned, there is a kind of logical inversion between the two strategic planning documents, since the TYPD is a tool for implementing the SUP, through three-year actions. The opposite happens in University B, where the SUP is characterised as a document implementing the three-year strategic guidelines. Something different again happens in University C, where the SUP initially includes the previous triennial strategic guidelines, and at the same time, conversely, is the starting point to for defining subsequent ones.

In University A, the main document of the performance management cycle, the PP, refers to the TYPD. As the methodological document attached to the SUP indicates, “ TYPD and PP can be consolidated into a single document that, while distinguishing the specific areas of intervention, leaves no doubt about their common starting point: the strategic ambition of the University ” (Methodological attachment to the SUP 2012–2014, p. 3). The PP 2014–2016, therefore, explicitly refers to a cascading system between the SUP, the TYPD, and the PP, confirming, on the one hand, the regulatory obligation and, on the other hand, the need to link the planning of activities to the degree of response from the organisation in its various components. The TYPD represents, in terms of continuity and the cascading of objectives, the link between the strategic objectives defined by the SUP and the operational objectives of the individual organisational structures of the university identified by the PP. In other words, the PP is the tool for implementing the TYPD. The PP, structured on an annual horizon (despite having a three-year duration), constitutes the reference for measuring results and assessing organisational and individual performance.

Unlike the strategic planning documents, the PP is prepared by the administrative staff. In University A, the individual organisational structures are required to propose operational objectives indicating: (1) the reference strategy identified within the SUP; (2) the perspective within which the identified operational objective is placed, concerning the eight perspectives identified by the TYPD; (3) the process overseen by the structure to which the objective refers; (4) a brief description of the objective and expected results; (5) the proposed indicator and its valuation with respect to the expected value; and (6) the financial resources allocated to the pursuit of each operational objective. Subsequently, the objectives of the PP are linked to the individual perspectives of the TYPD, such as the internal structure, teaching, integration with the territory, internationalisation, personnel, research, sustainability, and students.

Focusing on the development of the performance management system and the link with the strategic planning system over time, the document’s structure has been kept almost unchanged. However, after 2015, the idea of a document with a solid operational connotation, respecting the three phases of the performance cycle, became more generally accepted. At the same time, an increasing need was perceived to develop, in a systemic way, the planning of administrative activities in terms of performance, transparency, and anti-corruption. In this context, since 2016, the new guidelines have introduced the IP. As declared by an interviewee: “The intention has always been to keep the Strategic Plan separate from the performance management instruments, so that the Integrated Plan would draw on the objectives set by the Strategic Plan, but could also have a life on its own. We are aware that sometimes in other public sector administrations the Strategic Plan coincides with the Integrated Plan.”

The performance objectives identified in the IP, which are operational, are strictly linked to the strategic objectives contained in the SUP. The process for their definition follows two stages. In the first phase, the structures propose transversal objectives, shared by two or more organisational units; in the second phase, the structure objectives are proposed (individual, i.e. associated with a single organisational unit). The performance goals are divided into organisational performance goals and individual performance goals. The process of evaluating organisational performance is hierarchical and starts from the evaluation of the university’s performance based on the evaluation of those indicators related to economic and financial sustainability, scientific productivity, and internationalisation. The organisational performance of the departments, schools, and research centres is measured considering indicators related to research, teaching, internationalisation, and management efficiency. The PR closes the cycle, using the indicators provided by ANVUR.

In University B, the PP, whose first issuing was in 2011, from 2016 also started including information relating to transparency and anti-corruption, becoming an IP. The reason for that can be found in the words of an interviewee: “ The need to move from the PP to the IP derives from the need to avoid writing the same things in different documents or, vice versa, the risk of writing different things in the three documents (actually this has never happened in our university, since the documents were prepared by the same structure). Moreover, it is appropriate to have an IP because, in defining the managers’ objectives, they take into account different aspects (anti-corruption, transparency, efficiency). ”

This document is essentially aimed at the central administration, albeit with references to the university’s entire activity. The IP is drawn up by the office managers and the GD, while the structure that coordinates the entire process is the personnel area management.

As highlighted before, the IP concerns the administrative sphere and is an expression of how the academic organisation pursues its management objectives and implements its functions, in support of the political bodies, in achieving the strategic objectives of teaching, research, and the third mission, as reported in the planning process. The preparation of the IP, therefore, starts from the basic guidelines contained in the TYPD and the SUP and then, through various meetings with managers and top management, they are translated into operational objectives, which are subsequently translated into actions, indicators, and targets based on which performance measurement, evaluation, and reporting is carried out. This is clearly represented in the performance tree, a tool which, in a “cascading” logic, “graphically represents the links between strategic priorities, general strategic guidelines and operational objectives” (IP 2020–2022, p. 15).

While there was no clear link between strategic planning and performance management cycle in the past, University B’s last IP now displays an explicit reference to the SUP. In particular, the GD’s objectives (and related actions) derive directly from the strategic objectives set out in the SUP, while the managers’ objectives derive, in turn, from those of the GD, and therefore only indirectly from the SUP.

Finally, the closing document is the PR. The PR is drawn up by the GD annually, following a specific format. This document makes it possible to highlight the organisational and individual results achieved in relation to the expected targets regarding the individual planned objectives and resources.

The approach described for the IP is also confirmed in this document, i.e. a comparison is made with the strategic planning documents and, in particular, with the monitoring of the SUP, as well as taking into account the report that the GD prepares at the end of each year on management activities.

As declared by the GD during a meeting of the BoD: “ The IP has been really improved compared to the past, both in terms of editorial and content. This is thanks to the fruitful work of the managers involved. The IP demonstrates, in the best possible way, the ability to coherently correlate administrative activities with the planning policy documents adopted by the university […]. This document […] highlights the coherence between the university’s strategic planning system at the political level, the management activities, and the financial planning. ”

In line with the regulations, University C planned also to adopt a system of performance evaluation in 2010 by issuing the first PP for the period 2011–2013. However, on the institutional website of the university, we found an archive where the first PP is the one dated 2013–2015, so we do not have any information about the very first PP, except for the fact it was based on the application of the Common Assessment Framework (CAF) model.

In this document, a performance tree highlights the logical roadmap, which links the institutional mandate, the mission, the strategic areas, the strategic objectives (with their indicators and targets), and the operational plan (which includes operational objectives, actors, and resources). In the first PPs, three different strategic areas were identified: didactics; research; and services (then named the “Executive Plan”). The latter includes the objectives assigned to the GD from which are derived the objectives to be assigned to each manager, in addition to those arising from the strategic planning documents. However, we did not find an explicit link between these objectives and those of the SUP; instead, the document seeks alignment between the performance cycle and the financial reporting planning cycle.

By comparing the different PPs, it emerges that the strategic objectives related to the three strategic areas have changed over time. Moreover, while the strategic areas of didactics and research are under the responsibility of the political bodies, the strategic area of the Executive Plan is under the responsibility of the GD who, also through the other managers, is responsible for the correct management of the organisation, as well as for verifying its effectiveness and efficiency.

Another crucial strategic objective is transparency, which is directly related to the performance of the administrative activity and the best use of public resources; therefore, the objectives of the PP are closely related to the strategic and operational planning of the administration and are considered strategic for the university itself.

In the process of identifying the areas of intervention, different actors have been involved: the political body; the Rector; the delegates of the Rector in the areas of strategic planning, didactics, and research; and the GD, who in turn consults the managers involved. In order to gather and analyse the data, the self-evaluation committee and self-evaluation support group are also involved. The 2013–2015 PP concludes with the desire to improve the process both by anticipating the preparation of the plan together with the budget, and by better involving stakeholders and all delegates and managers and sharing with more actors the actions and strategies to be implemented.

Similar to Universities A and B, in 2016, the PP became an IP. The IP is organised in five sections:

The strategic framework of the university, where the main lines of development of the administrative activity are indicated, according to the strategic planning documents, the financial reporting planning documents, and the actions taken and to be taken.

The organisational performance, which constitutes the central part of the IP, which lists the objectives of the planned actions, the related monitoring and measurement indicators, and all those involved in administrative performance.

Analysis of risk areas, drawn up according to the guidelines provided by the Anti-Corruption Authority (ANAC), whereby the areas at risk of corruption are defined.

Communication and transparency, which specifies the actions that the university intends to promote in order to meet the requirements of transparency and contains the communication plans aimed at informing stakeholders about the results achieved by the university.

Individual performance, the last section of the plan, which describes the criteria that the university intends to adopt for the assignment of individual objectives, as well as for the evaluation and monetary incentives for technical-administrative staff.

In the IP 2016–2018, for the first time, an important attachment was added highlighting the links between the SWOT analysis and the SUP by creating a more direct link between strategic planning and performance management.

This link is strengthened in the IPs 2018–2020 and 2019–2022, where a specific section recalls the macro-objectives of the SUP and connects the strategic guidelines of the IP with them. The document explicitly states that, although the IP strategic guidelines do not precisely coincide in wording and number with those mentioned in the SUP 2016–2018, these strategic objectives derive from that document (IP 2018–2020, p. 12).

Further on in the document, it is reaffirmed that the link between the university’s strategies and the performance cycle is of fundamental importance: the relationship between strategic planning and performance management systems is expressed as a link between the university’s political perspective of development, set out in the SUP, and the management actions to be implemented to achieve the expected results, contained in the IP (IP 2020–2022, p. 17). As learned from an interviewee: “ The university in the last years has introduced a new planning process which aims to maintain coherence between the operational dimension (performance), the dimension linked to access and usability of information (transparency), and the dimension linked to access to information (transparency). Moreover, the more recent IPs aim for greater consistency with the strategic planning system, in that the objectives of the performance planning are in line with, and derive from, the objectives of the strategic planning .”

As literature highlights (Bower & Gilbert, 2005 ; Francesconi & Guarini, 2018 ; Goh et al., 2015 ), evidence confirms that the strategic planning and the performance management dimensions are strongly connected with the resource allocation in all three cases. In University A’s budget, we read that its “ formulation is carried out through a process in which the (strategic and operational) objectives of the University drive the resources allocation aimed at their achievement. It represents the translation of those strategic lines in monetary terms ” (Annual and Three-Year Budget, p. 8). At the same time, in the IP, we found a link between the budget and the performance cycle. In fact, University A is trying to progressively optimise the allocation of its resources, by investing them in long-term projects that can have a positive impact on performance, to draw up a budget that is as consistent as possible with the strategies, following the circularity that characterises the strategic, financial, and operational planning phases.

As far as University B is concerned, on the one hand, the annual budget and the three-year budget (composed of the economic and investment budgets) are the technical and accounting tools through which the university’s strategic goals are set out in the short and medium term following the institutional mission of the university. Another important tool is represented by the activity budget, a document included in the explanatory note to the budget, through which strategic and operational goals are connected to the quantity and the quality of resources allocated to their achievement by highlighting the budget specifically earmarked for the pursuit of strategic actions and objectives. On the other hand, the IP represents the document by means of which performance is linked to the budget cycle. As it is clearly expressed: “ The integration between the budget cycle and the performance cycle makes the Integrated Plan the means through which disclosing both the recommendations included in the strategic planning documents, as well as the initiatives aimed at improving the effectiveness and efficiency of the University’s management processes ” (IP, p. 3). Coherently, the IP depicts the amount of budgetary resources necessary to achieve the operational objectives, as determined in the planning phase.

Turning to University C, both the documentary analysis and the interviews revealed the willingness to make the budget increasingly consistent with the strategic objectives provided by the governance, through a path of integration and circularity between the strategic planning and the budgeting processes aimed at enhancing the quality and efficiency of services, with a view to continuous improvement. This connection was still partial during the years under investigation; however, an interviewee stated that: “ In the next years, we intend to draw up a road map to define the timing of all operational activities, also for a gradual coordination between budget and objectives, towards an alignment of the two planning processes phases ”. Conversely, a similar path has been traced to increasingly link resource allocation to performance. In fact, as scholars have also identified in other cases (Van Dooren et al., 2010 ; Van Thiel & Leeuw, 2002 ), University C has started a performance budgeting system, by identifying specific financial resources for all the GD’s objectives from 2017 onwards. Moreover, the internal distribution of resources to departments is based on the results achieved, with a budget allocation policy based on awards and other selective criteria.

In all three universities, we therefore notice that the integration between strategic planning and performance management systems is an ongoing process that is being improved over time. Evidence demonstrates the willingness of these universities not only to meet regulatory requirements, but also to implement the logic of planning, both at political and administrative levels, to promote the proper functioning of the academic organisation, with a view to improving decision-making processes and accountability towards its stakeholders. However, while strategic planning information is incorporated in the performance management system, the role that performance management systems play in redefining strategies is less evident.

6 Discussion and conclusions

The comparative analysis of the multiple case studies carried out in Section 5, although without making any claims regarding generalisability, provides interesting food for thought on how strategic planning is conceived by universities, how the process to define strategies is developed and connected with the operational documents and budget, and to what extent the strategic planning system can be integrated with the performance management system, overcoming semantic boundaries and capturing the implicit links.

Moreover, the interviews with some of the main actors involved in the two systems help to understand also the reasons underpinning certain political and administrative choices. Table  2 summarises our findings across the three case studies, as detailed in Section 5.

Concerning the strategic planning system, evidence demonstrates that, as Boyne and Walker ( 2010 ) claimed, the definition of the strategies is a process that is more effective the more it results in a shared and collective effort towards a common vision.

This is more likely to happen in those public organisations where the unitary strategy is the synthesis of different strategic visions, linked to heterogeneous contexts and needs. Universities, embracing several areas of teaching, specialisation, and research, fall into this situation. In addition, the decision-making processes at universities are often complicated and extended due to the involvement and different interests of academic structures composed of professors and administrative staff.

Examining the three cases, a core aspect is the degree of participation of different actors involved in the process. While for University B the elaboration of the SUP is mainly delegated to the Vice-Rectors, who probably only informally consult the GD, in University A and University C, it appears to be more participatory and formalised. In fact, in University A, the project team involves different stakeholders in the process (including their competitors) through sharing the strategic ambitions of the governance bodies. This was mainly observed in the first wave of strategic planning. In the second wave, the phenomenon was scaled down, also in terms of participation, to make way for a more apparently centralised vision, but less impactful than the previous one. In University C, different political and administrative actors are involved in defining the areas of strategic intervention: the political body; the Rector; the delegates of the Rector in the areas of strategic planning, didactics, and research; and the GD, who in turn consults the other managers involved. During this time, University C has experienced better involvement from stakeholders and managers, and shared the actions and strategies to be implemented with more actors.

Moreover, University B has apparently not used external consultants, and neither has University C. University A, however, in the drafting of the second SUP, turned to external parties for various specific aspects (definition of strategic positioning and internationalisation strategy).

Therefore, three different patterns emerge, which can be placed along a spectrum ranging from University B, through University C, to University A. For example, University B still wants to maintain a clear distinction between the political and administrative sphere, and the strategic planning process involves only internal actors and only at the political level. University C, still maintaining the process as entirely internal, is instead trying to make a collective effort to bring both the political and administrative spheres of the university together towards common goals. The latter formalises a process in which participation is the widest, even involving external stakeholders.

This is also largely confirmed by when and where the SUP is placed in the strategic planning process and among the planning documents. For example, the placement of the SUP in the three universities is different. In University B, the SUP derives from the TYPD, and both are interpreted as documents of a more political-institutional nature (also due to the methods and actors involved in their elaboration). In University A, the SUP is placed upstream of the TYPD. This position, in addition to projecting a different integration of the concept of strategy that should normally be inferred from political indications/lines, also predisposes it in a different way with respect to the IP. University C displays a peculiarity compared to the other cases, in that the TYPD is not a separate document but embedded in the strategic plan itself. This has been done to highlight and reinforce an even stronger connection between the two planning documents. It should be pointed out that the TYPD takes on a more strictly bureaucratic and ritual programmatic character, while the SUP becomes the instrument to which a more managerial character is assigned, in accordance with a methodology and content more capable of incorporating the involvement of the organisation.

Despite the high political value of strategic planning documents, examining their time horizon reveals that none of the three SUPs has a duration equal to the rectoral mandate. In University B, the duration of the plan is three years, in University A it is four years, and in University C three to four years. Moreover, observing the programming cycles from a longitudinal point of view, it emerges that, for all three universities, although the change in the governance bodies has marked an important transformation, strategies have not been overturned and the SUP has maintained its consistency over time, outlining for all the three universities the importance of guaranteeing continuity and a medium- to long-term vision.

Regarding the performance management system, all three universities comply with the academic regulations, which require issuing a PP (which recently extended its content in terms of transparency and anti-corruption by becoming an IP). At the end of the year, the GD elaborates the PR, highlighting the organisational and individual results achieved with respect to the planned objectives and allocated resources. However, going beyond mere bureaucratic compliance, as the literature affirms (Bouckaert & Halligan, 2006 ; Van Dooren et al., 2010 ), the measuring of performance is only the first step towards a proper performance management process from which implementation should follow. In fact, performance information needs to be incorporated into the management system before it can be used.

The issue of implementation is relevant in answering our research question. As stated, our analysis focuses on the policy cycle, attempting to understand to what extent there is a link between strategic planning and performance management systems, also considering the budgeting process within the financial cycle. As emerges from the documentary analysis and the interviews, all three universities declare a correlation between the two systems and show coherence between the performance objectives and strategic objectives. On the one hand, it is possible to state that performance documents, procedures, and discourse incorporate strategic planning information. Hence, strategic planning tools contribute to performance management systems, since evidence demonstrates that performance objectives included in the IPs are partly derived from the strategic areas of interventions included in the strategic documents. This link is expressed in the connection between each university’s development policy perspectives, outlined in the strategic planning documents, as well as the systems, operations, and logic used by the administration to define its management objectives, monitor its performance, identify corrective actions, and evaluate the results achieved. This seems to happen according to a top-down logic, from the political function (responsible for defining strategic guidelines) to the administrative function (responsible for the most operational activities).

However, on the other hand, performance management systems do not really help to reshape universities’ strategies; barely any performance information is incorporated in the strategic planning process. In fact, the PR evaluates performance information for the purpose of assessing past performance. According to the policy cycle (Van Dooren et al., 2010 , p. 91), these evaluation reports should feed forward into the next strategic plan. However, we do not have evidence about whether, or how, this happens. This is probably because, in many cases, performance barely meets organisational and academic needs. While descending from strategies, the performance system in complex organisations such as universities risks impeding an integrated view of the organisation in its different administrative and academic components.

As far as the financial cycle is concerned, evidence demonstrates that, although internal resources allocation is different among the three cases, this difference reflects their different strategies and priorities. It is, therefore, possible to highlight consistency not only between the strategic planning and performance management systems of these universities, as Francesconi and Guarini ( 2018 ) also demonstrated, but also with their budgeting process. Indeed, in all three cases, willingness is evident to achieve an increasingly meaningful connection between the strategic planning process, the financial planning process, and the more operational dimension of performance. The need to pursue this virtuous path derives from a growing awareness from the academic governance and management of the currently perceived connection and interdependence of these dimensions. The dynamic environment in which universities operate leaves no room for isolated management of these aspects. Therefore, it is necessary to take an overall view to exploit the synergies arising from this link, aiming to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the services provided.

This study’s main limitation is its focus primarily on the policy cycle, since our analysis has been carried out at the governmental and top management level, without going into detail at the lowest organisational levels, such as departments and other structures. Although conscious of this limitation, we believe this research may have important theoretical and practical implications.

The theoretical implications are twofold. First, evidence leads to considerations regarding the adoption of strategic planning in public organisations with different effects than in other organisations. Although the value of strategic planning is recognised as fundamental for public sector organisations, what emerges for public universities is not immediately generalisable to other public entities because of the specific nature of the higher education sector. Strategic planning shifts from opportunity to necessity for rationalising decisions and vision, redirecting the organisation towards shared values, objectives, and goals, as long as participation in the elaboration of plans is not neglected.

Second, the link between strategic planning and performance management seems to be more evident, even if a university’ performance system undergoes different declinations and it is not always easy to find a cohesive link with strategies. Universities are extremely complex in the articulation of their established aims. What a strategic plan can support in organisational terms may not be of value from an academic point of view in the narrower sense, particularly regarding research, which requires different planning rules from other activities in the organisation. This has consequences on performance, which take on different connotations and nuances. A performance measurement system is undoubtedly linked to the organisation’s ability to define achievable and successful strategies, but the ability to forecast university performance is not always anchored to all the elements that characterise it.

The practical implications of this study include suggestions for universities’ governance bodies related to supporting their decision-making processes in the definition of their long-term objectives and performance management systems. It is also recommended that information arising from the performance management system should also be used to periodically reshape strategies, implementing a virtuous circle between strategic planning and performance management systems.

Change history

22 july 2022.

Missing Open Access funding information has been added in the Funding Note.

Abbreviations

Italian Anti-Corruption Authority

Italian National Agency for the Evaluation of the University and Research Systems

Bachelor’s Degrees

Board of Directors

Common Assessment Framework

General Director

Integrated Plan

Master’s Degrees

New Public Management

Doctoral Degrees

Performance Plan

Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System

Performance Report

Academic Senate

Strategic University Plan

Strategic Teaching Plan

Strategic Research Plan

Strategic Plan for the Third Mission

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats

Three-Year Planning Document

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Biondi, L., Russo, S. Integrating strategic planning and performance management in universities: a multiple case-study analysis. J Manag Gov 26 , 417–448 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10997-022-09628-7

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A new blueprint for performance management

Featured topics, october 23, 2021.

In-depth interviews with 67 elite performers have shown us where organizations are going wrong with performance management — and how to make it right.

It's time for businesses to make feedback a natural and regular part of working life

Almost nobody we speak to in the corporate world seems satisfied with their performance management processes — and absolutely nobody knows what to do about it. We’ve all tried making tweaks. We’ve revisited, revised and relaunched. But no organization has managed to crack the age-old problem of how to cultivate feedback conversations that consistently drive improvements in performance.

To get a fresh and highly informed perspective on the subject, we asked 67 top-flight performers in fields ranging from theatre, film and TV to medicine and emergency services to tell us about their experiences of performance management. What they described to us was an approach, understanding and mindset that are unlike anything we are used to in the corporate sphere.

In their world, feedback is built into the day-to-day rhythm of work, not stored up to be shared in annual performance reviews.

In their world, those giving feedback are masters in human behavior, so they do not have to fall back on fixed performance management plan of action but can instead provide personalized and highly effective input whenever and wherever it is needed.

In their world, performance management is seen as a collaborative process, where feedback givers share “notes” rather than opinions, and work with feedback receivers to co-create improvement ideas.

In their world, people become accustomed to receiving feedback very early on in their careers and see input from others as critical to driving performance.

The point is that their world works. Ours doesn’t. So, we say it’s time for us to rip up the rulebook of performance management and create a new blueprint for driving individual and team performance across the corporate world.

What’s wrong with performance management?

In the corporate world, we tend to discuss performance management in terms of ratings, structure, process and other formal procedures and techniques. But for the elite performers we spoke to, feedback is the key to shaping growth, improvement and course correction — not formal performance management plans or interventions. What’s more, feedback is viewed as a fundamental part of everyday life. Everyone expects it. Everyone is hungry for it. As British Olympian, Alex Partridge, put it:

“Feedback is the only way to improve in rowing. You come off the water and analyze immediately. This feedback loop — three times a day — ensures you constantly do what is needed.”

Learning from our research participants, we believe it is time to redefine feedback conversations and their role in how we think about performance management. Feedback should not be seen as a nice-to-have. It has to become a natural and regular part of the corporate workplace.

Create the right environment for feedback

Effective performance conversations do not just happen by chance. It is critical to develop, embed and sustain the right conditions to enable free-flowing feedback between managers and employees to thrive within an organization. We have identified three key pieces of “scaffolding” you need to have in place to create a more impactful performance management environment.

First is a shared performance purpose . This gives people reason to seek out, accept and understand feedback — because, in doing so, they are helping the team achieve a common goal.

Second: culture and values . The aim should be to create an environment where feedback becomes just “what we do around here,” and is given and received across the peer group.

Third is a climate of psychological safety. This means an environment in which people do not feel threatened by feedback, and where they know they won’t be punished for making a mistake. As Ted Brandsen, Director of the Netherlands National Ballet, explains:

“I think they’ve got to be in a place where they feel comfortable and in control, not threatened. It’s not being called into the headmaster’s office. A bit more casual, I think, would be best.”

Sort the timing

The elite performers we spoke to were shocked to learn how long feedback is routinely “stored up” in the corporate world before being shared. In their minds, feedback is something to be given in the moment, circumstances permitting. The idea that performance management plans arrange for feedback to be given on an annual, quarterly or even monthly basis is completely alien to them.

The arguments in favor of regular, spontaneous feedback are many. For one thing, people’s memories are extremely unreliable. The longer feedback is delayed, the less recognizable it becomes and the less impact it has on the receiver. For another thing, the shorter work cycles of today’s business environment are not suited to a formal process of annual or quarterly reviews. It is much better to have a performance management process where individuals can set a personal rhythm for feedback directly linked to the cycle of their work.

Achieving a constant flow of feedback between managers and employees is difficult — but doable. Organizations could start by baking “feedback moments” into the daily cycle of work (for example by starting every meeting with a quick note on what feedback attendees might want at the end) and ensuring there is time for a dedicated reflection point at the end of each performance cycle.

Help leaders see the person

Providing nuanced and actionable feedback is not easy. Organizations have tried to help feedback givers meet the challenge by providing them with conversation models, scripts, rules and formulas. But the truth is that no amount of formal support mechanisms or stringent performance management plans will ever be enough. Delivering personalized feedback in the moment requires leaders who have both a deep understanding of human behavior and a significant level of self-awareness, as well.

Our research participants have helped us identify five key traits that define a successful feedback giver: courage, humility, credibility, empathy and honesty. Through our discussions, we have also managed to define the thought process that effective feedback givers go through before delivering any feedback. It looks something like this:

“What is it specifically I see going on?

“What am I hearing? Am I totally present?”

“What is the impact of what I am seeing and hearing?”

“Will the feedback I want to give shift performance?”

“Is this the right moment for the feedback to be received?”

The final piece of the puzzle for effective feedback-giving is the concept of “notes”. It’s a concept we came across many times in our interviews with participants in fields as wide-ranging as the military and the arts. It describes an approach to collecting and summarizing observations on a performance, with the aim of making the performance better — and thus, your performance management efforts more meaningful. Most critically, the process of taking and delivering notes is a part of how the work gets done. It’s not treated as a separate activity (as feedback in industry often is).

Grow feedback-hungry individuals

Feedback is a two-way process. So, if we really want to boost performance — and make sure our performance management efforts do not fall on deaf ears — we need to look beyond feedback givers to consider what makes a good feedback receiver, as well.

The good news is that effective feedback receivers — like feedback givers — are made, not born. It demands a set of skills that can be acquired through practice. And the earlier you start building those skills, the bigger impact it will have on your long-term performance and career.

One critical area for individuals to work on is self-awareness. Not only does this make you more receptive to feedback from others, but it also promotes a mechanism for more objective self-assessment.

Another critical area is resilience. Why? Because feedback, however constructive, is a form of adversity. The more resilient you are, the better equipped you will be to handle — and benefit from — regular, honest feedback.

Driving individual and leadership accountability

Our research tells us there are some key enablers of successful performance management transformation in terms of the culture and work environment, the process fundamentals, the traits and thought processes of feedback givers, and the resilience and self-awareness of feedback receivers. Get all these interdependent elements right and you will have gone a long way to driving individual and leader accountability for great feedback conversations.

We’ll leave the last words to one of our participants, Patsy Rodenburg OBE, Head of Voice at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London, who provided us with a perfect description of the kind of performance management interaction we should all be aiming for:

“You can’t say, ‘Come into my office and you sit on that chair and I’ll sit here.’ You have to have a tremendous amount of respect for the person. There’s got to be a humanity in that moment when two people are present together.”

Download the full performance management whitepaper for more a detailed breakdown of our research and to discover the key steps organizations can take to create a performance management process and culture that enables individuals and teams excel.

Download the PDF

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4 Reasons Why Managers Fail

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• Atrijit Das,
• Vitorio Bretas,
• Jonah Shepp

Nearly half of all managers report buckling under the stress of their role and struggling to deliver.

Gartner research has found that managers today are accountable for 51% more responsibilities than they can effectively manage — and they’re starting to buckle under the pressure: 54% are suffering from work-induced stress and fatigue, and 44% are struggling to provide personalized support to their direct reports. Ultimately, one in five managers said they would prefer not being people managers given a choice. Further analysis found that 48% of managers are at risk of failure based on two criteria: 1) inconsistency in current performance and 2) lack of confidence in the manager’s ability to lead the team to future success. This article offers four predictors of manager failure and offers suggestions for organizations on how to address them.

The job of the manager has become unmanageable. Organizations are becoming flatter every year. The average manager’s number of direct reports has increased by 2.8 times over the last six years, according to Gartner research. In the past few years alone, many managers have had to make a series of pivots — from moving to remote work to overseeing hybrid teams to implementing return-to-office mandates.

• Swagatam Basu is senior director of research in the Gartner HR practice and has spent nearly a decade researching leader and manager effectiveness. His work spans additional HR topics including learning and development, employee experience and recruiting. Swagatam specializes in research involving extensive quantitative analysis, structured and unstructured data mining and predictive modeling.
• Atrijit Das is a senior specialist, quantitative analytics and data science, in the Gartner HR practice. He drives data-based research that produces actionable insights on core HR topics including performance management, learning and development, and change management.
• Vitorio Bretas is a director in the Gartner HR practice, supporting HR executives in the execution of their most critical business strategies. He focuses primarily on leader and manager effectiveness and recruiting. Vitorio helps organizations get the most from their talent acquisition and leader effectiveness initiatives.
• Jonah Shepp is a senior principal, research in the Gartner HR practice. He edits the Gartner  HR Leaders Monthly  journal, covering HR best practices on topics ranging from talent acquisition and leadership to total rewards and the future of work. An accomplished writer and editor, his work has appeared in numerous publications, including  New York   Magazine ,  Politico   Magazine ,  GQ , and  Slate .

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100s of Free Management Dissertation Topics and Titles

Published by Grace Graffin at January 6th, 2023 , Revised On April 16, 2024

Introduction

The subject of management involves an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of business management, such as employee management, risk management, organisational behaviour, and many more.

When choosing a topic for your management dissertation, make sure to consider diverse topics that explore both the theoretical and practical aspects of management.

We understand that getting a dissertation topic approved can be extremely challenging as academic supervisors require students to research a unique case.

This is where our team of writers comes into play. Our writers can up with exciting and manageable management dissertation topics to help get the juices flowing in your head so you can write your dissertation on a unique and engaging topic.

You may also want to start your dissertation by requesting  a brief research proposal  from our writers on any of these topics, which includes an  introduction  to the topic,  research question ,  aim and objectives ,  literature review  along with the proposed  methodology  of research to be conducted.  Let us know  if you need any help in getting started.

Check our  dissertation examples  to get an idea of  how to structure your dissertation .

Review the full list of  dissertation topics for here.

How to Select the Best Management Dissertation Topic?

A dissertation topic must be selected based on research interests, availability of data, time limitations, and the research’s scope and significance. The following management dissertation topics are carefully shortlisted while considering all these parameters. Please review these topics and let us know if you have any queries.

Also Read: Operations Management Dissertation Topics

• International Development Dissertation Topics
• Cooperate Governance Dissertation Topics
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• International Business Dissertation Topics
• Business Management Dissertation Topics
• Business Psychology Dissertation Topics
• Business Law Dissertation Topics
• Project Management Dissertation Topics
• Business Dissertation Topics
• HRM Dissertation Topics
• Operations Management Dissertation Topics

2024 Management Research Topics

Topic 1: an evaluation of organizational change management- why do people tend to oppose change.

Research Aim: The research will aim to assess the structure of organizational change management and to find the reasons why people resist or oppose the changes in an organization. There are many reasons through which change in organization’s management becomes important but some employees’ does not accept that changes. There are many reasons why people resist changes on organization. In certain circumstances, resistance to change might be beneficial. Resistance to change is, in fact, a crucial feedback mechanism that must not be neglected.

Topic 2: Investigating the effectiveness of customer relationship management in airlines

Research Aim: The research will aim to study the efficiency of CRM in airlines. Customer relationship management has evolved into a critical technique used by every corporation to better its operations and obtain a competitive advantage over competitors. Customer relationship management has evolved into a key priority for airline firms and an integral part of airline businesses’ corporate strategy to distinguish themselves from rivals in the eyes of the consumer. The goal of facility organisations, such as airlines, is to provide services that attract and maintain satisfied, loyal customers who promote the airline.

Topic 3: How does leadership affect employees’ productivity? A case of IT firms

Research Aim: This research will focus on leadership positions in IT organisations with the goal of increasing staff productivity and performance. Leadership is essential for increasing employee retention, career drive, and efficiency. Most companies’ progress is accelerated by effective leadership. As a result, it is critical to organisational success. Employee performance, on the other hand, is a critical pillar of every firm, and companies must examine the variables that contribute to great performance. Leadership is based on confidence, which is based on skill, sincerity, ethics, transparency, reactivity, empathy, and kindness.

Topic 4: The effect of organisation advancement tools on business performance

Research Aim: The research will aim to find the effect of organization advancement on business performance. Organizational tools are objects that assist you in organising your workspace, resources, and tasks in order to make your workday more effective. Physical instruments, planners, and software platforms are examples of what they can be. Organization advancement tools are a great source to improve your business performance as they help you in managing your daily tasks and workforce.

Topic 5: The importance of leadership and social skills in new entrepreneurs: An investigative study

Research Aim: The research will aim to investigate the importance of leadership and social skills in new entrepreneurs. Developing talent, introducing innovative goods and services, delivering efficiency, and gaining market share all benefit from improved leadership qualities. If you wish to stay small, you might be able to get away with not growing your leaders. Otherwise, it will restrict your progress. Social skills enable entrepreneurs to interact with customers more effectively, resulting in more agreements and more profitability.

Covid-19 Management Research Topics

Crisis management during covd-19.

Research Aim: This study will identify crisis management aspects during COVD-19, including its challenges and solutions.

Business management during COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will review business executives’ challenges in various scale industries and how they are recovering from the loss. How far did they succeed?

Hospital and medicine management during COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will highlight the role of hospital management during COVID-19, the challenges they came across, and the ways to overcome those challenges.

Educational management during COVID-19

Research Aim: This study will address the issues faced by students and educational institutes. How are they trying to overcome the challenges of imparting education during the coronavirus pandemics?

Maternal health care management during COVID-19

Research Aim: The lockdown situation has been an issue of concern for the patients, including pregnant women. This study will address the role of Maternal health care management during COVID-19.

Management Dissertation Topics for 2023

Topic 1: analyzing the traditions and trends in public administration and management in post-wwii europe.

Research Aim: The purpose of the research will be to analyze the characteristics of cultural and national communities that have influenced public administration and management in the 1970s and 1980s in Europe. The study will be carried out using a systematic literature review.

Topic 2: The Impact of Gender-inclusive Gatekeeping and Predecessors Influence on the Success of Female CEOs

Research Aim: The purpose of the research will explore how local organisational agents and contexts can help women leaders overcome barriers and achieve success at higher levels in corporate firms. The study will focus on CEO succession events and predecessor CEOS factors and their influence on women post-succession. The research design will be developed qualitatively.

Topic 3: Analysing the Impact of Daily Psychological Power on Organisational Leaders

Research Aim: The research will use quantitative techniques to analyze power-holders relational and interdependent work contexts. The study will examine the effect of daily psychological power using the factors of abusive behaviour and perceived incivility.

Topic 4: Examining the Impact of Cultural Diversity on Interaction Process and Performance

Research Aim: Using quantitative techniques, the research will analyse the interaction process and performance factors in two groups of employees in the services industry – homogenous and culturally diverse. The effectiveness in operation and arrangements will be examined.

Topic 5: Analyzing the Impact of ‘Voice’ and ‘Silence’ on Destructive Leadership

Research Aim: The research will examine the limited and biased view of silence in management literature. The study will also analyse the impact of silence in an organisation in terms of a functional value using quantitative research techniques. Furthermore, how silence in organisations can be used as a strategic response will be discussed.

Topic 6: Examining the Relationship between Productivity, Management Practices, and Employee Ability in the UK Setting

Research Aim: Using quantitative techniques, the study will analyse a relationship between productivity, management practices, and employee ability using data from management practices surveys and employees’ longitudinal earnings records.

Topic 7: Analysing the Factors that Impact International Differences in Gender Pay Gap

Research Aim: The research will use quantitative techniques to analyse microdata from various countries between 1980 and 2010. The study will use the factors of wage structures, net supply, wage compression, collective bargaining coverage, and unionised wage setting to identify the lower gender pay gap internationally.

Topic 8: The Impact of Psychosocial Hazards on Workplace Risk Management

Research Aim: The study will investigate workplace risk management practices in industry sectors with a high risk of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) and mental health disorders (MHDs) and the extent to which they may rise from psychosocial hazards. The research will be conducted using qualitative research techniques.

Strategic Management and Organisational Behavior Dissertation Topics

Strategic management and organisational behaviour can be described as the actions a firm takes to achieve its business objectives primarily derived from competitive markets’ dynamic behaviour. Following are some interesting dissertation topics under this field of study;

Topic 1: The Impact of Organisational Goals on Organisation Behavior

Research Aim: The primary focus of this research will be to combine factors from the theory of action, phases and self-determination theory to develop a motivational model that will explain the relationship between organisational goals setting process that lead to organisational behaviour. The research will be conducted using mixed methods of research techniques.

Topic 2: Integrating the Principles of Strategic Human Capital and Strategic Human Resource Management to Improve Organisational Performance

Topic 3: comparing the impact of family and non-family firm goals on strategy, family and organisational behavior.

Research Aim: This research will analyse the differences between family and non-family business goals and their impact on how businesses develop strategies. Also, the research will assess how these developed strategies would affect family and organisational behaviour. This research will use quantitative research techniques.

Topic 4: Analyzing the Effect of Strategy, Innovation, Networks and Complexity on Organisational Adaptability – The Mediating Effect of Leadership

Research Aim: The current study will use empirical analysis to examine the effects of strategy, innovation, networks, and complexity of organisational adaptability using leadership as a mediation factor.

Topic 5: Examining the Effect of Appointment of a Racial Minority Female CEO on White Male Top Manager Intrapsychic and Behavioral Responses

Research Aim: This research will examine white male managers’ behavioural responses to a female racial minority CEO’s appointment. The behaviour that the research will analyse is the amount of help that the white male top manager provides to their fellow executives. The research will be conducted using quantitative techniques.

Topic 6: Analysis of the Effectiveness of an Affect-Based Model to Portray Recipients Responses to Organisational Change Events

Research Aim: The study will use the Affect-Based Model developed by Oreg et al. (2016) to analyse if it is useful in documenting and portraying the recipient responses to organisational change events. The research will use factors of valence and activation to assess the effectiveness of the model. The study will be conducted using quantitative techniques.

Topic 7: Evaluating the Relationship between the personality of a CEO and Employee Motivation

Research Aim: This research will investigate the relationship between a CEO’s personality and employee motivation. The core of this study will be to assess whether a CEO’s character possesses the power to influence employee motivation or not. Case studies from various companies will be used in this study.

Topic 8: Assessing the Role of Managers in Bringing and Implementing Technological Change in an Organisation

Research Aim: This research will focus on how managers implement technological change in their organisations. Change management is challenging as not all employees are open to accepting change. This research will focus on various ways through which managers successfully implement technological change in their companies.

Topic 9: An Analysis of Organisational Change Management: Why Employees Resist Change?

Research Aim: This research will focus on why employees resist change in organisations, i.e., why employees dislike change. Different causes and factors will be discussed in this study, and the research will conclude why employees do not wholeheartedly accept the change.

Knowledge Management Dissertation Topics

The importance of knowledge management for organisations can’t be understated because this aspect of management enhances the workforce’s capabilities and overall productivity. It leads to a competitive advantage and provides the basis for differentiating an organisation from its competitors. Some interesting dissertation topics under this field are;

Topic 1: Examining the Impact of Enterprise Social Networking Systems (ESNS) on Knowledge Management and Organisational Learning

Research Aim: The research will investigate the effect of ESNS on knowledge management processes and organisational learning. The research will use knowledge creation and sharing to play the mediating role in analysing the proposed relationship. The proposed study will use empirical research methods.

Topic 2: A Review of Knowledge Management Research

Research Aim: The research paper will use a systematic literature review technique for the proposed study. The research will review the last twenty years of knowledge management literature to assess the presence of bias in explaining knowledge integration over research by exploring knowledge differentiation processes.

Topic 3: The Impact of the Internet of Things (IoT) on Innovation and Knowledge Management Capacity

Research Aim: The purpose of this research will be to investigate the plausible relationship between knowledge management systems, open innovation, knowledge management capacity, and innovation capacity in firms. The research will be conducted using empirical techniques to draw reliable conclusions.

Topic 4: The Impact of Strategic Knowledge Management on MNC and their Subsidiaries Performance

Research Aim: The research will develop a model to test the possibility of a relationship between strategic knowledge management (SKM) processes and organisation performance compared between multinational companies and their subsidiaries. The research will also analyse the impact of relational context on knowledge creation and transfer.

Topic 5: Analyzing the Relationship between Knowledge Management Practices and Knowledge Worker Performance - The Mediating Role of Organisational Commitment

Research Aim: The study will analyse the role of knowledge management practices to address the issues of insufficient organisational commitment and knowledge workers’ performance in the UK’s public sectors. The proposed study will use quantitative research techniques to fulfil its aim and objectives.

Topic 6: The Relationship between Knowledge Management Processes and Sustainable Competitive Advantage in Private Business Schools in the UK

Research Aim: The proposed research will explore the impact of knowledge management processes on sustainable completive advantages by using knowledge-based view (KBV) and resource-based view (RBV) as mediators in the relationship. The research will be conducted using quantitative techniques of data collection (i.e. questionnaire) and analysis (i.e. structural equation modelling).

Topic 7: The Impact of Strategic Knowledge Management on Manufacturing Firm’s Performance

Research Aim: The purpose of the study will be to empirically investigate the relationship between the availability and use of IT solutions for strategic knowledge management and a manufacturing firm’s performance, which will be measured in unit production. The research will use the resource-based view and the knowledge-based theory to develop a conceptual framework to analyze this relationship’s effect.

Topic 8: Evaluating how Knowledge Management Impacts Company Performance: A Case Study of Sainsbury

Research Aim: This research will discuss the basic concepts of knowledge management. The study will also discuss the impact knowledge management has on a company’s performance, i.e. how it helps companies achieve their goals. The main focus of this research work will be on Sainsbury’s knowledge management framework.

Topic 9: Knowledge Management as a Core Competency? Evaluating the Application and Benefits of Knowledge Management

Research Aim: This research will uncover how companies utilise knowledge management as their core competency and how it benefits their business operations. This study’s main focus will be on applying the various concepts of knowledge management and their implication for businesses.

Topic 10: Exploring the Managerial Concerns and Issues in Knowledge Management and Their Impact on Organisations

Research Aim: This research will explore the managerial concerns and issues related to knowledge management. The study will also focus on assessing the impact of these issues on businesses and how they can influence day-to-day operations. This will be an evidence-based study where evidence from different companies and various situations will be evaluated.

Leadership and Management Information System Dissertation Topics

Leadership drives the organisational agenda and is regarded as one of the most influential factors in streamlining organisations’ processes. Good leadership results in better performance of any organisation because it gives direction to the business activities under the market conditions and requirements.

Similarly, management information systems are pivotal to any organisation’s success and successfully implementing them can benefit the organisation in many ways. Following are some dissertation topics under the subject of leadership and management information systems;

Topic 1: The Role of Information Systems (IS) in Enterprise Architecture and its Impact on Business Performance

Research Aim: This study will examine the relationship between IS Enterprise Architecture and business performance using technical alignment and IS capabilities mediators. This research will be conducted using quantitative techniques to fulfil its aim.

Topic 2: Exploring The Relationship between Ethical Leadership and Employee Knowledge Sharing

Research Aim: This research will use social learning theories and self-determination to investigate the relationship between ethical learning and employee knowledge sharing. The study will be conducted using empirical research techniques.

Topic 3: Analysing the Impact of Relationship Leadership and Social Alignment on Information Security Systems Effectiveness in Private Organisations

Research Aim: This research will use social capital theory as its theoretical foundation to explore the impact of relational leadership on social alignment between business and IT executives. The relational model will study the factors of integrated knowledge, information security system effectiveness, and organisational performance. This research will use empirical techniques.

Topic 4: Examining the Relationship between Operating Room (OR) Leadership and Operating Staff Performance

Research Aim: This research will analyse the relationship between Operating Room leadership and operating staff performance. This will be done using emotional intelligence and collaboration variables to assess staff performance, using recovery numbers. The relationship will also be examined through the mediating role of leadership principles. The data will be collected and assessed using quantitative research techniques.

Topic 5: The Role of Transformational Leadership as a Mediating Variable in the DeLone and McLean Information Success Model.

Research Aim: The research will use the DeLone and McLean Information Success Model to analyse if productivity software implemented in an organisation can improve its performance. However, the research will also evaluate the model and propose modifications to include transformational leadership as a mediating factor in the information success model. The research will be quantitative in nature.

Topic 6: Assessing the Role of Leadership in an Organisation to Help Adopt Advanced Technological Systems

Research Aim: This research will assess the role of leadership in an organisation to help companies realise the importance of innovative, technologically advanced systems. Many companies today are still naive to the ever more important role of technology. Thus this research will aim to help companies adopt innovative technological systems through leadership. The research will be evidence-based in nature.

Topic 7: Evaluating How Changing Business Leadership Impacts Technological Organisational Performance

Research Aim: Changing leadership in organisations can prove a disaster if not handled properly. The transition process is extremely challenging, and companies should have the capability to handle this phase. This research will explore how their decision to change leadership impacts technological and organisational performance and how to optimise the process. This research will be quantitative in nature.

Topic 8: Can Information Systems in Organisations Be Considered a Competitive Advantage?

Research Aim: Information systems, if implemented successfully, benefit organisations immensely. The impact that an information system has and its results help companies stay ahead of their competitors. This research will assess how companies can turn their information systems into a competitive advantage, and most importantly, whether they or not information systems should be considered a competitive advantage.

Topic 9: Understanding the Leadership Challenges of Implementing and Managing an Advanced Information System in an Organisation

Research Aim: This research will help explain the challenges that managers and the entire leadership of an organisation face when implementing an advanced information system. Bringing a change in a company is challenging, and throw in a technology to implement, the process becomes even more challenging. This study will explore in detail all related challenges through quantitative research.

Topic 10: Do all Business Processes in an Organisation need Information System Management?

Research Aim: It is often argued that not all business processes require information systems. However, when talking about today’s world and the technological advancements taking place, it is recommended that business processes in organisations adopt the technology. This research will be a comparative analysis of whether companies are successful and profitable with information systems or without them.

Also Read: Business Dissertation Topics

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Organisational Culture and International Business Dissertation Topics

Organisational culture shapes the work ethics and helps in defining the professional image of organisations. Organisational culture plays a huge role in international business.

Organisations that adopt the country’s culture they are operating in are known to run their operations more successfully. The following topics are related to organisational culture and international business and help students choose an appropriate topic according to their interests.

Topic 1: The Impact of Organisational Culture of Collaborative Networks Influence on IT Governance Performance in Large Enterprises

Research Aim: This research will explore the influence of collaborative networks’ organisational culture on IT governance performance. The study will use a case study to analyse multinationals as they have a wide working network. The purpose of the research will be to determine whether or not organisational culture helps businesses effectively use IT in business operations. The research will be conducted using mixed methods research.

Topic 2: Analysing the Relationship between Supervisor’s Job insecurity and Subordinates’ Work Engagement

Research Aim: The purpose of this research is two-fold. The research will analyse the relationship between the supervisor’s job insecurity and subordinates’ work engagement using a mediator and a moderator. The research will first examine the mediating role of subordinate’s pro-social voice between supervisor job insecurity and subordinates’ work engagement. Next, the research will examine the moderating role of organisational culture between the supervisor’s job insecurity and sub-ordinates pro-social voice. The research will be conducted through quantitative techniques.

Topic 3: Analysing the Impact of Individual Perception of Organisational Culture on the Learning Transfer Environment

Research Aim: The research will be conducted empirically to assess the relationship between culture (as perceived by employees) and the work environment based learning factors (i.e. learning transfer environment [LTE]) in the organisation). LTE is measured using feedback and coaching factors that received resistance or openness to chance, personal outcomes, and supervisor and peer support.

Topic 4: The Role of Organisational Culture on the Development of Psychological Distress in the Workplace

Research Aim: The purpose of the study will be to analyse how organisational culture may cause the symptoms of psychological distress in the workforce. The study will use corporate culture and work organisation conditions as base factors to relate them to employees’ psychological distress. The research will be conducted using quantitative research techniques.

Topic 5: Analysing the Role of Leadership and Organisational Culture

Research Aim: The research will examine the relationship between organisational culture, leadership and employee outcomes. The paper will focus on the mediator of leadership processes and their impact on the relationship between culture and employee outcomes. The study will be conducted using quantitative research techniques.

Topic 6: The Role and Relationships among Strategic Orientations, Cultural Intelligence, International Diversification and Performance of Organisations

Research Aim: The research will aim to understand the drivers of the international expansion of globalised firms. The research will explore the relationship between strategic orientations and cultural intelligence as drivers and international diversification and firm performance. Strategic orientations used in the study include international market orientation (IMO) and entrepreneurial orientation (IEO). The study will be conducted using quantitative research techniques.

Topic 7: Dynamics of Corruption Culture Distance to Core Values

Research Aim: The research will examine how corporate bribery is impacted by cultural distance between multinational enterprises (MNEs) in their home and host countries. The research will also analyse the organisational distance to core value between MNE’s entry into the host country and its headquarters. The research will use empirical data collection and analysis techniques.

Topic 8: Examining Organisational Export Performance by International Business Competencies

Research Aim: The study aims to explore the relationship between international business competencies and export performance. The research will also analyse export performance by singular analysis or combined analysis of the competencies. The research will be conducted using empirical data.

Topic 9: Does Organisational Culture Influence the Leadership Type that a Company Should Adopt?

Research Aim: This research will argue whether companies should hire leaders concerning their culture or not. Organisational culture and leadership are interconnected. Thus companies that do not operate according to their culture struggle to grow exponentially. This research will aim to focus on the possible relationship between leadership and organisational culture. The research will be evidence-based.

Topic 10: Organisational Culture and International Business Competition: Are they Interrelated?

Research Aim: Organisational culture plays a huge role in making a company competitive internationally. When a business’s culture is motivating to all employees and identifies the right culture for its employees, there is every likelihood of rapid growth for both the company and the employees. The research will explore how the two concepts are interrelated.

Important Notes:

As a management student looking to get good grades, it is essential to develop new ideas and experiment with existing management theories – i.e., to add value and interest to your research topic.

The management field is vast and interrelated to many other academic disciplines like operations management , business , business administration , MBA , human resource management and more. That is why creating a management dissertation topic that is particular, sound, and actually solves a practical problem that may be rampant in the field is imperative.

We can’t stress how important it is to develop a logical research topic based on your entire research. There are several significant downfalls to getting your topic wrong; your supervisor may not be interested in working on it, the topic has no academic creditability, the research may not make logical sense, there is a possibility that the study is not viable.

This impacts your time and efforts in writing your dissertation , as you may end up in the cycle of rejection at the initial stage of the dissertation. That is why we recommend reviewing existing research to develop a topic, taking advice from your supervisor, and even asking for help in this particular stage of your dissertation.

Keeping our advice in mind while developing a research topic will allow you to pick one of the best management dissertation topics that fulfil your requirement of writing a research paper and adds to the body of knowledge.

Therefore, it is recommended that when finalizing your dissertation topic, you read recently published literature to identify gaps in the research that you may help fill.

Remember- dissertation topics need to be unique, solve an identified problem, be logical, and be practically implemented. Please look at some of our sample management dissertation topics to get an idea for your own dissertation.

How to Structure your Management Dissertation

A well-structured dissertation can help students to achieve a high overall academic grade.

• A Title Page
• Acknowledgements
• Declaration
• Abstract: A summary of the research completed
• Table of Contents
• Introduction : This chapter includes the project rationale, research background, key research aims and objectives, and the research problems. An outline of the structure of a dissertation can also be added to this chapter.
• Literature Review : This chapter presents relevant theories and frameworks by analysing published and unpublished literature on the chosen research topic to address research questions . The purpose is to highlight and discuss the selected research area’s relative weaknesses and strengths while identifying research gaps. Break down the topic and key terms that can positively impact your dissertation and your tutor.
• Methodology : The data collection and analysis methods and techniques employed by the researcher are presented in the Methodology chapter, which usually includes research design , research philosophy, research limitations, code of conduct, ethical consideration, data collection methods, and data analysis strategy .
• Findings and Analysis : Findings of the research are analysed in detail under the Findings and Analysis chapter. All key findings/results are outlined in this chapter without interpreting the data or drawing any conclusions. It can be useful to include graphs, charts, and tables in this chapter to identify meaningful trends and relationships.
• Discussion and Conclusion : The researcher presents his interpretation of results in this chapter and states whether the research hypothesis has been verified or not. An essential aspect of this section is establishing the link between the results and evidence from the literature. Recommendations with regards to implications of the findings and directions for the future may also be provided. Finally, a summary of the overall research, along with final judgments, opinions, and comments, must be included in the form of suggestions for improvement.
• References : Make sure to complete this by your University’s requirements
• Bibliography
• Appendices : Any additional information, diagrams, and graphs used to complete the dissertation but not part of the dissertation should be included in the Appendices chapter. Essentially, the purpose is to expand the information/data.

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Frequently Asked Questions

How to find dissertation topics about management.

To find management dissertation topics:

• Research recent management challenges.
• Explore industry trends and innovations.
• Analyze organizational behavior or strategies.
• Examine cross-cultural management issues.
• Investigate sustainability and ethics.
• Consult academic journals and experts.

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