literature review on information and communication technology

A systematic literature review of ICT integration in secondary education: what works, what does not, and what next?

• Open access
• Published: 16 November 2023
• Volume 2 , article number  44 , ( 2023 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Mgambi Msambwa Msafiri 1 ,
• Daniel Kangwa 1 &
• Lianyu Cai 1  

4565 Accesses

Explore all metrics

This study is rigorous of peer-reviewed literature on the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) tools in secondary schools. It analyzed the impact of ICT integration on the teaching and learning process based on 51 sampled studies. The findings are thematically presented under the benefits of improving teaching and learning processes regarding curriculum coverage, equitable access, shared learning resources, and personalized learning. Furthermore, challenges were found in professional development, pedagogical and technological knowledge, and resource maintenance. Among the best practices and strategies to resolve these challenges were regular supply and systems maintenance, curricula realignment, ICT policy formulation, and engaging all stakeholders in ICT integration. Recommendations: practitioners should adopt, adapt, and innovate pedagogical approaches, strategies, and methods to facilitate the use of ICT in teaching and learning and should align and integrate ICT tools with curriculum objectives, content, or standards by exploring and using diverse and dynamic ICT tools and methods in secondary schools.

Similar content being viewed by others

Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review

Stella Timotheou, Ourania Miliou, … Andri Ioannou

Assistive technology for the inclusion of students with disabilities: a systematic review

José María Fernández-Batanero, Marta Montenegro-Rueda, … Inmaculada García-Martínez

A literature review: efficacy of online learning courses for higher education institution using meta-analysis

Mayleen Dorcas B. Castro & Gilbert M. Tumibay

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Information and communication technology (ICT) is a powerful tool capable of transforming education and enhancing learning outcomes. As a result of this technology, students can access information, collaborate with peers and teachers, develop critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities, and express their creativity and innovation. Additionally, it can assist teachers in designing and delivering more effective and personalized instruction, assessing and monitoring student progress, and engaging in continuous professional development [ 1 , 2 ]. Despite this, integrating ICT into education is not without challenges; each context and subject area has specific needs, challenges, and opportunities that must be considered during the planning, implementation, evaluation, and improvement process. This analysis, therefore, aims at identifying gaps and limitations in the literature and argues that it is essential to thoroughly review the current literature to synthesize the knowledge about what works, what does not, and the next steps to take to yield the best results out of the integration process.

Furthermore, education has become more integrated with ICT in the twenty-first century, thriving on advancements in computer technology; teaching and learning in secondary schools can be improved in various ways. There is a possibility to support, enhance, or alter the processes and outcomes of teaching and learning in secondary schools through the efficient and successful implementation of ICT [ 3 ]. As a result of the use of ICT in the classroom, particularly in secondary schools, students' learning outcomes, motivation, engagement, and skill development are improved, as well as teachers' attitudes, practices, and beliefs about teaching and learning [ 4 , 5 ]. It is, therefore, imperative that stakeholders work together to overcome the obstacles and problems that prevent secondary schools from fully integrating ICT by addressing challenges such as a lack of resources, training, time, support, curriculum alignment, and pedagogical change [ 6 , 7 ] that interfere with successful integration.

Hence, providing a comprehensive analysis of empirical studies relevant to ICT in secondary schools and learning, the purpose of this systematic literature review is to provide a comprehensive review of the empirical studies. This is because secondary education is integral in preparing young people for life, work, and higher education in the twenty-first century, making integrating ICT into various subjects to be indispensable for improved teaching and learning.

1.1 Research question

The systematic review will analyze the included studies to attain its objective by addressing the following questions:

RQ1: Which benefits of ICT integration exist in secondary schools for teaching and learning?

RQ2: What challenges and barriers hinder ICT’s practical and meaningful integration in teaching and learning?

RQ3: Which best practices and strategies have been implemented for effective ICT integration in secondary schools?

The study contributes to the existing knowledge base on ICT integration in secondary schools by providing a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art and highlighting the gaps and areas for further research. The study also offers practical implications and recommendations for policymakers, educators, researchers, and stakeholders interested in ICT integration in secondary schools. The study is particularly relevant for developing countries, where ICT integration in secondary school education is still in its early stages of implementation and faces many challenges [ 8 ]. Developing countries are home to many young people who need quality education to achieve their potential and contribute to their nation’s social and economic development. Hence, this exploration is timely and essential.

Therefore, to achieve this objective, a systematic literature review was conducted using a six-step process, including team selection, protocol creation, extensive search, screening and selection of studies, data extraction and analysis, and reporting and dissemination of findings. The recommendations from the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews served as the foundation for the procedure [ 9 ]. Both narrative and quantitative approaches were employed for the data synthesis. The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) framework was used to prepare this study [ 10 ].

The structure of this article includes Sect.  1 , which is the background information on ICT integration in secondary education, and an overview of the systematic review methodology is provided in Sect.  2 , encompassing a search strategy, inclusion and exclusion criteria, quality assessment, extraction, and synthesis of data. The results are presented in Sect.  3 as descriptive statistics, thematic analysis, and synthesis. Section  4 discusses the main findings, the implications of this rigorous analysis, and its limitations and directions for possible future research. Finally, Sect.  5 presents the synthesized results and discussion.

This study applies a rigorous and transparent methodology based on the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews [ 11 ] and the PRISMA guidelines [ 10 ]. The study procedure progressed through six steps: selecting the team, developing the protocol, conducting a comprehensive literature search, screening and selecting studies, extracting and analyzing data, and reporting the results. The main objective was to investigate information and communication technology (ICT) use in secondary school education. Furthermore, the research aimed to understand better the impact and challenges of integrating ICT tools in secondary education. To sufficiently address the research problem and the stated objective, we selected a qualitative methodology based on a systematic literature review (SLR) guided by the PRISMA framework protocol [ 10 ] on integrating ICT in secondary school. The research questions were formulated to address the integration of ICT, the impact, and challenges faced in the process of integrating ICT in secondary schools, as shown in Table 1 .

2.1 Eligibility criteria

The sampled articles were considered eligible based on the document characteristics of being published:

in peer-reviewed journals,

in the English language,

between 2008 and July 11, 2023.

Additionally, content criteria and empirical studies with quantitative and qualitative methods were included, discarding theoretical studies dealing with ICT in settings other than secondary school.

2.2 Data sources and search strategy

The included studies were identified and retrieved from Scopus and Eric electronic databases. For the search and selection of articles, we used the search terms and their combinations as “integration”, “technology”, “secondary”, “school”, “ICT” “ICT in secondary education”, “ICT in secondary schools”, “implication of ICT in education”, “implication of ICT in secondary schools”, “benefits of ICT in secondary school”, “challenges in the implementation of ICT”, “challenges in the implementation of ICT in secondary school”, “impact of ICT in secondary school”, and “best practices in ICT implementation in secondary schools”.

2.3 Quality appraisal

The sample was selected using the JBI Checklist for Systematic Reviews and Research Syntheses. The checklist contains 11 questions, and the inclusion criteria were scored as "yes", "no", "unclear", or "not applicable" [ 12 ]. The automated inclusion and exclusion criteria were conducted by the three researchers who examined the search results by evaluating the abstracts to determine whether the study was suitable for the analysis of the benefits, challenges, and strategies employed to enhance ICT integration in secondary schools. In addition, studies were excluded if they did not meet the criteria after an objective comparison of the decisions of the independent researchers. The researchers' independent decisions had an interrater reliability of 94%, which was increased to 100% after the discussion among the three researchers to resolve and determine the suitability of the disputed studies.

2.4 Data analysis

The identified articles were 1363 from Scopus and Eric electronic databases, which were later cleaned up for duplicate records before screening. After the automated inclusion and exclusion process, 553 records were selected for further screening and eligibility assessment, which resulted in 51 sampled studies for this systematic analysis, as presented in Fig.  1 .

Flowchart for inclusion and exclusion process

The results section is a descriptive and thematic analysis and presentation of the 51 included studies.

3.1 Description of the articles under analysis

The systematic review included studies from 2008 to 2023 to establish the trends and gaps in the integration and impact of ICT in secondary schools. According to the article distribution in Fig.  3 , most of our sampled studies were published in 2020 and 2022, followed by 2023. However, 2023 will likely receive more publications since the literature search was conducted in June 2023. The findings indicate that most of the included studies were published in 2022 and were distributed as in Fig.  2 .

Publications by year (n = 51)

Furthermore, the studies were analyzed based on the methodology used. It was established that mainly quantitative methods were used in most of the sampled studies, and the least used method was the survey, as shown in Fig.  3 .

Sampled studies by methodology

The systematic review categorized the included studies according to the country in which they were published. The article distribution by country indicates that many studies were conducted in Malaysia, as shown in Fig.  4 .

Distribution by country

3.2 Thematic analysis

This section presents the findings according to the identified themes in relation to the research questions. The theme identification process involved the two authors independently analyzing the included studies with regard to the research questions and eligibility for the full-text screening. There was consultation with a third author in settling any disputes. This procedure of screening the full text and extracting the data was conducted thoroughly, as illustrated in the PRISMA flow diagram in Fig.  1 . Then, the initial coding for key terms was summarized into themes that emerged from the process, categorized according to the research questions as in Table 2 .

3.2.1 Themes in ICT integration

ICT integration in secondary education is characterized by some common themes, patterns, distinctions, and variations across subjects. The analyzed studies highlight that ICT integration is not only an essential tool to make teaching more interesting and sufficiently transmit twenty-first century skills to learners in current secondary schools but also plays a vital role in enhancing student’s learning outcomes, motivation, engagement, and critical and innovative thinking development [ 13 , 18 ]. Therefore, this study identified three themes surrounding the integration of ICT in secondary schools: the benefits, the challenges, and the best practices and strategies for making ICT an integral and beneficial tool for teaching and learning. Indeed, several factors have influenced and impacted the successful integration of ICT in various subject areas.

These factors can be loosely classified as student factors and teacher factors. Student factors can be termed those that affect students' learning processes, while teacher factors impede the teacher’s abilities to deliver the learning experiences in the teaching process. This analysis discovered that student factors can be minimized by integrating appropriate ICT tools, especially tools and methods that align with the subject's learning objectives, content, and pedagogy [ 4 , 31 ]. For ICT integration to be effective, a number of considerations need to be made, such as the quality of the ICT tools and methodologies, student involvement, learning interaction, and the assessment methods to be used [ 16 , 28 ].

On the other hand, teacher factors such as inadequate professional development, lack of sufficient school support, and pedagogical knowledge influence teachers' attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors, which determine their desire and actual ICT integration in various subjects. Based on the findings, instructors can use ICT tools in a variety of ways, and how they adapt and use them can affect how they view, adopt, and use these tools [ 27 , 29 ]. ICT integration skills can be developed through professional development [ 32 ], while school leadership and support can also assist teachers with ICT integration by providing them with resources, guidance, and motivation [ 21 , 33 ]. The teacher’s pedagogical expertise and views may also contribute to the tactics they use to integrate ICT into their classrooms, such as whether they prefer student- or teacher-centered approaches [ 25 ]. The integration of ICT tools may be affected not only by student and teacher factors but also by the nature of the subject area and its associated learning experiences. Therefore, the distribution of ICT integration of the sample by subject areas demonstrates that the highest integration level of ICT tools was recorded at 33% in ICT as a subject, followed by STEM subjects at 17%, as shown in Fig.  5 .

Distribution of ICT tools integration in subjects

4 Discussion

Based on this systematic literature review, we provide insights into how ICT is used in schools to improve teaching and learning. To comprehensively explain the findings, the research questions that guided this study have been categorized and discussed.

RQ1: What are the benefits of using ICT in secondary education?

RQ1 examined how ICT integration impacts secondary schools' learning outcomes, motivation, engagement, and skill development. About Eleven studies covering mathematics, science, language, and social studies addressed this question based on the rigorous inclusion criteria. The integration of ICT in secondary schools has been found to benefit the teaching and learning processes by improving the quality and pace of curriculum coverage. It is without doubt that integrating computers in the teaching and learning process, if well done, may translate into efficiency, but if not well done, it becomes disruptive. It may disorient both the teachers and learners from attaining their academic goals.

Therefore, this study aimed at synthesizing the benefits of effective ICT integration, which would foster impactful advances in secondary schools’ educational attainments. The twenty-first century has registered considerable advancements in computer technology, transforming various sectors of society and increasing demand for advanced computer skills. This requires that teaching and learning at all levels, particularly in secondary schools, be improved to support, enhance, and alter the processes and outcomes of teaching and learning through the efficient and successful implementation of ICT tools in schools [ 3 ]. As a result, using ICT in the classroom improves students' learning outcomes, motivation, engagement, skill development, and teachers' attitudes, practices, and beliefs about the teaching and learning process [ 4 , 31 ]. Therefore, stakeholders must work together to promote fully effective and practical integration of ICT tools by addressing issues such as a lack of resources, training, time, support, curriculum alignment, and pedagogical change [ 6 , 7 ] that interfere with successful integration. Apart from human resource skills development, other suitable resources and tools, such as software packages, should be made available to secure a meaningful integration.

According to Latifi [ 34 ], GeoGebra software, for instance, was used to teach geometry in Mathematics, improving students' geometry knowledge and performance. Furthermore, it showed that academic achievement, conceptual understanding, problem-solving skills, and creativity were all positively affected by the ICT integration on student learning outcomes. Indeed, Woodrich [ 13 ] confirmed that students' writing skills, creativity, motivation, and achievement in biology increased using Moodle LMS [ 6 ]. In a study conducted by Thibaut [ 20 ], students' inquiry skills and scientific literacy were also improved through WebQuest. It is clear that effective ICT integration in different subjects positively influences the motivation, engagement, and skill development of both the teacher and the learners, making their work more exciting and easier to understand. Therefore, when ICT tools are appropriately used, curriculum content and information are accurately and diversely presented, enhancing learners' ability to grasp concepts and ideas more efficiently and accurately, making the teaching and learning process easier and more interesting.

Another set of benefits can be presented under access to the learning process. Furthermore, the effective integration of ICT in the educative process gives learners better access to curriculum content and information; for example, a teacher can make the learning experiences available for learners at all times. That is, learners are made to conveniently access online learning experiences as they enjoy the freedom to continue learning at their convenience. In addition, effective ICT integration enables learners to collaborate with peers and teachers, develop critical thinking and problem-solving abilities, and express their creativity and innovation during their learning. Moreover, effective ICT integration can also enhance and make learning more personalized. In this regard, ICT tools can assist teachers in designing and delivering more effective and personalized instruction assessments, monitoring student progress, and engaging them in different learning activities.

Furthermore, personalized learning enables the equitable sharing of learning resources such as e-textbooks, course wares, computers, digital media, and other resources available to learners according to their learning needs. The equitable sharing of learning resources has been confirmed by different studies to positively affect students' interest, curiosity, confidence, and satisfaction in learning when ICT tools are effectively integrated into the teaching and learning processes. For example, learning resources shared through WebQuest promoted active participation, collaboration, communication, and self-regulation among students, while Lie [ 14 ] found that equitably shared digital libraries also increased student engagement and reading comprehension. In this case, digital storytelling increased students' motivation and collaboration, as supported by Smeda [ 4 ] and Karahan [ 15 ], who stated that the Autograph software stimulated students' curiosity and confidence in mathematics. These and many other benefits can be accrued from an effective ICT integration in secondary schools, as shown in Table 2 and further discussed under RQ3 below on the effectiveness of ICT tools and different strategies and practices that have been implemented in the school environment.

The results identified some limitations and challenges associated with using ICT in secondary schools. There were technical challenges, such as lack of access, reliability, compatibility, and security of ICT tools and resources. Some concerns were pedagogical issues related to curriculum alignment, assessment methods, and instructional strategies. Students and teachers were sometimes not motivated, interested, or ready to use ICT due to psychological problems.

Therefore, a total of 16 studies, among the included studies in this review, identified barriers and challenges to effective and meaningful integration of ICT in secondary schools. They identified factors that negatively affect ICT integration, such as lack of resources, training, time, support, curriculum alignment, and lack of pedagogical change. According to Chen [ 17 ], technical difficulties or insufficient guidance contributed to some students' frustrations with WebQuest, while Toma [ 18 ] discovered that teachers had negative attitudes toward digital storytelling because they had not been properly trained or supported. Further, Dockendorff [ 19 ] highlighted that some curricula did not adequately include or evaluate ICT integration and evaluation.

Inadequate ICT tools and resources: inadequate, inaccessible, unreliable, and insecure ICT tools pose challenges for teachers and students to use ICT effectively and efficiently. It was found by Planinc [ 7 ] that some preservice mathematics teachers lacked access to GeoGebra software and computers at school or home. According to Smeda [ 4 ], some language teachers face technical difficulties when using digital storytelling tools. At the same time, the Moodle Learning Management System (LMS) had compatibility issues and security concerns for some in-service science teachers [ 23 ].

Insufficient or inadequate training: Teachers lack access to adequate, relevant, high-quality, or frequent professional development opportunities to enhance their abilities to integrate ICT effectively. According to Mohd Ayub [ 28 ], some in-service mathematics teachers lacked the training and experience to use GeoGebra effectively, and in-service biology teachers were not given enough support or training when using Moodle LMS [ 6 ]. Similarly, preservice language teachers lacked training and feedback while using digital storytelling in their classrooms [ 24 ].

Insufficient Planning Time: There is a lack of time for teachers to plan, implement, evaluate, or improve their ICT integration practices because of insufficient allocation, management, or flexibility of time. Mostly, teachers face this challenge, as they are not always able to use ICT effectively or efficiently due to a lack of time. Lie [ 14 , 20 ] found a lack of time for designing and implementing WebQuest projects in the classroom among preservice science teachers. Some in-service language teachers did not have adequate time to explore digital libraries or use them to enhance their teaching; according to Lie [ 14 ] in their study, Bratland [ 25 ] reported that some in-service mathematics teachers did not have time to learn and use GeoGebra software.

Inadequate Technical Support: There is a lack of support for teachers on technical, pedagogical, and emotional levels in terms of provision, quality, relevance, or frequency to improve their ability and competence in integrating ICT. Usually, this is coupled with a lack of appropriate ICT support for teachers, resulting in their inability to use ICT effectively or efficiently. Karahan [ 15 ] found that in-service math teachers lacked technical support when using Autograph software. When using WebQuest for teaching social studies, some in-service teachers lacked sufficient pedagogical support [ 16 ].

Misaligned Curriculum: ICT tools and methods are not aligned, integrated, or coherent with curriculum objectives, content, or standards for teaching and learning when they are not aligned, integrated, or coherent. There may be an inconsistency between the use of ICT and curriculum goals or expectations, which affects both teachers and students. Chen [ 17 ] found that WebQuest was not aligned or integrated with curriculum standards and objectives among in-service language teachers. It has been reported by Toma [ 18 ] that some in-service language teachers lack coherence between digital storytelling and curriculum content. The use of ICT in teaching and learning is not adequately incorporated or evaluated in some curricula [ 19 ].

Inadequate ICT Pedagogic Skills: ICT may not be sufficient for supporting, enhancing, or transforming teaching and learning if pedagogical approaches, strategies, or methods are not adopted, adapted, or innovated. This challenge mainly affects teachers, who may not have enough pedagogical changes to use ICT effectively. Several preservice mathematics teachers were not sufficiently adopting GeoGebra software or adapting it to their existing pedagogical practices [ 7 ]. Digital storytelling did not lead to enough innovation in pedagogical practices for some in-service language teachers [ 4 ]. For some in-service teachers, ICT was ineffective in shifting science teachers from teacher-centered to student-centered learning [ 35 ].

According to the research conducted on RQ3, teachers' attitudes, beliefs, and practices regarding the integration of ICT are influenced by professional development, school support, leadership, pedagogical understanding, and technical knowledge. The review included 14 studies that addressed this question. These studies covered various aspects of teacher education, including preservice training, in-service training, mentoring, coaching, collaboration, reflection, feedback, evaluation, and certification. Most studies indicate that enhancing teachers' ICT integration skills and competencies requires professional development opportunities. Professional development significantly influenced teacher attitudes, beliefs, and practices related to ICT integration, as in the following examples:

Planinc and Kolnik [ 7 ] found that GeoGebra workshops improved preservice mathematics teachers' technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) and confidence in using GeoGebra.

Ilona-Elefteryja [ 6 ] established that biology teachers who attended a Moodle LMS course were more self-efficacious and motivated to use Moodle LMS in the classroom.

Thibault [ 20 ] identified that preservice science teachers who worked on WebQuest designed projects improved their inquiry skills as well as their pedagogical reasoning and

Lie [ 14 ] reported that mentored in-service language teachers became more proficient in digital literacy and pedagogical strategies for utilizing digital libraries.

Furthermore, school support, leadership, and culture can facilitate or hinder ICT integration in secondary education. In addition to providing adequate resources, infrastructure, and technical assistance for ICT integration, school support includes creating a shared vision, mission, and goals for ICT integration; fostering a supportive, collaborative, and innovative school climate for ICT integration; and rewarding, and recognizing teachers and students for their efforts and achievements. School leadership modeled, promoted, and advocated ICT integration, empowering, encouraging, and inspiring teachers and students. It also involved monitoring, evaluating, and improving the effectiveness and quality of integrating ICTs in the teaching and learning process, as itemized in the following examples which;

teachers' attitudes and practices regarding using Autograph software in mathematics were positively correlated with school support and leadership, as Karahan [ 15 ] observed,

Ruggiero and Mong [ 16 ] stated that obtaining school support and leadership was one of the most critical factors in implementing WebQuests to teach social studies and finally,

strong school leadership and school support can foster a culture of innovation and collaboration among teachers and students in the use of ICT, as Ramos and de Andrade [ 21 ] suggested.

Therefore, there should be a holistic and systemic approach to incorporating ICT tools in secondary education to achieve effective ICT integration. This empirical review shows that ICT integration involves changing teachers' and students' beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, not just pedagogical or technical issues. Hence, the sampled studies attempted to address this issue by investigating how ICT tools could be meaningfully integrated into the learning environment in a quest to integrate useful ICT tools to improve the learning process and the well-being of its users. Sampled studies investigated the integration of a variety of ICT tools and methods, such as digital storytelling, WebQuest, GeoGebra, Moodle LMS, Autograph, and digital libraries. The studies described ICT tools and methods in terms of their features, functions, advantages, and disadvantages and granting examples of the impacts of these ICT tools in the learning environment.

As an example, Multimedia stories can be created and shared using digital tools and platforms. Through the study of digital literacy, students can improve their writing skills, creativity, motivation, collaboration, and communication skills. Moreover, it allows students to express their opinions, emotions, and experiences meaningfully. Language, social studies, and the arts are all possible applications of this technique [ 4 , 13 , 18 , 29 ]. Online resources are used to create and complete WebQuests, which are inquiry-based tasks. Student learning can be enhanced by improving inquiry skills, scientific literacy, critical thinking, problem-solving, and self-regulation. It also allows students to explore everyday issues, questions, and problems in a structured environment. In addition to science, mathematics, and social studies, this approach benefits all subjects [ 16 , 17 ].

Furthermore, GeoGebra uses algebraic expressions to create geometric constructions that can be modified dynamically. Students will learn geometry concepts more deeply, become more curious, and gain greater self-confidence through the program. Besides, it may be used to visually represent, explore, or prove geometric relationships, properties, and theorems. This approach may teach mathematical subjects [ 7 , 25 , 28 ]. You can manage and deliver online courses with multiple modules and activities with the Moodle Learning Management System. When students are motivated, engaged, and collaborate during the learning process, they are more likely to achieve, be motivated, and be engaged. Teachers can also use this software for designing, delivering, assessing, and monitoring online courses. It can cover various topics [ 6 , 23 ].

In addition, Using an Autograph program, dynamic graphs can be manipulated using numerical data and functions. Exposure to graphing concepts results in students performing better, understanding more, feeling more confident, and being more curious. Also, students can interact with graphs by visualizing, exploring, and analyzing them. To practice mathematics, users can access digital resources such as books, articles, images, and videos through digital libraries [ 14 , 15 ] and students can become more engaged, read more, and understand digital literacy better. As a result of a digital resource management system [ 14 ] digital resources can also be provided, organized, and recommended for use in a wide variety of subjects. In secondary education, ICT tools and methods suggest that it is a dynamic phenomenon that requires an adaptable and flexible approach to address diverse topics and situations. ICT integration is used to develop, implement, evaluate, and improve ICT-based learning activities to support, enhance, and transform teaching and learning. Based on our systematic review, Table 3 summarizes our discussion of challenges and possible solutions associated with the integration of ICT in secondary schools.

4.1 Implications for policy and practice

The implications of this systematic literature review for policy and practice in secondary education are numerous. Policymakers should consider implementing ICT integration in secondary education with clear, coherent, comprehensive policies and guidelines addressing various dimensions and factors. These factors are associated with ICT integration, including resources, training, support, curriculum alignment, and pedagogical changes. In secondary education, providing adequate and appropriate resources, infrastructure, and technical assistance is essential to ensuring that ICT tools and resources are available, accessible, reliable, compatible, and secure. Improving teachers' attitudes, beliefs, and practices related to ICT integration should support and facilitate effective and meaningful professional development opportunities. In addition, a shared vision, mission, and goals for ICT integration in secondary education should be created by cultivating a supportive, collaborative, and innovative school culture and climate. A culture and climate that inspires teachers and students to use ICT in education and recognizes, rewards, and celebrates teachers and students' ICT integration achievements.

Practitioners should incorporate ICT tools in teaching and learning to enhance, support, and transform student learning outcomes, motivation, engagement, and skills development. This can be achieved by adopting and adapting strategies and pedagogical methods to integrate ICT tools into the secondary school learning environment efficiently. The integration should be aligned and well coordinated with the curriculum's objectives, content, and standards for teaching and learning purposes. Therefore, Table 3 outlines how the practitioners can address the different issues surrounding the ICT tools integration in the learning process. For example, various topics and situations in teaching and learning may require practitioners to explore, use, or suggest ICT tools and methods to address each context and subject area's specific needs, challenges, and opportunities. There should be effective mechanisms for monitoring, assessing, and improving the quality and effectiveness of ICT integration in teaching and learning by planning, implementing, evaluating, and improving ICT-based learning activities. It is evident from this systematic literature review that a framework is needed to promote better computer-aided learning in secondary schools and to integrate ICT effectively. Therefore, to ensure an effective and beneficial integration of ICT tools in schools, the researchers have proposed the ICT integration framework as in Fig.  6 , illustrating how different aspects of an effective integration interact within an integration system.

ICT integration framework

According to the sampled studies, effective integration of ICT depends on students' and teachers' motivation [ 13 , 18 , 19 , 28 ] Additionally, the authors recommend that secondary schools align ICT integration with their curricula [ 6 , 20 ] and learning objectives as well as maintaining ICT tools [ 4 , 14 ] and develop appropriate ICT skills for teachers as well as learners [ 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Therefore, ICT integration depends mainly on capacity development [ 6 , 7 ], which should be focused on harnessing technological knowledge with pedagogical understanding [ 16 , 21 ] in a conducive learning environment supported by all stakeholders [ 15 , 20 , 29 ]. Finally, capacity development should further enable students, teachers, and other experts to identify challenges and address them efficiently [ 23 , 25 , 26 ]. This framework is a cyclic model of effectively integrating ICT in a learning context.

4.2 Limitations and future research

A systematic literature review has several limitations, including that the scope of the review was limited to the use of information and communication technology in secondary schools for teaching and learning. Therefore, the study findings cannot be generalized or applied to any other level or setting of education, such as primary schools, higher education, or informal education. Studies that are included in a review determine its quality. Methodological aspects such as sample size, design, measurement, or analysis may affect the included studies' results. Thus, the strengths and weaknesses of the synthesis methods may affect the synthesis results.

ICT integration in secondary education should be explored in more diverse and dynamic ways to accommodate various topics and situations in secondary education. Every context and subject area may present different needs, challenges, and opportunities, which require tools that can be applied to them. Examine holistic and systemic approaches to integrating ICT into secondary school teaching and learning that address the resource, training, support, curriculum alignment, and pedagogical changes associated with ICT integration.

5 Conclusion

This study was conducted to comprehensively and rigorously review peer-reviewed studies on integrating information and communication technology in secondary schools. This study followed PRISMA guidelines and the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews [ 9 ] as the framework, assuring rigor and transparency. In this analysis, three research questions on ICT integration in secondary education were explored with regard to benefits, challenges, best practices, and barriers. As this systematic review highlights, several types and characteristics of ICT tools and methods can be utilized in teaching various secondary education topics. For adequate and appropriate ICT integration resources, infrastructure, and technical assistance, policymakers should develop and implement clear, coherent, and comprehensive policies and guidelines. To foster a supportive, collaborative, and innovative school climate, teachers must be able to participate in practical and meaningful professional development opportunities. For information and communication technology to be effectively utilized for teaching and learning, practitioners must adopt, adapt, or innovate pedagogical approaches, strategies, and methods that align and integrate ICT tools with curriculum objectives, content, or standards. They should explore, use, and propose diverse and dynamic ICT tools and methods for a wide range of topics to ensure that learners get the best out of the learning process.

Data availability

Not applicable. The data for this study originated from secondary desk research.

Oguguo B, Ezechukwu R, Nannim F, Offor K. “Analysis of teachers in the use of digital resources in online teaching and assessment in COVID times”, Innoeduca. Int J Technol Educ Innov. 2023;9(1):81–96. https://doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca .

Article   Google Scholar  

Şimşek AS, Ateş H. “The extended technology acceptance model for Web 2.0 technologies in teaching”, Innoeduca. Int J Technol Educ Innov. 2022;8(2):165–83. https://doi.org/10.24310/innoeduca.2022.v8i2.15413 .

Pareja Roblin N, Tondeur J, Voogt J, Bruggeman B, Mathieu G, van Braak J. Practical considerations informing teachers’ technology integration decisions: the case of tablet PCs. Technol Pedagog Educ. 2018;27(2):165–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2017.1414714 .

Smeda N, Dakich E, Sharda N. The effectiveness of digital storytelling in the classrooms: a comprehensive study. Smart Learn Environ. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-014-0006-3 .

Lee CAL. Channelling artscience through fan-fiction for diversifying STEM approaches in participatory learning in malaysia. Am Behav Sci. 2023;67(9):1122–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/00027642221078511 .

Ilona-Elefteryja L, Meletiou-Mavrotheris M, Katzis K. Augmented reality in lower secondary education: a teacher professional development program in Cyprus and Greece. Educ Sci (Basel). 2020. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10040121 .

Planinc TR, Kolnik K. Working with students with special educational needs: views and experiences of geography teachers. Dela. 2016;46:2016. https://doi.org/10.4312/dela.46.4.89-122 .

Mtebe J. Eliciting In-service teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge for 21st-century skills in Tanzania. Learn Dev. 2018. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v5i3.288 .

Sterne JAC, et al. RoB 2: a revised tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. BMJ. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l4898 .

Page MJ, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement”. Int J Surg. 2021;88:105906.

Stern E, Gibbs A, Willan S, Dunkle K, Jewkes R. ‘When you talk to someone in a bad way or always put her under pressure, it is actually worse than beating her’: conceptions and experiences of emotional intimate partner violence in Rwanda and South Africa. PLoS ONE. 2019;14(11):e0225121. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225121 .

“JBI Critical Appraisal Tools | JBI.” Accessed: Aug. 28, 2023. https://jbi.global/critical-appraisal-tools

Woodrich M, Fan Y. Google docs as a tool for collaborative writing in the middle school classroom. J Inf Technol Educ Res. 2017;16(1):391. https://doi.org/10.28945/3870 .

Lie A, Tamah SM, Gozali I, Triwidayati KR, Utami TSD, Jemadi F. Secondary school language teachers’ online learning engagement during the covid-19 pandemic in Indonesia. J Inf Technol Educ Res. 2020;19:803–32. https://doi.org/10.28945/4626 .

Karahan E, Canbazoglu Bilici S, Unal A. Integration of media design processes in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Stem) education | Fen, teknoloji, mühendislik ve matematik (FeTeMM) eğitimine medya tasarım süreçlerinin entegrasyonu. Eurasian J Educ Res. 2015;60:221–40. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2015.60.15 .

Ruggiero D, Mong CJ. The teacher technology integration experience: Practice and reflection in the classroom. J Inf Technol Educ Res. 2015;14(2015):161–78. https://doi.org/10.28945/2227 .

Chen FS, Hsiao YW. Using WebQuest as a creative teaching tool at a science and technology university in Taiwan. World Trans Eng Technol Educ. 2010;8(2):203.

Google Scholar  

Toma F, Ardelean A, Grădinaru C, Nedelea A, Diaconu DC. Effects of ICT integration in teaching using learning activities. Sustainability. 2023;15(8):6885. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086885 .

Dockendorff M, Solar H. ICT integration in mathematics initial teacher training and its impact on visualization: the case of GeoGebra. Int J Math Educ Sci Technol. 2018;49(1):66–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020739X.2017.1341060 .

Thibaut L, Knipprath H, Dehaene W, Depaepe F. Teachers’ attitudes toward teaching integrated STEM: the Impact of personal background characteristics and school context. Int J Sci Math Educ. 2019;17(5):987–1007. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-018-9898-7 .

Ramos SIM, de Andrade AMV. ICT in Portuguese reference schools for the education of blind and partially sighted students. Educ Inf Technol. 2016;21(3):625–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-014-9344-6 .

Yaccob NS, Yunus MM, John DS. Global education movement: English as a second language teachers’ perceptions of integrating volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity elements in lessons. Front Psychol. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1007970 .

Teoh SC, Chng CK, Zaibidi NZ. Analysis of ICT implementation in teaching and learning using analytic hierarchy process (AHP): a comparison of rural and urban areas in Kedah. Cult Manag Sci Educ. 2022;6(1):55–69. https://doi.org/10.30819/cmse.6-1.04 .

Larose F, Grenon V, Morin MP, Hasni A. The impact of pre-service field training sessions on the probability of future teachers using ICT in school. Eur J Teach Educ. 2009;32(3):289. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619760903006144 .

Bratland E, Ghami ME, Mediå M. Technology and knowledge. In what way are knowledge and teachers’ knowledge practices in subject areas crucial for the integration of technology in education? Nordic J Digit Lit. 2022;17(3):155–69. https://doi.org/10.18261/njdl.17.3.2 .

Tang J, Rich CS. Automated writing evaluation in an EFL setting: lessons from China. JALT CALL Journal. 2017;13(2):117–46.

Schmitz ML, Antonietti C, Cattaneo A, Gonon P, Petko D. When barriers are not an issue: tracing the relationship between hindering factors and technology use in secondary schools across Europe. Comput Educ. 2022;179:104411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104411 .

Mohd Ayub AF, Tarmizi RA, Abu Bakar K, Luan WS. Adoption of WxMaxima software in the classroom: effect on students’ motivation and learning of mathematics. Malays J Math Sci. 2014;8(2):311–23.

Yunus MM, Nordin N, Salehi H, Embi MA, Salehi Z. Future of ICT as a pedagogical tool in ESL teaching and learning. Res J Appl Sci Eng Technol. 2014;7(4):764–70. https://doi.org/10.19026/rjaset.7.314 .

Zeng Y. Analysing teacher knowledge for technology use among secondary teachers teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) in Australia. J Curric Teach. 2022;11(2):15–28. https://doi.org/10.5430/jct.v11n2p15 .

Lees KE, et al. NUCare: advancing research on technological integration for self-management in the aging population. Nurs Outlook. 2018;66(2):121–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2017.10.008 .

Kafyulilo AC. Learning technology by design: experiences from In-service science and mathematics teachers in Tanzania. J Educ Humanit Sci. 2019. http://jehs.bongotech.info/index.php/jehs/article/view/119

Omar MN, Ismail SN. Mobile Technology Integration in the 2020s: the impact of technology leadership in the Malaysian context. Univers J Educ Res. 2020;8(5):1874–84. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.080524 .

Latifi M, Eseghir A, Elmaroufi A, Hattaf K, Achtaich N. Modeling with differential equations and geogebra in high school mathematics education. J Educ Soc Res. 2022;12(3):47–91. https://doi.org/10.36941/jesr-2022-0065 .

Tang Y. Does information and communication technology (ICT) empower teacher innovativeness: a multilevel, multisite analysis. Education Tech Research Dev. 2021;69(6):3009–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-021-10052-1 .

Beichumila F, Bahati B, Kafanabo E. Students’ perceptions toward the use of computer simulations and animations in chemistry teaching and learning in Tanzania Secondary Schools. Int J Sci Math Technol Learn. 2022;30(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.18848/2327-7971/CGP/v30i01/1-16 .

Warioba MM, Machumu H, Kulunga K, Mtweve L. Adoption of ICT as a pedagogical tool in community secondary schools in Tanzania: possibilities and constraints. Educ Inf Technol. 2022;27(2):2835–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10715-9 .

Domingo M, Marquès P. Classroom 2.0 experiences and building on the use of ICT in teaching. Comunicar. 2011;19(37):169. https://doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-09 .

Hossein-Mohand H, Trujillo-Torres JM, Gómez-García M, Hossein-Mohand H, Campos-Soto A. Analysis of the use and integration of the flipped learning model, project-based learning, and gamification methodologies by secondary school mathematics teachers. Sustainability. 2021;13(5):1–18. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052606 .

Rind AA, Asad MM, Marri SA, Sherwani F, Rehman FU. How integration of information and communication technologies impact academic achievement? An empirical study on Sindh education foundation. J Appl Res Higher Educ. 2022;14(4):1761–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-05-2021-0177 .

Leng NW. Total quality management principles that influence the integration of information and communications technology into the classroom. Asia-Pac Educ Res. 2009. https://doi.org/10.3860/taper.v18i2.1332 .

Carbová A, Betáková L. Using tools for measuring technological pedagogical content knowledge of English language teachers. J Effic Responsib Educ Sci. 2013;6(4):203–17. https://doi.org/10.7160/eriesj.2013.060401 .

Dong Y, Xu C, Chai CS, Zhai X. Exploring the structural relationship among teachers’ technostress, technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), computer self-efficacy and school support. Asia-Pac Educ Res. 2020;29(2):147–57. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-019-00461-5 .

Hadjilouca R, Papadouris N, Constantinou CP. Teaching aspects of the interrelationship between science and technology: explicit or implicit approach? Res Sci Technol Educ. 2023;41(2):482–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/02635143.2021.1912726 .

Trigueros M, Sacristán AI. Teachers’ practice and students’ learning in the Mexican programme for teaching mathematics with technology. Int J Contin Eng Educ Life Long Learn. 2008;18(5–6):678. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCEELL.2008.022174 .

Makgato M. Challenges contributing to poor integration of educational technology at some schools in South Africa. Mediterr J Soc Sci. 2014;5(20):1285–92. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n20p1285 .

Gcabashe NB, Ndlovu NS. Exploring business studies teachers’ technology self-efficacy on their technology integration to create learner-centred teaching environment. Int J Learn Teach Educ Res. 2022;21(12):238–58. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.21.12.13 .

Wilder H, Ferris SP, An H. Exploring international multicultural field experiences in educational technology. Multicult Educ Technol J. 2010;4(1):30. https://doi.org/10.1108/17504971011034719 .

Ghavifekr SW, Rosdy AW. Teaching and learning with technology: effectiveness of ICT integration in schools. Int J Res Educ Sci. 2015;1(2):175–91. https://doi.org/10.21890/ijres.23596 .

Pérez MA, Fandos M, and Aguaded JI. A proper policy in the permanent teacher’s training: Key impulse of the ICT centre in Andalusia (Spain). Asia-Pac Forum Sci Learn Teach. 2010;11(1)

Abrizah A, Zainab AN. Digital libraries in the classroom: secondary school teachers’ conception. J Librariansh Inf Sci. 2011;43(4):224. https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000611418811 .

Antonietti C, Schmitz ML, Consoli T, Cattaneo A, Gonon P, Petko D. ‘Development and validation of the ICAP Technology Scale to measure how teachers integrate technology into learning activities.’ Comput Educ. 2023;192:104648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104648 .

Hsu S, Kuan PY. The impact of multilevel factors on technology integration: the case of Taiwanese grade 1–9 teachers and schools. Educ Tech Res Dev. 2013;61(1):25–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-012-9269-y .

Vincent J. Using models for understanding pedagogical change in a technology environment: R case study of IWB implementation in a secondary school. Aust Educ Comput. 2008;23(2):32.

Shaame AA, Osaki KM, Anatory JR, Mrutu SI. Exploring a learning management system as a way to improve students’ understanding of geometry in secondary schools. Afr Educ Rev. 2020;17(4):17–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2020.1868070 .

Download references

This research received no external funding.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute of International and Comparative Education, College of Teacher Education, Zhejiang Normal University, 688 Yingbin Avenue, Jinhua, 321400, Zhejiang, People’s Republic of China

Mgambi Msambwa Msafiri, Daniel Kangwa & Lianyu Cai

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization, MMM and DK; methodology, MMM; software, MMM and DK; format analysis, MMM and DK; investigation, MMM and DK; resources, MMM, LC and DK; data curation, MMM, LC and DK; writing original draft preparation, MMM, LC and DK; review and editing, MMM, LC and DK; supervision, LC funding acquisition, no funding received. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mgambi Msambwa Msafiri .

Ethics declarations

Institutional review board statement.

Not applicable, as no humans or animals were used in this study. The data for this study originated from secondary desk research.

Informed consent

Competing interests.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

1.1 Appendix 1: Summary of included studies highlighting ict integration and impacts in secondary schools

1.2 appendix 2: highlights on the impact of ict in secondary schools, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Msafiri, M.M., Kangwa, D. & Cai, L. A systematic literature review of ICT integration in secondary education: what works, what does not, and what next?. Discov Educ 2 , 44 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-023-00070-x

Download citation

Received : 07 August 2023

Accepted : 13 November 2023

Published : 16 November 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-023-00070-x

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Secondary education
• Curriculum coverage
• Innovative pedagogies
• ICT integration

Advertisement

• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List

Information and communications technology, health, and gender equality: Empirical evidence from a panel of Pacific developing economies

Keshmeer makun.

1 School of Accounting, Finance, and Economics, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji

2 School of Economics, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima, Japan

Ronal Chand

Associated data.

The data used in this study are third party data from the International Telecommunication Union ( https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx ), World Development Indicators ( https://data.worldbank.org/country ) and Penn World Table ( https://www.rug.nl/ggdc/productivity/pwt/related-research ) and can be accessed following the procedure outlined on the websites.

Information and communications technology (ICT) has been widely embraced in many developing economies in recent times. Extant research reveals that ICT increases economic growth. Beyond economic growth, improved access to information, markets and economic opportunities via information and communications technology have the potential to influence other dimensions of public welfare. This study quantitatively examines the effects of ICT on selected health and gender dimensions of Pacific Island developing countries’ populations. The results show a statistically significant and positive impact of ICT on health and gender outcomes. Our results are robust with an alternative modeling approach, different control variables, and different measures of health and gender outcomes. We further establish that the health outcome of technology has a valid pass-through of income. The study suggests policy implications for the Pacific and other developing countries striving to enhance the health and gender outcomes of SGDs.

1. Introduction

Since the beginning of the new millennium, information and communications technology (especially mobile phones) has been increasingly embraced in developing and emerging market economies. Mobile technology has substantially helped people access information, in particular in rural and marginalized sections of the community that were not connected to any agile communication line previously. Mobile technology has also helped reduce transaction costs, leading to improvement and efficiency in market outcomes [ 1 – 5 ]. At the beginning of 2021, about 4.88 billion or about 62 percent of the world’s population were using mobile phones globally. About two-thirds of these mobile users are in developing countries. With a cellular subscription rate of over 100 on average, Asia and the Pacific region has one of the highest mobile penetration rates [ 6 ].

In the Pacific, mobile technology is not only a communication device but is also a primary conduit of economic participation and means of accessing welfare-enhancing goods and services. This is especially relevant to remote areas where about half of the population lives and the provision of public services is limited. ICT is already playing a significant role in tackling many structural and geographical challenges in the island nations. A number of key factors are pushing this change. In particular, the deregulation of telecommunications sector since 2013. ICT uptake is also accelerated by regions’ youth bulge as about one-fifth of the population in the Pacific is aged 15–24. The recent social and economic challenges brought about by the COVID19 pandemic show a huge uptake of mobile technology, which is not only used to access public services including health and gender related services but also used in the policy response to reduce infection, for example, contact tracing. ICT has enabled responses by facilitating large-scale involvement and mass collaboration across the region and national borders [ 7 ]. For example, incorporating new organizations in an existing humanitarian collaboration network (e.g., volunteer and technical groups that aid during crises, such as pandemics and natural disasters); enabling innovative ways of providing surveillance and transmitting timely information and assistance (e.g., digital money wallet, online self-support groups, online therapy for COVID-19 infected patients) and also facilitating diverse public engagement to counter the spread of misinformation [ 8 ]. On the other hand, the crisis also highlights the limitations in the use of ICT due to a lack of innovations, skills, training, and infrastructure [ 9 ]. The distributional nature of the population, small markets, lack of human resources, and cost of connectivity also hamper the dissemination of ICT in Pacific Island countries.

A growing number of studies have analyzed the impacts of mobile technology on productivity, market access, prices, economic growth, agriculture production, and income [ 10 – 16 ]. (; However, ICT can potentially affect various other aspects of public welfare like health [ 17 , 18 ] and gender empowerment [ 8 , 19 , 20 ]. [ 21 ] argue that on-hand access to various computer sites within the community or in schools is one of the effective ways to close the gap in accessibility and usage of ICT, which does not only aid in enhancing the status of the girls and women, but also boosts societal empowerment, equality, and development. [ 22 – 24 ] examine the use of information and communication technology, including mobile use for boosting health efficiency and patient care. Such wider implications of ICT are crucial, particularly given the mission to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, SGD 3 and 5, good health and wellbeing, and gender equality, respectively, are arguably equally important if not more than the conventional economic indicators.

A number of research and agency reports discuss how ICT could impact food security, health outcomes, gender, and other aspects of welfare [ 5 , 19 , 25 – 27 ]. However, the quantitative analysis on this subject remains void. There is also a view that developing economies should focus on the basic health care system, education, and income support for all rather than technology infrastructure [ 28 ]. This disagreement existed perhaps due to under-performing health systems and high gender disparity in many poor and less developed countries. Concerns about ICT use are important when it begins to have an adverse effect on society and the beneficial effect does not lead to long-term social and economic improvement. This is essential when long-run outcomes depend on other factors like education and training, affordability, and access, which is becoming an important element in the adoption of technology.

In this paper, we attempt to disentangle the socio-economic implications of ICT and contribute to the literature from the perspective of developing Pacific Island economies. Specifically, we empirically analyze the relationship between ICT and health outcomes and ICT and gender equality in a panel data setting. Like other developing economies, mobile technology is being adopted quite rapidly in small Pacific Island developing countries in the last few decades and is commonly used even among rural and poor households. Besides its valuable effect on the commerce and economy, the advent of ICT is also envisaged to have impacted socio-economic characteristics. However, there is no quantitative evidence to support appropriate policy interventions. To the extent that we know, this paper is the first to examine ICT’s implication on health and gender outcomes for Pacific Island Countries (PICs). We use the virtual Random-effect panel and robust least square (MM-based) methods in this study to examine the relationship between ICT and socio-economic (health and gender) outcomes. Further, it is important to note that identifying a clear relationship between mobile technology and socio-economic outcomes is hard in the self-selection situation. As a result, we also examine possible mechanisms through which ICTs impact health outcomes in PICs. Given the dearth of quantitative analysis on the social implications of ICT, we believe that this study will make an essential contribution to the literature and potentially stimulate future similar ICT-related research.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The following section provides a literature review of ICT, health, and gender outcomes. Section 3 provides data and indicators used in the quantitative analysis. Section 4 outlines the econometric methodology for the study. Section 5 presents the results, and the last section 6 provides the conclusion with policy implications.

2. Literature review

In this section, we provide a literature review on the socio-economic (health and gender) impact of information and communication technology. First, we provide a brief theoretical overview of the relationship between ICT, health, and gender. Secondly, we review the extant literature on ICT and health outcomes. We examine the literature both, from a positive perspective as well as the differing views and findings from interdisciplinary literature. Third, we provide the literature on the nexus between ICT and gender outcomes.

It has been argued that technology has the potential to improve health and gender outcomes [ 18 , 29 ]. Conceptually, the health implications of ICT or mobile technology can take place through different channels. For example, better economic opportunities facilitated by ICT and the associated rise in income are typically linked to improvements in social conditions and quality of life [ 30 ] ICT also provides access to geographically challenged communities and support for health care workers in reaching out to them to provide relevant services. Access to a wide variety of services through digital technology can improve public health education and advice on dealing with and mitigating the consequence of risk factors, which leads to improved health outcomes [ 31 – 33 ] Globally, digital technologies are being used to aid public health response. A recent example is the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic where technology is playing a fundamental role in areas like population monitoring, case identification, contact tracing, and intervention assessment based on morbidity data and public consultation [ 34 ]. To the extent of surviving in the current COVID19 business worl [ 35 ], show possible business development possibilities through the use of ICT. Further, gender roles in society can also drive health outcomes [ 21 ]. For those countries where gender gaps in health are shaped by individual and societal norms that tend to undervalue women’s health, relevant interventions which include ICT platforms for effective, innovative, and faster dissemination of messages are needed to reinforce the importance of women and girls for the reduction in health gaps [ 36 ]. As females tend to be more concerned about well-being in terms of food and spending on health care relative to males, gender empowerment can improve health outcomes even if there are no income gains [ 33 ] Hence, empowering females will generally drive innovation for inclusive structural change, which would fast-track movement toward the SDGs [ 37 ].

Focusing on various case scenarios [ 38 , 39 ], provide a review of the link between digital technology and the health system and the patient-doctor relationship. The review indicates that digital technology has the capacity to enhance health care systems and personal health outcomes by engendering friendly partnerships. Similarly [ 24 ], in a theoretical preposition suggests that ICT can be used to improve health information systems. Computer-based diagnostics and ICT applications can improve the performance of the health care system. Similar findings are reported in [ 40 – 42 ].

Further, the evolution of online health platforms and e-health contributes to improvement in population health. The web-based essential health information boosts the knowledge of people and enables them to take control of their health [ 42 ] Not only that, e-Health has the ability to advance care and offer new services for people with multimorbidity while allowing policymakers to organize and incorporate different elements of better care. For instance, expand clinician decision-making and the quality of care through support systems and categories of risk to identify the most composite cases and allow for more pre-emptive responses [ 43 ]. Digital technology can also improve communication, procurement of medicine, and monitoring of patients. [ 44 ] piloting a drug supply chain show that ICTs have huge potential to bring efficiency in stock management in the health system. Tsai et al. (2017) show that e-learning facilitated by ICT in addition to face-to-face interaction enhances health education in Taiwan.

[ 45 ] provide an overview of mobile text platforms as a communication tool in behavioral change for disease management and control. The authors show evidence of managing some chronic diseases like diabetes control, reduction in smoking, and weight loss. They suggest that text massaging can be a vital tool to reduce health burden by providing timely curative and preventive support. “m-health” in their words, offers interactive communication and a range of opportunities to improve health-related outcomes including in remote areas and capitalize on young population behavior given their ability to access and use of mobile technology. Similarly, [ 46 ] focusing on developing countries provide a review report on the use of SMS-supported technology for disease surveillance and management. Generally, they find evidence that mobile SMS applications are an accepted mechanism among the population for disease control interventions.

Besides positive effects on health, there are also some criticisms of the applications of ICT. Conservative societies question the nature and quality of the online information available on various platforms that can be misleading and misinterpreted, leading to adverse health outcomes. It is argued that wrong information can produce anxiety and even lead to serious illness and ultimate mortality [ 47 ]. There are some socioeconomic groups that do not have full or reliable and proper access to the information. In this situation, it can further exacerbate health disparities among socioeconomic groups. [ 38 ] show that online misinformation can lead to unnecessary anxiety and visits to hospitals costing time and money. While [ 48 ] find a positive correlation between personal mobile and patient’s healthcare decisions, they found that health-related phone use delays access to public health experts. [ 32 ] show that uneven technology diffusion increases health care inequalities. The inequalities disproportionately discriminate against poor and non-adopters of technology than affluent households [ 49 ]. Similarly [ 18 ], suggest that while mobile phones have the potential to be a vital therapeutic resource and are already used by people to secure health care, they can be impacted by limited access to technology, lack of ‘digital capital’ and poor health service provisions.

According to [ 37 ],the digital divide is the gap between those who have and those that do not have access to computers and the internet. Digital divide is also classified under four successive types of access, which are: (i) motivational, (ii) physical, (iii) skills, and (iv) usage. The fact is that digital inequalities persist and vary by sector (community and individual levels) and elites continue to govern the content of various ICTs even though this power has been altered in certain ways by digital media through asymmetries between elites and people [ 50 ]. As such [ 51 ], contends that technology and its different aspects should be understood and explained in the context of a specific situation because technology is not a socially neutral artifact. [ 52 ] explains that while the exponential diffusion of mobile phones in Africa has chartered new ways for people to interface with power through the lenses of the ‘liberation technology’ agenda, it has neglected numerous actors and networks that intervene in shaping governance processes. [ 53 ] explain that wealth and connectivity are necessary but not sufficient factor for explaining inequalities in geographies of user-generated information that are accessible to some people and places. He suggests a combination of the total amount of human sites, activities, processes, practices of interest, the nature of the broader information ecosystem, and the societal attitudes toward learning and the sharing of information as contributing factors.

Studies have also discussed the potential impact of ICT on gender roles [ 20 , 29 , 54 , 55 ]. Improved market access through mobile technology enhances information availability, which could enable women to make independent decisions [ 31 ]. Conceptually, women are mostly constrained in access to markets and information [ 56 ]. Giving access to ICT can possibly benefit women by allowing them to equally participate in mainstream economic activity. It is also suggested that to harness ICT for effective development, ICT should be mainstreamed as a broader mechanism for enhancing opportunity and empowering the poor [ 56 ]. Explicitly identifying and addressing the gender dimension of ICT such as access, use, capacity building opportunities, and employment can serve as a strong mechanism for cultural, political, and social liberation of women and the advancement of gender equality [ 10 , 20 , 57 , 58 ].

Interactions between phone usage, female empowerment, and poverty is complex [ 59 ]. It is found that while there are changes in everyday routines, in the context of female empowerment they find little support for mobile as a tool for transformative improvement in Africa. Similarly, [ 20 , 47 ] argue that while the phone eases communication and improves social ties, it is difficult to circumvent the classified nature of society where ‘class and place of residence are typical social makers in the process of social networking. [ 55 ] also provide an alternative perspective, where communication using ICT generates social conflicts, hence enhancing the understanding of the broader impact of technology- not necessarily from the development perspective. Various gender issues including women’s political participation, employment opportunities, education, and violence against women have been highlighted in Pacific Island countries. These issues have been one of the most challenging issues in the social, economic, and cultural development of PICs. While some progress has been made, for instance, in education, this has not translated into improved opportunities and jobs for women. The labor market survey shows that while women’s participation in the market is increasing [ 60 ], it is lower than that of their male counterparts [ 19 ].

Finally, it is obvious from the literature that the social implications of ICT on health and gender outcomes are attracting the interest of researchers and policymakers in recent times. While the extant literature is not homogenous and provides some information and comfort, the real impact and measure of ICT on health and gender aspect is not that apparent. A quantitative analysis of the relationship between ICT and health and gender dimension is imperative to provide greater insight into this phenomenon. The available evidence of health and gender implications of ICT is scarce and focuses on specific countries, particularly large and developed countries, where it is hard to generalize the findings. This paper, therefore, quantitatively analyses this relationship in the context of Pacific Island developing countries, which is an unexplored setting in the literature.

3. Data, variables, and measurement

The quantitative analysis is based on unbalanced panel data set. Based on the availability of data, the study includes five Pacific Island countries namely, Fiji, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. Lack of consistent data on key social indicators is a common feature in small Pacific island countries. With limited resources, it is hard to produce various social statistics required for measuring progress. However, certain progress in some major countries reporting enabled us to obtain some consistent data. The study period covers 2000 to 2018. The key explanatory variable of focus is information and communications technology (ICT). We proxy ICT using mobile phone subscriptions per 100 inhabitants. The data is sourced from International Telecommunication Union (ITU) [ 6 ].

With respect to our outcome variables, we are interested in health outcomes and gender equality. Health outcome is measured in different ways [ 19 , 27 ] including dietary-based indicators, access to healthcare facilities, and anthropometrical measures. Given the focus here is to examine how ICT influences health outcomes, anyone indicator may or may not be a good indicator. In this study, we use the life expectancy index and infant mortality rate as our health indicators. Life expectancy refers to the average years lived from the year of birth. The infant mortality rate is measured by death under one year of age per thousand live births. The data for these two variables is sourced from World Health Organization (WHO) and World Development Indicators (WDI).

Gender equality is measured by the female labor force participation rate and female employment. In assessing gender equality or the social situation of women, literature commonly uses individual measures on education, health, employment, and political and economic opportunities [ 39 , 57 , 60 – 62 ]. Given the absence of consistent composite indices, we focus on how ICT use may impact individual indicators like female labor force participation and female employment. A larger proportion of female labor and female employment can be an indication of a higher level of women empowerment [ 19 ]. The data on the female labor force and employment is obtained from World Bank’s WDI database.

3.1. Control variables

Besides ICT, we also included additional control variables in our health and gender regression models. For instance, human capital is expected to play a crucial part in enhancing health care outcomes and gender equality. An educated and qualified individual has a high chance of getting a better job and earning income. Further, human capital accumulation enables people to read and understand health-related information and prevent risk factors. Human capital also has a vital role in gender empowerment. For instance, increasing education not only benefits female health but also improves their ability to participate in other economic opportunities. In this paper, we have used health and gender indicators that are likely to be influenced by human capital. It is measured by secondary school enrollment and is sourced from Penn World Tables- an online database.

In health regression, we also include health expenditure. An important determinant of health outcomes is public health expenditure [ 63 ]. With adequate investment in healthcare facilities and primary healthcare services, the prevalence of diseases (communicable and non-communicable) can be avoided and result in better health outcomes. In this study, we use health expenditure as a percent of GDP, which is available on the World Bank’s WDI database 2020.

For gender equality, we also introduce tourism earnings as an additional control variable. Pacific Island countries heavy reliance on tourism for employment and income led to substantial social and economic change in the last couple of decades. Thus, we also use the tourism indicator (tourism earnings) from WDI to see if the gender dimension can be enhanced through tourism-related investment. Human capital is also included in gender regression.

Summary statistics of the variables are shown in Table 1 and correlation analysis in Table 2 for health and gender outcomes. Samoa has the largest mean life expectancy index followed by Tonga, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and Fiji. The average female labor force participation rate is highest in the Solomon Islands at about 64% and lowest in Samoa at 25%. The mean mobile phone subscription is highest in Fiji (63 per 100 inhabitants) followed by Tonga, Samoa, Vanuatu, and the Solomon Islands. The Jarque-Bera test shows if series are normally distributed. The correlation analysis shows that ICT is positively correlated with health at about 0.13 and with gender at about 0.15. There is also a consistent positive correlation of health and gender with other independent variables such as health expenditure and human capital.

Note: LE is life expectancy index, MOB is the mobile phone, representing ICT, HEX is the health expenditure, HC is human capital, LFPRF is labor force participation rate for females, and TE is the tourism earnings.

Note: LE is life expectancy index, MOB is the mobile phone, representing ICT, HEX is the health expenditure, FI is food import, HC is human capital, LFPRF is labor force participation rate for females, FDI is foreign direct investment, and TE is the tourism earnings.

4. Econometric model

The objective of this paper is to empirically examine the possible relationship of mobile ICT with health outcomes and gender equality. Thus, it is assumed that the health and gender dimensions are engendered with the following model:

Where Y ti is the dependent or outcome variable referring to time t and country i . ICT ti is the independent variable of attention. X ti is the vector of additional contextual variables likely to influence health and gender outcomes and ε ti is the random white noise (error) with a symmetric distribution.

Given we have two outcome variables (health and gender equality), we estimate separate regression for health and gender. β 1 is elasticity estimate of the ICT, which is of particular interest. A positive and statistically significant estimate would indicate that mobile ICT is positively linked to health and gender equality. We further probe this relationship after considering other variables included in X ti .

4.1. Analyzing possible mechanism

Further, we analyze possible mechanisms for ICT and health outcomes. The effect of Mobile ICT on income and gender is fairly clear and straightforward. Information and communications technology reduces cost and improves access to information and markets, which increases efficiency, output, and income [ 11 ]. Similarly, mobile ICT empowers women and girls who are disproportionately constrained in terms of access to information and economic opportunities [ 58 ]. However, the health outcomes of mobile ICT are relatively less candid. The health of the population may change through the different processes including gender equality and income. Given that casual trails is hard to identify, thus we use the following regression models to obtain further intuition into possible channels of mobile ICTs implications:

Where Health ti refers to health indicator measured by the life expectancy index. Inc ti is the income measured by GDP per capita, and Gen ti is gender equality. δ 1 and δ 2 are coefficients of income and gender equality. It is expected that they are positive and significantly associated with health. δ 3 is estimate for ICT and test if mobile phone positively impacts health while controlling for Inc ti and Gen ti . Statistically insignificant δ 3 would imply that we can cautiously say that Mobile ICTs’ effect on health is mainly passing through income and gender equality. However, positive and statistically significant δ 3 would indicate other channels may also have a role. For example, mobile ICT could directly influence health. For instance, ICT can possibly enhance access to customize health information, which would influence healthy living through dietary and food choices.

4.2. Estimation methodology

We begin with the one-way fixed effect regression model (FEM) of Gujarati and Porter (2009. In a FEM model, each country, i , is allowed to have its own time-invariant (hence the name fixed effect) intercept ( β 0 i instead of β 0 ) while assuming that the slope coefficients are constant across time. The FEM equation is presented as follows:

If we relax the assumption that β 0 i is time-invariant and substitute it with a random variable with a mean value of β 0 (no i subscript) such that:

Where ε i is a random error with mean 0 and variance, σ τ 2 . The resulting method is called the one-way random effect model (REM), also known as the error components model (ECM) because the composite error term, w ti , consists of two (or more) error components. The REM equation is presented as follows:

Where w ti = ε i + μ ti . The composite residual, w ti has two elements: ε i , which is the cross-section or individual-specific error and μ ti , which is the collective time series and the cross-section error component.

The question of which model (FEM vs. REM) is preferable is based on the assumption one makes about the likely correlation between the individual, cross-section, error component, ε i , and the regressors. If it is assumed that ε i and the regressors are uncorrelated, the random effect model would be appropriate, whereas if ε i and the regressors are correlated, the fixed effect model can be appropriate. Before proceeding with the estimation, we also address some common concerns with respect to the series under study. We conducted stationarity tests on the PICs panel and ensured that the variables in the study are stationary. We apply the panel unit root test [ 64 – 66 ]. Collinearity is less likely in a panel since the country cross-section adds variability [ 67 ].

5. Results and discussion

We start our quantitative analysis by using panel fixed and random effect estimation. Although the elasticity coefficients are consistent in both estimations, we verify the appropriateness of the two models. In panel analysis, researchers routinely employ fixed and random estimation models and select the appropriate model based on [ 68 ] test. The test statistics generated by Hausman have an asymptotic X 2 distribution. We carry out redundant fixed and correlated random effects Hausman test. The null hypothesis for the fixed effect is that it is redundant whereas the null hypothesis for the random effect is that omitted variables are uncorrelated. The fixed and random effect tests are shown in Table 3 .

Note: Null hypothesis for the fixed effect is that it is redundant. The null hypothesis for random effect is that omitted variables are uncorrelated with explanatory variables.

*** indicates a 10% significance level.

For the fixed effect test in Panel A, the significant probability values indicate that the null is rejected and that period effects are not redundant. However, cross-section effects are insignificant, implying that the effects are redundant. This means that omitted variable issue is not fixed for the panel of countries across time. On the other hand, the correlated random effect test [ 68 ] in Panel B shows that the random effect model is uncorrelated, indicating random effect model is appropriate. Thus, the result from the random effect is presented and discussed in the paper.

5.1. Health outcomes of ICT

Although the sample of countries is from the same geographical region and similar demographic and socio-economic parameters, the specific health and gender outcomes can differ between countries. To consider country differences, we also include country dummies in the random effect model. However, the result remains fairly the same and country dummies are found to be statistically insignificant. We also run these regressions with MM-based Robust Least Square estimation to compare the consistency of the estimates.

Table 4 reports the results of the relationship between ICT and health using random effect (RE) and Robust Least Square (RLS) estimator. We estimate three variants of Eq ( 1 ) to test the robustness of the result of ICT on the health outcomes for the panel of five Pacific Island countries. The results show that ICT (mobile phone use) is positively associated with life expectancy, which is an indicator of healthy living. In all specifications, mobile use is positive and significant. With the RE estimator and controlling for other factors, mobile use has a 0.003 percent higher life expectancy. The coefficient for mobile phone use in the RLS estimation is similar in magnitude change and statistically significant. Although this proposition is not been examined earlier for PICs [ 5 , 27 ], hypothesized that technology can contribute to healthy living. Access to customized health care advice through mobile devices would enable the population to better look after themselves. Health expenditure as a percent of GDP and human capital is found to have a positive and statistically significant impact on life expectancy in all models.

Notes: The estimated coefficients are shown with probability values in brackets. RE is a Random effect. RLS is Robust Least Square.

* is p<0.01

** is p<0.05 and

*** is p<0.1.

The result of health regression with the infant mortality rate as a dependent variable is shown in Table 5 . We use this specification to check the robustness of the relationship between ICT and health outcomes. As expected, mobile phone use is negatively associated with the infant mortality rate, implying the use of technology reduces the infant mortality rate. In all the specifications, mobile use is negative and statistically significant. Technologies like mobile phones and other personalized digital gadgets help deliver health-related information, monitor the health of mothers and infants, and enhance self-management of health. For instance, through the development of ICT tools, such as the MyKana app, which tracks the dietary intake on regular basis, people are able to monitor their calorie intake and develop improved health regimes. With the additional control variable, we find that in the final model (3) health expenditure as a percent of GDP has a significant positive relationship with the infant mortality rate. This is consistent with the government’s planned resource allocation for basic primary health care services such as ante-natal care, immunization, nutrition, and health programmes for communities. In comparison to the findings from the literature, [ 63 ], for example, show a positive but insignificant impact of health expenditure on the crude death rate in Pacific Island countries. Human capital is inversely related to the infant mortality rate in PICs. This is plausible as knowledge and information gained via technology about health, would make the population more cautious and practice healthy living [ 69 ]. This finding also suggests the need for training and education of the population with respect to ICT skills. The result for mobile use and health-related expenditure in RLS estimation is consistent and similar to RE estimates.

5.2. Gender outcomes of ICT

Table 6 shows the results of ICT on gender equality. Although insignificant, initially (Model 1) the effect of mobile phone use is positively associated with the female labor force, which is an indicator of gender equality. In the subsequent models (2 and 3) we introduce additional economic control variables. We find that ICT and gender have a statistically significant and positive relationship. This finding potentially suggests that other economic fundamentals need to be in place for ICT to be effective in reducing gender gaps [ 56 ]. The coefficient estimate of mobile phone use is fairly consistent across the models and with a different estimator. Assuming everything else constant, mobile subscription increases the female labor force participation rate by 0.033 percent, which is about a 2 percent increase over the mean female labor force participation rate in PICs. This effect of information and communication technology on the gender dimension is not analyzed earlier.

Consistent with economic theory, we find that human capital has a significant positive relationship with gender equality. The human capital theory postulates that education and training are essential determinants of employment and income. An increase in human capital enhances the opportunity to enter the labor force and employment [ 70 , 71 ]. Therefore, Pacific women must obtain essential training and skills, which would raise their capacity in the job market as well as better their status in the gender dimension. Comparing the results, we find tourism explains most of the change in the female labor force in PICs. Tourism provides better opportunities for women’s workforce participation [ 19 ]. For Pacific Island countries tourism is the leading service sector for which these countries not only rely on jobs and foreign exchange but also for long-term economic growth. Based on this result it appears that tourism could play a pivotal role in achieving the objectives of the 2030 agenda for SDG, in particular the commitments to gender equality and empowerment of women [ 19 ].

To check for the robustness of our findings, we use female employment instead of the female labor force as the dependent variable to estimate the ICT-gender model. There is a lack of related data on gender equality in Pacific Island countries. There is little in the way of time series data covering the gender dimension of these countries. The results are shown in Table 7 (RE and RLS estimation). Based on the RE estimates, we find mobile phone use separately has a positive but insignificant relationship with female employment. However, in the subsequent regression, which takes into consideration other variables, we established a significant positive relationship. Again, this implies that while ICT alone may not be able to promote gender equality, taken together with other economic fundamentals, ICT could potentially have a significant benefit in the gender dimension. The effect of all other control variables (tourism earning and human capital) are as expected and their coefficients are of similar significance and sign, as reported earlier.

Note: The estimated coefficients are shown with probability values in brackets. RE is a Random effect. RLS is Robust Least Square.

5.3. Explaining the potential mechanism of health outcomes of ICT

We now examine model (2) explaining possible mechanisms through which ICT can impact health outcomes in PICs to gain additional insights. The results are reported in Table 8 . We use life expectancy as a health indicator as a dependent variable for all the variants of the model (2). In the first column (1) of Table 8 , we include the mobile phone variable separately together with other control variables. This is shown mainly for comparison purposes and as found in an earlier analysis that technology–and particularly mobile subscription–is positive and significantly associated with health. The specification in column (2) includes income and gender variables but excludes mobile phone use instead. It is observed that both these variables have a significant and positive relationship with life expectancy. This indicates that income and female empowerment contribute to health outcomes in PICs. We showed earlier that technology use has a positive outcome on gender equality and income [ 30 ], suggesting that some of the effects of technology on health pass through the income and gender parity channel. In column (3) of Table 8 , we include mobile use together with income and gender variables to examine whether there are other possible channels via which ICT impacts health outcomes. While the estimated coefficient of income almost remains the same, the gender equality variable is insignificant. This is possibly due to controlling for ICT (We do not want to over emphasize the insignificant impact of gender on health, as gender equality does matter health outcome shown in Sekabira and Qaim (2017). We attribute this finding to types of proxies used and estimation techniques in the analysis.). The coefficient of mobile remains consistent and significant, though positive. This is an indication that health outcomes of technology are primarily passing through income and mobile phone use. As discussed above, access and appropriate use of information and communication technology can be a powerful tool for enhancing health and nutrition-related information, which is likely to influence the living habits and health outcomes of the population.

6. Conclusion

Information and communication technology have spread quite rapidly in the Pacific region and other emerging and developing worlds. Previous studies have examined the effect of technology on economic indicators such as economic growth, productivity, and prices. However, studies on the technological implication on broader socio-economic development are limited. Understanding socio-economic effects are of great importance, particularly given the need to meet the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations. In this study, we advanced the literature by modeling the impact of ICT on health outcomes and gender aspects in a panel of five Pacific Island Countries from the period 2000 to 2018. Given the data issues with PICs, especially consistent series on socio-economic indicators, we use available data to model this relationship. Health outcome was measured in terms of life expectancy and infant mortality rate. Gender equality was measured in terms of female labor force participation and employment.

Our results, which are robust to a series of tests, show that technology, measured by mobile phone use and internet access is positively associated with life expectancy and reduces the infant mortality rate. The results remain consistent after considering potential confounding economic factors and different estimation methodologies. The impact of mobile phone use on gender equality is also positive, however, this is only after controlling for economic variables such as human capital and tourism. In other words, the effectiveness of technology in gender equality passes through economic fundamentals. This is plausible because technology including mobile phones enables women to get access to information and markets, which they are often constrained with, and with correct economic fundamentals it can be advantageous for women. Further, with respect to a possible mechanism for ICT’s impact on health, while we found that gender equality matters for health, mobile phone use and income are found to be the primary conduit for health outcomes.

The above-mentioned relationships are not only plausible but also constant with economic theory. While the results are robust, we use macroeconomic data that could potentially under-state the measurement issues. The other limitation of the study is the lack of consistent national-level other indicators such as service coverage and health care seeking rate for health outcomes and women empowerment (political, education, health) for gender equality. Once available, future studies can further authenticate the complex co-evolution between health, gender, and technology. Further, future studies using our or other frameworks but with primary data can provide further insights on the role of ICT on health and gender outcomes.

Despite this, we cautiously conclude that technology, particularly mobile phones are a significant determinant of health outcomes and gender equality in Pacific Island Countries. Since the chosen five Pacific Island Countries are typical of the Pacific region and other small economies (in terms of technology adoption, health and gender dimension, and other socio-economic indicators), some policy implications can be drawn. We suggest fostering ICT inclusion in health and gender dimensions of national policy initiatives. Thus, with appropriate ICT infrastructure, education, training, and policy strategies in place, health and gender outcomes can be improved in such economies. Given the relative cost of internet service and mobile phones has declined significantly, the island countries’ connectivity and networking using the various platforms have increased rapidly. This has a positive development impact, which otherwise may not be possible because of the distance, poor physical infrastructure, and low income of societies in the Pacific. Since ICT provides positive spillover effects, its infrastructure cost should be subsidized by the government.

Funding Statement

The authors received no specific funding for this work.

Data Availability