pulp and paper research articles

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Published: 18 December 2023

Country-specific net-zero strategies of the pulp and paper industry

• Min Dai 1 ,
• Mingxing Sun 2 ,
• Bin Chen 1 ,
• Lei Shi 3 ,
• Mingzhou Jin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2387-8129 4 ,
• Yi Man   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3745-9128 5 ,
• Ziyang Liang 1 ,
• Cecilia Maria Villas Bôas de Almeida 6 ,
• Jiashuo Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2915-4770 7 ,
• Pengfei Zhang 7 ,
• Anthony S. F. Chiu 8 ,
• Ming Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7106-8390 9 ,
• Huajun Yu 1 ,
• Jing Meng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8708-0485 10 &
• Yutao Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8297-8579 1 , 11 , 12 , 13  

Nature volume  626 ,  pages 327–334 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

9237 Accesses

4 Citations

48 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Climate-change mitigation
• Environmental impact
• Environmental social sciences
• Sustainability

The pulp and paper industry is an important contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions 1 , 2 . Country-specific strategies are essential for the industry to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050, given its vast heterogeneities across countries 3 , 4 . Here we develop a comprehensive bottom-up assessment of net greenhouse gas emissions of the domestic paper-related sectors for 30 major countries from 1961 to 2019—about 3.2% of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions from the same period 5 —and explore mitigation strategies through 2,160 scenarios covering key factors. Our results show substantial differences across countries in terms of historical emissions evolution trends and structure. All countries can achieve net-zero emissions for their pulp and paper industry by 2050, with a single measure for most developed countries and several measures for most developing countries. Except for energy-efficiency improvement and energy-system decarbonization, tropical developing countries with abundant forest resources should give priority to sustainable forest management, whereas other developing countries should pay more attention to enhancing methane capture rate and reducing recycling. These insights are crucial for developing net-zero strategies tailored to each country and achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 for the pulp and paper industry.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Access Nature and 54 other Nature Portfolio journals

Get Nature+, our best-value online-access subscription

24,99 € / 30 days

cancel any time

Subscribe to this journal

Receive 51 print issues and online access

185,98 € per year

only 3,65 € per issue

Buy this article

• Purchase on Springer Link
• Instant access to full article PDF

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Similar content being viewed by others

Limited climate benefits of global recycling of pulp and paper

Commercial afforestation can deliver effective climate change mitigation under multiple decarbonisation pathways

Life-cycle energy and climate benefits of energy recovery from wastes and biomass residues in the United States

Data availability.

The detailed data of this study are available at https://zenodo.org/record/8369154 . The main data that support the findings of this study are as follows: (1) production and trade data on wood, pulp and paper products in 1961–2019 can be obtained from the FAOSTAT database ( https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO ); (2) data on the energy mix of the pulp and paper industry is from IEA Data and Statistics ( https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-sets/?filter=all ); (3) the municipal WDM can be obtained from the OECD Stat database ( https://stats.oecd.org/viewhtml.aspx?datasetcode=MUNW&lang=en ); (4) the estimated population in 2050 is available from World Population Prospects 2019 conducted by the Department of Economics and Social Affairs, United Nations ( https://population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/ ); and (5) the energy intensity of multiprocesses is from the literature and the main sources are listed in the  Supplementary information .

Code availability

The data-processing code that generates the results in this study can be found at https://zenodo.org/record/8369012 .

Energy Technology Perspectives 2017 (IEA, 2017); https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2017 .

Pulp and Paper (IEA, 2023); https://www.iea.org/reports/pulp-and-paper .

Laurijssen, J., Faaij, A. & Worrell, E. Energy conversion strategies in the European paper industry – a case study in three countries. Appl. Energy 98 , 102–113 (2012).

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Furszyfer Del Rio, D. D. et al. Decarbonizing the pulp and paper industry: a critical and systematic review of sociotechnical developments and policy options. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 167 , 112706 (2022).

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

World Bank Open Data (World Bank, 2022); https://data.worldbank.org/ .

Davis, S. J. et al. Net-zero emissions energy systems. Science 360 , eaas9793 (2018).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

IPCC Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (eds Masson-Delmotte, V. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2018).

Ritchie, H. Sector by Sector: Where do Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Come From? (Our World in Data, 2020); https://ourworldindata.org/ghg-emissions-by-sector .

Martin, N. et al. Opportunities to Improve Energy Efficiency and Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the U.S. Pulp and Paper Industry (Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2000).

Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Production of Pulp, Paper and Board (European Commission, 2015); https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2791/370629 .

Griffin, P. W., Hammond, G. P. & Norman, J. B. Industrial decarbonisation of the pulp and paper sector: a UK perspective. Appl. Therm. Eng. 134 , 152–162 (2018).

Article   Google Scholar  

Wang, Y. et al. Estimating carbon emissions from the pulp and paper industry: a case study. Appl. Energy 184 , 779–789 (2016).

Article   ADS   CAS   Google Scholar  

Szabó, L., Soria, A., Forsström, J., Keränen, J. T. & Hytönen, E. A world model of the pulp and paper industry: demand, energy consumption and emission scenarios to 2030. Environ. Sci. Policy 12 , 257–269 (2009).

FAOSTAT: Forestry Production and Trade (FAO, 2023); http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FO .

Kan, S. et al. Risk of intact forest landscape loss goes beyond global agricultural supply chains. One Earth 6 , 55–65 (2023).

Peng, L., Searchinger, T. D., Zionts, J. & Waite, R. The carbon costs of global wood harvests. Nature 620 , 110–115 (2023).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Harris, N. L. et al. Global maps of twenty-first century forest carbon fluxes. Nat. Clim. Change 11 , 234–240 (2021).

Anshassi, M. & Townsend, T. G. The hidden economic and environmental costs of eliminating kerb-side recycling. Nat. Sustain. 6 , 919–928 (2023).

Gómez-Sanabria, A., Kiesewetter, G., Klimont, Z., Schoepp, W. & Haberl, H. Potential for future reductions of global GHG and air pollutants from circular waste management systems. Nat. Commun. 13 , 106 (2022).

Article   ADS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

van Ewijk, S., Stegemann, J. A. & Ekins, P. Limited climate benefits of global recycling of pulp and paper. Nat. Sustain. 4 , 180–187 (2021).

Schmidt, J. H., Holm, P., Merrild, A. & Christensen, P. Life cycle assessment of the waste hierarchy – a Danish case study on waste paper. Waste Manage. 27 , 1519–1530 (2007).

Merrild, H., Damgaard, A. & Christensen, T. H. Life cycle assessment of waste paper management: the importance of technology data and system boundaries in assessing recycling and incineration. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 52 , 1391–1398 (2008).

Allwood, J. M., Cullen, J. M. & Milford, R. L. Options for achieving a 50% cut in industrial carbon emissions by 2050. Environ. Sci. Technol. 44 , 1888–1894 (2010).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bloemhof-Ruwaard, J. M., Van Wassenhove, L. N., Gabel, H. L. & Weaver, P. M. An environmental life cycle optimization model for the European pulp and paper industry. Omega 24 , 615–629 (1996).

Landis Gabel, H., Weaver, P. M., Bloemhof-Ruwaard, J. M. & Van Wassenhove, L. N. Life-cycle analysis and policy options: the case of the European pulp and paper industry. Bus. Strategy Environ. 5 , 156–167 (1996).

Man, Y., Li, J., Hong, M. & Han, Y. Energy transition for the low-carbon pulp and paper industry in China. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 131 , 109998 (2020).

Sevigné-Itoiz, E., Gasol, C. M., Rieradevall, J. & Gabarrell, X. Methodology of supporting decision-making of waste management with material flow analysis (MFA) and consequential life cycle assessment (CLCA): case study of waste paper recycling. J. Clean. Prod. 105 , 253–262 (2015).

Lopes, E., Dias, A., Arroja, L., Capela, I. & Pereira, F. Application of life cycle assessment to the Portuguese pulp and paper industry. J. Clean. Prod. 11 , 51–59 (2003).

Dias, A. C., Arroja, L. & Capela, I. Life cycle assessment of printing and writing paper produced in Portugal. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 12 , 521–528 (2007).

Nabinger, A., Tomberlin, K., Venditti, R. & Yao, Y. Using a data-driven approach to unveil greenhouse gas emission intensities of different pulp and paper products. Procedia CIRP 80 , 689–692 (2019).

Ma, X. et al. Energy and carbon coupled water footprint analysis for Kraft wood pulp paper production. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 96 , 253–261 (2018).

Ma, X. et al. Energy and carbon coupled water footprint analysis for straw pulp paper production. J. Clean. Prod. 233 , 23–32 (2019).

Manda, B. M. K., Blok, K. & Patel, M. K. Innovations in papermaking: an LCA of printing and writing paper from conventional and high yield pulp. Sci. Total Environ. 439 , 307–320 (2012).

Corcelli, F., Fiorentino, G., Vehmas, J. & Ulgiati, S. Energy efficiency and environmental assessment of papermaking from chemical pulp - a Finland case study. J. Clean. Prod. 198 , 96–111 (2018).

Data and Statistics (IEA, 2021); https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-browser/?country=WORLD&fuel=CO2%20emissions&indicator=CO2BySector .

Sun, M., Wang, Y., Shi, L. & Klemeš, J. J. Uncovering energy use, carbon emissions and environmental burdens of pulp and paper industry: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 92 , 823–833 (2018).

Miller, T., Kramer, C. & Fisher, A. Bandwidth Study on Energy Use and Potential Energy Saving Opportunities in U.S. Pulp and Paper Manufacturing (U.S. Department of Energy, 2015); https://www.energy.gov/sites/default/files/2015/08/f26/pulp_and_paper_bandwidth_report.pdf .

Municipal Waste, Generation and Treatment (OECD.Stat, 2021); https://stats.oecd.org/viewhtml.aspx?datasetcode=MUNW&lang=en .

Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conservation and Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada Benchmarking Energy Use in Canadian Pulp and Paper Mills (Government of Canada, 2008); https://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/326636/publication.html .

Novotny, M. & Laestadius, S. Beyond papermaking: technology and market shifts for wood-based biomass industries – management implications for large-scale industries. Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag. 26 , 875–891 (2014).

The State of the World’s Forests 2022 (FAO, 2022); https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9360en .

Ochoa, H. A. A. Forest Trends Impact report 2021 (Forest Trends, 2021).

Waring, B. et al. Forests and decarbonization – roles of natural and planted forests. Front. For. Glob. Change 3 , 58 (2020).

Environmental Efforts Made by the Japanese Paper Industry (Japan Paper Association, 2022); https://www.jpa.gr.jp/en/env/ .

Parkar, S., Mulukh, R., Narhari, G. & Kulkarni, S. An insight into treatment, reuse, recycle and disposal of biodegradable and non-biodegradable solid waste. In Proc. 4th International Conference on Advances in Science & Technology https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3867475 (2021).

Zhang, D. Q., He, P. J. & Shao, L. M. Sorting efficiency and combustion properties of municipal solid waste during bio-drying. Waste Manage. 29 , 2816–2823 (2009).

Yue, K., Liu, W., Lu, X., Lu, W. & Yang, H. Study on composites for furniture with waste paper and wood particle. Adv. Mater. Res. 472 , 1228–1232 (2012).

Onyelowe, K. C. Review on the role of solid waste materials in soft soils reengineering. Mater. Sci. Energy Technol. 2 , 46–51 (2019).

Google Scholar  

Cherian, C. & Siddiqua, S. Engineering and environmental evaluation for utilization of recycled pulp mill fly ash as binder in sustainable road construction. J. Clean. Prod. 298 , 126758 (2021).

Greve, M., Reyers, B., Mette Lykke, A. & Svenning, J.-C. Spatial optimization of carbon-stocking projects across Africa integrating stocking potential with co-benefits and feasibility. Nat. Commun. 4 , 2975 (2013).

Article   ADS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Haupt, M., Kägi, T. & Hellweg, S. Modular life cycle assessment of municipal solid waste management. Waste Manage. 79 , 815–827 (2018).

Dai, M. et al. Advancing sustainability in China’s pulp and paper industry requires coordinated raw material supply and waste paper management. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 198 , 107162 (2023).

Villanueva, A. & Wenzel, H. Paper waste – recycling, incineration or landfilling? A review of existing life cycle assessments. Waste Manage. 27 , S29–S46 (2007).

Documentation for Greenhouse Gas Emission and Energy Factors Used in the Waste Reduction Model (WARM) (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Resource Conservation and Recovery, 2015).

Finnveden, G. & Ekvall, T. Life-cycle assessment as a decision-support tool—the case of recycling versus incineration of paper. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 24 , 235–256 (1998).

Haberl, H. et al. Contributions of sociometabolic research to sustainability science. Nat. Sustain. 2 , 173–184 (2019).

Graedel, T. E. Material flow analysis from origin to evolution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53 , 12188–12196 (2019).

Van Ewijk, S., Stegemann, J. A. & Ekins, P. Global life cycle paper flows, recycling metrics, and material efficiency. J. Ind. Ecol. 22 , 686–693 (2018).

Tenneson, K. et al. Commodity-Driven Forest Loss: A Study of Southeast Asia (USAID, 2021).

Pearson, T. R. H., Brown, S. & Casarim, F. M. Carbon emissions from tropical forest degradation caused by logging. Environ. Res. Lett. 9 , 034017 (2014).

Asner, G. P. et al. Selective logging in the Brazilian Amazon. Science 310 , 480–482 (2005).

Ellis, P. W. et al. Reduced-impact logging for climate change mitigation (RIL-C) can halve selective logging emissions from tropical forests. For. Ecol. Manag. 438 , 255–266 (2019).

Pearson, T. R. H., Brown, S., Murray, L. & Sidman, G. Greenhouse gas emissions from tropical forest degradation: an underestimated source. Carbon Balance Manage. 12 , 3 (2017).

Persson, U. M., Henders, S. & Cederberg, C. A method for calculating a land-use change carbon footprint (LUC-CFP) for agricultural commodities - applications to Brazilian beef and soy, Indonesian palm oil. Glob. Change Biol. 20 , 3482–3491 (2014).

Henders, S., Persson, U. M. & Kastner, T. Trading forests: land-use change and carbon emissions embodied in production and exports of forest-risk commodities. Environ. Res. Lett. 10 , 125012 (2015).

Johnston, C. M. T. & Radeloff, V. C. Global mitigation potential of carbon stored in harvested wood products. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 116 , 14526–14531 (2019).

Zhang, X., Chen, J., Dias, A. C. & Yang, H. Improving carbon stock estimates for in-use harvested wood products by linking production and consumption—a global case study. Environ. Sci. Technol. 54 , 2565–2574 (2020).

Geng, A., Chen, J. & Yang, H. Assessing the greenhouse gas mitigation potential of harvested wood products substitution in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 53 , 1732–1740 (2019).

Harris, N. L. et al. Baseline map of carbon emissions from deforestation in tropical regions. Science 336 , 1573–1576 (2012).

Carlson, K. M. et al. Carbon emissions from forest conversion by Kalimantan oil palm plantations. Nat. Clim. Change 3 , 283–287 (2013).

The State of the Global Paper Industry (Environmental Paper Network, 2018); https://environmentalpaper.org/stateoftheindustry2018/ .

Miettinen, J. et al. Extent of industrial plantations on Southeast Asian peatlands in 2010 with analysis of historical expansion and future projections. Glob. Change Biol. Bioenergy 4 , 908–918 (2012).

Matthews, D. Sustainability Challenges in the Paper Industry (AIChE, 2016); https://www.aiche.org/chenected/2016/10/sustainability-challenges-paper-industry .

The Risk Tool (Forest Legality Initiative, 2022); https://forestlegality.org/tools-resources/risk-tool .

Timber Legality Risk Dashboard: Thailand (Forest Trends, 2021); https://www.forest-trends.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Thailand-Timber-Legality-Risk-Dashboard-IDAT-Risk.pdf .

Blaser, J., Sarre, A., Poore, D. & Huang, S. Status of Tropical Forest Management 2011 (International Tropical Timber Organization, 2011); https://www.itto.int/tfu/id=2686 .

Pendrill, F. et al. Agricultural and forestry trade drives large share of tropical deforestation emissions. Glob. Environ. Change 56 , 1–10 (2019).

Pendrill, F., Persson, U. M., Godar, J. & Kastner, T. Deforestation displaced: trade in forest-risk commodities and the prospects for a global forest transition. Environ. Res. Lett. 14 , 055003 (2019).

Australia Remains the Only Developed Nation on the List of Global Deforestation Fronts (World Wildlife Fund Australia, 2021); https://www.wwf.org.au/news/news/2021/australia-remains-the-only-developed-nation-on-the-list-of-global-deforestation-fronts .

Forest Plantations in Brazil (FAO, 2005); https://www.fao.org/forestry/10549-04d0032732a0fb01893b5eef482eb6de7.pdf .

Rossato, F. G. F. S. et al. Comparison of revealed comparative advantage indexes with application to trade tendencies of cellulose production from planted forests in Brazil, Canada, China, Sweden, Finland and the United States. For. Policy Econ. 97 , 59–66 (2018).

Echeverría, C. et al. Rapid deforestation and fragmentation of Chilean temperate forests. Biol. Conserv. 130 , 481–494 (2006).

Clapp, R. A. Tree farming and forest conservation in Chile: do replacement forests leave any originals behind? Soc. Nat. Resour. 14 , 341–356 (2001).

Heilmayr, R., Echeverría, C. & Lambin, E. F. Impacts of Chilean forest subsidies on forest cover, carbon and biodiversity. Nat. Sustain. 3 , 701–709 (2020).

Echeverria, D., Venditti, R., Jameel, H. & Yao, Y. Process simulation-based life cycle assessment of dissolving pulps. Environ. Sci. Technol. 56 , 4578–4586 (2022).

Masera, O. R. Carbon emissions from Mexican forests: current situation and long-term scenarios. Clim. Change 35 , 265–295 (1997).

Laurijssen, J., Marsidi, M., Westenbroek, A., Worrell, E. & Faaij, A. Paper and biomass for energy? The impact of paper recycling on energy and CO 2 emissions. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 54 , 1208–1218 (2010).

Eggleston, H., Buendia, L., Miwa, K., Ngara, T. & Tanabe, K. 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC, 2006); https://www.ipcc.ch/report/2006-ipcc-guidelines-for-national-greenhouse-gas-inventories/ .

Särkkä, T., Gutiérrez-Poch, M. & Kuhlberg, M. (eds) Technological Transformation in the Global Pulp and Paper Industry 1800–2018: Comparative Perspectives (Springer, 2018).

Ashrafi, O., Yerushalmi, L. & Haghighat, F. Wastewater treatment in the pulp-and-paper industry: a review of treatment processes and the associated greenhouse gas emission. J. Environ. Manage. 158 , 146–157 (2015).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Das, T. K. & Houtman, C. Evaluating chemical-, mechanical-, and bio-pulping processes and their sustainability characterization using life-cycle assessment. Environ. Prog. 23 , 347–357 (2004).

Arena, U., Mastellone, M. L., Perugini, F. & Clift, R. Environmental assessment of paper waste management options by means of LCA methodology. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 43 , 5702–5714 (2004).

Cheremisinoff, N. P. & Rosenfeld, P. Handbook of Pollution Prevention and Cleaner Production Vol. 2: Best Practices in the Wood and Paper Industries (Elsevier, 2010).

Thompson, G., Swain, J., Kay, M. & Forster, C. F. The treatment of pulp and paper mill effluent: a review. Bioresour. Technol. 77 , 275–286 (2001).

Pokhrel, D. & Viraraghavan, T. Treatment of pulp and paper mill wastewater—a review. Sci. Total Environ. 333 , 37–58 (2004).

Ince, B. K., Cetecioglu, Z. & Ince, O. in Environmental Management in Practice (ed. Broniewicz, E.) https://doi.org/10.5772/23709 (InTech, 2011).

Peng, S. et al. Inventory of anthropogenic methane emissions in mainland China from 1980 to 2010. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16 , 14545–14562 (2016).

Höglund-Isaksson, L. Global anthropogenic methane emissions 2005–2030: technical mitigation potentials and costs. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12 , 9079–9096 (2012).

Su, W. The People’s Republic of China National Greenhouse Gas Inventory (China Environmental Science Press, 2014).

IPCC Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis (eds Solomon, S. et al.) (Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007).

World Population Prospects 2019 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2019); https://population.un.org/wpp2019/ .

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (grant no. 2020YFE0201400) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 52022023, 52100210 and 72061147003).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Fudan Tyndall Center and Shanghai Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Particle Pollution and Prevention (LAP3), Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

Min Dai, Bin Chen, Ziyang Liang, Huajun Yu & Yutao Wang

Key Laboratory of Ecosystem Network Observation and Modeling, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Mingxing Sun

Watershed Carbon Neutrality Institute, Nanchang University, Nanchang, China

Industrial and Systems Engineering Department, Institute for a Secure and Sustainable Environment, The University of Tennessee at Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, USA

Mingzhou Jin

State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China

Universidade Paulista, UNIP, São Paulo, Brazil

Cecilia Maria Villas Bôas de Almeida

Institute of Blue and Green Development, Shandong University, Weihai, China

Jiashuo Li & Pengfei Zhang

Gokongwei College of Engineering, De La Salle University, Manila, Philippines

Anthony S. F. Chiu

School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China

The Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction, University College London, London, UK

IRDR International Center of Excellence on Risk Interconnectivity and Governance on Weather/Climate Extremes Impact and Public Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

Shanghai Institute for Energy and Carbon Neutrality Strategy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China

Shanghai Institute of Eco-Chongming (SIEC), Shanghai, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Y.W. and M.D. designed the study. M.D. collected and compiled data, performed the analyses and prepared graphs, with support from Z.L. and P.Z. on data collection, from M.S. and B.C. on analytical approaches and from M.S., B.C., L.S., M.J., Y.M., C.M.V.B.d.A., J.L., A.S.F.C., M.X., H.Y., J.M. and Y.W. on discussions. M.D. led the writing of the first draft, with input from M.S., B.C. and Y.W., and subsequent drafts were revised and approved by all co-authors to finalize the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yutao Wang .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Peer review

Peer review information.

Nature thanks the anonymous reviewers for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 system definition and ghg emissions inventory..

a , System boundary for inventory building and GHG emissions estimation. The processes in four stages from ‘cradle’ to ‘grave’ are described here. The critical factors for net-zero emissions along paper-related sectors are annotated by light-blue tags ( ① – ⑥ ). b , Schematic diagram of the carbon flows within the boundary of this study.

Extended Data Fig. 2 Diagram of global energy consumption of pulping, papermaking and printing accumulated in 1961–2019.

The full names of the abbreviations are as follows: CWP, chemical wood pulp; MP, mechanical pulp; NWP, non-wood pulp; RP, recycled pulp; PP, packaging paper; PW, printing and writing paper; PR, printing; NP, newsprint; HS, household and sanitary paper; OP, other paper. The top part denotes biomass-based energy, such as by-products (black liquid) or wood scraps.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Global GHG emissions of all processes accumulated in 1961–2019.

During S2 and S3, biomass energy use effectively helps this industry avoid considerable fossil-fuel emissions (represented by the dashed-bordered light-grey rectangle). In S4, the potential avoided emissions brought by energy recovery of waste paper and captured methane are not counted in the total net GHG emissions. The full names of the carbon sources and stocks in the bottom four panels are as follows: (1) forest carbon emissions during unsustainable pulpwood harvest and carbon dioxide emissions caused by chemical production and fibre collection activities; (2) carbon dioxide emissions caused by chemical wood pulping, mechanical pulping, recycled pulping and non-wood pulping; (3) carbon dioxide emissions caused by packaging paper production, printing and writing paper production, printing, newsprint production, household and sanitary paper production, and other paper production; (4) methane from landfill, methane from pulping wastewater treatment, methane from papermaking wastewater treatment, carbon stocks from landfill, carbon stocks from non-energy recovery, carbon stocks from in-use products, avoided emissions from energy recovery, avoided emissions from captured methane, carbon dioxide emissions during energy recovery, carbon dioxide emissions caused by landfill, carbon dioxide emissions caused by incineration disposal method, carbon dioxide emissions caused by the combustion of captured methane and carbon dioxide emissions caused by the escaped landfill methane oxidized near the surface.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Detailed information about forest carbon emissions in the first ten countries in Fig. 3 .

a , Breakdown of results of forest carbon emissions. b , Sensitivity analysis on the impact of sustainable certification rate on forest carbon emissions.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Net GHG emissions under three recycling measures in 30 countries when no other measures are taken.

a , Net GHG emissions for each country in 2050 under three scenarios: absolute recycling rate, the same recycling rate as 2019 and zero recycling rate. The colours of the ellipsoids in the top-left corner of the small charts indicate the different effects of recycling on net emissions. b , Map categorizing countries based on the effect of recycling rate scenarios on net GHG emissions. The colour of the ellipsoid in each small chart in a matches the colour scheme of the map in b ).

Extended Data Fig. 6 Net GHG emissions of 30 countries in 2019 and 2050 under the BAU scenario and 16 single-measure scenarios.

The order of countries is the same as that in Fig. 4a .

Extended Data Fig. 7 Statistics of factor scenario settings of net-zero scenarios.

The order of countries is the same as that in Fig. 5 . This figure, to some extent, embodies the measures of preference and the level of difficulty in achieving net-zero emissions for each country.

Extended Data Fig. 8 Distribution of net-zero scenarios by the number of best or medium measures.

a , Distribution of net-zero scenarios without best measures by the number of medium measures. b , Distribution of net-zero scenarios containing best measures by the number of best measures. The order of countries is consistent with Fig. 5 .

Extended Data Fig. 9 Carbon intensity of energy consumption in S2 and S3 across 30 countries from 1961 to 2019.

The dashed line represents the carbon intensity of total energy consumption, which includes biomass energy, whereas the solid line considers emissions from biomass energy as carbon neutral, focusing solely on emissions from fossil fuels.

Extended Data Fig. 10 Analytical framework of forest carbon emissions estimation.

The estimation method is constructed by means of a three-step process. Step 2 involves several important references: Persson et al. 64 , Henders et al. 65 , IPCC (2006) 88 and Pearson et al. 60 , 63 .

Supplementary information

Supplementary information.

This file contains Supplementary Sections 1–4 and Supplementary Tables 1–15.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Dai, M., Sun, M., Chen, B. et al. Country-specific net-zero strategies of the pulp and paper industry. Nature 626 , 327–334 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06962-0

Download citation

Received : 13 June 2022

Accepted : 12 December 2023

Published : 18 December 2023

Issue Date : 08 February 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06962-0

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing: Anthropocene newsletter — what matters in anthropocene research, free to your inbox weekly.

Pulp, paper, and packaging in the next decade: Transformational change

From what you read in the press and hear on the street, you might be excused for believing the paper and forest-products industry is disappearing fast in the wake of digitization. The year 2015 saw worldwide demand for graphic paper decline for the first time ever, and the fall in demand for these products in North America and Europe over the past five years has been more pronounced than even the most pessimistic forecasts.

But the paper and forest-products industry as a whole is growing, albeit at a slower pace than before, as other products are filling the gap left by the shrinking graphic-paper 1 The graphic-paper segment includes newsprint, printing, and writing papers. market (Exhibit 1). Packaging is growing all over the world, along with tissue papers, and pulp for hygiene products. Although a relatively small market as yet, pulp for textile applications is growing. And a broad search for new applications and uses for wood and its components is taking place in numerous labs and development centers. The paper and forest-products industry is not disappearing—far from it. But it is changing, morphing, and developing. We would argue that the industry is going through the most substantial transformation it has seen in many decades.

In this article, we outline the changes we see happening across the industry and identify the challenges CEOs and their leadership teams will need to manage over the next decade.

Changing industry structure

The structure of the industry landscape is changing. The changes are not dramatic individually, but the accumulation of changes over the long term has now reached a point where they are making a difference.

Consolidation has been a major factor in many segments of the industry. The big have become bigger in their chosen areas of focus. At the aggregate level, the world’s largest paper and forest-products companies have not grown much, if at all, and several of them have reduced in size. What they have done is focus their efforts on fewer segments. As a result, concentration levels in specific segments have generally, if not universally, increased (Exhibit 2). In some segments such as North American containerboard and coated fine paper, ownership concentration as defined by traditional approaches to drawing segment boundaries may be reaching levels where it would be difficult for companies to find further acquisition opportunities that could be approved by competition authorities.

A grouping of companies has emerged that is not identical to, but partly overlaps with, the group of largest companies, and is drawn from various geographies and market segments. Companies in this group have positioned themselves for further growth through high margins and low debt (Exhibit 3). Our analysis suggests the financial resources available to some members of this group for strategic capital expenditure could be five to ten times greater than other top players in the industry. This potentially represents a powerful force for change in the industry, and over the next few years it will be interesting to see how these companies choose to spend their resources. Some of these companies with large war chests and sizable annual cash flows deployable for strategic capex might even face a challenge to find opportunities on a scale that matches these resources.

Where there are leaders, there are also laggards. We believe the pronounced differences in performance among companies across the industry continues to pique the interest of investors and private-equity players in an industry that is already undergoing substantial restructuring and M&A.

Changing market segments

Whether companies are well positioned for further growth or still needing to earn the right to grow, they can expect demand to grow for paper and board products over the next decade. The graphic-paper market will continue to face declining demand worldwide, and our research has yet to find credible arguments for a specific floor for future demand. But this decline should be balanced by the increase in demand for packaging—industrial as well as consumer—and tissue products. All in all, demand for fiber-based products is set to increase globally, with some segments growing faster than others (Exhibit 4).

That picture is not without its uncertainties. One hazy spot in the demand skies might be concerns over how fast demand will grow in China. Expectations of growth from only a few years ago have proved a bit too optimistic, not only in graphic papers but also in tissue papers and packaging. And recently, as a result of turmoil in the market for recycled fiber, Chinese users of corrugated packaging have reduced their consumption, through weight reductions and use of reusable plastic boxes. Given China’s weight in the global paper and board market, even relatively modest changes can have significant impact.

How these demand trends will translate into industry profitability will of course be heavily influenced by the industry’s supply actions. Supply movements are notoriously difficult to forecast more than a few years out, but we believe the following observations are relevant to this discussion.

• Graphic papers, particularly newsprint and coated papers but also uncoated papers, will continue to face a severe decline in demand and significant pressure to restructure production capacity. We are likely to see continuing machine conversions into packaging and specialty papers, as well as more innovative structural moves that include innovations in distribution and the supply chain. Such structural changes are already having an impact and the profitability of graphic-paper companies has reemerged from several years in the doldrums. The turbulence in graphic papers has meanwhile spilled over to packaging and tissue segments, with capacity increases in segments that don’t really need it.
• Consumer packaging and tissue will be driven largely by demographic shifts and consumer trends such as the demand for convenience and sustainability. It will grow roughly on par with GDP. We expect innovation to be a critical success factor, particularly in light of recent concerns over plastic packaging waste, which could harbor both opportunities and challenges for fiber-based consumer packaging. But we are uncertain how far packaging players can drive innovation by themselves. Clearly, they can take the lead on materials development, but they may need to follow the lead of—and cooperate with—retailers and consumer-goods companies in areas such as formats, use, and technology. At the same time, the inflow of capacity from the graphic-paper segment will need to be managed.
• Transport and industrial packaging will also see opportunities for innovation and a certain amount of value-creating disruption in the intersection between sustainability requirements, e-commerce, and technology integration. We estimate that e-commerce will drive roughly half of the demand growth in transport packaging over the next several years. As packaging adapts to this particular channel, it will have to find new solutions to a variety of issues, such as how to handle last-mile deliveries, the sustainability choice between fiber-based and lightweight plastic packaging, and the potential merging of transport (secondary) and consumer (primary) packaging, to name but a few.
• Fiber has gone through some turbulent times in the past two years, largely to the delight of pulp producers and to the chagrin of users. Hardwood and softwood prices alike have seen steady increases since 2017, due to some slow start-up of capacity (hardwood pulp), limited capacity additions, and a certain measure of industry psychology. In the past two years, prices globally went through what we would term a “fly-up regime,” whereby prices are significantly and unusually higher than the cost of the marginal producer. Such situations, seen from time to time in many other basic-materials industries, are rarely long lived. Indeed, since the beginning of 2019, prices have come down—in China drastically so.

Would you like to learn more about our Paper & Forest Products Practice ?

But even with a readjustment of the market, the midterm prospects are likely to be in favor of the producers, with little new capacity until 2021–22 and some softwood capacity that is likely to be converted to other products, such as pulp for textile applications. For softwood particularly, challenges in expanding the forest supply are constraining new supply. Also, the fact that much of the industry’s softwood-production assets are aging and need complete renewal or substantial upgrades could further contribute to scarcity, especially since the scale of the investments required is a potential roadblock to them being made.

The lingering question is whether such supply-side challenges can trigger an accelerated development of applications that are less dependent on wood-fiber pulp.

Challenges for the next decade

In such an environment, what are the key challenges senior executives will need to address? What are the key battles they will have to fight? The paper and forest-products industry is often labelled a “traditional” industry. Yet given the confluence of technological changes, demographic changes, and resource concerns that we anticipate over the next decade, we believe the industry will have to embrace change that is, in character, as well as pace, vastly different from what we have seen before—and anything but traditional. This will pose significant challenges for CEOs regarding how they manage their companies.

We argue that there are three broad themes that paper and forest-products CEOs will have to address through 2020 and beyond:

• Managing short-to-medium-term “grade turbulence”

Finding the next level of cost optimization

• Finding value-creating growth roles for forest products in a fundamentally changing business landscape

Managing short-to-medium-term ‘grade turbulence’

The past couple of years have seen increased instability in forest-products segments. The negative impact of digital communications on graphic paper has led many companies to steer away from the segment and into higher-growth areas, either through conversion of machines or through redirection of investment funds. This is leading to a higher level of uncertainty and overcapacity in, for example, packaging grades. The instability has also been exacerbated by the capacity additions that primarily Asian producers have made despite the slowing demand growth in that region.

A case in point is virgin-fiber cartonboard. Several producers in Europe have converted machines away from graphic paper and into this segment, creating further oversupply in Europe and leading producers to redouble their efforts to sell to export markets. This is happening just as increasing capacity in Asia, and particularly in China, looks set to displace imports that have traditionally come into the region, mainly from Europe and North America. Some of the new Asian capacity could even find its way into export markets.

This development is likely to persist for several years until markets again find more of an equilibrium, and it poses challenging questions for companies. What, if any, safe havens exist for my products? How do I protect home-market volumes? How do I protect my export volumes? What is the appropriate pricing strategy to use in the different regions?

For CEOs looking to move into a new market segment, it will be equally important to make the right assessment of which segments to enter as they shift their footing. Where will I be the most competitive? How will my entry change market dynamics, and will this matter to me?

On the raw-materials (fiber) side, we have already described the past couple of years’ turbulence in virgin pulp. If that might seem to trend toward stabilization, the situation in recycled fibers is still very uncertain. As China, and gradually other Asian countries, have increasingly restricted the import of recovered fiber (as well as plastics and other recovered materials), the dynamics have shifted. While prices of old corrugated containers (OCC) and other papers for recycling have plummeted in North America and Europe, prices of domestic Chinese OCC have increased drastically, challenging both the price and availability of recycled-based corrugated board. In response, companies have set up capacity to produce recycled-fiber pulp to export to China, while the country is jacking up its import of containerboard for corrugated packaging, as well as virgin fiber for strengthening purposes.

This of course affects how companies, in any country, think about their fiber-supply strategies as well as their product focus.

Even though we see new ways of creating value in the forest-products industry, low cost is, and will remain, a critical factor for high financial performance. One of the characteristics shared by companies with high margins and high returns is that they have access to low-cost raw materials, primarily fiber. This will continue to be a high-priority area, albeit with some twists compared with today.

Beyond the price increases of the past couple of years, fresh fiber is facing other, more long-term, cost issues. It is unclear whether plantation land in the southern hemisphere (primarily for short-fiber wood) will continue to be available at current low prices. And as companies go to more remote areas to acquire inexpensive land, such as in Brazil, their infrastructure and logistics costs increase. Will higher productivity and yield allow the global industry to add ever more low-cost capacity, or are we going to see a gradual increase in raw-material costs? For long-fiber products, the difficulties to expand long-fiber pulp capacity will make such assets very valuable over the next several years. But at what point will development of the material properties of short-fiber pulps make them rival more expensive long-fiber pulps in a number of major applications?

Operating costs for paper and board production are another area where companies need to get a tighter grip. Despite the fact that this area receives continual focus from management, our experience suggests there is still significant potential for cost reduction by using conventional approaches to work smarter and reduce waste in the production chain. This is particularly the case in areas that are less the focus of management attention, such as converting.

Many companies need to go beyond the conventional approaches to a next level of cost optimization—and many are ready to take this step. Most if not all paper and forest-products companies have completed large fixed-cost reduction programs. But there are often broader systemic issues that companies still need to address to be able to build sustainable operating models. In addition, in some segments many companies fail to reduce fixed costs as quickly as capacity disappears. By radically rethinking the operating model, companies can significantly shift their fixed-cost structure. By doing so, they can set a very different starting point in terms of flexibility and agility for when market volumes go through their normal cyclical swings.

The paper and forest-products industry has much to gain from embracing digital manufacturing : according to our estimates, this could reduce the total cost base of a producer by as much as 15 percent. New applications such as forestry monitoring using drones or remote mill automation present tremendous opportunities for increased efficiency and cost reductions. This is also the case in areas where big data can be applied, for instance, to solve variability and throughput-related issues in each step of the integrated production flows (Exhibit 5). The industry is well placed to join the digital revolution, as paper and pulp producers typically start from a strong position when it comes to collected or collectable data.

At the customer-facing end, the opportunity for innovation is huge and has the potential to transform existing industries and create new ones, especially in packaging segments. Digital developments will also help disrupt previous B2B2C value chains, paving the way for direct B2C relationships between paper-product makers and end consumers, for example, in tissue products.

The digital world is unfamiliar territory to most paper industry CEOs. To avoid too much doodling with small uncoordinated efforts, it is necessary to undertake a thought-through program, preferably guided by digitally experienced people either on the top-management team or board.

Finding value-creating growth roles for forest products

For any paper-company CEO who looks out ten years, the really different challenges will not be around cost containment. Global trends are moving the industry into a new landscape, where the challenges and opportunities for finding value-creating growth roles for forest products are changing radically. For example, the industry’s historic linear value chains are giving way to more collaborative structures with players in and outside the industry. We believe examples will include new producer and distributor collaborations; pulp players collaborating more innovatively with non-integrated players; paper and packaging companies collaborating more intensively with retailers, consumer-goods companies, and technological experts; and new products such as bio-refinery products requiring novel go-to-market partnerships. Here are some interesting examples of how these and other trends could play out.

Staying relevant (and increasing relevancy) in a fast-changing packaging world. The packaging market is multifaceted and continuously morphing. Digital developments influence it both by stimulating demand for packaging used in e-commerce and by enabling the integration into packaging of sensors and other technology. E-commerce has highlighted new packaging topics such as improved product safety, the “un-boxing” experience, counterfeiting measures, optimization for last-mile delivery , and a growing interest—at least from the large e-commerce-based retailers—in the possibility of merging primary and secondary packaging. At the same time, the packaging industry has to deal with increasing pressures around cost, resource conservancy, and sustainability. That last topic has gained huge momentum in the past couple of years as concerns over plastic waste have added to the concern over CO 2 emissions from fossil-based packaging materials. Consumer-goods companies, retailers, packagers, and policy makers alike are now exploring a wide range of possible solutions for what tomorrow’s packaging will look like.

The opportunity for forest-products companies to develop a differentiated and distinct customer value proposition in this landscape has never been greater. Packaging-materials CEOs will have to address a number of choices and trade-offs as they seek the appropriate strategic posture. Should you be a pure upstream player or a packaging-solutions provider? Should you focus on fiber-based packaging only or providing multi-substrate solutions? Should you be at the forefront of technology integration and application development in packaging or focus on materials development?

To stay relevant, many companies in packaging are trying to move closer to the brand owner or end user. Only a few companies are positioned to successfully make this move, however, and even they should be cautious. We are already seeing brand owners and leading customers challenging the benefits of packaging companies coming with consumer-facing ideas such as complete packaging concepts. Some of these players would prefer packaging companies to focus instead on core competencies such as materials development or interfaces with other substrates such as plastics.

How the paper and forest-products industry thrives in the digital age

Finding the right path in next-generation bio-products. Wood is a biomaterial with exciting properties, from the log on down to fibers, micro- and nanofibers, and sugar molecules. A healthy niche industry making bio-products has existed for many years alongside large-volume pulp, paper, and board products. We are in the midst of an explosion of research activity to develop new bio-products, ranging from applications for nanofibers to composite materials and lignin-based carbon fiber. New processes  are being designed to extract hemicellulose as feedstock for sugars and chemical production while still keeping the cellulose parts of the wood chip for pulp products.

We believe wood-based products will find new ways to enlarge their footprint in a more sustainable global economy. But the challenges are legion, particularly for finding cost-effective production methods that can withstand competition not only from oil-based materials but also from other biomaterials. Finding the right balance between developing the “new” and safeguarding the “old” will be a crucial undertaking for executives running companies with access to fresh fiber.

Finding growth in adjacent areas. Over the past decade or two we have seen the larger forest-products companies performing a focus adjustment. Most companies have moved from being fairly broad conglomerates present in various forest-products segments to focusing on a few core businesses. To find value-creating growth in the next two decades, we expect companies to start broadening their corporate portfolio again, but broadening it around the core businesses they have been working on, so as to create differentiated customer value propositions. Finding value-creating adjacencies to the core business will be a challenging exercise in creativity and business acumen for executive teams.

Finding new value-creating growth for forest products will also put the spotlight on a number of functional executive topics. We believe the following will be most important.

• Innovation: The forest-products industry has not been known for a fast-paced innovation agenda. By and large it hasn’t been necessary, as markets and demand characteristics have changed relatively slowly. In the future, however, innovation in products, processes, organizational setup, and business models will be imperative. For many companies, getting efficient innovation practices and organization up to speed will be an important challenge.

Talent management: The different skills required over the next ten to 15 years, dictated by developments such as new business models in an online world, increased need for innovation and commercialization of products, and digitalization’s impact on everything from manufacturing processes to the content of work will put particular onus on the talent pool  of forest-products companies. Installing an executive team that is able to understand new demands across customer businesses, digital, bio-products that cater to completely different value chains, and cross-industry collaboration will be a major task for CEOs and boards.

One particular war-for-talent battle that can become a key differentiator is the content of work. Our research on the future of work  highlights that already today, around 60 percent of all tasks, that is, not entire jobs or roles but their components, can be automated. And looking to the coming ten to 15 years, more than 30 percent of physical and manual skills risk becoming obsolete while technological skills will continue to grow very quickly. This will provide a critical and likely success-defining reskilling challenge for companies in the industry.

• Commercial excellence: Paper and forest-products companies will need to transform their commercial interface to stay relevant, particularly in packaging and downstream paper. They will need to put in place a more professionalized and skilled organization that focuses on value creation instead of focusing primarily on sales volumes.

We believe the paper and forest-products industry is moving into an interesting decade, one that will see nothing less than a transformation of large parts of the industry. There will be many barriers to overcome and metaphorical cliffs to fall off. But the companies that are able to navigate through successfully can look forward to an industry that has a new sense of purpose and an increasingly vital role to play.

This article was updated in August 2019; it was originally published in May 2017.

Stay current on your favorite topics

Peter Berg  is a director of knowledge in McKinsey’s Stockholm office, where Oskar Lingqvist  is a senior partner. Together they lead McKinsey’s global Paper & Forest Products Practice.

Explore a career with us

Related articles.

Winning with new models in packaging

Precision forestry: A revolution in the woods

Something went wrong

An error has prevented the portal from working properly.

Please contact us .

You reached this page when trying to access MDI3MDQ5ZTAzYjcxLTcyNDgtZjNlNC03NDRiLWRhYzdkOTUy from 81.177.180.204 on April 29 2024, 00:34:31 UTC

• Open access
• Published: 29 April 2021

Pulp and paper mill wastes: utilizations and prospects for high value-added biomaterials

• Adane Haile 1 ,
• Gemeda Gebino Gelebo 1 ,
• Tamrat Tesfaye 1 ,
• Wassie Mengie 1 ,
• Million Ayele Mebrate 1 ,
• Amare Abuhay 1 &
• Derseh Yilie Limeneh 1  

Bioresources and Bioprocessing volume  8 , Article number:  35 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

45k Accesses

74 Citations

3 Altmetric

Metrics details

A wide variety of biomass is available all around the world. Most of the biomass exists as a by-product from manufacturing industries. Pulp and paper mills contribute to a higher amount of these biomasses mostly discarded in the landfills creating an environmental burden. Biomasses from other sources have been used to produce different kinds and grades of biomaterials such as those used in industrial and medical applications. The present review aims to investigate the availability of biomass from pulp and paper mills and show sustainable routes for the production of high value-added biomaterials. The study reveals that using conventional and integrated biorefinery technology the ample variety and quantity of waste generated from pulp and paper mills can be converted into wealth. As per the findings of the current review, it is shown that high-performance carbon fiber and bioplastic can be manufactured from black liquor of pulping waste; the cellulosic waste from sawdust and sludge can be utilized for the synthesis of CNC and regenerated fibers such as viscose rayon and acetate; the mineral-based pulping wastes and fly ash can be used for manufacturing of different kinds of biocomposites. The different biomaterials obtained from the pulp and paper mill biomass can be used for versatile applications including conventional, high performance, and smart materials. Through customization and optimization of the conversion techniques and product manufacturing schemes, a variety of engineering materials can be obtained from pulp and paper mill wastes realizing the current global waste to wealth developmental approach.

Introduction

The demand and use of pulp and paper have marked the levels of civilization and development of many societies (Armstrong et al. 1998 ; Lwako et al. 2013 ). The pulp and paper mills mainly utilize wood sources for the production of pulp and paper. Though appropriate quantitative analysis of waste produced from pulp and paper mills has not been done yet; in general only a few percent of the wood sources are utilized for the actual pulp and paper production (Bajpai 2015b ). The rest is discarded as solid and liquid waste. Considering the developing countries' scenario both quantitative and qualitative analysis of biomass generated from the mills has not been done yet. Except for a few percent of wastepaper utilized in paper recycling the rest of the waste is left in the landfill or incinerated with no commercial significance; besides no satisfactory waste recycling scheme is implemented. Furthermore, in developing countries, the trend towards the conversion of the wastes into valuable materials is not practiced appreciably (Bajpai 2015d ).

Environmental sustainability is a priority issue as far as sustainable development of nations is progressive. It is also a global concern recently to get rid of the factors that counteract environmental sustainability such as climate change, natural sources depletion, ecosystem prevention, and environmental degradation (McKinnon 2010 ; Bajpai 2018b ; Carroll and Turpin 2002 ). The wastes from pulp mills one way or the other have a contributory effect on these factors and a feasible remedy needs to be designed for the overall protection of the environment for its sustainability. The pulp industry wastewater is generated from several sources like washing of raw wood materials before pulping, washing of cooked pulp and bleaching pulp, and finally, chemical recovery system (Song et al. 2019 ). Solid waste is produced primarily from the rejection of screening, primary and secondary sludge from wastewater management, and lime sludge from the chemical recovery system (Đurđević et al. 2020 ). Currently, a large amount of solid and liquid wastes are generated by the pulp and paper mills and environmental aspects are becoming a major concern that needs intervention.

The waste generated from pulp and paper mills adversely affects the environment from different perspectives. The emissions from pulp and paper industries have a significant effect on the environment. The generated waste from the pulp and paper industry causes severe harm to aquatic life, disturbs the food chain, and also causes various health implications (Gupta et al. 2019 ). The effect of pollutants on the environment has been assessed many times, but their mitigation still has a significant challenge (Gupta et al. 2019 ). Besides, many of the developing countries do not produce pulp. These paper mills use imported pulp and waste paper as raw materials.

It is vital from an environmental and socio-economic social point of view to utilize appropriate technology to convert the wastes from pulp and paper mills to highly valuable products that will have an impact on everyday life. This requires a thorough analysis of generated biomass quantitatively and qualitatively and the current review is limited to envisaging the availability of biomass from the said mills, the current utilization scheme, and the potentiality for biomaterial production and diversified application. Besides protection of the environment from undesired waste impacts, utilization of the wastes will greatly support the product diversity scheme and economic growth potency (Landrigan and Fuller 2015 ).

Overview of pulp and paper industry

Status of pulp and paper industry at a global perspective.

As one of the most important industries worldwide pulp and paper mills supply varied products for around 5 billion people for versatile applications (Bajpai, 2015c ). The paper is manufactured from pulp and a huge amount of trees is consumed for the pulp production with different shares by different countries in the world (Brännvall 2009 , Cabreha 2017 ). The overall trend in the consumption of paper and paperboard by different countries and the forecasted consumption is shown in Fig.  1 .

Yearly trend and future forecast on world paper production

The pulp and paper industry is one of the largest industries in the world. The consumption of paper is dominated by North American, Northern European, and East Asian countries (Fig.  2 ) (Diesen et al. 1998 ; Gopal et al. 2019 ; Hammett et al. 2001 ). Other dominant countries with significant pulp and paper industries are Australia and South America. A massive and key contribution is expected from China and India in the upcoming few years.

Global consumption of paper by major countries

Considering the significant variation in consumption of paper products per person from the country to country the global consumption of paper and paper board is estimated on average around 55 kg/person per year. The utilization of paper and board is increasing year to year though digitalization is expected to influence production and consumption in different ways. The dominant countries like North America, Europe, and Asia and low producers and consumers like African countries are still utilizing huge amounts of paper.

The key components in the paper are cellulose sheets. There are also other constituents derived from the woody and related raw materials. The raw materials for manufacturing pulp and paper are ample and mainly consist of cellulose. Besides wood which is a chief source of cellulose, recycled paper and other cellulose bearing agricultural residues can be used as a raw material. The scenario in developing countries showed around 60% cellulose is obtained from jute, sisal, bamboo, bagasse, and similar non-wood resources.

Wood is considered the primary raw material and the major source of pulp in paper production (Eugenio et al. 2019 ). The gross characteristic composition of wood indicates its major constituents are cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose. It also contains a trace amount of extractives of different types.

Numerical observation revealed that wood contains around 40–50% of cellulose (Table 1 ) (Sjöström and Westermark 1999 ). Considering ultimate properties such as strength and printability of paper it is possible to use hardwood and softwoods separately or combined in the manufacturing process. (Liu et al. 2018 ; Asmare 2017 ).

An onsite availability study has been conducted on paper mills in Ethiopia. According to the study report, 25 paper enterprises are assessed and of which 12 companies are effective in producing different kinds of paper products with measurable production losses (Table 2 ).

The main aim of the preliminary study was to determine the availability of waste and possible ingredients for biomaterial synthesis. The production loss indicated the potential availability of wastes and allied potential ingredients from the mills. The availability study in the specified country ensured a potential for conversion of pulp and paper mill biomass into biomaterials. Limitation to produce pulp indigenously can also be solved for the satisfaction of the demand for paper and paper products.

Overview on pulp and paper manufacturing process

The availability of raw materials for pulp and paper manufacturing is versatile and mainly cellulosic fibers from wood and selected plants are utilized. Besides wood used most widely in many countries of the world plant resources such as sugar cane residues, residues on cottonseed, and remnants from flax and rags are also used (Osman Khider et al. 2012 ; Asmare 2017 ; Enayati et al. 2009 ; Jahan et al. 2004 ; Tutus et al. 2010 ). Besides, in case of scarcity of virgin raw material resources recycled paper after proper after-treatment, through appropriate blending and recycling process, is used in some paper manufacturing trends.

The different pulping operations and the integrated paper manufacturing process are shown in Fig.  3 . Two steps are involved in the manufacturing of paper. First cellulose sheets are converted into pulp which is the intermediate material for paper production. The second step involves the conversion of pulp into the paper with the necessary after-treatment depending on the targeted end-use. The overall manufacturing process is accompanied by multiple stages which mainly involve raw material preparation and handling, controlled pulping, and discrete or continuous paper manufacturing. The pulping involves the actual making of the pulp followed by pulp washing and screening. After proper chemical recovery and bleaching, the stock is prepared. Finally, the papermaking is carried out which itself has different stages. Pulp mills and paper mills may exist separately or as integrated operations (Bajpai 2018b ; de Alda 2008 ; Ragauskas 2002 ).

Process flow in pulp and paper manufacturing mills

Operational mechanism of pulping

Pulp manufacturing starts with raw material preparation, which includes debarking, chipping, chip screening, chip handling, and storage (Bajpai 2011 , Brännvall 2009 ). The pulp needs to be free of dirt and superficial materials such as bark, and debarking is done for making the pulp physically clean. The next operation in raw material preparation is chipping to ensure better handling of the logs which is done through cutting to get the required size of logs for the subsequent pulping process. Pulping requirements need to be considered in optimizing chip handling and determining the suitable chip storage conditions (Bajpai 2015a ).

The pulping operation involves the separation of the wood chips to get the fibrous materials. In the process, lignin is removed from the lignocellulosic wood and the individual cellulose fibers are isolated. Though there are different pulping methods chemical and mechanical methods are the most widely used in paper mills. Either of the three techniques namely kraft, soda, or sulfite are used in the chemical pulping approach. In all the cases the cellulose is extracted via cooking of the chips in the aqueous solutions of the reagents at elevated pressure and temperature (Bajpai, 2011 , 2015a ). Physical energy is used in the mechanical pulping approach which mainly involves the removal of cellulose through grinding or shredding.

The most widely used pulping process is kraft pulping and uses alkaline cooking liquor of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide (Na 2 S) to digest wood. In the process, a digester is used for mixing the chips with the kraft cooking solution. The kraft pulping process uses an alkaline cooking liquor of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide to digest the wood. The process involves the digestion of wood chips at high temperature in the range of 145–170 °C and pressure in “white liquor,” which is a water solution of sodium sulfide (Na 2 S) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH), for a few hours (Huber et al. 2014 ). During this treatment, the hydroxide and hydrosulfide anions react with the lignin, causing the polymer to fragment into smaller water/alkali-soluble fragments and isolating the cellulose fibers.

After the wood chips have been cooked, the contents of the digester are discharged under pressure into a blow tank. As the mass of softened, cooked chips impacts the tangential entry of the blow tank, the chips disintegrate into fibers or “pulp.” The pulp and spent cooking liquor (black liquor) are subsequently separated in a series of brown stock washers (Alén 2019 ). After the required cooking is carried out the cooking liquor is discharged under pressure into a blow tank. The mechanistic tangential flow of the cooked chips in the blow tank isolates the chips into pulp (Yang and Liu 2005 ; Al-Dajani and Tschirner 2008 ).

After pulp production, after-treatment of pulp is carried out through washing to ensure removal of contaminants which include uncooked chips, and recycling of residual liquor is carried out via pulp washing operations. The pulp washers separate the pulp from the spent cooking liquor during chemical pulping (Dimmel and Gellerstedt 2009 , Chakar and Ragauskas 2004 ). After washing, screening is done to remove remaining off-size particles such as fragments from barky matters, bigger size chips, and chips that remained uncooked, and the material is delivered to the pulp bleaching process.

A very important process in the pulp mill is bleaching used for the removal of coloring and allied impurities in the raw pulp. Bleached pulp grades are used to produce white papers. Nearly half of the Kraft production is in bleached grades. The bleaching of pulp is carried out to increase the whiteness and brightness of the pulp (Bajpai 2013 ; Hammett et al. 2001 ). This is important for making the paper suitable for selected products such as those produced in tissue and printing enterprises. Enhancement of physical and optical qualities of the pulp is achieved by removing impurities such as entangles of fibers, barky fragments, or decolorizing the lignin making it a potential benefit in the chemical pulping process (Al-Dajani and Tschirner 2008 , Chakar and Ragauskas 2004 ).

Kraft bleaching has been refined into a stepwise progression of chemical reaction, evolving from a single-stage hypochlorite treatment to a multi-stage process, involving chlorine), chlorine dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, and ozone. The optimized and controlled condition must be used in the bleaching process. If bleaching conditions are too severe there will be fiber damage, leading to a lower strength of the paper (Brännvall 2009 ; Angevine, 1998 ). After bleaching stock preparation is conducted to convert raw stock into finished stock to be used in the paper machine. Raw stock can be available in different forms. In batch processes, the delivery can be in loose pulp or bale and the integrated pulp to paper conversion suspensions can be used as well (Dimmel and Gellerstedt 2009 , 2009 ).

In the chemical pulping process, it is necessary to recover the used cooking chemicals, and a proper chemical recovery system is needed (Gellerstedt 2009 ; Walker 2004 ). At the pulping mills, the weak black liquor also called spent cooking liquor, from the different rinsing stages is transferred to the chemical recovery which as well is situated alongside the mills (Santos et al. 2011 ; Al-Dajani and Tschirner 2008 ). The chemical recovery process is conducted at different stages to ensure proper reconstitution of the cooking liquor. Initially, the weak black liquor is concentrated followed by combustion of organic matters and reduction of inorganic matters. Finally, the cooking liquor is reconstituted in the required concentration. All the stages need critical control on the parametric allowances. The quality of paper produced from the pulp is affected by the quality of water and different companies have incorporated water treatment schemes along with the pulping process. To prevent deposits on pulp, water treatment chemicals such as anti-scale agents and pitch control agents are incorporated during the route of manufacturing.

As part of pulping process dregs, lime mud, and grits are generated in the chemical recovery process. Green liquor contains sodium sulfide and sodium carbonate; and insoluble unburned carbon and inorganic impurities called dregs, which are removed in a series of clarification tanks. The green liquor is a residue of dissolution of the molten inorganic salts (smelt) from the black liquor concentration process (Angevine 1998 , Brännvall 2009 ). The lime mud is generated in the causticization process of chemical recovery in the decantation of the green liquor using calcium oxide (lime) (Ai et al. 2007 ). The grits are originated from the white liquor slurry in the slacker by gravity and classified as unreacted lime (Kinnarinen et al. 2016 ). Grits are insoluble compounds, most of which come from purchased lime, which collect in the slacker and need to be removed and disposed of.

Final pulping operations are involved in the boiler unit which causes the generation of large content of ashes. In particular, fly ash is produced as by-products of the biomass combustion process which is generated during the high-temperature combustion of hog fuel in power boiler units (Cherian and Siddiqua 2019 ). As the flue gas approaches the low-temperature zones, the fused substances solidify to form fly ash. The fly ash consists of fine particulates and precipitated volatiles, typically with a high specific surface area, whereas bottom ashes tend to be coarser in texture (Cherian and Siddiqua 2019 ; Scheepers and du Toit 2016 ).

Most of the pulping operations so far especially those involving chemicals are not ecofriendly. Nowadays new pulping methods are used for manufacturing different grade pulps that utilize enzymes (Lin et al. 2018 ). These enzymatic pulping techniques are being used for the preparation of dissolving pulp for the production of fibrous materials. In the enzymatically assisted pulping process xylanase, cellulase, and hemicellulase enzymes are utilized for segregation of the pulp from the rest of lignocellulosic mass and after-treatment (Lin et al. 2018 ; Rashmi and Bhardwaj Nishi 2010 ; Yang et al. 2019b ). It is reported that the purity of enzymatically produced pulp is better than conventional kraft pulping processes.

Papermaking process

The process adopted for the making of paper is identical for all pulp types (Bajpai 2018b ; Woiciechowski et al. 2020 ). The pulp from the chest compartment is screened which when required is refined to the required level. The pulp slurry is formed by mixing the refined pulp in water in a wet end operation. This slurry at the headbox is put through a paper machine and pressed by the press compartment. In the press section, the sheet forming process is commenced through the draining of the water. The next operation is passing of the formed sheet in a dryer which involved hierarchically arranged compartments of the dry end for coating and drying. The final dried and finished product is transferred to calendaring operation for reducing the thickness of paper as required and sheet surface smoothing before winding on to the take-up reels.

Availability of by-products from pulp and paper mill

A global review of manufacturing sectors divulged that 17% of the total global waste comes from paper industries (Fig.  5 ) (Karak et al. 2012 ; Sakai et al. 1996 ). Pulp and paper mills contribute to air, water, and land pollution and discarded paper and paperboard make up roughly 26% of solid municipal waste in landfill sites (Pati et al. 2008 ; Ritchlin 2012 ). Waste data based on relative waste analysis from a specific global company revealed the large contribution of pulp and paper mill waste to the total solid waste indicative of a need to set up a platform for strategic intervention for the realization of a green environment (Mladenov and Pelovski 2010 ; Ince et al. 2011 ). The study reveals that from a total solid waste generation of 238,771 thousand tonnes, around 186 thousand tonnes is generated from pulp and paper industries.

Different types of solid wastes and sludge are generated in the pulp and paper mills at different sites of the process (Fig.  4 ). Potential wastes are generated from wood preparation and the actual pulp manufacturing and paper-making stages. Furthermore, an ample amount of different types of wastes are generated from chemical recovery, effluent treatment, and paper manufacturing methods that utilize recycled paper routes (Camberato et al. 2006 ; Akbari et al. 2018 ).

Sites of waste generation in pulp and paper manufacturing

Among different factors that affect the identity and amount of generated waste from pulp and paper, mills is the type of manufacturing process amplified with the wastewater treatment technologies adopted. The pulp and paper mill waste mainly includes rejects at different stages such as woody and barky residues and sand particles, black liquor, and wastewater sludges. Inorganic sludges are isolated from the chemical recovery station and are composed mainly of calcite lime mud, the slacker grits, and green liquor dregs (Bird and Talberth 2008 ; Environmental 2007 ; Leponiemi 2008 ).

The sources of wastewater treatment residues as part of potential sludge are conveyed from two sources. The major part is the primary sludge from the entire manufacturing route and those generated from the secondary clarifier are categorized as biological sludge (Simão et al. 2019 ). Also, the sludge from the water treatment is regarded as chemical flocculation sludge. Deinking sludge from recycled paper production which contains mainly tiny fibers or fragmented fines and additives is another source of waste (Simão et al. 2018 ). The major source of waste from different stages of pulp and paper manufacturing is summarized in Table 3 .

The regions and different recycling processes and allied recycling rates determine the quantity of biomass generated from paper production. The variation within regions is also very wide. Due to internally established treatment and utilization routes for generated waste along with the manufacturing process by different pulp and paper mills, there is limited quantitative data on the total amount of waste generated from the mills. Estimated data on the quantity of solid waste from sample pulp and paper mill is reported. The potential woody wastes and rejects are from the preparation of pulpwood and contribute to solid waste generation (Table 4 ).

The predominant biomass available in large quantities in pulp mills is the black liquor. It is reported that kraft mill producing bleached paper engenders around 1.7–1.8 tonnes of black liquor per one tonne of pulp on a bone dry basis (Leponiemi 2008 ). This highly viscous liquor is a result of the conversion of almost half of the raw chips used in the hopper of the pulping operation. A report of IEA revealed about 170 million tonnes of black liquor per year is released from pulp and paper mills worldwide.

Another portion of the waste involves sludge of different types namely primary, secondary, and deinking sludge. From a total sludge of 40–50 kg per tonne of the virgin paper production, the primary sludge accounts for 70% and the rest 30% is the secondary sludge. On a glance approximation, the sludge generated from the manufacturing of different paper products varies from 20 to 40% on a dry mass. The grade of paper and the specific type of process adopted for the manufacturing of the paper product determines the amount of sludge generated. (Quina and Pinheiro 2020 ). In comparison, the amount of waste sludge generated from industries that utilize the recycled paper approach produces a large amount of sludge than the conventional approach through virgin raw materials. From each one tonne of reclaimed paper, a total of 300 kg sludge is generated.

Depending on production capacity and the type of pulping a large amount of fly ash is released annually from pulp and paper mills (Environmental 2007 ; Mikkanen 2000 ). A recent report in Finland indicated a release of 240,000 tonnes of ash every year. As an illustration of the availability of waste biomass from pulp and paper mills, it is reported that the collective fly ash and wood ash produced from Canadian mills is 1 million tonnes per year.

Most of the pulp and paper mill wastes have an impact on the environment and create health problems. The major sources of pollutants at different stages of pulping and paper manufacturing are summarized (Table 5 ) (Gavrilescu et al. 2012 ). The environmental impact generated by the manufacture of pulp and paper results mainly from wood pulping and pulp bleaching. In pulping processes, sulfur compounds and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the air, and during pulp bleaching, chlorinated and organic compounds and nutrients are discharged to the wastewaters (Gavrilescu et al. 2012 ; Singh and Chandra 2019 ).

The pulp paper industries release very complex organic and inorganic pollutants mainly from pulping and bleaching stages. Particularly, sulfur compounds and nitrogen oxides are emitted into the air, and chlorinated and organic compounds and nutrients are discharged to the wastewaters (Gavrilescu et al. 2012 ; Bank 1999 ). The pollutants are gaseous, inorganic, and organic type. The major pollutants include hydrogen sulfides, sodium sulfide, sulfur, chlorine dioxide, ferrous, copper, hexadecanoic acids, octacosane, phenol, and β-sitosterol. It has been reported that the different pollutants cause environmental and health impacts in terms of respiratory disorder and irritation to the skin, neurotoxicity, and direct toxicity of effluent to the reproductive system in aquatic flora and fauna are reported. Several of these pollutants are reported to contain endocrine-disrupting chemicals. Furthermore, the environmental pollution caused by the pollutants poses a threat to aquatic life as well as to plants and human beings (Bank 1999 ; Gavrilescu et al. 2012 ; Singh and Chandra 2019 ) .

Current utilization of pulp and paper mill waste

Characteristic components of major by-products.

The wastes from pulp and paper mills are both of organic and inorganic types. Most of the biomass generated from pulp and paper mills is organic residues. Black liquor consists of organic polymers (lignin, polysaccharides, and resinous compounds of a low molar mass) and inorganic compounds mainly soluble salt ions (Fig.  5 a) (Viel et al. 2020 ).

Black liquor: a Gross structure of black liquor; b Black liquor separation

Black liquor is separated from the pulp in washing (Fig.  5 b). The biorefinery approach can be used for the conversion of lignin and hemicellulose in black liquor into biomaterials (Vakkilainen and Välimäki 2009 ; Vakkilainen 2016 ).

Black liquor being the major waste other potential wastes include sawdust, sludges of different types, waste paper, and fly ash. The major inorganic type wastes from pulping and after-treatment stage include the dregs, lime mud, and grits. The different wastes are obtained as extracted from different pulp and paper industries are summarized (Fig.  6 ).

Major wastes generated from pulp and paper mills: a sawdust; b sludge; c waste paper; d inorganic wastes (dregs, lime mud, grits); e Fly ash

The sawdust (Fig.  6 a) as woody material is composed of cellulose, lignin, and hemicelluloses (Bajpai 2018a ). The cellulose composition of sawdust is by far higher than the lignin content. Accordingly, the interest in biomaterial synthesis relies on the cellulose component of the sawdust. The current preferably adapted extraction of cellulose from sawdust involves the preparation of sawdust (drying, cutting, and conditioning); dissolution of wood in appropriate ionic liquid, and precipitation of cellulose through the removal of lignin.

Another potential source of cellulose is wastewater treatment plants and recycled paper converters. The virgin or waste recycling sludge (Fig.  6 b) constitutes cellulosic materials. The mill sludge accounts for the main waste from pulp and recycled paper production. Pulp and paper mill sludge is an organic residual generated from wastewater treatments (Faubert et al. 2016 ). Per unit of paper production 23.4% sludge is generated. The major components of the paper mill sludge are inorganic residues and organic cellulosic fines and fragments (Albuquerque et al. 2015 ; Abdullah et al. 2015 ). The organic constitutes in primary sludge mainly consist of cellulosic fibers.

A noticeable quantity of cellulose can also be obtained from waste paper (Fig.  6 c) which is a release of every paper utilizer with a huge amount from office and related service providers. Directly or as part of recycling residue, the waste paper is considered as a major source of cellulose, and using appropriate cleaning and recycling procedures the cellulose can be made use of as a raw material for biomaterial synthesis (Kim and Kim 2019 ).

Inorganic wastes (Fig.  6 d) namely liquor dregs, calcite mud, and slacker grits are also considered as the major portion of solid waste in the mills (Quina and Pinheiro 2020 ). These mineral wastes are generated during the chemical recovery process at the pulping mill. The green liquor dregs are obtained The inorganic biomasses contain different types of minerals (Bird and Talberth 2008 ; Leponiemi 2008 ). The mineral Gipsite and Calcite are present in the dregs and the mud, whereas the minerals such as brucite, larnite, pirssonite, portlandite, and calcite are ingredients of the biomass grits. The mineral content of these wastes can be made administered and used for making biomaterials.

The successive development in the pulp and paper mill has headed to the release of a large quantity of fly ash (Fig.  6 e) as a result of combustion processes of waste biomass. The elemental composition survey on fly ash from pulp and paper mills revealed that the ash consists of different minerals predominantly iron oxide, silica, and alumina. The fly ash also consists of other metal oxides such as oxides of sodium, calcium, magnesium, potassium sulfur, and titanium (Na 2 O, CaO, MgO, K 2 O, SO 3, and TiO 2 ) in variable quantities. Through polymerization, the metal oxides can be converted to biopolymers for diversified end-use. The widely and adopted and conventionally established way of valorization of fly ash is geo-polymerization. In the polymerization process demand-driven three-dimensional aluminosilicate and similar materials so-called geopolymers are synthesized (Cherian and Siddiqua 2019 ; Sjöström and Westermark 1999 ).

Disposal technique

Waste management in pulp and paper mill.

The pulp and paper mill generates a large volume of wastes with an estimate of around 100 tonnes per 550 tonnes of pulp production. Though the toxicity of pulp and paper wastes is minimal appropriate disposal technique is required for appropriate management of the land, environment, and allied issues (Monte et al. 2009 ). As per the environmental policies recommend based on directives of the waste framework the landfill must be reduced by avoiding disposal of waste from industries. In certain cases, an obligation is placed for selected wastes to terminate as a waste resource. The wastes from pulp and paper mills have a tremendous negative and adverse impact on the environment. Inherently high consumption of water is the major cause, and the problems are wider in terms of generation of effluent and other wastes of solid and liquid type. These solid and liquid wastes along with air emissions require effective disposal and treatment approach (Bajpai 2015d ).

Three different approaches can be used in pulp and paper mill waste management. The first choice is to minimize waste in ensuring product efficiency, higher yield of materials, and lower waste management (Mladenov and Pelovski 2010 ). The second choice is to find a suitable way for reuse to maintain cost improvement and lower environmental approach. This could be done by material or energy valorization of the generated wastes. The final option is landfilling which shall only be done when a choice is not an option.

In minimizing waste generation, it is necessary to cope up with established concrete environmental legislations. In line with this concerns related to cost of disposal, treatment technologies, and opt for new utilization schemes need to be taken into consideration. Different techniques are adopted for the reuse of the mill wastes which include burning or incineration, biofuel production, gasification, pyrolysis, and anaerobic digestion (Bajpai 2015d ; Mladenov and Pelovski 2010 ). As far as the application is concerned; for solid wastes incineration techniques is widely used, whereas anaerobic digestion is widely practiced for wastewater. Landfilling is still the most widely adopted disposal technique.

Current trends in the disposal of pulp and paper mill wastes

In the current world pulp and paper mill practice, both landfill and incineration techniques are applied for the disposal of waste. The opt for incineration and other reuse options differ from country to country and are based on technology availability and economic growth hierarchy (Ince et al. 2011 ; Bahar et al. 2011 ). Most of the solid wastes generated from pulp and paper mills are disposed of as landfills. Landfilling with its critical limitations regarding increasing volumes and the possibility of hazardous substances is still the most widely used disposal technique by pulp and paper mills. The hazardous matters in the watercourse impose environmental dangers as well. As far as the context in most of the developing countries is concerned most of the waste is still landfilled and some are incinerated.

The black liquor is incinerated or gassed as a source of fuel energy and where the technology is not available it as well is discarded as a landfill. Rejects are dewatered and burnt for energy recovery (Bahar et al. 2011 ; Naqvi et al. 2010a ). Other wastes like sawdust and woody matters are also discarded in the landfill. The destination of liquor dregs, grits, lime mud, and mill ash is the landfill after dewatering and drying.

The wastewater sludge is disposed of through a burning approach. The conventional sludge treatment process includes the thickening of the sludge waste which is dehydrated by mechanical means. The prepared sludge is incinerated at optimal conditions. In the pretreatment process blending of sludges is done with the addition of polymer and dewatering is carried out to obtain a dry solid content of 25–40%. Incineration which is the widely practiced internal route for biofuel production in pulp and paper mills is carried out. The deinking sludge from recycled paper production can be incinerated or reused in other mills (Faubert et al. 2016 ).

Current uses of pulp and paper mill waste

The pulp and paper mill waste have different chemical constituents and physicochemical characteristics. Based on their chemical and physical properties the wastes are widely used in conventional and industrial applications. As most of these wastes are mainly based on woody features comprising lignocellulosic behavior they are used as fuel or energy sources for pulp and paper mill or other industries (Simão et al. 2018 ; Sarkar et al. 2017 ). Many are used for construction and building as potential and economic substitutes. The major schemes and sectorial applications followed in the current utilization of wastes from pulp and paper mill are summarized (Table 6 ).

The incinerated black liquor in recovery boilers is used in pulp and paper mills as an optional energy source as it provides steam. It is also possible to reclaim pulping chemicals for reuse. The current and alternative technology for reuse is the gasification of black liquor. This process has the potency to replicate the amount of production energy used in the pulp and paper mill (Naqvi et al. 2010b ). The sawdust as well can be used as a secondary raw material for pulp production and recycled for paper manufacturing (Srinivasakannan and Bakar 2004 ). It can also be used as filler for the manufacturing of bricks and cement material in the field of construction.

The sludge from pulp and paper mills can be recycled via different routes. Mainly the sludge can be used in construction and energy and as a chief source of energy. The suitability of sludge for utilization in power generation is the inherent compounds present in the sludge that are organic with a high degree of combustibility.

Commonly cement plants use fly ash as their raw material together with other ingredients. Fly ash is also used as fertilizer in modern agricultural practice. The suitability especially in cement application is due to the inherent high strength to weight ratio of fly ash as compared with other cement materials. This is also supplemented by carbon footprint and minimal energy consumption which makes fly ash a replacement for cement in cost-effective construction and eco-efficient geotechnical applications (Cherian and Siddiqua 2019 ). It can also be used as an immobilizer of pollutants. Their physical properties such as mechanical resistance and durability make the fly ashes used in concrete systems utilized in hostile environments.

The inorganic wastes from pulp and paper mills have been engineered for different applications (Fig.  7 ). Green liquor dregs have shown promising effects for correcting soil acidity and fertilizer. Dregs have also been used in wastewater treatment. The inorganic grits are mainly composed of calcium carbonate and can be used for the replacement of calcareous raw materials such as in building and construction (Quina and Pinheiro 2020 ).

Current utilization of pulp and paper mill inorganic wastes ( GLD green liquor dregs, SG slacker grits, LM lime mud, BFA boiler fly ash)

Agriculturalists already investigated the lime mud can be used in soil healing such as for fertilizing and remedial agents. Compositionally lime mud is similar to the commercially available calcium carbonate and can be used as a potential substitute and replacement in building materials. The crude carbonate component of lime mud provides high alkalinity which makes the use of lime mud in precipitation and immobilization of heavy metals in watery streams, removal of phosphorus, and stabilization of sewage sludge.

Utilization of pulp and paper waste: future prospects

Most of the pulp and paper mill wastes in developing countries adopt recycling for lower grade paper; recycling being the only used pulp and paper mill waste utilization method. The scope and technology for utilization of the different wastes for other industrial applications are practically not available and not attempted (Raut et al. 2012 ; de Alda 2008 ). The biomass from pulp and paper mill is composed of different ingredients. The major wastes of biomaterial concern from these mills are black liquor, woody residues including sawdust, sludges of different types, and fly ash.

An abundant quantity of the mill wastes is disposed to landfill, and some are incinerated. Instead using an appropriate biorefinery approach, it is possible to extract different ingredients from the biomass for versatile utilization as a biomaterial in different fields of applications. Through the biorefinery approach environmental pollution is reduced or eliminated, product substitution is enhanced. Furthermore, the allied spinoff company for biomaterials and the industrial-scale prospect will boost the economic growth. The potential ingredients of current concern from the biomass are identified (Table 7 ). Based on the characteristics of ingredients in each biomass potential beneficiation routes are proposed for high value-added materials (Simão et al. 2018 ; Rajput et al. 2012 ).

The general challenges with regards to the forecasted application of pulp and paper industry wastes as high value-added materials can be broadly classified into three patterns. One major challenge is the lower yield from each biomass in terms of the continuous supply of certain waste types. The lower yield of biomaterial ingredients from selected biomass can be enhanced by the integration of pulp and paper industries especially in developing countries like Ethiopia. Another challenge which is still prominent in developing countries is the availability of suitable and integrated waste to energy and related biorefinery system (Ismail and Nizami, 2016 ; Diep et al. 2012 ). This directly affects the mass production of high valued-added materials from pulp and paper industry biomass. The other potential challenge is the adequacy of labor in terms of skill as the production of the high value-added biomaterials requires stringent control allied with health and environmental safety concerns and regulations. There are also specific challenges in terms of each high-value-added biomaterial addressed in the review. These challenges need critical investigation and can be amended with versatile possibilities as far as continuous marketability of the biomaterials and their high value-added application is targeted.

Beneficiation of black liquor for high value-added materials

High-performance carbon fiber from black liquor lignin.

There is an estimated 70 million tonnes of lignin from pulping processes worldwide (Dessbesell et al. 2020 ; Bajwa et al. 2019 ). Structurally lignin is a heterogeneous aromatic polymer and consists of mainly three precursors: p-coumaryl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol, and sinapyl alcohol (Fig.  8 ) (Chen 2012 ). It is a natural macromolecular with multiple aromatic ring compounds consisting of hydrophobic non-polar substructures of phenyl propane and polar groups like carboxyl.

Major precursors of lignin ( a ) typical structural model of lignin ( b )

Several approaches have been used to purify the spent black liquor for the production of pure lignin (Hubbe et al. 2019 ; Xinde 1996 ). Acidification via precipitation is the most prominent. The extraction involved precipitation of the black liquor in acid solution, coagulation, and removal of lignin (Norberg 2012 ; Olsson et al. 2017 ; Bengtsson et al. 2018 ).

The biomaterial options for lignin are versatile. The modern interest in carbon fibers is very crucial, and lignin is one of the important biomasses for the production of carbon fibers. Carbon fiber is known for its extremely high strength-to-weight ratio which makes it an ideal engineering material for a load-bearing element in lightweight high-performance composites. The versatile application of carbon fiber in the modern industry especially in composites is related to its low density and excellent mechanical properties.

High-performance carbon fibers are currently produced primarily from polyacrylonitrile (PAN). Carbon-rich precursor fiber with a carbon content of more than 90% is required for the manufacturing of carbon fibers. Once the precursor is availed the transformation is carried out in a two-stage thermal process. The delicate and rigorous web spinning process used for polyacrylonitrile-based precursors is one of the bottlenecks in the cost-effective manufacturing of carbon fiber. Half the cost of manufacturing carbon fiber is spent in making the PAN precursor (Bengtsson et al. 2019 ). Another potential limitation of using PAN precursors is the raw materials are fossil-based which entails a high cost. The high price of carbon from the perspective of raw materials and production cost is the driving force of finding cheaper and renewable alternatives.

A potential and interesting substitute precursor for carbon fiber production is lignin. It can be utilized for the production of a high volume of carbon fibers for a multitude of applications. This is possible, because especially the lignin from kraft pulp consists of high carbon content of around 60–65% and the lignin is available in huge quantity. This also makes lignin a promising alternative precursor based on high yield after processing into carbon fiber (Olsson et al. 2017 ; Hubbe et al. 2019 ). The lignin can be used as a potential precursor for carbon fiber production by incorporating appropriate spinning and carbonization processes. The most common way of manufacturing carbon fibers from lignin involves melt spinning to produce precursor fibers, thermo-stabilization (200–350 °C), and carbonization (over 1000 °C under nitrogen atmosphere) to produce carbon fibers (Fig.  9 ). Wet spinning can also be used when rheological problems are encountered in melt spinning. It is reported that greater than 35% of manufacturing cost is reduced using renewable lignin as a precursor in carbon fiber production (Bengtsson et al. 2018 ; Gbenebor and Adeosun 2019 ). The challenges in regards to lignin to carbon fiber conversion are the availability of fiber spinning technologies (Souto et al. 2018 ) in some countries which limit the product diversification scheme.

Spinning of lignin into carbon fiber (Gbenebor and Adeosun 2019 )

Bioplastics from black liquor hemicellulose

The hemicellulose from black liquor consists of xylan among other ingredients (Yang et al. 2019a ; Liu et al. 2012 ). The polysaccharide-based xylans are made up of β-1,4-linked xylose residues. They consist of α-arabinofuranose and α-glucuronic acids pendant branches that contribute to cross-linking of cellulose microfibrils and lignin through ferulic acid residues.

Xylan can be extracted from several locations in the pulp mill. During kraft pulping, xylan is partly dissolved in the cooking liquor but part of it will be redeposited onto the fibers in the later parts of the cook. The dissolved xylan can be isolated from black liquor for its utilization in the production of different biomaterials. Among the different methods used for xylan extraction, those utilizing alkali are most commonly and widely used.

Xylan is constituted by the black liquor along with fractions lignin fractions. The extraction of xylan from black liquor requires two-step precipitation. First, black liquor acidification is conducted and this is followed by precipitation by ethanol which ultimately provides the fractions of xylan (Stoklosa 2014 ). The xylan hemicellulose separation is done using potassium hydroxide (KOH) for hardwood and sodium hydroxide for softwood in aqueous media. The mechanism of separation of the hemicellulose is achieved through hydrolysis which involves the breakage of ester linkages between xylan and other alkaline black liquor components.

Xylan can be biorefined into lactic acid (Fig.  10 ). First, xylan is converted to low molecular weight sugars by hydrolysis using enzymes or chemically using acid hydrolysis. Then the resulting low molecular weight sugars can be converted to lactic acid by fermentation or alkali oxidation. Biomass-derived lactic acid is an important renewable chemical building block for synthesizing bioplastics (Fernández-Rodríguez et al. 2019 ; Chen 2012 ). Polylactic acid (polylactide) used as a precursor for plastics can be obtained by polymerization of a lactic acid refinery of xylan.

Xylan to PLA route

Polylactic acid (polylactide) [PLA] is biodegradable as well as recyclable polyester made from renewable feedstock. PLA is synthesized by the condensation polymerization of lactic acid or ring-opening polymerization of the corresponding lactide. As one of the highly biodegradable and crystalline polymers the lactic acid polymer (PLA) has a high melting point and outstanding mechanical characteristics (Gordobil et al. 2015 ; Singhvi et al. 2019 ). It can be used for bioplastic manufacturing used for different engineering applications. Biomaterials of versatile need can be obtained from PLA using advanced manufacturing techniques such as electrospinning, especially for medical products. The major challenges in conversion and utilization of xylan are of two ways. One is the difficulty in obtaining fully purified xylan with the grade required for polymer production and the other is the lower melting pint of the PLA produced which limits its application for high-performance materials. Different researches are ongoing especially in maximizing extraction effectiveness of xylan and usage of modified polymerization and spinning technologies for manufacturing higher grade PLA products.

Beneficiation of cellulose for high value-added materials

Production of cellulose nanocrystals [cnc] from cellulosic residues.

Nanocellulose is a unique and promising natural compound derived from ordinary biomass. It is currently the most environmentally friendly compound that is techno-feasible and cost-effective, and also reduces effluent production (Clemons 2016 ). Nanocellulose has retained significant attention due to its tremendous functionality, i.e., greater surface chemistry, extraordinary biotic possessions, low toxicity, low cost, lower density, and significant mechanical properties. Cellulose Nanocrystals have many important physical properties Nanocrystalline cellulose has high heat stability which makes it suitable as a potential engineering material for aggressive temperature environments and its morphology with regards to small size and shape can be managed for different applications in solutions (Feng et al. 2015 ; Aguayo et al. 2018 ). The cellulose from the different waste sources in pulp and paper mills can be converted into cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) for wider application as a biomaterial in diversified fields of application (Fig.  11 ).

Multitude application of CNC biomaterial

CNC is needle-shaped and highly crystalline material produced from cellulose pulp (Clemons 2016 ). The outlooked application of CNC is very wide and mostly its use in medical and industrial fields is tremendous. CNC can be used for the fabrication of medical products such as artificial skin, breast implants, versatile hygiene products, tissue-engineered materials, wound dressings, and drug delivery biomaterials. Industrially CNC can be used for the automotive interior, cosmetics industry, acoustics/photonics, build-tech, and different packaging materials.

Cellulose fiber is a key and characteristic component in pulp and paper mill sludge and is also constituted by sawdust and other woody residues (Aguayo et al. 2018 ). Cellulose is an important biopolymer that consists of semicrystalline regions which are responsible for the outstanding mechanical properties of the polymer. Cellulose as macromolecule is composed of many cellobiose repeat units which themselves are made up of glucose monomeric units (β-glucose) via β-1,4-glycosidic linkages. The individual extended cellulose chains are parallel to each other and the inherent stability and crystallization of cellulose polymers are due to the presence of extensive intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds.

In pulp and paper mills different conventional processes are used to recover cellulose from wastewater. The process of separation of cellulose from dried sludge is done using ionic liquid-based segregation techniques which involve cellulose precipitation from the sludge (Gibril et al. 2018 ). Direct extraction and utilization of cellulose from sawdust and woody matters are also possible.

The production of CNC from cellulose is an emerging possibility for the diversified utilization of trees for biomaterials (Fig.  12 ). A biorefinery approach can be used to convert cellulose from pulp and paper mill waste into nanocrystalline cellulose (Souza et al. 2017 ). The production of nanocellulose is attained by a two-step process (Clemons 2016 ). In the first step, the pretreatment process of native cellulose biomass is done which yields treated cellulose fibers. While in the second step, pretreated cellulose fibers are converted into nanocellulose using various routes, e.g., high-pressure homogenization, micro fluidization, micro grinding, high-intensity ultra-sonication, electrospinning, and steam explosion.

Extracting CNC from trees

Method of synthesis of CNC generally adopts breakdown of cellulose chains to the desired nanoconfiguration via different techniques. The chemical and biological techniques utilize different chemicals and enzymes, while the physical technique involves the mechanical breakdown of the cellulose chains. The chemical process mainly involves hydrolysis using acids and alkalis or a series of reagents by the partial breaking of glucosidic bonds for obtaining the CNC. The four steps in the synthesis of CNC via mechanical method are high-pressure homogenization, fluidization to micro-level, grinding to fine particles, and finally smashing under freezing conditions. Conventionally combined methods are utilized for optimized processes and characteristics of the cellulose nanocrystal (Song et al. 2019 ). The biological and combined methods of the CNC synthesis method employed for hydrolysis minimize concerns with regards to environmental pollution. The production technique of CNC is well-practiced; ensuring high-grade purity of the cellulose with well-advanced extraction technology could eliminate the associated challenges in terms of high value-added products especially those used for medical items.

Synthesis of textile fibers from dissolving pulp

Dissolving pulp has versatile applications. Dissolving pulp can be used as a source of pulp for the paper mill (Kihlman 2012 ). This is particularly important as economic support for developing countries that are entirely based on imported pulp. Besides many chemicals used in washing and value additions in wet and chemical processing industries such as detergents, softeners, and binders can be produced using dissolving pulp as a precursor. These chemicals are cellulose ether-based and can be extracted from the dissolving pulp.

Dissolving pulp besides its utilization as raw material for the paper mill and surfactant synthesis it can be used for the manufacturing of textile fibers (Ma et al. 2011 ). The dissolving pulp can be prepared from cellulosic wastes using the same pulping route described in the current review and can be utilized for the making of viscose rayon and cellulose acetate fibers (Woodings 2001 ). Once the required grade of dissolving pulp is availed viscose rayon can be manufactured using wet spinning technology and cellulose acetate is manufactured using dry spinning technology. The manufactured viscose rayon and acetate fibers have diversified applications (Fig.  13 ).

Dissolving pulp beneficiation: regenerated fibers

The use of dissolving pulp as a precursor for the manufacture of commodity textile fibers has an economic impact on developing countries that entirely depend on using a single fiber such as cotton for the production of textile materials. In the region of concern, where the supporting data for availability study is conducted it has been described that the paper mill entirely depends on the imported pulp and it is not possible to produce and market the important textile fibers. It is vital to consider the economic advantage of producing potential fibers from indigenous pulp and paper wastes. Modern manufacturing techniques such as dry jet wet spinning and electrospinning techniques can be utilized for the manufacturing of different grades of fibers, especially for high-performance applications. The major challenge in the utilization of pulping waste as a precursor for textile fibers is the limited availability of fiber manufacturing units in areas, where resources are abundant; and associated yield-related problems for producing textile fibers as per the global demand.

Biocomposites from pulp and paper mill waste

The global concerns for a safe environment and risk minimized livelihood of society are high. With this regard issues that need immediate intervention are the highest priorities of global nations. As far as feasible interventions are concerned focus needs to be given on increasing cost of petroleum and the allied depletion and frameworks in line with new environmental regulations. To this end engineering materials which have a vital impact in replacing existing petroleum-based materials and which are capable of addressing the environmental legislations are required. This was the rationale behind seeking eco-friendly green substitutes especially biocomposites for modern engineering applications (Soucy et al. 2014 ; Manesh 2012 ).

Renewable lignocellulosic materials are suitable for the reinforcement of polymers and provide biocomposites for the relevant industry. Such kinds of production trends provide relief with regards to problems encountered in using petroleum-based composites. These frequently available resources provide a remedial solution with regards to the production of attractive, sustainable, cost-effective, and eco-friendly materials so-called biocomposites with a safe environment as a result of preferred disposal and reuse options (Schorr et al. 2014 ).

The fly ash and other mineral-based wastes from pulp and paper mill are underutilized and fully discarded especially in developing countries (Novais et al. 2018 ). The fly ash is entirely composed of metal oxide minerals. Though it is not a concern of the present review the grits, dregs, and lime muds have also plenty of mineral content for specific biomaterial applications. The biomaterial which can be obtained by a suitable biorefinery technique from fly ash can be used for versatile engineering applications as a biocomposite. The prospective application of fly ash as a biomaterial is by converting the minerals into their polymer counterpart via geo-polymerization which normally are referred to as geopolymers (Mohammadkazemi 2018 ; Yoon-moon and Naik 2005 ).

Depending on the end-use the geopolymers can be incorporated in manufacturing composite materials mainly as the reinforcing component of the biocomposite. A polymer of fly ash that can be used for biocomposite is synthesized using predefined steps. The major step involves treatment with highly alkaline liquors such as using aqueous caustic soda in combination with silicate compounds such as sodium silicate in a process called alkali activation (Saeli et al. 2019 ; Rajamma et al. 2012 ). The highly alkaline environment will lead to the breaking of silica and alumina bonds in the fly ash which provides conditions for the dissolution of free silicon and aluminum ions. The reaction between the free silicon and aluminum ions with active alkali ions leads to the formation of an intermediate precursor which up on precipitation reorganize into the polymeric three-dimensional aluminosilicate structures.

Besides fly ash, sawdust from the pulp and paper mill waste is another potential source for the manufacturing of biocomposite (Zhang et al. 2020 ). Sawdust which mainly constitutes cellulose can be used in blending for synergistic enhancement of the reinforcement of the composite structures. The inherent biodegradability made it a preferred raw material in biocomposite applications (Zhang et al. 2020 ; Jiang et al. 2009 ).

Through advanced composite engineering and characterization, different biocomposites can be manufactured from sawdust and fly ash and modeled for a multitude of applications. The diverse applications of biocomposite from fly ash and saw dust-based biomaterials are summarized (Fig.  14 ). Both sawdust and fly ash-based biomaterial provide high heat resistant biocomposite suitable for high-performance applications. The biocomposite from sawdust cellulose can be used in the manufacturing of automotive interior, different boards, furniture, packaging, and so on, whereas fly ash based biocomposite can be used in the production of civil engineering materials mainly in construction technology (Zhang et al. 2020 ; Akampumuza et al. 2017 ; El‐Meligy et al. 2004 ). In both fly ash and sawdust systematic collection of sample raw material for biorefinery needs attention as they mostly are lightweight and interfere with a feasible collection. Improper management of sample collection could result in disturbance of the working environment and personal safety through inhalation needing high priority of conditioning at work stations.

Possible applications of biocomposites from pulp and paper mill waste

Conclusions

Pulp and paper mills release a large amount of waste globally. Most of these wastes are directly disposed to landfills with minimal incineration and nil recycling. Though there are trials for the reuse of these wastes in some of the developed world the trend is almost none in developing countries. The present review has shown that the pulp and paper mill biomass; besides their conventional use, can be converted into biomaterials that have high value for versatile applications. It is revealed that the biomass generated from the mills provides ingredients for the synthesis of biomaterials such as lignin, hemicellulose, cellulose, and various minerals. The paramount importance of biomass ingredients is that they can be converted into high value-added biomaterials using an appropriate biorefinery system. With this regard, a possibility is observed that potentially important engineering materials such as carbon fiber, bioplastic, and fibers, CNC, and biocomposites can be manufactured from waste biomass for diversified engineering applications. The synthesized biomaterials through appropriate and feasible technologies will be useful for the manufacturing of versatile bio-based products that are used in widespread conventional, high-performance, and smart applications. Future study will entail extensive research and development work to develop appropriate technologies for their full utilization and commercialization as a source of some of the proposed applications mentioned in this review. In so doing dual the impact of the newly investigated materials is realized both from the economic point of view through product diversification and environment aspects in protection and hazard minimization.

Availability of data and materials

All data and materials are availed in the manuscript and no additional input is required.

Abdullah R, Ishak CF, Kadir WR, Bakar RA (2015) Characterization and feasibility assessment of recycled paper mill sludges for land application in relation to the environment. Int J Environ Res Public Health 12:9314–9329

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Aguayo MG, Fernández pérez A, Reyes G, Oviedo C, Gacitua W, Gonzalez R, Uyarte O (2018) Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from rejected fibers originated in the kraft pulping process. Polymers 10:1145

Article   PubMed Central   CAS   Google Scholar  

Ai T, Dong X, Ai D (2007) Process for causticizing green liquor in chemical recovery from black liquor in alkaline pulping. Google Patents, London

Google Scholar  

Akampumuza O, Wambua PM, Ahmed A, Li W, Qin XH (2017) Review of the applications of biocomposites in the automotive industry. Polym Compos 38:2553–2569

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Akbari M, Oyedum AO, Jain S, Kumar A (2018) Options for the conversion of pulp and paper mill by-products in Western Canada. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 26:83–92

Article   Google Scholar  

Albuquerque A, Scalize PS, Ferreira NC, Silva F (2015) Multi-criteria analysis for site selection for the reuse of reclaimed water and biosolids. Revista Ambiente Água 10:22–34

Al-Dajani WW, Tschirner UW (2008) Pre-extraction of hemicelluloses and subsequent kraft pulping Part I: alkaline extraction. Bioprod Biosyst Eng 18:54

Alen R (2019) Chapter 3A-pulp mills and wood-based biorefineries. Industrial Biorefineries & White Biotechnology, de Pandey, A., Hofer, R., Larroche, C., Taherzadeh, M., Nampoothiri, M, 91–126.

Angevine PA (1998) Process for removing and washing dregs from green liquor in a kraft pulp mill. Google Patents, London

Armstrong AD, Bentley KM, Galeano SF, Olszewski RJ, Smith GA, Smith JR (1998) The pulp and paper industry. Ecol Ind 12:86

Asmare G (2017) Pulp production and optimization from cotton stalks. Berhan Int Res J Sci Hum 1:18–29

Bahar K, Zeynep C, Orhan I (2011) Pollution prevention in the pulp and paper industries. Environ Manag Pract 5:223–246

Bajpai P (2011) Environmentally-friendly production of pulp and paper. Wiley

Bajpai P (2013) Pulp bleaching and bleaching effluents. Springer, Bleach Plant Effluents from the Pulp and Paper Industry

Book   Google Scholar  

Bajpai P (2015c) Green chemistry and sustainability in pulp and paper industry. Springer

Bajpai P (2015d) Management of pulp and paper mill waste. Springer

Bajpai P (2015a) Basic overview of the pulp and paper manufacturing process. Green chemistry and sustainability in pulp and paper industry. Springer, Berlin

Bajpai P (2015b) Generation of waste in pulp and paper mills. Springer, Management of Pulp and Paper Mill Waste

Bajpai P (2018b) Brief description of the pulp and papermaking process. Springer, Biotechnology for pulp and paper processing

Bajpai P (2018a) Biermann’s handbook of pulp and paper: paper and board making, vol 2. Elsevier, New York

Bajwa D, Pourhashem G, Ullah A, Bajwa S (2019) A concise review of current lignin production, applications, products, and their environmental impact. Ind Crops Prod 139:111526

Bank W (1999) Pollution prevention and abatement handbook, 1998: Toward cleaner production. The World Bank, London

Bengtsson A, Bengtsson J, Olsson C, Sedin M, Jedvert K, Theliander H, Sjoholm E (2018) Improved yield of carbon fibres from cellulose and kraft lignin. Holzforschung 72:1007–1016

Bengtsson A, Bengtsson J, Sedin M, Sjoholm E (2019) Carbon fibers from lignin-cellulose precursors: effect of stabilization conditions. ACS Sustainable Chem Eng 7:8440–8448

Bird M, Talberth J (2008) Waste stream reduction and re-use in the pulp and paper sector. Center for Sustainable Economy, New Mexico

Brannvall E (2009) Overview of pulp and paper processes. Pulp Chem Technol 2:1–13

Cabreha MN (2017) Pulp mill wastewater: characteristics and treatment. Biol Wastewater Treat Resour Recov 15:119–139

Camberato J, Gagnon B, Angers D, Chantigny M, Pan W (2006) Pulp and paper mill by-products as soil amendments and plant nutrient sources. Can J Soil Sci 86:641–653

Carroll B, Turpin T (2002) Environmental impact assessment handbook: A practical guide for planners, developers, and communities. Thomas Telford, Berlin

Chakar FS, Raguaskas AJ (2004) Review of current and future softwood kraft lignin process chemistry. Ind Crops Prod 20:131–141

Chen K (2012) Bio-renewable fibers extracted from lignin/polylactide (PLA) blend. Mater Sci 1:1. https://doi.org/10.31274/ETD-180810-385

Cherian C, Siddiqua S (2019) Pulp and paper mill fly ash: A review. Sustainability 11:4394

Clemons C (2016) Nanocellulose in spun continuous fibers: a review and future outlook. J Renewable Mater 4:327–339

De Alda JAO (2008) Feasibility of recycling pulp and paper mill sludge in the paper and board industries. Resour Conserv Recycl 52:965–972

Dessbesell L, Paleologuo M, Leitch M, Pulkki R, Xu CC (2020) Global lignin supply overview and kraft lignin potential as an alternative for petroleum-based polymers. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 123:109768

Diep NQ, Sakanishi K, Nakagoshi N, Fujimoto S, Minowa T, Tran XD (2012) Biorefinery: concepts, current status, and development trends. Int J Biomass Renew 2:1–8

Diesen M, Yhdistys SP-I, Press T, Oy F (1998) Economics of the pulp and paper industry. Fapet oy Helsinki, New York

Dimmel D, Gellerstedt G (2009) 10 Chemistry of alkaline pulping. Lignin Lign 15:349

Đurdevic D, Trstenjak M, Hulenic I (2020) Sewage Sludge Thermal Treatment Technology Selection by Utilizing the Analytical Hierarchy Process. Water 12:1255

El-Meligy MG, El-Zawawy WK, Ibrahim MM (2004) Lignocellulosic composite. Polym Adv Technol 15:738–745

Enayati AA, Hamzeh Y, Mershokriei SA, Molaii M (2009) Papermaking potential of canola stalks. BioResources 4:245–256

CAS   Google Scholar  

Environmental I (2007) Health, and safety guidelines–pulp and paper mills. International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group, Washington

Eugenio ME, Ibarra D, Martin-Sampedro R, Espinosa E, Bascon I, Rodriguez A (2019) Alternative raw materials for pulp and paper production in the concept of a lignocellulosic biorefinery. Cellulose 12:78

Faubert P, Barnabe S, Bounchard S, Cote R, Villeneuve C (2016) Pulp and paper mill sludge management practices: What are the challenges to assess the impacts on greenhouse gas emissions? Resour Conserv Recycl 108:107–133

Feng X, Meng X, Zhao J, Miao M, Shi L, Zhang S, Fang J (2015) Extraction and preparation of cellulose nanocrystals from dealginate kelp residue: structures and morphological characterization. Cellulose 22:1763–1772

Fernandez-Rodriguez J, Erdocia X, Hernandez-Ramos F, Alriols MG, Labidi J (2019) Lignin separation and fractionation by ultrafiltration. Separation of functional molecules in food by membrane technology. Elsevier, London

Gavrilescu D (2004) Solid waste generation in kraft pulp mills. Environ Eng Manag J 3:87

Gavrilescu D, Puitel AC, Dutuc G, Craciun G (2012) Environmental impact of pulp and paper mills. Environ Eng Manage J 11:81–85

Gbenebor OP, Adeosun SO (2019) Lignin conversion to carbon fibre. Sustainable lignin for carbon fibers: principles, techniques, and applications. Springer, Berlin

Gellerstedt G (2009) Chemistry of chemical pulping. Pulp Chem Technol 2:91–120

Gibril ME, Lekha P, Andrew J, Sithole B, Tesfaye T, Ramjugernath D (2018) Beneficiation of pulp and paper mill sludge: Production and characterization of functionalized crystalline nano-cellulose. Clean Technol Environ Policy 20:1835–1845

Gopal P, Sivaram N, Barik D (2019) Paper industry wastes and energy generation from wastes. Energy from toxic organic waste for heat and power generation. Elsevier, Berlin

Gordobil O, Delucis R, Egues I, Labidi J (2015) Kraft lignin as filler in PLA to improve ductility and thermal properties. Ind Crops Prod 72:46–53

Gupta GK, Liu H, Shukla P (2019) Pulp and paper industry-based pollutants, their health hazards, and environmental risks. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health 12:48–56

Hammett A, Youngs RL, Sun X, Chandra M (2001) Pulp and paper industry"? Holzforschung 55:219–224

Hubbe MA, Alen R, Paleologou M, Kannangara M, Kihlman J (2019) Lignin recovery from spent alkaline pulping liquors using acidification, membrane separation, and related processing steps: A review. BioResources 14:2300–2351

Huber P, Burnet A, Petit-Conil M (2014) Scale deposits in kraft pulp bleach plants with reduced water consumption: A review. J Environ Manage 141:36–50

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Ince BK, Cetecioglu Z, Ince O (2011) Pollution prevention in the pulp and paper industries. Environ Manag Pract 15:224–246

Ismail, I. & Nizami, A. 2016. Waste-based biorefineries in developing countries: an imperative need of time. In: Canadian society for civil engineering: 14th international environmental specialty conference, in London, Ontario, Canada, 1–4.

Jahan MS, Nasima Chowdhury D, Islam MK, Moynul Hasan A (2004) Kraft pulping of Bangladeshi cotton stalks. Bangl J Sci Ind Res 39:139–146

Jiang Y-T, Zhuang XW, Pan X (2009) Preparation of imitated wood composites from sawdust and lignin. Biomass Chem Eng 4:79

Karak T, Bhagat R, Bhattacharyya P (2012) Municipal solid waste generation, composition, and management: the world scenario. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 42:1509–1630

Kihlman M (2012) Dissolution of cellulose for textile fiber applications. Karlstad University Press, Karlstad

Kim HC, Kim J (2019) Waste paper: a potential source for cellulose nanofiber and bio-nanocomposite applications. Springer, Berlin

Kinnarinen T, Golmaei M, Jernstrom E, Hakkinen A (2016) Separation, treatment, and utilization of inorganic residues of chemical pulp mills. J Cleaner Prod 133:953–964

Landrigan PJ, Fuller R (2015) Global health and environmental pollution. Springer

Leponiemi A (2008) Non-wood pulping possibilities-a challenge for the chemical pulping industry. Appita Technol Innov Manufact Environ 61:234

Lin X, Wu Z, Zhang C, Liu S, Nie S (2018) Enzymatic pulping of lignocellulosic biomass. Ind Crops Prod 120:16–24

Liu YX, Sun B, Zhu Y, Li TZ (2012) Hemicelluloses separation from black liquor. Advanced materials research. Trans Tech Publ 54:589–593

Liu Z, Wang H, Hui L (2018) Pulping and papermaking of non-wood fibers. Pulp Pap Process 15:44

Lwako M, Byaruhanga J, Babtist K (2013) A review on pulp manufacture from non-wood plant materials. Int J Chem Eng Appl 4:144–148

Ma X, Huang L, Chen Y, Chen L (2011) Preparation of bamboo dissolving pulp for textile production; Part 1. Study on pre-hydrolysis of green bamboo for producing dissolving pulp. BioResources 6:1428–1439

Manesh ME (2012) Utilization of pulp and paper mill sludge as filler in nylon biocomposite production. Springer, Berlin

Mckinnon A (2010) Environmental sustainability. Green logistics: improving the environmental sustainability of logistics. Wiley, London

Mikkanen P (2000) Fly ash particle formation in kraft recovery boilers. VTT Public 4:1

Mladenov M, Pelovski Y (2010) Utilization of wastes from the pulp and paper industry. J Univ Chem Technol Metallu 45:33–38

Mohammadkasemi F (2018) Papermaking waste sludge fiber-cement composite panel: stabilization and solidification of high FE and TI content-petrochemical ash. Cerne 24:303–311

Monte MC, Fuente E, Blanco A, Negro C (2009) Waste management from pulp and paper production in the European Union. Waste Manage 29:293–308

Naqvi M, Yan J, Froling M (2010b) Bio-refinery system of DME or CH4 production from black liquor gasification in pulp mills. Biores Technol 101:937–944

Naqvi M, Yan J, Dahlquist E (2010a) Black liquor gasification integrated in pulp and paper mills: A critical review. Biores Technol 101:8001–8015

Norberg I (2012) Carbon fibers from kraft lignin. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm

Novais RM, Carvalheiras J, Senff L, Labrincha J (2018) Upcycling unexplored dregs and biomass fly ash from the paper and pulp industry in the production of eco-friendly geopolymer mortars: A preliminary assessment. Constr Build Mater 184:464–472

Olsson C, Sjoholm E, Reimanna A (2017) Carbon fibers from precursors produced by dry-jet wet-spinning of kraft lignin blended with kraft pulps. Holzforschung 71:275–283

Osman Khider T, Omer S, Taha O, Kamal Shomeina S (2012) Suitability of sudanese cotton stalks for alkaline pulping with additives. Iran J Energy Environ 3:15–45

Pati RK, Vrat P, Kumar P (2008) A goal programming model for paper recycling system. Omega 36:405–417

Quina MJ, Pinheiro CT (2020) Inorganic Waste Generated in Kraft Pulp Mills: The Transition from Landfill to Industrial Applications. Appl Sci 10:2317

Ragauskas A (2002) Biotechnology in the pulp and paper industry A challenge for change. Prog Biotechnol Amsterdam 15:7–12

Rajamma R, LabrinchaA JA, Ferreira VM (2012) Alkali activation of biomass fly ash–metakaolin blends. Fuel 98:265–271

Rajput D, Bhagade S, Raut S, Ralegaonkar R, Mandavgane SA (2012) Reuse of cotton and recycle paper mill waste as a building material. Constr Build Mater 34:470–475

Rashmi S, Bhardwaj Nishi K (2010) Enzymatic refining of pulps: an overview. APPTA J 22:109–116

Raut S, Sedmake R, Dhunde S, Ralegaonkar R, Mandavgane SA (2012) Reuse of recycle paper mill waste in energy-absorbing lightweight bricks. Constr Build Mater 27:247–251

Ritchlin DB (2012) The pulp pollution primer. Watershed Sentinel, Canada

Saeli M, Tobaldi DM, Seabra MP, Labrincha JA (2019) Mix design and mechanical performance of geo-polymeric binders and mortars using biomass fly ash and alkaline effluent from the paper-pulp industry. J Cleaner Prod 208:1188–1197

Sakai S, Sawell S, Chandler A, Eighmy T, Kosson D, Vehlow J, Van Der Sloot H, Hartlen J, Hjelmar O (1996) World trends in municipal solid waste management. Waste Manag 16:45

Santos RB, Capanema EA, Balakshin MY, Chang H-M, Jameel H (2011) Effect of hardwoods characteristics on the kraft pulping process: emphasis on lignin structure. BioResources 6:3623–3637

Sarkar R, Kurar R, Gupta AK, Mudgal A, Guptal V (2017) Use of paper mill waste for brick making. Cogent Engineering 4:1405768

Scheepers GP, Du Toit B (2016) Potential use of wood ash in South African forestry: a review. Southern Forests: A Journal of Forest Science 78:255–266

Schorr D, Diouf PN, Stevanovic T (2014) Evaluation of industrial lignins for biocomposites production. Ind Crops Prod 52:65–73

Simao L, Hotza D, Raupp-Pereira F, Labrincha J, Montedo O (2018) Wastes from pulp and paper mills-a review of generation and recycling alternatives. Cerâmica 64:443–453

Simao L, Hotza D, Raupp-Pereira F, Labrincha JA, Montedo OR (2019) Characterization of pulp and paper mill waste for the production of waste-based cement. Revista Internacional De Contaminación Ambiental 35:237–246

Singh AK, Chandra R (2019) Pollutants released from the pulp paper industry: Aquatic toxicity and their health hazards. Aquat Toxicol 211:202–216

Singhvi M, Zinjarde S, Gokhale D (2019) Polylactic acid: synthesis and biomedical applications. J Appl Microbiol 127:1612–1626

Sjostrom E, Westermark U (1999) Chemical composition of wood and pulps: basic constituents and their distribution. Analytical methods in wood chemistry, pulping, and papermaking. Springer, Berlin

Song K, Zhu X, Zhu W, Li X (2019) Preparation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystal extracted from Calotropis Procera biomass. Bioresour Bioprocess 6:1–8

Soucy J, Koubaa A, Migneault S, Riedl B (2014) The potential of paper mill sludge for wood-plastic composites. Ind Crops Prod 54:248–256

Souto F, Calado V, Pereira N (2018) Lignin-based carbon fiber: a current overview. Mater Res Express 5:072001

Souza AGD, Kano FS, Bonvent JJ, Rosa DDS (2017) Cellulose nanostructures obtained from waste paper industry: a comparison of acid and mechanical isolation methods. Mater Res 20:209–214

Srinivasakannan C, Bakar MZA (2004) Production of activated carbon from rubberwood sawdust. Biomass Bioenerg 27:89–96

Stoklosa RJ (2014) Fractionation and characterization of solubilized biopolymers from alkaline pulping liquors. Michigan State University, London

Tutus A, Ezici AC, Ates S (2010) Chemical, morphological and anatomical properties and evaluation of cotton stalks ( Gossypium hirsutum L.) in the pulp industry. Sci Res Essays 5:1553–1560

Vakkilainen EK (2016) Steam generation from biomass: construction and design of large boilers. Butterworth-Heinemann

Vakkilainen E, Valimaki E (2009) Effect of lignin separation to black liquor and recovery boiler operation lignin from kraft black liquor. Pulping Environ 5:1–18

Viel M, Collet F, Lanos C (2020) Effect of compaction on multi-physical properties of hemp-black liquor composites. J Mater Res Technol 5:246

Walker JCF (2004) Method of selecting wood for chemical pulping. Google Patents, London

Woiciechowski AL, Neto CJD, De Souza Vandenberghe LP, De Carvalho Neto DP, Sydeny ACN, Letti LAJ, Karp SG, Torres LAZ, Soccol CR (2020) Lignocellulosic biomass: Acid and alkaline pretreatments and their effects on biomass recalcitrance–Conventional processing and recent advances. Bioresour Technol 304:122848

Woodings C (2001) Regenerated cellulose fibers. Elsevier

Xinde T (1996) Extraction of lignin in paper-mill black liquor by acidification. Res Environ Sci 4:87

Yang L, Liu S (2005) Kinetic model for kraft pulping process. Ind Eng Chem Res 44:7078–7085

Yang S, Yang B, Duan C, Fuller DA, Wang X, Chowdhury SP, Stavik J, Zhang H (2019b) Applications of enzymatic technologies to the production of high-quality dissolving pulp: a review. Biores Technol 281:440–448

Yang J, Ching YC, Chuah CH (2019a) Applications of lignocellulosic fibers and lignin in bioplastics: A review. Polymers 11:751

Article   CAS   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Yoon-Moon C, Naik TR (2005) Concrete with paper industry fibrous residuals: mixture proportioning. ACI Mater J 102:237

Zhang Q, Khan MU, Lin X, Yi W, Lei H (2020) Green-composites produced from waste residue in pulp and paper industry: a sustainable way to manage industrial wastes. J Clean Prod 121:251

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the Higher Education and TVET program Ethiopia-Phase 3, PE479-Higher Education, KFW project No. 51235, and BMZ No. 201166305 for the financial support of this research.

The prerequisite funding support is from the Higher Education and TVET program Ethiopia, KFW Project, and Ethiopian Institute of Textile and Fashion Technology, Bahir Dar University. No other funding.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Biorefinery Research Centre, Ethiopian Institute of Textile and Fashion Technology, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

Adane Haile, Gemeda Gebino Gelebo, Tamrat Tesfaye, Wassie Mengie, Million Ayele Mebrate, Amare Abuhay & Derseh Yilie Limeneh

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

AH, GGG, TT, WM, MAM, AA and DYL of this review paper have directly participated in the planning, execution, or analysis of this study with the due role of the corresponding author in overall coordination as well. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Adane Haile .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Haile, A., Gelebo, G.G., Tesfaye, T. et al. Pulp and paper mill wastes: utilizations and prospects for high value-added biomaterials. Bioresour. Bioprocess. 8 , 35 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-021-00385-3

Download citation

Received : 28 January 2021

Accepted : 19 April 2021

Published : 29 April 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40643-021-00385-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Biorefinery
• Pulping waste
• Biomaterials
• High value-added

• Architecture and Design
• Asian and Pacific Studies
• Business and Economics
• Classical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies
• Computer Sciences
• Cultural Studies
• Engineering
• General Interest
• Geosciences
• Industrial Chemistry
• Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies
• Jewish Studies
• Library and Information Science, Book Studies
• Life Sciences
• Linguistics and Semiotics
• Literary Studies
• Materials Sciences
• Mathematics
• Social Sciences
• Sports and Recreation
• Theology and Religion
• Publish your article
• The role of authors
• Promoting your article
• Abstracting & indexing
• Publishing Ethics
• Why publish with De Gruyter
• How to publish with De Gruyter
• Our book series
• Our subject areas
• Your digital product at De Gruyter
• Contribute to our reference works
• Product information
• Tools & resources
• Product Information
• Promotional Materials
• Orders and Inquiries
• FAQ for Library Suppliers and Book Sellers
• Repository Policy
• Free access policy
• Open Access agreements
• Database portals
• For Authors
• Customer service
• People + Culture
• Journal Management
• How to join us
• Working at De Gruyter
• Mission & Vision
• De Gruyter Foundation
• De Gruyter Ebound
• Our Responsibility
• Partner publishers

Your purchase has been completed. Your documents are now available to view.

Non-wood fibers as raw material for pulp and paper industry

Pulp and paper industry in the world have been growing fast. As a result, there has been a massive request for pulp and paper raw materials. The raw materials used in papermaking can be classified into three groups: wood, non-wood, and recycled wastepaper. The Non-wood raw material is an important fiber resource in the regions where forest resources are limited. The current usage of non-wood plant fibers, as rice straws, corn stalks, cotton stalks, and bagasse would play a chief role in increasing papermaking raw materials. Using of non-wood plant fibers in the paper industry associated with some problems, including collection, transportation, storage and handling, washing, bleaching, papermaking, chemical recovery, supply of raw material and the properties of finished paper. Recently, a high-tech innovation in all the fields of papermaking has made non-wood more reasonable with wood as a raw material for papermaking. Although till now, use of non-wood fibers for pulp and paper manufacture was focused in countries with limited wood supply, it is now showing a growing effort even in countries with acceptable wood source due to environmental concerns. Consequently, the future of non-wood plant fibers as pulping and papermaking raw material looks bright.

Funding statement: The authors would like to express their gratitude to the National Research Centre, Egypt, for the financial support of the current work.

Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the submission.

Abdel-Mohdy, F.A., Abdel-Halim, E.S., Abu-Ayana, Y.M., El-Sawy, S.M. (2009) Rice straw as a new resource for some beneficial uses. Carbohydr. Polym. 75(1):44–51. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2008.06.002 Search in Google Scholar

Abdelmageed, K., Chang, X.H., Wang, D.M., Wang, Y.J., Yang, Y.S., Zhao, G.C., Tao, Z.Q. (2019) Evolution of varieties and development of production technology in Egypt wheat: A review. J. Integr. Agric. 18(3):483–495. 10.1016/S2095-3119(18)62053-2 Search in Google Scholar

Abou-Yousef, H., El-Sakhawy, M., Kamel, S. (2005) Multi-stage bagasse pulping by using alkali/Caro’s acid treatment. Ind. Crop. Prod. 21(3):337–341. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2004.05.001 Search in Google Scholar

Ai, J., Tschirner, U. (2010) Fiber length and pulping characteristics of switch grass, alfalfa stems, hybrid poplar and willow biomasses. Bioresour. Technol. 101(1):215–221. 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.090 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M., Shafi, M. (1995) Pulping of jute. Tappi J. 78(2):106–112. Search in Google Scholar

Alcaide, L.J., Baldovin, F.L., Herranz, J.L.F. (1993) Evaluation of agricultural residues for paper manufacture. Tappi J. 76(3):169–174. Search in Google Scholar

Ardeh, S.N., Rovshandeh, J.M., Pourjoozi, M. (2004) Influence of rice straw cooking conditions in the soda-ethanol-water pulping on the mechanical properties of produced paper sheets. Bioresour. Technol. 92(1):65–69. 10.1016/j.biortech.2003.07.006 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Assumpcao, R.M.V. (1992) Non-wood fiber utilization in pulping and papermaking – UNIDO’s activities. TAPPI Non-wood Plant Fiber Pulping Progress Report No. 20:191–201. Search in Google Scholar

Atchison, J.E. (1989) Data on nonwood plant fibers. In: Pulp and Paper Manufacture Volume 3 – Secondary Fibers and Nonwood Pulping. Ed. Kocurek, M.J. TAPPI press, Atlanta. p. 5. Search in Google Scholar

Atchison, J.E. (1993) Making right choices for successful bagasse newsprint production, Part 2. Tappi J. 76(1):187–193. Search in Google Scholar

Atchison, J.E. (1995) Twenty-five years of global progress in non-wood plant fiber pulping – historical highlights, present status and future prospects. TAPPI Non-wood Plant Fiber Progress Report No. 22:111–130. Search in Google Scholar

Atchison, J.E. (1998) Progress in the Global Use of Non-wood Fibers and Prospects for Their Greater Use in the Future. Inpaper Int. 2:21–30. Search in Google Scholar

Atchison, J.E., McGovern, J.N. (1983) History of paper and the importance of non-wood plant fiber. Pulp Pap. Manuf. 3:1–3. Search in Google Scholar

Ateş, S., Deniz, I., Kirci, H., Atik, C., Okan, O.T. (2015) Comparison of pulping and bleaching behaviors of some agricultural residues. Turk. J. Agric. For. 39:144–153. 10.3906/tar-1403-41 Search in Google Scholar

Azeez, M.A. (2018) Pulping of Non-Woody Biomass. In: Pulp and Paper Processing. Ed. Kazi, S.N. IntechOpen publisher. Chapter 3, pp. 55–86. 10.5772/intechopen.79749 Search in Google Scholar

Bajpai, P. (2018) Non-wood Fiber Use in Pulp and Paper. In: Biermann’s Handbook of Pulp and Paper, 3rd edition. Raw Material and Pulp Making, Vol. 1. Elsevier. Chapter 10, pp. 261–278. 10.1016/B978-0-12-814240-0.00010-0 Search in Google Scholar

Bambach, M.R. (2017) Compression strength of natural fiber composite plates and sections of flax, jute and hemp. Thin-Walled Struct. 119:103–113. 10.1016/j.tws.2017.05.034 Search in Google Scholar

Barbash, V., Trembus, I., Alushkin, S., Yashchenko, O. (2016) Comparative pulping of sunflower stalks. ScienceRise 3/2(20):71–78. 10.15587/2313-8416.2016.63098 Search in Google Scholar

Basta, A.H., Fierro, V., Saied, H., Celzard, A. (2011) Effect of deashing rice straws on their derived activated carbons produced by phosphoric acid activation. Biomass Bioenergy 35(5):1954–1959. 10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.01.043 Search in Google Scholar

Bhardwaj, N.K., Kaur, D., Chaudhry, S., Sharma, M., Arya, S. (2019) Approaches for converting sugarcane trash, a promising agro residue, into pulp and paper using soda pulping and elemental chlorine-free bleaching. J. Clean. Prod. 217:225–233. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.01.223 Search in Google Scholar

Bian, H., Gao, Y., Luo, J., Jiao, L., Wu, W., Fang, G., Dai, H. (2019) Lignocellulosic nanofibrils produced using wheat straw and their pulping solid residue: From agricultural waste to cellulose nanomaterials. Waste Manag. 91:1–8. 10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.052 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Bousios, S., Worrell, E. (2017) Towards a Multiple Input-Multiple Output paper mill: Opportunities for alternative raw materials and sidestream valorisation in the paper and board industry. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 125:218–232. 10.1016/j.resconrec.2017.06.020 Search in Google Scholar

Casey, J.P. Pulp and paper, chemistry and chemical technology, Vol. I, III edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1980. pp. 152–155. Search in Google Scholar

Dhyani, V. Bhaskar, T.A. (2018) A comprehensive review on the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. Renew. Energy 129:695–716. 10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.035 Search in Google Scholar

El-Sakhawy, M., Lonnberg, B., Ibrahim, A.A., Fahmy, Y. (1996) ORGANOSOLV PULPING. 4. Kinetics of alkaline ethanol pulping of wheat straw. Cellul. Chem. Technol. 30:281–296. Search in Google Scholar

El-Sakhawy, M., Nashy, E.S.H., El-Gendy, A., Kamel, S. (2018) Thermal and natural aging of bagasse paper sheets coated with gelatin. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 33(2):327–335. 10.1515/npprj-2018-3033 Search in Google Scholar

Enayati, A.A., Hamzah, Y., Mirshokraie, S.A., Molaii, M. (2009) Papermaking potential of canola stalks. BioResources 4(1):245–256. 10.15376/biores.4.1.245-256 Search in Google Scholar

Fahmy, Y., Fahmy, T.Y., Mobarak, F., El-Sakhawy, M., Fadl, M. (2017) Agricultural Residues (Wastes) for Manufacture of Paper, Board, and Miscellaneous Products: Background Overview and Future Prospects. Int. J. ChemTech Res. 2(10):424–448. Search in Google Scholar

Fatehi, P., Gao, W., Sun, Y., Dashtban, M. (2016) Acidification of prehydrolysis liquor and spent liquor of neutral sulfite semichemical pulping process. Bioresour. Technol. 218:518–525. 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.06.138 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Fernández-Rodríguez, J., Gordobil, O., Robles, E., González-Alriols, M., Labidi, J. (2017) Lignin valorization from side-streams produced during agricultural waste pulping and total chlorine free bleaching. J. Clean. Prod. 142(4):2609–2617. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.198 Search in Google Scholar

Figueiredo, P.N. (2016) Evolution of the short-fiber technological trajectory in Brazil’s pulp and paper industry: The role of firm-level innovative capability-building and indigenous institutions. For. Policy Econ. 64:1–14. 10.1016/j.forpol.2015.12.008 Search in Google Scholar

Flandez, J., Pelach, M.A., Vilaseca, F., Tijero, J., Monte, C., Pérez, I., Mutje, P. (2010) Lignocellulosic fibre from corn stalks as alternative for the production of brown grade papers. Proc. of the 21st TECNICELPA Conference and Exhibition/VI CIADICYP. Lisbon, Portugal. Search in Google Scholar

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Pulp and paper capacities, survey 1998–2002. FAO, Rome, 2002. Search in Google Scholar

Franciele, A.N., de Costa, F., de Araújo Jr., A.T., Fett, J.P., Fett-Neto, A.G. (2019) Multiple industrial uses of non-wood pine products. Ind. Crop. Prod. 130:248–258. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.12.088 Search in Google Scholar

Gharehkhani, S., Yarmand, H., Goodarzi, M.S., Shirazi, S.F.S., Zubir, M.N.M., Amiri, A., Solangi, K., Ibrahim, R., Kazi, S.N., Wongwises, S. (2017) Experimental investigation on rheological, momentum and heat transfer characteristics of flowing fiber crop suspensions. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 80:60–69. 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2016.11.013 Search in Google Scholar

Gominho, J., Curt, M.D., Lourenco, A., Fernández, J., Pereira, H. (2018) Cynara cardunculus L. as a biomass and multi-purpose crop: A review of 30 years of research. Biomass Bioenergy 109:257–275. 10.1016/j.biombioe.2018.01.001 Search in Google Scholar

Gonzalo, A., Bimbela, F., Sánchez, J.L., Labidi, J., Marín, F., Arauzo, J. (2017) Evaluation of different agricultural residues as raw materials for pulp and paper production using a semichemical process. J. Clean. Prod. 156:184–193. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.04.036 Search in Google Scholar

Gopal, P.M., Sivaram, N.M., Barik, D. (2019) Paper Industry Wastes and Energy Generation from Wastes. In: Energy from Toxic Organic Waste for Heat and Power Generation. Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy. Chapter 7, pp. 83. 10.1016/B978-0-08-102528-4.00007-9 Search in Google Scholar

Goswami, T., Kalita, D., Rao, P.G. (2008) Greaseproof paper from Banana (Musa paradisica L.) pulp fibre. Indian J. Chem. Technol. 15(5):457–461. Search in Google Scholar

Hemmasi, A.H., Samarih, A., Tabei, A., Nemati, M., Khakifirooz, A. (2011) Study of morphological and chemical composition of fibres from Iranian sugarcane bagasse. Am.-Eurasian J. Agric. Environ. Sci. 11(4):478–481. Search in Google Scholar

Hoghton, R.A. (2007) Balancing the global carbon budget. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 35:313–347. 10.1146/annurev.earth.35.031306.140057 Search in Google Scholar

Holik, H. (2006) Paper and Board Today. In: Handbook of Paper and Board. Ed. Holik, H. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH, Germany. pp. 1. 10.1002/3527608257 Search in Google Scholar

Jahan, M.S., Uddin, M.N., Akhtaruzzaman, A.F.M. (2016) An approach for the use of agricultural by-products through a biorefinery in Bangladesh. For. Chron. 92(4):447–452. 10.5558/tfc2016-080 Search in Google Scholar

Jardine, B. (2017) State of the field: Paper tools. Stud. Hist. Philos. Sci. 64:53–63. 10.1016/j.shpsa.2017.07.004 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Jiang, Y., Wu, Q., Wei, Z., Wang, J., Chen, Y. (2019) Papermaking potential of Pennisetum hybridum fiber after fertilizing treatment with municipal sewage sludge. J. Clean. Prod. 208:889–896. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.148 Search in Google Scholar

Jiménez, L., Serrano, L., Rodríquez, A., Sánchez, R. (2009) Soda-anthraquinone pulping of palm oil empty fruit bunches and beating of the resulting pulp. Bioresour. Technol. 100(3):1262–1267. 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.08.013 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Jonoobi, M., Oladi, R., Davoudpour, Y., Oksman, K., Dufresne, A., Hamzeh, Y., Davoodi, R. (2015) Different preparation methods and properties of nanostructured cellulose from various natural resources and residues: a review. Cellulose 22(2):935–969. 10.1007/s10570-015-0551-0 Search in Google Scholar

Kaur, D., Bhardwaj, N.K., Lohchab, R.K. (2017) Prospects of rice straw as a raw material for paper making. Waste Manag. 60:127–139. 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.08.001 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Kaur, D., Bhardwaj, N.K., Lohchab, R.K. (2018) A study on pulping of rice straw and impact of incorporation of chlorine dioxide during bleaching on pulp properties and effluents characteristics. J. Clean. Prod. 170:174–182. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.09.111 Search in Google Scholar

Keshk, S., Suwinarti, W., Sameshima, K. (2006) Physicochemical characterization of different treatment sequences on kenaf bast fiber. Carbohydr. Polym. 65(2):202–206. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.01.005 Search in Google Scholar

Khiari, R., Mhenni, M.F., Belgacem, M.N., Mauret, E. (2010) Chemical composition and pulping of date palm rachis and Posidoniaoceanica – A with comparison with other wood and non-wood fibres sources. Bioresour. Technol. 101(2):775–780. 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.08.079 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Khristova, P., Kordsachia, O., Patt, R., Karar, I., Khider, T. (2006) Environmentally friendly pulping and bleaching of bagasse. Ind. Crop. Prod. 23(2):131–139. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2005.05.002 Search in Google Scholar

Kissinger, M., Fix, J., Rees, W.E. (2007) Wood and non-wood pulp production: Comparative ecological foot printing on the Canadian prairies. Ecol. Econ. 62(3–4):552–558. 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.07.019 Search in Google Scholar

Kong, H., He, J., Wu, H., Wu, H., Gao, Y. (2012) Phenanthrene Removal from Aqueous Solution on Sesame Stalk based Carbon. Clean-Soil, Air, Water 40(7):752–759. 10.1002/clen.201100322 Search in Google Scholar

Kulshreshtha, S., Mathur, N., Bhatnagar, P., Kulshreshtha, S. (2013) Cultivation of Pleurotuscitrinopileatus on handmade paper and cardboard industrial wastes. Ind. Crop. Prod. 41:340–346. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2012.04.053 Search in Google Scholar

Latibari, A.J., Hossein, M.A., Hosseinpour, R., Tajdini, A. (2014) Elemental chlorine free bleaching of wheat straw chemimechanical pulp. Cellul. Chem. Technol. 48(1–2):119–125. Search in Google Scholar

Liu, W., Liu, S., Liu, T., Liu, T., Zhang, J., Liu, H. (2019) Eco-friendly post-consumer cotton waste recycling for regenerated cellulose fibers. Carbohydr. Polym. 206:141–148. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.10.046 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Liu, Z., Wang, H., Hui, L. (2018) Pulping and Papermaking of Non-Wood Fibers. In: Pulp and Paper Processing. Ed. Kazi, S.N. IntechOpen publisher. Chapter 1, pp. 3–32. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.79017 . Search in Google Scholar

López, F., Pérez, A., García, J.C., Feria, M.J., García, M.M., Fernández, M. (2011) Cellulosic pulp from Leucaena diversifolia by soda–ethanol pulping process. Chem. Eng. J. 166(1):22–29. 10.1016/j.cej.2010.08.039 Search in Google Scholar

Madakadze, I.C., Masamvu, T.M., Radiotis, T., Li, J., Smith, D.L. (2010) Evaluation of pulp and paper making characteristics of elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schum) and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.). Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 4(7):465–470. Search in Google Scholar

Mulyantara, L.T., Harsono, H., Maryana, R., Jin, G., Ohi, H. (2017) Properties of thermomechanical pulps derived from sugarcane bagasse and oil palm empty fruit bunches. Ind. Crop. Prod. 98:139–145. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.11.003 Search in Google Scholar

Nabais, J.M.V., Laginhas, C., Carrott, M.M.L.R., Carrott, P.J.M., Gisbert, A.V.N. (2013) Surface and porous characterization of activated carbons made from a novel biomass precursor, the esparto grass. Appl. Surf. Sci. 265:919–924. 10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.11.164 Search in Google Scholar

Naqvi, M., Dahlquist, E., Yan, J., Naqvi, S.R., Qureshi, A.S. (2018) Polygeneration system integrated with small non-wood pulp mills for substitute natural gas production. Appl. Energy 224:636–646. 10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.05.005 Search in Google Scholar

Nassar, M.A., El-Sakhawy, M., Madkour, H.M.F., El-ziaty, A.K., Mohamed, S.A. (2014) Novel coating of bagasse papersheets by gelatin and chitosan. Nord. Pulp Pap. Res. J. 29(4):741–746. 10.3183/npprj-2014-29-04-p741-746 Search in Google Scholar

Nasser, R.A., Hiziroglu, S., Abdel-Aal, M.A., Al-Mefarrej, H.A., Shetta, N.D., Aref, I.M. (2015) Measurement of some properties of pulp and paper made from date palm midribs and wheat straw by soda-AQ pulping process. Measurement 62:179–186. 10.1016/j.measurement.2014.10.051 Search in Google Scholar

Nayak, A., Bhushan, B. (2019) An overview of the recent trends on the waste valorization techniques for food wastes. J. Environ. Manag. 233:352–370. 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.12.041 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Pari, L., Baraniecki, P., Kaniewski, R., Scarfone, A. (2015) Harvesting strategies of bast fiber crops in Europe and in China. Ind. Crop. Prod. 68:90–96. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2014.09.010 Search in Google Scholar

Pfaffli, I., Sisko, M. Fiber Atlas: identification of papermaking fibers. Springer-verlag, New York, 1995. 10.1007/978-3-662-07212-7 Search in Google Scholar

Pode, R. (2016) Potential applications of rice husk ash waste from rice husk biomass power plant. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 53:1468–1485. 10.1016/j.rser.2015.09.051 Search in Google Scholar

Ramdhonee, A., Jeetah, P. (2017) Production of wrapping paper from banana fibers. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 5(5):4298–4306. 10.1016/j.jece.2017.08.011 Search in Google Scholar

Ramesh, M., Palanikumar, K., Reddy, K.H. (2017) Plant fiber based bio-composites: Sustainable and renewable green materials. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 79:558–584. 10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.094 Search in Google Scholar

Reddy, K.O., Maheswari, C.U., Dhlamini, M.S., Mothudi, B.M., Rajulu, A.V. (2017) Preparation and characterization of regenerated cellulose films using borassus fruit fibers and an ionic liquid. Carbohydr. Polym. 160:203–211. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.12.051 Search in Google Scholar

Rousu, P., Rousu, P., Anttila, J. (2002) Sustainable pulp production from agricultural waste. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 35(1–2):85–103. 10.1016/S0921-3449(01)00124-0 Search in Google Scholar

Rudi, H., Resalati, H., Eshkiki, R.B., Kermanian, H. (2016) Sunflower stalk neutral sulfite semi-chemical pulp: an alternative fiber source for production of fluting paper. J. Clean. Prod. 127:562–566. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.049 Search in Google Scholar

Sabharwal, H.S. (1995) Refiner mechanical and biomechanical pulping of jute. Holzforschung 49(6):537–544. 10.1515/hfsg.1995.49.6.537 Search in Google Scholar

Saeed, H.A., Liu, Y., Lucia, L.A., Chen, H. (2017) Sudanese Agro-residue as a Novel Furnish for Pulp and Paper Manufacturing. BioResources 12(2):4166–4176. 10.15376/biores.12.2.4166-4176 Search in Google Scholar

Salehi, K., Kordsachia, O., Patt, R. (2014) Comparison of MEA/AQ, soda and soda/AQ pulping of wheat and rye straw. Ind. Crop. Prod. 52:603–610. 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.11.014 Search in Google Scholar

Singh, G., Kaur, S., Khatri, M., Arya, S.K. (2019) Biobleaching for pulp and paper industry in India: Emerging enzyme technology. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 17:558–565. 10.1016/j.bcab.2019.01.019 Search in Google Scholar

Singh, H., Singh, J.I.P., Singh, S., Dhawan, V., Tiwari, S.K. (2018) A Brief Review of Jute Fibre and Its Composites. Mater. Today Proc. 5(14):28427–28437. 10.1016/j.matpr.2018.10.129 Search in Google Scholar

Singh, P., Sulaiman, O., Hashim, R., Rupani, P.F., Peng, L.C. (2010) Biopulping of lignocellulosic material using different fungal species: A review. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 9:141–151. 10.1007/s11157-010-9200-0 Search in Google Scholar

Soliman, I., Capitanio, F., Cerciello, L. (2013) Risk assessment of major crops in Egyptian agriculture. Int. Agric. Policy 3:57–76. Search in Google Scholar

Stanzl-Tschegg, S.E. (2011) Wood as a bioinspiring material. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 31(6):1174–1183. 10.1016/j.msec.2010.12.001 Search in Google Scholar

Sun, M., Wang, Y., Shi, L. (2018) Environmental performance of straw-based pulp making: A life cycle perspective. Sci. Total Environ. 616:753–762. 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.250 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Sutradhar, S., Sarkar, M., Nayeem, J., Jahan, M.S., Tian, C. (2018) Potassium hydroxide pulping of four non-woods. Bangladesh J. Sci. Ind. Res. 53(1):1–6. 10.3329/bjsir.v53i1.35903 Search in Google Scholar

Sánchez, C. (2009) Lignocellulosic residues: biodegradation and bioconversion by fungi. Biotechnol. Adv. 27(2):185–194. 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2008.11.001 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Tajik, M., Torshizi, H.J., Resalati, H., Hamzeh, Y. (2018) Effects of cationic starch in the presence of cellulose nanofibrils on structural, optical and strength properties of paper from soda bagasse pulp. Carbohydr. Polym. 194:1–8. 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.04.026 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

van Dam, E.G., Elbersen, W., Montaño, C.D. (2018) Bamboo Production for Industrial Utilization. In: Perennial Grasses for Bioenergy and Bioproducts. Ed. Alexopoulou, E. Elsevier. Book Chapter 6, pp. 175–216. 10.1016/B978-0-12-812900-5.00006-0 Search in Google Scholar

Varshney, D., Mandade, P., Shastri, Y. (2019) Multi-objective optimization of sugarcane bagasse utilization in an Indian sugar mill. Sustain. Prod. Consump. 18:96–114. 10.1016/j.spc.2018.11.009 Search in Google Scholar

Wa, L., Awar, W. (2016) Pulping process and the potential of using non-wood pineapple leaves fiber for pulp and paper production: A review. J. Nat. Fibers 13(1):85–102. 10.1080/15440478.2014.984060 Search in Google Scholar

Wang, Z., Xue, J., Liu, W. (2012) Nitrogen fixation and chelating property of wheat ammonium sulfite pulping spent liquor. BioResources 7(1):777–788. 10.15376/biores.7.1.777-788 Search in Google Scholar

Wen, J.-L., Sun, S.-N., Yuan, T.-Q., Xu, F., Sun, R.-C. (2013) Fractionation of bamboo culms by autohydrolysis, organosolv delignification and extended delignification: Understanding the fundamental chemistry of the lignin during the integrated process. Bioresour. Technol. 150:278–286. 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.10.015 Search in Google Scholar PubMed

Yang, L., Fang, L., Huang, L., Zhao, Y., Liu, G. (2018) Evaluating the effectiveness of using ClO2 bleaching as substitution of traditional Cl2 on PCDD/F reduction in a non-wood pulp and paper mill using reeds as raw materials. Green Energy Environ. 3(3):302–308. 10.1016/j.gee.2017.07.002 Search in Google Scholar

Young, R.A. (1997) Paper and Composites from Agro-Based Resources. In: Processing of agro-based resources into pulp and paper. Eds. Rowell, R.M., Young, R.A., Rowell, J.K. CRC Lewis Publications, Boca Raton, FL, USA. Search in Google Scholar

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

• X / Twitter

Supplementary Materials

Please login or register with De Gruyter to order this product.

Journal and Issue

Articles in the same issue.

A deep learning-based approach for performance assessment and prediction: A case study of pulp and paper industries

• Original Research
• Published: 16 January 2022
• Volume 332 , pages 405–431, ( 2024 )

Cite this article

• Sunil Kumar Jauhar 1 ,
• Praveen Vijaya Raj Pushpa Raj 2 ,
• Sachin Kamble   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4922-8172 3 ,
• Saurabh Pratap 4 ,
• Shivam Gupta 5 &
• Amine Belhadi 6  

1032 Accesses

16 Citations

Explore all metrics

The pulp and paper industry is critical to global industrial and economic development. Recently, India's pulp and paper industries have been facing severe competitive challenges. The challenges have impaired the environmental performance and resulted in the closure of several operations. Assessment and prediction of the performance of the Indian pulp and paper industry using various parameters is a critical task for researchers. This study proposes a framework for performance assessment and prediction based on Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), Artificial Neural Networks, and Deep Learning (DL) to assist industry administration and decision-making. We presented a case study based on eight industries to demonstrate the methodology's applicability. This study analyses and predicts industry performance based on sample data observations over 30 years. The result suggests the DEA-DL-based efficiency prediction has an overall MSE of 0.08 compared with the actual efficiency. Furthermore, the efficiency rankings are compared between the three techniques. The results suggest that the integrated DEA-DL method is primarily accurate in most scenarios with the actual values. The findings of this study provide a comprehensive analysis of environmental performance for policymakers.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

A comprehensive literature review of the applications of AI techniques through the lifecycle of industrial equipment

Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Inventory Management: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Cost estimation and prediction in construction projects: a systematic review on machine learning techniques

Adler, N., Martini, G., & Volta, N. (2013). Measuring the environmental efficiency of the global aviation fleet. Transportation Research Part b: Methodological, 53 , 82–100.

Google Scholar  

Arel, I., Rose, D. C., & Karnowski, T. P. (2010). Deep machine learning-a new frontier in artificial intelligence research [research frontier]. IEEE Computational Intelligence Magazine, 5 (4), 13–18.

Athanassopoulos, A. D., & Curram, S. P. (1996). A comparison of data envelopment analysis and artificial neural networks as tools for assessing the efficiency of decision-making units. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 47 (8), 1000–1016.

Avkiran, N. K. (2001). Investigating technical and scale efficiencies of Australian universities through data envelopment analysis. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 35 (1), 57–80.

Banker, R. D., Charnes, A., & Cooper, W. W. (1984). Some models for estimating technical and scale inefficiencies in data envelopment analysis. Management Science, 30 (9), 1078–1092.

Bhanot, N., & Singh, H. (2014). Benchmarking the performance indicators of Indian Railway container business using data envelopment analysis. Benchmarking an International Journal., 21 (1), 101–120.

Bhat, J. A., Haider, S., & Kamaiah, B. (2018). Interstate energy efficiency of Indian paper industry: a slack-based non-parametric approach. Energy, 161 , 284–298.

Boudaghi, E., & Saen, R. F. (2018). Developing a novel model of data envelopment analysis–discriminant analysis for predicting group membership of suppliers in sustainable supply chain. Computers & Operations Research, 89 , 348–359.

MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Brännlund, R., Chung, Y., Färe, R., & Grosskopf, S. (1998). Emissions trading and profitability: the Swedish pulp and paper industry. Environmental and Resource Economics, 12 (3), 345–356.

Bruvoll, A., Torstein, B., Larsson, J., & Telle, K., (2003). Technological changes in the pulp and paper industry and the role of uniform versus selective environmental policy. Discussion Papers No. 357. Statistics Norway; Research Department. See also: http://www.ssb.no/publikasjoner/DP/pdf/dp357.pdf .

Cao, Q., Parry, M. E., & Leggio, K. B. (2011). The three-factor model and artificial neural networks: predicting stock price movement in China. Annals of Operations Research, 185 (1), 25–44.

Carlucci, D., Renna, P., & Schiuma, G. (2013). Evaluating service quality dimensions as antecedents to outpatient satisfaction using back propagation neural network. Health Care Management Science, 16 (1), 37–44.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Chakraborty, D., & Roy, J. (2015). Ecological footprint of paperboard and paper production unit in India. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 17 (4), 909–921.

Charnes, A., Cooper, W. W., & Rhodes, E. (1978). Measuring the efficiency of decision making units. European Journal of Operational Research, 2 (6), 429–444.

Cho, K., Van Merriënboer, B., Bahdanau, D., Bengio, Y. (2014). On the properties of neural machine translation: Encoder-decoder approaches. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1259 .

Coelli, T. J. (1996). Assessing the performance of Australian universities using data envelopment analysis . Armidale: University of New England.

Cook, W. D., Tone, K., & Zhu, J. (2014). Data envelopment analysis: Prior to choosing a model. Omega, 44 , 1–4.

D’Ecclesia, R. L., & Clementi, D. (2021). Volatility in the stock market: ANN versus parametric models. Annals of Operations Research, 299 (1), 1101–1127.

Dahl, G. E., Yu, D., Deng, L., & Acero, A. (2011). Context-dependent pre-trained deep neural networks for large-vocabulary speech recognition. IEEE Transactions on Audio, Speech, and Language Processing, 20 (1), 30–42.

Dahmani, N., Benhida, K., Belhadi, A., Kamble, S., Elfezazi, S., & Jauhar, S. K. (2021). Smart circular product design strategies towards eco-effective production systems: A lean eco-design industry 40 framework. Journal of Cleaner Production, 320 , 128847.

Duygun, M., Prior, D., Shaban, M., & Tortosa-Ausina, E. (2016). Disentangling the European airlines efficiency puzzle: a network data envelopment analysis approach. Omega, 60 , 2–14.

Emrouznejad, A., & Yang, G. L. (2018). A survey and analysis of the first 40 years of scholarly literature in DEA: 1978–2016. Socio-Economic Planning Sciences, 61 , 4–8.

Färe, R., Grosskopf, S., & Tyteca, D. (1996). An activity analysis model of the environmental performance of firms—application to fossil-fuel-fired electric utilities. Ecological Economics, 18 (2), 161–175.

Gately, E. (1995). Neural networks for financial forecasting . John Wiley & Sons Inc.

Günay, M. E. (2016). Forecasting annual gross electricity demand by artificial neural networks using predicted values of socio-economic indicators and climatic conditions: Case of Turkey. Energy Policy, 90 , 92–101.

Haider, S., Danish, M. S., & Sharma, R. (2019). Assessing energy efficiency of Indian paper industry and influencing factors: a slack-based firm-level analysis. Energy Economics, 81 , 454–464.

Hatami-Marbini, A., Emrouznejad, A., & Tavana, M. (2011). A taxonomy and review of the fuzzy data envelopment analysis literature: two decades in the making. European Journal of Operational Research, 214 (3), 457–472.

Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural Computation, 9 (8), 1735–1780.

CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Jauha, S. K., Pant, M. (2013). Recent trends in supply chain management: A soft computing approach. In: Proceedings of Seventh International Conference on Bio-Inspired Computing: Theories and Applications (BIC-TA 2012) (p. 465–478). Springer, India

Jauhar, S. K., & Pant, M. (2017). Integrating DEA with DE and MODE for sustainable supplier selection. Journal of Computational Science, 21 , 299–306.

Jauhar, S. K., Amin, S. H., & Zolfagharinia, H. (2021). A proposed method for third-party reverse logistics partner selection and order allocation in the cellphone industry. Computers & Industrial Engineering, 162 , 107719.

Jauhar, S. K., Singh, N., Rajeev, A., & Pant, M. (2021b). Measuring paper industry’s ecological performance in an imprecise and vague scenario: a fuzzy DEA-based analytical framework. Benchmarking: an International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/BIJ-06-2021-0319

Article   Google Scholar  

Jauhar, S., Asthankar, K. M., & Kuthe, A. M. (2012). Cost benefit analysis of rapid manufacturing in automotive industries. Advances in Mechanical Engineering and Its Applications (AMEA), 2 (3), 181–188.

Kaffash, S., & Marra, M. (2017). Data envelopment analysis in financial services: a citations network analysis of banks, insurance companies and money market funds. Annals of Operations Research, 253 (1), 307–344.

Khalil, R. A., Saeed, N., Masood, M., Fard, Y. M., Alouini, M. S., & Al-Naffouri, T. Y. (2021). Deep learning in the industrial internet of things: potentials, challenges, and emerging applications. IEEE Internet of Things Journal., 8 (14), 11016–11040.

Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., & Hinton, G. E. (2012). Imagenet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 25 , 1097–1105.

Kulkarni, H. D. (2013). Pulp and paper industry raw material scenario—ITC plantation a case study. IIPTA, 25 (1), 79–90.

Kuo, R. J., Wang, Y. C., & Tien, F. C. (2010). Integration of artificial neural network and MADA methods for green supplier selection. Journal of Cleaner Production, 18 (12), 1161–1170.

Kuosmanen, T., & Matin, R. K. (2009). Theory of integer-valued data envelopment analysis. European Journal of Operational Research, 192 (2), 658–667.

LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., & Hinton, G. (2015). Deep learning. nature., 521 (7553), 436. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14539

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Li, X., Yi, X., Liu, Z., Liu, H., Chen, T., Niu, G., & Ying, G. (2021). Application of novel hybrid deep leaning model for cleaner production in a paper industrial wastewater treatment system. Journal of Cleaner Production, 294 , 126343.

CAS   Google Scholar  

Li, Y., & Liu, L. (2012). Hybrid artificial neural network and statistical model for forecasting project total duration in earned value management. International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations, 10 (3–4), 402–413.

Li, Y., Chan, H. K., & Zhang, T. (2018). Environmental production and productivity growth: evidence from european paper and pulp manufacturing. Annals of Operations Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-018-3126-2

Li, Y., Zhu, Z., Kong, D., Han, H., & Zhao, Y. (2019). EA-LSTM: Evolutionary attention-based LSTM for time series prediction. Knowledge-Based Systems, 181 , 104785.

Liu, J. S., Lu, L. Y., Lu, W. M. (2016). Research Fronts and Prevailing Applications in Data Envelopment Analysis. In Data Envelopment Analysis p. 543–574. Springer, Boston, MA.

Luo, S., & Choi, T. M. (2021). Great partners: how deep learning and blockchain help improve business operations together. Annals of Operations Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-021-04101-4

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Manasakis, C., Apostolakis, A., & Datseris, G. (2013). Using data envelopment analysis to measure hotel efficiency in Crete. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 25 (4), 510–535.

Martel, A., M’Barek, W., D’Amours, S. (2005). International factors in the design of multinational supply chains: the case of Canadian pulp and paper companies. Document de travail DT-2005-AM-3, Centor, Université Laval, 10.

Masson, S., Jain, R., Ganesh, N. M., & George, S. A. (2016). Operational efficiency and service delivery performance: a comparative analysis of Indian telecom service providers. Benchmarking An International Journal, 23 (4), 893–915.

Misiunas, N., Oztekin, A., Chen, Y., & Chandra, K. (2016). DEANN: a healthcare analytic methodology of data envelopment analysis and artificial neural networks for the prediction of organ recipient functional status. Omega, 58 , 46–54.

Murugesan, V. S., Jauhar, S. K., & Sequeira, A. H. (2021). Applying simulation in lean service to enhance the operational system in Indian postal service industry. Annals of Operations Research . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-020-03920-1

Narciso, D. A., & Martins, F. G. (2020). Application of machine learning tools for energy efficiency in industry: a review. Energy Reports, 6 , 1181–1199.

Nisi, K., Nagaraj, B., & Agalya, A. (2019). Tuning of a PID controller using evolutionary multi objective optimization methodologies and application to the pulp and paper industry. International Journal of Machine Learning and Cybernetics, 10 (8), 2015–2025.

Panapakidis, I. P., & Dagoumas, A. S. (2017). Day ahead natural gas demand forecasting based on the combination of wavelet transform and ANFIS/genetic algorithm/neural network model. Energy, 118 , 231–245.

Paradi, J. C., & Zhu, H. (2013). A survey on bank branch efficiency and performance research with data envelopment analysis. Omega, 41 (1), 61–79.

Park, S., Ok, C., & Ha, C. (2018). A stochastic simulation-based holistic evaluation approach with DEA for vendor selection. Computers & Operations Research, 100 , 368–378.

Peng, L., Zeng, X., Wang, Y., & Hong, G. B. (2015). Analysis of energy efficiency and carbon dioxide reduction in the Chinese pulp and paper industry. Energy Policy, 80 , 65–75.

Qu, B., Leng, J., & Ma, J. (2019). Investigating the intensive redevelopment of urban central blocks using data envelopment analysis and deep learning: a case study of Nanjing, China. IEEE Access, 7 , 109884–109898.

Ramanathan, R. (2003). An introduction to data envelopment analysis: a tool for performance measurement . Sage.

Rezaee, M. J., Jozmaleki, M., & Valipour, M. (2018). Integrating dynamic fuzzy C-means, data envelopment analysis and artificial neural network to online prediction performance of companies in stock exchange. Physica a: Statistical Mechanics and Its Applications, 489 , 78–93.

ADS   Google Scholar  

Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & Williams, R. J. (1986). Learning Representations by Back-Propagating Errors. Nature, 323 (6088), 533–536.

Sagarra, M., Mar-Molinero, C., & Agasisti, T. (2017). Exploring the efficiency of Mexican universities: integrating data envelopment analysis and multidimensional scaling. Omega, 67 , 123–133.

Scheel, H. (1998). Negative data and undesirable outputs in DEA. Euro Summer Institute.

Seiford, L. M., & Zhu, J. (2005). A response to comments on modeling undesirable factors in efficiency evaluation. European Journal of Operational Research, 161 (2), 579–581.

Sharma, N., Bhardwaj, N. K., & Singh, R. B. P. (2020). Environmental issues of pulp bleaching and prospects of peracetic acid pulp bleaching: a review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 256 , 120338.

Singh, M., Pant, M., Godiyal, R. D., & Kumar Sharma, A. (2020). MCDM approach for selection of raw material in pulp and papermaking industry. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 35 (3), 241–249.

Talebjedi, B., Laukkanen, T., Holmberg, H., Vakkilainen, E., & Syri, S. (2021). Energy efficiency analysis of the refining unit in thermo-mechanical pulp mill. Energies, 14 (6), 1664.

Tirkel, I. (2013). Forecasting flow time in semiconductor manufacturing using knowledge discovery in databases. International Journal of Production Research, 51 (18), 5536–5548.

Tyagi, P., Yadav, S. P., & Singh, S. P. (2009). Relative performance of academic departments using DEA with sensitivity analysis. Evaluation and Program Planning, 32 (2), 168–177.

Wang, Y., Liu, J., Hansson, L., Zhang, K., & Wang, R. (2011). Implementing stricter environmental regulation to enhance eco-efficiency and sustainability: a case study of Shandong Province’s pulp and paper industry. China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 19 (4), 303–310.

Zhang, D., Buongiorno, J., & Ince, P. J. (1996). A recursive linear programming analysis of the future of the pulp and paper industry in the United States: changes in supplies and demands, and the effects of recycling. Annals of Operations Research, 68 (1), 109–139.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Operations Management and Decision Sciences, Indian Institute of Management Kashipur, Kashipur, India

Sunil Kumar Jauhar

Centre for Digital Economy, Indian Institute of Management Raipur, Raipur, India

Praveen Vijaya Raj Pushpa Raj

Strategy (Operations and Supply Chain Management), EDHEC Business School, 59057, Roubaix, France

Sachin Kamble

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India

Saurabh Pratap

Department of Information Systems, Supply Chain Management and Decision Support, NEOMA Business School, 51100, Reims, France

Shivam Gupta

Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakesh, Morocco

Amine Belhadi

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sachin Kamble .

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

See Table 5

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Jauhar, S.K., Raj, P.V.R.P., Kamble, S. et al. A deep learning-based approach for performance assessment and prediction: A case study of pulp and paper industries. Ann Oper Res 332 , 405–431 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-022-04528-3

Download citation

Accepted : 03 January 2022

Published : 16 January 2022

Issue Date : January 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-022-04528-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Performance measurement
• Data envelopment analysis
• Deep learning
• Artificial neural networks
• Pulp and paper industry
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Previous Article

Materials and Methods

Results and discussion, conclusions, acknowledgments, physical properties of pulp and paper: a comparison of forming procedures.

• Split-Screen
• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data
• Peer Review
• Open the PDF for in another window
• Guest Access
• Get Permissions
• Cite Icon Cite
• Search Site

Yingju Miao , Siyu Xiang , Yingfen Wei , Xiaohui Long , Jie Qiu , Yingchun Miao; Physical Properties of Pulp and Paper: A Comparison of Forming Procedures. Forest Products Journal 1 March 2023; 73 (2): 175–185. doi: https://doi.org/10.13073/FPJ-D-23-00007

Download citation file:

• Ris (Zotero)
• Reference Manager

In this work, we used the conventional wet papermaking process and the solution casting procedure to make paper sheets and optimized the relative content of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps using the mechanical properties of the paper sheet as the evaluation index. The chemical composition, water retention value, zeta potential, carboxyl content, and drainage behavior of the pulp created using the optimal mass ratio for each method were measured, and the resulting paper sheets were characterized via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms. We found that for a ratio of eucalyptus to Simao pine pulps of 94:6 using the wet papermaking process, the mechanical properties of sheets took their optimal values, and the tear, tensile, and burst indexes and the folding endurance were equal to 4.43 mN·m 2 ·g −1 , 27.47 N·m·g −1 , 1.13 kPa·m 2 ·g −1 , and 11.38 times, respectively, whereas the ratio leading to the best possible mechanical performance in the solution casting process was 88:12, and the corresponding paper sheets had tear, tensile, and burst indexes and the folding endurance of 11.73 mN·m 2 ·g −1 , 23.03 N·m·g −1 , 0.68 kPa·m 2 ·g −1 , and 25.50 times, respectively. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents of the pulp treated by the solution casting method were lower by 1.88, 3.11, and 2.67 percent, respectively, compared to that obtained via the wet papermaking process. However, the water retention value, zeta potential, and carboxyl content of the pulp obtained via solution casting were higher by 50.31, 123.41, and 50.15, percent, respectively, compared to that obtained via the wet papermaking process. The drainage time obtained via the solution casting method was one-fifth of that obtained via the wet forming process. The paper sheet prepared via the solution casting method was found to exhibit weaker hydrogen bonding, a decreased level of crystallinity (26.64% lower), and an increased compactness and N 2 gas adsorption capacity (19.55% and 66.7% higher, respectively) compared to the sheet obtained via the wet papermaking process. This work shows that the physical properties of the paper prepared via the two processes considered here, using their respective optimal weight ratios of the different types of pulp, have their own advantages.

In order to improve the mechanical properties of paper sheets, the pulp fibers that are to be manufactured into paper are pretreated using physical and/or chemical methods. Beating (or refining) is one of the most common physical means of fiber pretreatment. Via beating or refining, the fiber can be split to improve the swelling capacity of the pulp fibers and enhance the fiber–fiber bonding properties, which improves the mechanical properties of the paper ( Garcia et al. 2002 , Seo et al. 2002 , Nazhad 2004 ). Biological methods also effectively alter the properties of pulp fibers, including drainage characteristics, softness, fiber strength, and the degree of hornification, through enhancing the fiber–fiber bonding properties ( Bhardwaj et al. 1996 , Pastor et al. 2001 , Wolfaardt 2003, Zhang et al. 2008 , Bajpai 2010 ). Chemical treatment methods, especially those utilizing NaOH aqueous solutions, are another more effective and rapid way to change the fiber bonding properties and fiber strength through rapidly inducing significant lateral swelling of the fiber (Jie Cai et al. 2015). Freeland and Hrutfiord (1994) treated different recycled fibers with a NaOH solution; the short span compression index of the old corrugated containers, the linerboard, and the medium that were created from fibers subject to this treatment were found to increase by 10.6, 20.4, and 11.3 percent, respectively. Gurnagul (1995) also used a NaOH aqueous solution to treat a thermomechanical pulp as well as bleached and unbleached unbeaten low-yield kraft pulps; the increase in the swelling of the thermomechanical pulp fibers was found to be mirrored by the increase in the handsheet strength, but no correlation was found between the level of fiber swelling and handsheet strength in the case of the kraft pulps. Zanuttini et al. (2009) employed alkaline treatments on unbleached recycled softwood kraft pulp; it was found in this work that the alkaline treatment reduced the freeness of the pulp but improved the papermaking properties: the tensile strength and short column compressive strength were found to be enhanced by more than 50 and 5 percent, respectively, by this treatment.

Jie Cai (2005) reported that a NaOH/urea aqueous solution precooled to −13°C could quickly dissolve cotton linter pulps (α-cellulose content > 95%) with a polymerization degree of less than 700. It has also been reported that dissolved cellulose can be regenerated via hydrogen bond reconstruction in many systems, including water, inorganic salt solution, and organic solution systems ( Zhang et al. 2005 ). In previous work ( Miao et al. 2018 ), unbleached eucalyptus hardwood kraft pulp was treated in a NaOH/urea aqueous solution that was precooled to −13°C and reconstructed via hydrogen bonding in a 5 wt% H 2 SO 4 /5 wt% Na 2 SO 4 solution; it was found not only that an amount of cellulose film filled among the fiber network but also that each fiber could plump completely; thereby, the water retention capacity of the pulp and the mechanical properties of the resultant paper were significantly improved. However, in the process whereby the pulp was disintegrated into individual fibers, a large quantity of fine cellulose film was generated, and these films were removed in the white water used in the conventional papermaking process, resulting in a large amount of fiber losses and an increased cost of wastewater treatment. It can thus be concluded that fibers treated with a NaOH/urea aqueous solution precooled to −13°C are not suitable for use in the conventional papermaking procedure, but the solution casting method should be selected to form sheets via the self-assembly of fibers in the cellulose solution alongside solvent evaporation, which induces a phase separation for hydrogen bond reconstruction and sheet curing and avoids the fiber losses and whitewater treatment problems. In another study, the optimal process (fixing the ratio of NaOH to urea, solution precooled temperature, and regeneration system) involving a NaOH/urea aqueous solution was investigated; this process did not produce cellulose films but instead significantly swelled the fibers ( Miao et al. 2019 ). The pulp fibers used in both the above works ( Miao et al. 2018 , 2019 ) were unbleached eucalyptus kraft pulp fiber. Pulp fibers come from different plants, and their morphological properties and chemical composition can vary significantly; the mechanical properties of the resulting paper produced from these pulp fibers can also vary significantly ( Wangaard and Williams 1970 , Wangaard and Woodson 1972 , Kiaei and Samariha 2011 ). How the length and strength of fibers obtained from different plants influence the properties of pulp handsheets has been discussed by many authors. Numerous inconsistencies in experimental findings have also been reported.

Morais et al. (2019) reported that the eucalyptus pulp with high coarseness and deformations, low fines content, and low pentosan content is more suitable for making high-softness tissue paper. Wangaard and Woodson (1973) reported that for a given sheet density, both fiber strength and fiber length have a positive correlation with both the breaking length and the burst properties of the sheet, and that, as the sheet density increases, increasing fiber length leads to an increase in these properties until the maximum tear factor values are obtained at sheet densities at or beyond 0.50 g/cm 3 . However, Mittal et al. (1978) reported that properties such as tensile and burst strengths are largely independent of the fiber length and that the folding endurance of the sheet is only slightly affected by the length of the fiber; this work found that fiber length has a significant impact on paper tear strength. Eucalyptus kraft pulp is characterized as a rigid and short broadleaf hardwood ( Morais et al. 2019 ), and Simao pine fiber is a softwood fiber; softwood fibers are typically longer and more flexible than hardwood fibers (Jicheng Pei and Li 2012). In the present work, the effect of the dosage of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps treated with different processes on the properties of the pulp and resultant paper sheet is investigated. The chemical composition, water retention value, zeta potential, carboxyl content, and drainage behavior of the pulps were measured, and the resulting paper sheets were characterized via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms.

Unbleached eucalyptus kraft dry pulp (UEKP) sheets (commercially available) and unbleached Simao pine kraft dry pulp (USKP) sheets (commercially available) were provided by Yunnan Yunjing Forestry and Pulp Mill Co., Ltd (Jinggu, China). The water retention values (WRVs) of UEKP and USKP were determined according to the Chinese standard GB 29286-2012 and were found to be 92.16 ± 1.08 percent and 97.58 ± 1.42 percent, respectively. Sodium hydroxide, urea, and ammonium sulfate were purchased from Shanghai Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co. Ltd (Shanghai, China). All chemical reagents used were analytical grade and used as received. Deionized water was used to prepare all the solutions throughout the experiment; for other processes requiring water, tap water was used.

Pulp treating and handsheet forming.—

First, UEKP and USKP sheets were torn into approximately 0.3 by 1-cm 2 pieces and mixed to achieve uniform distributions composed of different mass ratios. In accordance with our previous works ( Miao et al. 2018 , 2019 ), the above mixed pulp fibers were treated with different NaOH/urea aqueous solutions; the resultant pulps were then processed using different procedures to form sheets. Each sheet had a basis weight of 60 g/m 2 , and six sheets were prepared for each weight ratio considered here. The pulp treatments and sheet forming procedures used here are as follows.

Wet papermaking process ( Miao et al. 2019 ).—

Approximately 10 g of the above-mentioned mixed fiber was soaked in 100 g of 1.0-wt% NaOH/8.0-wt% urea aqueous solution and stored for 24 hours at 0°C in a refrigerator; the mixture was then mechanically stirred at 2,500 rpm for 5 minutes at room temperature; 200 mL of 7.0-wt% (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 was then added while the mixture was stirred for a further 30 minutes. The resulting pulp slurry was then drained, washed, and filtered with tap water through a Buchner funnel sealed using a 200-mesh filter cloth at a vacuum level of 0.08 MPa until the pH of the pulp was neutral. A proportion of the as-prepared pulp was then used to test the physical properties of the pulp, and the remaining pulp was used to make handsheets according to Chinese standard GB/T24324-2009 on a standard apparatus (G 8E; Gockel & Co. GmbH, Munich, Germany). The wet handsheets were placed for 5 minutes on the drying plate of the standard apparatus at 95°C.

Solution casting method ( Miao et al. 2018 ).—

At room temperature, maintaining a solid–liquid weight ratio of 1:50, the mixed fibers described above were immersed in a 7.0-wt% NaOH/12.0-wt% urea aqueous solution that was precooled to −13°C and mechanically stirred at 2,500 rpm for 5 minutes. The resulting mixed pulp slurry was then divided into two parts. Part of the slurry was added to 200 mL of 7-wt% (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 aqueous solution (with a ratio of dry fibers to solution of 2 g:200 mL) and was continuously stirred at 2,500 rpm for 5 minutes; this mixture was then drained and washed until the pH of the pulp was neutral. The pulp properties were measured from this sample. The remaining part of the mixed pulp slurry was poured into a square acrylic mold with a side length of 200 mm; it was then shaken, defoamed, and placed into a preheated electro-thermostatic blast oven for 4 hours at 60°C to solidify the sample and form a sheet. The formed sheets were soaked in 200 mL of the 7-wt% (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 aqueous solution for 5 minutes and then washed with tap water until the pH of the sheets was neutral; they were then placed for 5 minutes on the heated plate of the standard apparatus at 95°C for drying.

Determination of the mechanical properties of the handsheets.—

The mechanical properties of the handsheets (tear, burst, and tensile indexes and folding endurance) were measured according to standards GB/T 455-2002, GB/T 454-2020, GB/T 12914-2018, and GB/T 457-2018, respectively. The tests were repeated six times for each sample; the standard deviation was calculated and is shown as the error bars in the plots from Figures 1 to 3 .

Mechanical properties of the paper sheets prepared via the wet papermaking process.

Mechanical properties of paper sheets prepared via the solution casting process.

Comparison of the mechanical properties of the paper sheets prepared via the wet paper papermaking and solution casting processes.

Evaluation of the properties of the pulp.—

The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin content of the as-prepared pulps were determined according to laboratory analytical procedures reported by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( Sluiter et al. 2010 ).

The drainage behavior of the above as-prepared pulps was determined using a dynamic drainage jar (Mütek DFR-05; BTG, Säffle, Sweden); 1,000 mL of pulp suspension with 0.2 percent of content of dry fiber was poured into the dynamic drainage jar and stirred for 30 seconds at 750 rpm at 25°C; water filtration was then started, and the time required for 800 g of filtrate to be collected was determined.

The zeta potential values of the as-prepared pulps with a 0.2 percent content of dry fiber were measured in the sample cell of the Mütek SZP-10 System Zeta Potential (BTG) at a temperature of 25°C.

The carboxylate content of the as-prepared pulps was determined via the conduct metric titration method ( Chen et al. 2013 ).

All measurements were conducted on three samples (in addition to the drainage behavior); the standard deviations of the measurements were calculated and are shown in the tables.

Characterization of the handsheets.—

The functional group structure of the handsheets was recorded using an FT-IR spectrometer (Bruker Equinox 55; Bruker Spectroscopy Corp., Ettlingen, Germany). The sheet sample was clamped and placed in the spectrometer. The IR spectra were recorded in the range from 4,000 to 400 cm −1 with a resolution of 4 cm −1 over 32 scans. The obtained data were corrected to account for the presence of H 2 O and CO 2 in the atmosphere using the software supplied with the spectrometer.

The crystalline structure of the handsheets was determined using an X-ray diffractometer (X'Pert 3; Panalytical Co. Ltd, Almelo, Netherlands) in the range of 2θ = 5° to 80° using a scanning speed of 13.77 s/step, a step size of 0.01313°, and an operating voltage and current of 40 kV and 40 mA, respectively. The sample tablets for the XRD measurements were prepared by taping the sheet to the mold.

The cross section and surface morphology of the handsheets was observed using cold field emission SEM(SU8010; Hitachi High-Technologies Corp., Tokyo, Japan) operating at 1 kV.

Specific surface area and pore volume measurements of the handsheets were conducted at 77 K using a surface area and pore size analyzer (TriStar II 3flex; Micromeritics Instruments Corp., Norcross, GA, USA). Prior to all measurements, all the samples were degassed for 12 hours at 110°C under vacuum conditions.

Paper strength

Figures 1 and 2 show the effect of the mass ratio of the eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps on the mechanical properties of the paper sheets prepared via the wet paper forming and solution film casting processes. As can be seen from the figures, for a given ratio of eucalyptus and Simao pine, the mechanical properties of paper sheets observed differ due to the different processes used in their construction.

As shown in Figure 1 , with increasing amounts of Simao pine pulp fiber in the mixture, the mechanical properties of the paper are generally improved. Since Simao pine fibers are longer and more ductile, whereas eucalyptus fibers are shorter and harder, when the amount of Simao pine fiber exceeds 6 wt%, increasing quantities of Simao pine fiber leads to the mechanical properties of the paper sheets first decreasing before increasing, with the exception of the tensile strength, which was seen to increase slightly and then decrease. From the perspective of the paper strength, the optimal mass ratio of eucalyptus pulp to Simao pine pulp for use in this procedure is concluded to be between 94:6 and 85:15.

Figure 2 shows the effect of the amount of Simao pine pulp added to the eucalyptus pulp on the mechanical properties of paper sheets prepared via the solution film casting method. The mechanical properties of the paper prepared via this method are significantly different from those prepared via the wet papermaking process, which shows that the paper forming process has a notable influence on the mechanical properties of the resulting paper. As can be seen from the figure, with the increase in the content of Simao pine, the paper strength initially increases before decreasing. For a Simao pine fiber content of 12 wt%, the tensile and tear strength reached their maximum values of 23.03 N·m·g −1 and 11.73 mN·m 2 ·g −1 ; the maximum burst strength and folding endurance were 0.68 kPa·m 2 ·g −1 and 25.50 times for a Simao pine content of 15 and 18 wt%, respectively. The mass ratio of eucalyptus pulp and Simao pine pulp is in the range 88:12 to 85:15 mirrored to the paper strength relatively high, so from the perspective of paper strength, the most suitable mass ratio of eucalyptus pulp and Simao pine pulp for use in this procedure is between 88:12 and 85:15.

In order to better understand the influence of the two procedures on the paper strength, we selected tensile strength as the primary evaluation index and the other mechanical properties as auxiliary evaluation indexes to establish the most suitable process parameters. When the mass ratios of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps is 94:6 for the wet paper papermaking and 88:12 for the solution casting methods, the tensile index of the resulting paper sheets is relatively high and the tear, burst, and folding endurance still increasing. Therefore, we selected the pulp and its resulting paper sheets treated with these two ratios for further analysis and characterization. The following sections, unless otherwise mentioned, refer to the paper or pulp obtained using these two ratios.

Figure 3 provides a comparison of the mechanical properties of paper sheets prepared with two previously mentioned optimal parameters. It can be seen that the paper prepared via the wet papermaking process has superior tensile and burst strengths, but the tear strength and folding endurance are superior for the paper fabricated via the solution casting method. This finding can be attributed to the fact that more flexible and longer fibers lead to a higher folding endurance and tear strength in paper sheets ( Mittal et al. 1978 ).

In order to better understand the difference in mechanical properties of the paper fabricated via the two processes investigated here, we evaluated the microphysical properties of the paper sheets for ratios of eucalyptus to Simao pine pulps of 94:6 in the wet papermaking method and 88:12 in the solution casting method.

Pulp properties

Table 1 shows the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin compositions of the pulps with the selected mass ratios obtained via the previously described processes. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents of the pulp fiber obtained via the solution casting method are slightly lower than in the pulp obtained via the wet papermaking process (the pulp obtained via the solution cast method showed cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents that were lower by 1.88, 3.11, and 2.67 percent, respectively, compared to the values obtained via the wet papermaking process). This may be due to the fact that the pulp washing procedure used in the wet papermaking process requires direct contact between the single fiber and deionized water while the mixture is subject to stirring, whereas the solution casting method relies on a concentration difference to induce molecular diffusion from the inside to the outside of the paper sheet. In order to fully remove the sodium hydroxide and urea from within the sheet, considerably more washing would be required than the amount used in the wet papermaking process considered here, which would result in a further decrease in the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents.

Composition of the pulp samples treated according to the wet papermaking process and the solution casting method.

Table 2 shows the WRVs, zeta potentials, and carboxyl group contents of the pulps with optimized mass ratios treated using the aforementioned processes. The WRV of a given pulp is known to have a positive correlation with the mechanical properties of the resulting paper sheet; that is, the mechanical properties of the paper sheets obtained from pulps with high WRV values are better. The WRVs of the solution casting pulp were found to be 56.02 percent higher than that of the wet papermaking process pulp, indicating that the solution casting process leads to considerably higher water retention of the pulp. The WRV of the pulp treated by the solution casting process is higher than those of the pulps treated using the wet papermaking process, and the corresponding mechanical properties of the paper were also found to be superior (as shown in Fig. 3 ). The zeta potential test is a measure of the electric charge at the surface of the fibers, which is an indirect assessment of the physical stability of the paper in water. The negative charge of the pulp obtained via the solution casting process is more than twice that of the pulp obtained via the wet papermaking process, indicating that the solution casting process dissociates more functional group fibers carrying ionizable negative charges to the fiber surface and improves the stability of the fiber in water. The negative charge on the fiber surface comes primarily from the carboxyl group, and the carboxyl group in the plant fiber exists mainly in hemicellulose. It can be seen from Table 2 that the carboxyl group content of the pulp obtained via the solution casting process is 50.15 percent higher than that of the pulp obtained in the wet papermaking process. It is thus hypothesized that the solution casting process detaches a larger quantity of hemicellulose from the plant cell wall, thereby increasing the carboxyl group content of the fiber surface. This hypothesis is supported by the results of the zeta potential tests performed on the fibers. These results indicate that the increase in carboxyl content enhances the swelling and/or bonding capacity of the cellulosic fibers and improves the bonding of the pulp fibers in paper; thus, the increased carboxyl content increases the strength of the resultant paper, which is consistent with previous reports in the literature ( Zhang et al. 2007 , Chen et al. 2010 ).

Water retention values (WRVs), zeta potentials, and carboxyl contents of the pulp samples with the optimal mass ratios of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps obtained via the wet papermaking and solution casting procedures.

Figure 4 shows the drainage performance of the pulps with the optimal mass ratio of eucalyptus and Simao pulps obtained via the aforementioned processes. Under the same filtration conditions, 800 mL of suspension with a solid content of 0.2 percent (dry fiber) was found to require 335 seconds for the wet papermaking process pulp but only 66 seconds for the solution casting film process pulp; furthermore, the maximum drainage rate was obtained after 24 seconds in the case of the solution casting film and 44 seconds in the case of the wet papermaking process. This indicates that the solution casting process leads to improved drainage performance of the pulp, which can be attributed to the increased negative charge on the surface of the fibers obtained via this method.

Drainage behavior of the pulps with the optimal mass ratios of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps.

Sheet characterization

Ft-ir spectroscopy.—.

Figure 5 shows the infrared absorption spectra of the sheets prepared using the selected mass ratios of the constituent pulps. The absorption bands of the paper sheets prepared using the processes considered here show a large degree of similarity, but there are some notable changes regarding some functional groups. Specifically, it is can be observed that the peaks that were present at 3,341 cm −1 in the case of the sheet made via the wet paper papermaking process, corresponding to the stretching of the –OH group, shifted to a higher wave number (approximately 3,447 cm −1 ) for the sheet made via the solution casting method; this shift indicates that the hydrogen bonds were weaker in the latter method ( GC Pimentel 1960 , Marechal and Chanzy 2000 ), which can be explained by the fact that the cellulose with a degree of polymerization less than 700 in the fiber was dissolved in NaOH/urea aqueous solution (Jie Cai 2005); this dissolved cellulose then coagulated in the (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 aqueous solution, leading to a lower degree of hydrogen bond reconstruction. This is consistent with reports in the literature that state that the degree of polymerization of cellulose decreases after dissolution and regeneration. Furthermore, peaks observed at 1,720 cm −1 in the sheet obtained via the wet paper papermaking process, which corresponds to the C=O stretching vibration, were seen to be translated to a lower wave number (approximately 1,637 cm −1 ) in the case of the sheet obtained via the solution casting method; this change can be attributed to the carbonyl oxygen in the carboxyl group and to hydroxyl hydrogen in the hydroxyl group within the fiber forming intramolecular hydrogen bonds; the peak is also noted to be stronger in the latter case, which is due to more hemicellulose detaching from the plant cell wall. These results are consistent with the carboxyl contents determined above. Moreover, the peak observed at 1,113 cm −1 in the spectrum corresponding to the sheet obtained via the wet papermaking process, which corresponds to the C–O–C antisymmetric stretching vibration, disappeared as a result of the solution casting process; this indicates that the crystal phase of the cellulose changed from I to II due to the rotary isomerism of the oxymethyl groups ( Zhbankov et al. 2002 , Li et al. 2015 ), indicating that the solution casting process induces a more complete transformation of the cellulose.

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy spectra from the paper sheets prepared from the pulps with the optimal mass ratios.

In addition, we used the PeakFit software to perform Gauss peak fitting for the infrared hydrogen bond region of 3,000 to 3,800 cm −1 ( Oh et al. 2005 , Popescu et al. 2009 ); the fitting curves are shown in Figure 5 , and the fitting results are detailed in Table 3 .

Hydrogen bond energy (E H ), hydrogen bond distance (D), and the Gaussian fitting results for the paper sheets.

Gaussian fitting curves of the hydrogen bond zones of the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy spectra obtained from paper sheets prepared using the pulps containing the optimal ratios of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps.

Here, △ v = v 0 − v (cm −1 ), v 0 is the monomeric –OH stretching frequency (3,600 cm −1 ), v represents the stretching frequency observed in the infrared spectrum of the sample (cm −1 ), and D is the hydrogen bonding distance (Å).

The calculated energy of the hydrogen bonds and hydrogen bonding distance are given in Table 3 . As can be seen from Table 3 , the hydrogen bonding distances are similar for both the pulps obtained here. Moreover, the intermolecular hydrogen bond distances (∼2.74 Å) of the two samples were less than the intramolecular hydrogen bonds (2.78 to 2.85 Å), and the corresponding intramolecular hydrogen bond energies (∼23.00 to 0.05 kJ·mol −1 ) are smaller than the intermolecular hydrogen bond energy (∼35.70 kJ·mol −1 ) ( Struszczyk 1986 ), indicating that the stability of the cellulose chains depends primarily on intermolecular hydrogen bonds. It can also be seen that the energy of the hydrogen bonds corresponding to peaks 1 to 3 (see Table 3 ) undergoes a small decrease in the case of the solution casting method with respect to the wet forming procedure, but a small increase in bond energy is observed for peak 4. This result is hypothesized to be related to the pulp processing in the solution casting method leading to more cellulose with a polymerization degree of less than 700 being dissolved in the NaOH/urea solution, which leads to a smaller number of hydrogen bonds being created.

XRD analysis.—

The XRD patterns obtained from the paper sheets are dominated by the pattern that corresponds to cellulose, and the diffraction peaks at 2θ ≈ 15.88° and 22.59° in the (110) and (200) planes are characteristic of the cellulose I crystal in the raw materials ( Popescu et al. 2009 , Miao et al. 2018 ). Figure 7 shows the XRD spectra of the paper sheets obtained via both methods. The cellulose crystal structure of the paper sheet prepared via the wet forming process shows a large degree of similarity to that of the raw fiber; however, the patterns characteristic of cellulose crystals of the paper sheet obtained via the solution casting method are significantly shifted from being characteristic of cellulose I to cellulose II ( French and Cintron 2013 , French 2014 , Jin et al. 2016 ), and the corresponding peak can also be seen to have decreased and broadened with respect to that observed in the spectrum of the raw materials. We used the Jade 6.5 software to quantitatively calculate the X-ray crystallinity indexes for both samples, and we also used the empirical equation derived by Nelson and O'Connor (1964) to calculate the infrared crystallization index based on the infrared data.

X-ray diffraction spectra of paper sheets prepared via the two methods considered here.

The results of the calculations of the crystallinity and infrared crystallinity are shown in Table 4 . The crystallization indexes of the sheets obtained via both procedures were found to decrease due to the presence of the dissolved cellulose with a lower degree of hydrogen bond reconstruction; the decline in the infrared crystallization index was not significant, whereas there was a large decrease in the X-ray crystallization index (26%); these results are consistent with previous studies ( Matsuda 1994 ).

Infrared and X-ray crystallinity indexes of paper sheets.

SEM analysis.—

Figure 8 shows the SEM images of the surface and cross section of the paper sheets. All the paper sheets formed using the two methods considered here are formed via fiber self-assembly in a disorderly manner (see Figs. 8 a and 8 b), and there is no significant difference in terms of the manner in which the fibers are deposited. However, in terms of the single fiber shape ( Figs. 8 a and 8 b) and the extent of filling and weaving observed within the paper sheets ( Figs. 8 c and 8 d), the sheets show significant differences. For the paper sheet prepared via the wet forming method, each fiber in the network making up the paper sheet is flat and loosely woven, whereas the paper sheets prepared via the solution casting procedure exhibit fibers that are plump and form a compacted weave pattern. This illustrates that the compactness of the paper sheet obtained using the solution casting method is higher than that of the sheet obtained via the wet forming process. The compactness of the paper sheets was calculated to be 0.399 g/cm 3 for the sheet obtained via the wet forming method and 0.477 g/cm 3 for the sheet obtained via the solution casting method. In general, better mechanical properties, such as higher tear and burst indexes, of paper sheets are associated with higher compactness. It is likely the higher compactness of the paper sheet prepared via the solution casting method explains its superior mechanical properties.

Surface (a and b) and cross sections (c and d) of the paper sheets prepared from the two pulps (a and c correspond to sheets obtained via the wet papermaking process, and b and d correspond to sheets obtained via the solution casting method).

Nitrogen adsorption isotherms and pore structure.—

Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms at −77 K obtained from both samples are shown in Figure 9 . The isotherms of both samples were similar: The nitrogen adsorption capacities of the two samples are very small (a maximum of 2.5 cm 3 /g for the sample obtained via the solution casting method and 1.5 cm 3 /g for the sample obtained via the wet forming method), which indicates that there is not a strong interaction between either material and adsorbed gas and that adsorptive molecules gather around the most attractive sites on the surface. The two samples are largely nonporous, with the exception of a small number of micropores with a characteristic size of 2.5 nm. Due to a slight increase in the number of micropores, the nitrogen gas adsorption capacity of the paper sheets prepared by the solution casting method was 66.67 percent higher than that of the sheets prepared via the wet papermaking process; this is consistent with the analysis of the SEM results.

Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms (left) and the corresponding pore size distributions curves (right) from the paper sheets prepared from the pulps considered in this work.

In this work, paper sheets were prepared via a wet forming process and a solution casting method, and the mechanical properties of the sheets were used as the evaluation index for the optimization of the contents of eucalyptus and Simao pine pulps in the two processes considered. The optimal ratio of eucalyptus pulp to Simao pine pulp was found to be 94:6 when considering the wet forming process; at this ratio, the tear, tensile, and burst indexes and the folding endurance were found to be 4.43 mN·m 2 ·g −1 , 27.47 N·m·g −1 , 1.13 kPa·m 2 ·g −1 , and 11.38 times, respectively. In the solution casting process, the optimal ratio of eucalyptus to Simao pine pulps was found to be 88:12, and at this ratio, the paper exhibited tear, tensile, and burst indexes and folding endurance of 11.73 mN·m 2 ·g −1 , 23.03 N·m·g −1 , 0.68 kPa·m 2 ·g −1 , and 25.50 times, respectively.

We measured the properties of the pulps and the physical characteristics of the resulting paper generated via these two processes with their respective optimal mass ratios. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents of the pulp treated via the solution casting method were lower by 1.88, 3.11, and 2.67 percent, respectively, compared to the values obtained from the pulp treated by the wet papermaking process, but the water retention value, zeta potential, and carboxyl content were larger by 50.31, 123.41, and 50.15 percent, respectively, using the former process; the drainage time of the material obtained via the solution casting method was one-fifth that of the material obtained via the wet forming process. The paper sheet prepared via the solution casting method exhibited weaker hydrogen bonding and decreased crystallinity but a higher compactness and nitrogen gas adsorption capacity (19.55% and 66.7% higher, respectively) than that obtained via the wet papermaking process. This was hypothesized to be due to the single fibers being more plump and the cellulose with a polymerization degree of less than 700 having been dissolved and regenerated in solution cast process.

This work shows that the physical properties of the paper prepared via the two processes considered here, using their respective optimal weight ratios of the different types of pulp, have their own advantages. To obtain a paper with a higher tensile and burst strength, the wet forming method should be used; with the aim of creating sheets with other mechanical properties being higher, the solution casting process should be selected. However, it is noted that the solution casting process limits the possibility of large-scale continuous production.

The authors would like to acknowledge financial support from the Science and Technology Supported Foundation of the Guizhou Province (grant no. [2018]2334), the Top Science and Technology Talents Project of the Guizhou Education Department (grant no. qianjiaoji[2022]090), the Foundation of Liupanshui Normal University (grant no. LPSSYCYFZ202101), the High Level Talent Project of Liupanshui Normal University (grant no. LPSSYKYJJ202302), the Guizhou Provincial Key Laboratory of Coal Clean Utilization (grant no. qiankehepingtairencai [2020]2001), the Guizhou Provincial Creative Team Project of Coal Clean Processing and Utilization (grant no. qianheKYzi [2020]027), the Applied Basic Research Project of Qujing Normal University (grant no. 2077360172), the Scientific and Technological Innovation Team for Green Catalysis and Energy Materialien Yunnan Institutions of Higher Learning, and the Surface Project of Yunnan Province Science and Technology Department (grant no. 20210 A070001-050). The authors declare that they have no commercial or associative conflicts of interest.

Author notes

The authors are, respectively, Professor, Guizhou Provincial Key Lab. of Coal Clean Utilization, School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Liupanshui Normal Univ., Liupanshui, Guizhou 553004, People's Republic of China ( [email protected] [corresponding author]); Undergraduate student, Guizhou Provincial Key Lab. of Coal Clean Utilization, School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Liupanshui Normal Univ., Liupanshui, Guizhou 553004, People's Republic of China; Undergraduate student, Guizhou Provincial Key Lab. of Coal Clean Utilization, School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Liupanshui Normal Univ., Liupanshui, Guizhou 553004, People's Republic of China; Undergraduate student, Guizhou Provincial Key Lab. of Coal Clean Utilization, School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Liupanshui Normal Univ., Liupanshui, Guizhou 553004, People's Republic of China; Undergraduate student, Guizhou Provincial Key Lab. of Coal Clean Utilization, School of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Liupanshui Normal Univ., Liupanshui, Guizhou 553004, People's Republic of China; and Professor, College of Chemistry and Environ. Sci., Qujing Normal Univ., Qujing, Yunnan 655000, People's Republic of China ( [email protected] [corresponding author]). This paper was received for publication in January 2023. Article no. 23-00007.

Recipient(s) will receive an email with a link to 'Physical Properties of Pulp and Paper: A Comparison of Forming Procedures' and will not need an account to access the content.

Subject: Physical Properties of Pulp and Paper: A Comparison of Forming Procedures

(Optional message may have a maximum of 1000 characters.)

Citing articles via

Get email alerts.

• About This Journal

Affiliations

• eISSN 2376-9637
• ISSN 0015-7473
• Privacy Policy
• Get Adobe Acrobat Reader

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

Please fill the all required fields....!!

ReSearch for Paper

A re-view of Research Organizations from around the world supporting Pulp and Paper Industry's being and trend setting

Pulp and Paper industry has a few selected hot-spots across the globe. Irrespective of actual positions USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden, Japan, Australia and a few other Latin American countries. Paper making and pulp sourcing has to be backed by a renowned, up to the mark and unparalleled research centre, at least one if not more. Pulp and Paper Technology shall dig into such supporting entities in the most 'Pulp and Paper' happening regions in the world.

More than 75% of world's spending on paper and products is accumulated at a relatively small proportion of the world. This proportion includes earlier mentioned countries USA, Canada, Finland, Sweden, Japan and Australia. This huge in flow from many corners of the world makes evident that Paper industry in Finland, Sweden, Canada and so on are strongly supported with resources as well as distinguished research centres which provides time to time upgrades and establish trends by themselves instead of following a trend. Canada among its other peers has invested lot of knowledge into Pulp and Paper research that has pulled many firms to top of industry table. The Pulp and Paper Research Institute, Canada or most often called PaPRICan is the noted research centre on the planet for support of Pulp and Paper industries around the globe. Canada which provided resource base for paper world giants like the Domtar Inc, Canfor, IFP and once upon a time wealthy Abitibi Bowater Inc. has several State and Private universities and research centres working exclusively for the same reason. Apart from an exclusive research facility

PaPRICan also extends its diligence through extensive reach via universities across Canada. The McGill Research Centre at the McGill University, Canada, University of British Columbia and Dr. Jack McKenzie Limerick Pulp and Paper Research and Education centre, University of New Brunswick are also established with facilities to work Pulp and Paper related research in collaboration with each other.

Adjacent to Canada, the biggie, United States of America also sports several research entities across Universities and private firms of America. Some of those include Pulp and Paper Research Institute for Green Science at the Carnegie Mellon University, Pulp and Paper Research & Education Alliance at the University of Minnesota and Centre for the Biology and Natural Systems.

Coming to Europe, it is a land of paper world leaders SCA, UPM-Kymmene, Stora Enso, Norske Skog, Metsaliitto and a few more. But, most of these giants are out of a small portion of Europe; hence this part of the world is more densely populated with biggest and oldest paper mills of the world. These juggernauts are surrounded by some of the world renowned Pulp and Paper research institutes that spread across Sweden, Norway, Finland and the Netherlands. Svenska Papper and the Nordic Pulp & Paper Research Journal from Sweden, Pulp and Paper group at Norwegian University of Science & Technology and Paper & Fiber Research Institute from Norway, University of Technology, Delft at Netherlands and KesKus Laboratorio of Finland all are behind the lights of European Pulp and Paper reign. For Asia, Australia hosts the Australian Pulp and Paper Institute as well as Japan has a Pulp and Paper research Institute working for the same. All these Research institutes and organizations work to bring out a best solution for the task they take up.

Pulp and Paper Technology shall dig more into specific research interests of all these think tanks from around the globe who create trends rather than follow.

As an excerpt, here is a finding from archives of Pulp and Paper research dated back to early 2000s, Dr. Krotov from the Ukrainian Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Kiev deviced new design for a machine that can produce pulp from whole stalk hemp and other materials. Hemp is actually a cheapest, by all means, and source for best quality paper cellulose. So it can be used for best and optimum paper making. This has been crucial since its discovery but not paid a good deal of interest in recent times. There are several such issues buried and many are coming into existence. Pulp and Paper Technology shall give importance to everything that is good for Pulp and Paper industry.

About: Devid - Head of Sales

Cras sit amet nibh libero, in gravida nulla. Nulla vel metus scelerisque ante sollicitudin. Cras purus odio, vestibulum in vulputate at, tempus viverra turpis. Fusce condimentum nunc ac nisi vulputate fringilla. Donec lacinia congue felis in faucibus.

Related Articles

ICT in terms of paper usage

Leadership of Canadian

Import of paper

Top viewed articles, publish your article.

Thank you for your interest in publishing article with Packaging-Labelling. Our client success team member will get in touch with you shortly to take this ahead.

you're here, check out our informative and insightful article. Happy Surfing!

Client Success Team (CRM),

• Magazine + Enews
• Pulp, Paper & Bioeconomy Map
• Environment & Sustainability
• Financial Reports & Markets
• Health & Safety
• Maintenance & Reliability
• Operations & Management
• Research & Innovation

Products & Technologies

• Energy Management
• Equipment & Systems
• Process Control
• Test & Measurement
• Water & Chemicals

Information

• Digital Edition
• eNews Archives
• Women in Forestry
• Top 10 Under 40
• P&PC Hall of Fame
• 2023 Women of Forestry

April 22, 2024 ATTENTION! Nominations for P&PC’s 2024 Top 10 Under 40 contest are now open

April 8, 2024 Moisture content in wood chips: Implications for kraft pulping

April 1, 2024 Kraft mill secondary condensate management and treatment strategies

March 25, 2024 Paper protection 2.0: Exploring an innovative method of protecting paper products

March 6, 2024 The power of persistence: Q&A with Victoria Popnikolov, plant manager at Cascades

March 4, 2024 From lab to leadership: Q&A with Jessica Carette, Project Manager of R&D at Cascades

February 26, 2024 Join the 2024 Women in Forestry virtual summit on March 8!

January 4, 2024 Safest Mills in Canada 2022: A look at how Canadian mills are faring

April 23, 2024 kimberly-clark reports financial results for first quarter of 2024, april 23, 2024 sonoco shares its 2023 corporate sustainability report, april 23, 2024 canfor pulp, canfor jointly release 2023 sustainability report, april 22, 2024 domtar employees celebrate earth day in communities where the company operates, april 22, 2024 west fraser completes sale of two of its western canada pulp mills, april 18, 2024 paper excellence invests in the future of its communities through scholarships, april 16, 2024 fesbc funding supports sustainable forest management in b.c., april 16, 2024 international paper signs agreement to acquire ds smith, april 15, 2024 andritz, microsoft collaborate to drive innovation in the manufacturing industry, april 12, 2024 fsc canada appoints sean dolter as director of policy and standards, april 11, 2024 resolute shares steps taken to strengthen its collaborations with indigenous communities, april 10, 2024 b.c. introduces measures to streamline wildfire-damaged wood recovery, advertisement.

Valmet launches its next generation distributed control system – Valmet DNAe

Emerson introduces its Rosemount 9195 Wedge Flow Meter

Toscotec introduces a new generation design of its TT Brain DCS

Voith launches its digital solution OnView.Energy for the paper industry

Kruger Products starts up $575M tissue plant, announces additional capacity

CCCA launches video campaign to educate Canadians about the corrugated industry

FPAC announces winners of its 2020 Awards of Excellence

AF&PA debuts pulp and paper–focused video series on forestry practices

Valmet honours four industry professionals on International Women’s Day

The power of persistence: q&a with victoria popnikolov, plant manager at cascades, from lab to leadership: q&a with jessica carette, project manager of r&d at cascades.

Top 10 Under 40: Meet Tania Prevost from Kruger Prouducts

Top 10 Under 40: Meet Taneal Brucks from Meadow Lake Pulp, Paper Excellence

Tappicon 2024, pacwest conference 2024 fairmont jasper park lodge, 1 old lodge rd, jasper, ab t0e 1e0,    news you can use from leading suppliers.

Special pricing on Advance’s material-handling, warehouse equipment until July

Revolutionizing brewing: Endress+Hauser unveils QWX43 fermentation monitor for real-time insights

Clippard’s Cordis line: Precision proportional pressure and flow-control devices

Unlock the power of thermal processing: Marion’s comprehensive handbook delivers expert guidance

Festo fuels industrial transformation with cutting-edge automation products

Westlock’s valve-monitoring solutions: The perfect match for oil and gas challenges

Products powered by frasers add your product.

Mechanical Assemblies Bergen Cable Technology, Inc

We manufacture mechanical cable assemblies of the highest quality. Our products are designed to meet the rigorous requirements of military specifications, ...

Vacuum Breakers Keystone Steam Supplies

Vacuum breakers are available from an expert supplier, Keystone Steam Supplies. These dependable devices offer a simple solution that will automatically re...

Pressure Switches Wainbee Limited

We supply a variety of pressure switches including diaphragm, sealed piston, dia-seal piston, bourdon tube, differential, and vacuum types. These switches ...

Courses And Seminars Training CSA Group

Courses and seminars from CSA Group can make improve your staff’s capabilities on the job. Industry never stops growing and changing, which means you...

Motion Terminal Festo Inc

The Festo Motion Terminal VTEM is the next big thing in automation – the advent of digital pneumatics. VTEM is a true cyber-physical concept. Its softwar...

Current Sensing Relays Mod-Tronic Instruments Ltd.

Current sensing relays are available from Mod-Tronic Instruments Ltd. For instance, we offer a range of combination current sensor-relays from Veris Indust...