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Video: Understanding the Scientific Method

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Presented by: Christopher Rock, PhD

Learn how to create a hypothesis, as well as the steps of hypothesis-driven research and why these steps are important.

Resources: Understanding the Scientific Method Worksheet

Slide 1: Title

• Hello and welcome to the CHOP-RISES skill blitz on understanding the scientific method.
• I am Christopher Rock and will be guiding you through the topic.

Slide 2: Learning Objectives

• There are four goals for this skill blitz.
• First, we will introduce you to different types of scientific research.
• Second, we will detail the steps of hypothesis-driven research, with emphasis on why their structure is important to good science.
• Next, we will explore what makes a strong hypothesis.
• Lastly, we will cover two advanced research topics, experimental controls and sampling bias.

Slide 3: Quote

• To kick off this blitz, I would like to share a line said by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's character, Sherlock Holmes: “I have no data yet. It is a capital mistake to theorise before one has data. Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts.”

Slide 4: Facts and Theory

• Scientific research can be described as acquiring facts and generating theorems to connect them.
• When theory leads, we are forced to nudge or ignore facts altogether when they do not follow the theory.
• However, when the facts lead, the theory becomes stronger and more accurate. With this mindset, theories can evolve as more facts come forth.

Slide 5: Types of Scientific Research

• We will explore three types of scientific research in this blitz: Hypothesis-driven, Discovery-driven, and Descriptive.
• Hypothesis-driven research evaluates a proposed process or explanation (a hypothesis), finding the likelihood of the proposal being true.
• An example of hypothesis-driven research is an animal study questioning if a new blood pressure drug is more effective than those currently available.
• Discovery-driven research similarly has an objective or process to explain but the study runs with no particular explanation in mind. Rather, the explanation comes forth from the analysis, i.e. is discovered.
• An example of discovery-driven research is analyzing a large set of patient data and finding traits, like diabetes or age, that increase risk of heart failure.
• Descriptive research operates with no goal beyond documenting the observations from the study.
• An example of descriptive research would be a case study sent to a clinical journal describing how a pacemaker caused an unusual response in a patient.
• Going forward in this blitz, we will focus on hypothesis-driven research.

Slide 6: Steps of Hypothesis-Driven Research

• Hypothesis-driven research starts with an observation or question that prompts the interest for the study.
• For example, does having a regular sleep cycle improve learning?
• Before going any further, we will conduct background research to frame our question and find out what is currently known and currently not known about the link between sleep and learning.
• With this knowledge, we will formulate a hypothesis, this is the directed inquiry that drives the experiment. It is a specific statement that will be either proven or disproven by the end of the experiment. In this case, we hypothesize that disrupting the day-night cycle will cause an increase in learning time.
• Having established our hypotheses, we will then design and run an experiment to test that hypothesis. An example experiment would have rats learn a maze pattern and see how their solving speed is impacted by the day-night cycles they are exposed to.
• Once the experiment is conducted, the raw data must be analyzed. Typically for hypothesis-driven research, you would use statistical tests to determine how likely the hypothesis is to occur. In our example, this would be the odds of changing the day-night cycle having an effect on the learning time based off of our results.
• Once the data is analyzed, we have to reach a decision to either accept or reject our hypothesis. If the odds having no effect are sufficiently small, typically less than 5%, we would then go ahead and accept our hypothesis.
• It is important to note that this is a circular process. Once we establish our conclusion, new questions will crop up like “is this effect stronger in children or adults?”.
• Lastly, the process is not complete if you do not share the findings with the scientific community. Your results may be the observations that start off someone else’s cycle!

Slide 7: Importance of Structure to Research

• So why is it important that studies are conducted in such a structured manner?
• First, the structure improves the effectiveness of the study. By researching, you make sure your work builds off previous studies but is also not redundant. By keeping organized, your results directly address the question that prompted the study.
• Second, the structure strengthens the rigor and reproducibility of the study. The confidence in our conclusions increases by being meticulous in our approach. An experiment has no value if the results cannot be replicated by other parties.
• Last but not least, by following a standard approach, other researchers can better utilize your findings, making your work much more impactful. You also benefit as this means other researchers will be more interested in working with you in the future.

Slide 8: Creating a hypothesis

• A hypothesis is the fulcrum by which your study pivots around; so effective studies need strong hypotheses.
• Unlike an experimental question, which is somewhat vague and open ended, a hypothesis is a statement by which the results will be evaluated.
• A hypothesis should be specific to the variables of interest of the study.
• A hypothesis needs to be detailed so the exact effect that is being evaluated is known.
• A hypothesis must be a statement that can be tested and proven false, otherwise, no conclusion to accept or reject it can be made.

Slide 9: Weak and strong hypothesis

• Now we will explore two weak hypothesis and see how we strengthen them.
• First hypothesis: smoking causes lung cancer.
• This hypothesis is weak on the specifics, does not have enough details for an experiment, nor is it easily tested.
• A stronger hypothesis would be: Lung cancer incidence is greater in smokers than the general population.
• This statement has a specific variable we are evaluating, details what we are looking at, and can easily be proven either true or false.
• Our second example hypothesis: Cell phones do not cause Alzheimer’s disease.
• This hypothesis is very vague, has only limited details, and it would be hard to prove false, making it a weak hypothesis.
• A more effective hypothesis would be: Amount of cell phone usage does not correlate with the age of onset of Alzheimer’s disease.
• This hypothesis clearly specifies what is being evaluated, details what analysis is being done, and can readily be tested, making it a stronger hypothesis.

Slide 10: Experimental controls

• We will move on to our first advanced topic, experimental controls.
• Establishing controls helps determine what is the normal response or effect.
• Especially in biology, there are many responses to treatment or environment, such as changing temperature. Therefore, we want to minimize the effects of variables that are not part of the study.
• You have likely heard of the placebo effect, how just the act of taking medicine induces a response. This is why drug studies will have a placebo group that takes medicine designed to have no effect.
• If you are testing some treatment, the control group may be what is the normal care given to compare against.

Slide 11: Control Example

• Let’s say we are conducting a clinical trial for an anti-insomnia medication.
• If we get in the results showing improvement from the test group, how can we be sure any changes are a result of the medication and not some other effect?
• Answer: Add in a control group.
• This group would receive a placebo, a treatment without the active drug.
• Now, think on this: With this control group, what does it mean for our drug if the control group does not show any improvement in sleep? What does it mean if the control group does report improved sleep?

Slide 12: Sampling Bias

• The second advanced topic this blitz will cover is sampling bias.
• Sampling bias occurs when the study group formed has a distribution that does not properly represent the population the study is about.
• For example, you are studying a hard-shelled candy that comes in 5 colours, evenly distributed. If your sample group of 30 looks like this, you likely have some bias in your sampling method with some colours being overrepresented and other colours being underrepresented. This bias would undermine any conclusions you make about the candy in general.
• One source is the criteria for how the subjects of the study are selected or excluded. For example, a study that looks at tissues from dead people will be overrepresented by sick persons.
• Next, if the study requires those involved to comply with requests, people who do not do so become excluded.
• Lastly, there are instances where there is intentional sampling bias in order to manipulate results to get a specific conclusion. This misconduct not only introduces false data but also undermines people’s confidence in the processes.
• At the end of the day, all studies will have limitations, for example: almost every study group will be smaller than the general population, so some individuals will not be represented. Not all selection bias can be eliminated. Therefore, as researchers we strive to minimize bias if possible, to acknowledge bias when we cannot, and to document our process in detail so biases we are unaware of can be found.

Slide 13: Learning objectives

• So let’s check through our learning objectives.
• We have gone over 3 different types of scientific research: hypothesis-driven, discovery-driven, and descriptive.
• We walked through the steps of hypothesis driven research and discussed the importance of their structure.
• We have defined what makes a strong hypothesis.
• And we have been introduced to the concepts of experimental controls and sampling bias alongside the role they play in scientific research.

Slide 14: References and Extra Resources

• I hope this blitz has proved useful.
• Here are reference links to the slide figures as well as some supplemental reading on the subjects.
• I would like to thank Dr. Sara Rego for organizing this blitz and providing consultation on the content.
• I wish you the best of luck with your own studies wherever they may take you!

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How to Write a Strong Hypothesis in 6 Simple Steps

• DESCRIPTION how to write a hypothesis directions
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A hypothesis is an important part of the scientific method. It’s an idea or a proposal based on limited evidence. What comes next is the exciting part. The idea or proposal must be proven through facts, direct testing and evidence. Since the hypothesis acts as the foundation for future research, learn how to write a hypothesis through steps and examples.

What Is a Hypothesis Statement?

A hypothesis statement tells the world what you predict will happen in research. One of the most important elements of a hypothesis is that it must be able to be tested . Sure, you might hypothesize that unicorn horns are made of white gold. But, if you can’t test the independent and dependent variables , your hypothesis will have to remain in your dreams.

If, however, you hypothesize that rose quartz and other crystals possess healing powers, then you might be able to perform a few tests and carry on with your hypothesis. You will have some evidence that either supports or does not support your hypothesis. Now that you know what it is, it’s time to learn how to write a hypothesis.

Steps for How to Write a Hypothesis

When it comes to writing a hypothesis, there are six basic steps:

• Ask a question.
• Gather preliminary research.
• Formulate an answer.
• Write a hypothesis.
• Refine your hypothesis.
• Create a null hypothesis.

1. Ask a Question

In the scientific method , the first step is to ask a question. Frame this question using the classic six: who, what, where, when, why, or how. Sample questions might include:

• How long does it take carrots to grow?
• Why does the sky get darker earlier in winter?
• What happened to the dinosaurs?
• How did we evolve from monkeys?
• Why are students antsier on Friday afternoon?

How does sleep affect motivation?

• Why do IEP accommodations work in schools?

You want the question to be specific and focused. It also needs to be researchable, of course. Once you know you can research your question from several angles, it’s time to start some preliminary research.

2. Gather Preliminary Research

It’s time to collect data. This will come in the form of case studies and academic journals , as well as your own experiments and observations .

Remember, it’s important to explore your question from all sides. Don’t let conflicting research deter you. You might come upon many naysayers as you gather background information. That doesn’t invalidate your hypothesis. In fact, you can use their findings as potential rebuttals and frame your study in such a way as to address these concerns.

For example, if you are looking at the question: "How does sleep affect motivation?", you might find studies with conflicting research about eight hours vs. six hours of sleep. You can use these conflicting points to help to guide the creation of your hypothesis.

3. Formulate an Answer To Your Question

After completing all your research, think about how you will answer your question and defend your position. For example, say the question you posed was:

As you start to collect basic observations and information, you'll find that a lack of sleep creates a negative impact on learning. It decreases thought processes and makes it harder to learn anything new. Therefore, when you are tired, it's harder to learn and requires more effort. Since it is harder, you can be less motivated to do it. Additionally, you discover that there is a point where sleep affects functioning. You use this research to answer your question.

Getting less than eight hours of sleep makes it harder to learn anything new and make new memories. This makes learning harder so you are less likely to be motivated.

4. Write a Hypothesis

With the answer to your question at the ready, it’s time to formulate your hypothesis. To write a good hypothesis, it should include:

• Relevant variables
• Predicted outcome
• Who/what is being studied

Remember that your hypothesis needs to be a statement, not a question. It’s an idea, proposal or prediction. For example, a research hypothesis is formatted in an if/then statement:

If a person gets less than eight hours of sleep, then they will be less motivated at work or school.

This statement shows you:

• who is being studied - a person
• the variables - sleep and motivation
• your prediction - less sleep means less motivation

5. Refine Your Hypothesis

While you might be able to stop at writing your research hypothesis, some hypotheses might be a correlation study or studying the difference between two groups. In these instances, you want to state the relationship or difference you expect to find.

A correlation hypothesis might be:

Getting less than eight hours of sleep has a negative impact on work or school motivation.

A hypothesis showing difference might be:

Those with seven or fewer hours of sleep are less motivated than those with eight or more to complete tasks.

6. Create a Null Hypothesis

Depending on your study, you may need to perform some statistical analysis on the data you collect. When forming your hypothesis statement using the scientific method, it’s important to know the difference between a null hypothesis vs. the alternative hypothesis, and how to create a null hypothesis.

• A null hypothesis , often denoted as H 0 , posits that there is no apparent difference or that there is no evidence to support a difference. Using the motivation example above, the null hypothesis would be that sleep hours have no effect on motivation.
• An alternative hypothesis , often denoted as H 1 , states that there is a statistically significant difference, or there is evidence to support such a difference. Going back to the same carrot example, the alternative hypothesis is that a person getting six hours of sleep has less motivation than someone getting eight hours of sleep.

Good and Bad Hypothesis Examples

Here are a few examples of good and bad hypotheses to get you started.

Tips for Writing a Hypothesis

To write a strong hypothesis, keep these important tips in mind.

• Don’t just choose a topic randomly. Find something that interests you.
• Keep it clear and to the point.
• Use your research to guide you.
• Always clearly define your variables.
• Write it as an if-then statement. If this, then that is the expected outcome.

How to Make a Hypothesis

A hypothesis involves a statement about what you will do, but also what you expect to happen or speculation about what could occur. Once you’ve written your hypothesis, you’ll need to test it, analyze the data and form your conclusion. To read more about hypothesis testing, explore good examples of hypothesis testing .

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Writing a Hypothesis for Your Science Fair Project

What is a hypothesis.

Once a scientist has a scientific question she is interested in, the scientist reads up to find out what is already known on the topic. Then she uses that information to form a tentative answer to her scientific question. Sometimes people refer to the tentative answer as "an educated guess." Keep in mind, though, that the hypothesis also has to be testable since the next step is to do an experiment to determine whether or not the hypothesis is right!

A hypothesis leads to one or more predictions that can be tested by experimenting.

Predictions often take the shape of "If ____then ____" statements, but do not have to. Predictions should include both an independent variable (the factor you change in an experiment) and a dependent variable (the factor you observe or measure in an experiment). A single hypothesis can lead to multiple predictions, but generally, one or two predictions is enough to tackle for a science fair project.

Examples of Hypotheses and Predictions

What if my hypothesis is wrong.

What happens if, at the end of your science project, you look at the data you have collected and you realize it does not support your hypothesis? First, do not panic! The point of a science project is not to prove your hypothesis right. The point is to understand more about how the natural world works. Or, as it is sometimes put, to find out the scientific truth. When scientists do an experiment, they very often have data that shows their starting hypothesis was wrong. Why? Well, the natural world is complex—it takes a lot of experimenting to figure out how it works—and the more explanations you test, the closer you get to figuring out the truth. For scientists, disproving a hypothesis still means they gained important information, and they can use that information to make their next hypothesis even better. In a science fair setting, judges can be just as impressed by projects that start out with a faulty hypothesis; what matters more is whether you understood your science fair project, had a well-controlled experiment, and have ideas about what you would do next to improve your project if you had more time. You can read more about a science fair judge's view on disproving your hypothesis at Learn More About the Scientific Method .

It is worth noting, scientists never talk about their hypothesis being "right" or "wrong." Instead, they say that their data "supports" or "does not support" their hypothesis. This goes back to the point that nature is complex—so complex that it takes more than a single experiment to figure it all out because a single experiment could give you misleading data. For example, let us say that you hypothesize that earthworms do not exist in places that have very cold winters because it is too cold for them to survive. You then predict that you will find earthworms in the dirt in Florida, which has warm winters, but not Alaska, which has cold winters. When you go and dig a 3-foot by 3-foot-wide and 1-foot-deep hole in the dirt in those two states, you discover Floridian earthworms, but not Alaskan ones. So, was your hypothesis right? Well, your data "supported" your hypothesis, but your experiment did not cover that much ground. Can you really be sure there are no earthworms in Alaska? No. Which is why scientists only support (or not) their hypothesis with data, rather than proving them. And for the curious, yes there are earthworms in Alaska .

What Makes a Good Hypothesis?

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Course: statistics and probability   >   unit 12, simple hypothesis testing.

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Video transcript

Hypothesis Maker Online

Looking for a hypothesis maker? This online tool for students will help you formulate a beautiful hypothesis quickly, efficiently, and for free.

Are you looking for an effective hypothesis maker online? Worry no more; try our online tool for students and formulate your hypothesis within no time.

• 🔎 How to Use the Tool?
• ⚗️ What Is a Hypothesis in Science?

👍 What Does a Good Hypothesis Mean?

• 🧭 Steps to Making a Good Hypothesis

🔗 References

📄 hypothesis maker: how to use it.

Our hypothesis maker is a simple and efficient tool you can access online for free.

If you want to create a research hypothesis quickly, you should fill out the research details in the given fields on the hypothesis generator.

Below are the fields you should complete to generate your hypothesis:

• Who or what is your research based on? For instance, the subject can be research group 1.
• What does the subject (research group 1) do?
• What does the subject affect? - This shows the predicted outcome, which is the object.
• Who or what will be compared with research group 1? (research group 2).

Once you fill the in the fields, you can click the ‘Make a hypothesis’ tab and get your results.

⚗️ What Is a Hypothesis in the Scientific Method?

A hypothesis is a statement describing an expectation or prediction of your research through observation.

It is similar to academic speculation and reasoning that discloses the outcome of your scientific test . An effective hypothesis, therefore, should be crafted carefully and with precision.

A good hypothesis should have dependent and independent variables . These variables are the elements you will test in your research method – it can be a concept, an event, or an object as long as it is observable.

You can observe the dependent variables while the independent variables keep changing during the experiment.

In a nutshell, a hypothesis directs and organizes the research methods you will use, forming a large section of research paper writing.

Hypothesis vs. Theory

A hypothesis is a realistic expectation that researchers make before any investigation. It is formulated and tested to prove whether the statement is true. A theory, on the other hand, is a factual principle supported by evidence. Thus, a theory is more fact-backed compared to a hypothesis.

Another difference is that a hypothesis is presented as a single statement , while a theory can be an assortment of things . Hypotheses are based on future possibilities toward a specific projection, but the results are uncertain. Theories are verified with undisputable results because of proper substantiation.

When it comes to data, a hypothesis relies on limited information , while a theory is established on an extensive data set tested on various conditions.

You should observe the stated assumption to prove its accuracy.

Since hypotheses have observable variables, their outcome is usually based on a specific occurrence. Conversely, theories are grounded on a general principle involving multiple experiments and research tests.

This general principle can apply to many specific cases.

The primary purpose of formulating a hypothesis is to present a tentative prediction for researchers to explore further through tests and observations. Theories, in their turn, aim to explain plausible occurrences in the form of a scientific study.

It would help to rely on several criteria to establish a good hypothesis. Below are the parameters you should use to analyze the quality of your hypothesis.

🧭 6 Steps to Making a Good Hypothesis

Writing a hypothesis becomes way simpler if you follow a tried-and-tested algorithm. Let’s explore how you can formulate a good hypothesis in a few steps:

Step #1: Ask Questions

The first step in hypothesis creation is asking real questions about the surrounding reality.

Why do things happen as they do? What are the causes of some occurrences?

Your curiosity will trigger great questions that you can use to formulate a stellar hypothesis. So, ensure you pick a research topic of interest to scrutinize the world’s phenomena, processes, and events.

Step #2: Do Initial Research

Carry out preliminary research and gather essential background information about your topic of choice.

The extent of the information you collect will depend on what you want to prove.

Your initial research can be complete with a few academic books or a simple Internet search for quick answers with relevant statistics.

Still, keep in mind that in this phase, it is too early to prove or disapprove of your hypothesis.

Step #3: Identify Your Variables

Now that you have a basic understanding of the topic, choose the dependent and independent variables.

Take note that independent variables are the ones you can’t control, so understand the limitations of your test before settling on a final hypothesis.

Step #4: Formulate Your Hypothesis

You can write your hypothesis as an ‘if – then’ expression . Presenting any hypothesis in this format is reliable since it describes the cause-and-effect you want to test.

For instance: If I study every day, then I will get good grades.

Step #5: Gather Relevant Data

Once you have identified your variables and formulated the hypothesis, you can start the experiment. Remember, the conclusion you make will be a proof or rebuttal of your initial assumption.

So, gather relevant information, whether for a simple or statistical hypothesis, because you need to back your statement.

Step #6: Record Your Findings

Finally, write down your conclusions in a research paper .

Outline in detail whether the test has proved or disproved your hypothesis.

Edit and proofread your work, using a plagiarism checker to ensure the authenticity of your text.

We hope that the above tips will be useful for you. Note that if you need to conduct business analysis, you can use the free templates we’ve prepared: SWOT , PESTLE , VRIO , SOAR , and Porter’s 5 Forces .

❓ Hypothesis Formulator FAQ

Updated: Oct 25th, 2023

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Use our hypothesis maker whenever you need to formulate a hypothesis for your study. We offer a very simple tool where you just need to provide basic info about your variables, subjects, and predicted outcomes. The rest is on us. Get a perfect hypothesis in no time!

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Home » What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

What is a Hypothesis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Hypothesis is an educated guess or proposed explanation for a phenomenon, based on some initial observations or data. It is a tentative statement that can be tested and potentially proven or disproven through further investigation and experimentation.

Hypothesis is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments and the collection and analysis of data. It is an essential element of the scientific method, as it allows researchers to make predictions about the outcome of their experiments and to test those predictions to determine their accuracy.

Types of Hypothesis

Types of Hypothesis are as follows:

Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a statement that predicts a relationship between variables. It is usually formulated as a specific statement that can be tested through research, and it is often used in scientific research to guide the design of experiments.

Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is no significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as a starting point for testing the research hypothesis, and if the results of the study reject the null hypothesis, it suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship between variables.

Alternative Hypothesis

An alternative hypothesis is a statement that assumes there is a significant difference or relationship between variables. It is often used as an alternative to the null hypothesis and is tested against the null hypothesis to determine which statement is more accurate.

Directional Hypothesis

A directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the direction of the relationship between variables. For example, a researcher might predict that increasing the amount of exercise will result in a decrease in body weight.

Non-directional Hypothesis

A non-directional hypothesis is a statement that predicts the relationship between variables but does not specify the direction. For example, a researcher might predict that there is a relationship between the amount of exercise and body weight, but they do not specify whether increasing or decreasing exercise will affect body weight.

Statistical Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis is a statement that assumes a particular statistical model or distribution for the data. It is often used in statistical analysis to test the significance of a particular result.

Composite Hypothesis

A composite hypothesis is a statement that assumes more than one condition or outcome. It can be divided into several sub-hypotheses, each of which represents a different possible outcome.

Empirical Hypothesis

An empirical hypothesis is a statement that is based on observed phenomena or data. It is often used in scientific research to develop theories or models that explain the observed phenomena.

Simple Hypothesis

A simple hypothesis is a statement that assumes only one outcome or condition. It is often used in scientific research to test a single variable or factor.

Complex Hypothesis

A complex hypothesis is a statement that assumes multiple outcomes or conditions. It is often used in scientific research to test the effects of multiple variables or factors on a particular outcome.

Applications of Hypothesis

Hypotheses are used in various fields to guide research and make predictions about the outcomes of experiments or observations. Here are some examples of how hypotheses are applied in different fields:

• Science : In scientific research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain natural phenomena. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular variable on a natural system, such as the effects of climate change on an ecosystem.
• Medicine : In medical research, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of treatments and therapies for specific conditions. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new drug on a particular disease.
• Psychology : In psychology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of human behavior and cognition. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a particular stimulus on the brain or behavior.
• Sociology : In sociology, hypotheses are used to test theories and models of social phenomena, such as the effects of social structures or institutions on human behavior. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of income inequality on crime rates.
• Business : In business research, hypotheses are used to test the validity of theories and models that explain business phenomena, such as consumer behavior or market trends. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the effects of a new marketing campaign on consumer buying behavior.
• Engineering : In engineering, hypotheses are used to test the effectiveness of new technologies or designs. For example, a hypothesis might be formulated to test the efficiency of a new solar panel design.

How to write a Hypothesis

Here are the steps to follow when writing a hypothesis:

Identify the Research Question

The first step is to identify the research question that you want to answer through your study. This question should be clear, specific, and focused. It should be something that can be investigated empirically and that has some relevance or significance in the field.

Conduct a Literature Review

Before writing your hypothesis, it’s essential to conduct a thorough literature review to understand what is already known about the topic. This will help you to identify the research gap and formulate a hypothesis that builds on existing knowledge.

Determine the Variables

The next step is to identify the variables involved in the research question. A variable is any characteristic or factor that can vary or change. There are two types of variables: independent and dependent. The independent variable is the one that is manipulated or changed by the researcher, while the dependent variable is the one that is measured or observed as a result of the independent variable.

Formulate the Hypothesis

Based on the research question and the variables involved, you can now formulate your hypothesis. A hypothesis should be a clear and concise statement that predicts the relationship between the variables. It should be testable through empirical research and based on existing theory or evidence.

Write the Null Hypothesis

The null hypothesis is the opposite of the alternative hypothesis, which is the hypothesis that you are testing. The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference or relationship between the variables. It is important to write the null hypothesis because it allows you to compare your results with what would be expected by chance.

Refine the Hypothesis

After formulating the hypothesis, it’s important to refine it and make it more precise. This may involve clarifying the variables, specifying the direction of the relationship, or making the hypothesis more testable.

Examples of Hypothesis

Here are a few examples of hypotheses in different fields:

• Psychology : “Increased exposure to violent video games leads to increased aggressive behavior in adolescents.”
• Biology : “Higher levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will lead to increased plant growth.”
• Sociology : “Individuals who grow up in households with higher socioeconomic status will have higher levels of education and income as adults.”
• Education : “Implementing a new teaching method will result in higher student achievement scores.”
• Marketing : “Customers who receive a personalized email will be more likely to make a purchase than those who receive a generic email.”
• Physics : “An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the volume of a gas, assuming all other variables remain constant.”
• Medicine : “Consuming a diet high in saturated fats will increase the risk of developing heart disease.”

Purpose of Hypothesis

The purpose of a hypothesis is to provide a testable explanation for an observed phenomenon or a prediction of a future outcome based on existing knowledge or theories. A hypothesis is an essential part of the scientific method and helps to guide the research process by providing a clear focus for investigation. It enables scientists to design experiments or studies to gather evidence and data that can support or refute the proposed explanation or prediction.

The formulation of a hypothesis is based on existing knowledge, observations, and theories, and it should be specific, testable, and falsifiable. A specific hypothesis helps to define the research question, which is important in the research process as it guides the selection of an appropriate research design and methodology. Testability of the hypothesis means that it can be proven or disproven through empirical data collection and analysis. Falsifiability means that the hypothesis should be formulated in such a way that it can be proven wrong if it is incorrect.

In addition to guiding the research process, the testing of hypotheses can lead to new discoveries and advancements in scientific knowledge. When a hypothesis is supported by the data, it can be used to develop new theories or models to explain the observed phenomenon. When a hypothesis is not supported by the data, it can help to refine existing theories or prompt the development of new hypotheses to explain the phenomenon.

When to use Hypothesis

Here are some common situations in which hypotheses are used:

• In scientific research , hypotheses are used to guide the design of experiments and to help researchers make predictions about the outcomes of those experiments.
• In social science research , hypotheses are used to test theories about human behavior, social relationships, and other phenomena.
• I n business , hypotheses can be used to guide decisions about marketing, product development, and other areas. For example, a hypothesis might be that a new product will sell well in a particular market, and this hypothesis can be tested through market research.

Characteristics of Hypothesis

Here are some common characteristics of a hypothesis:

• Testable : A hypothesis must be able to be tested through observation or experimentation. This means that it must be possible to collect data that will either support or refute the hypothesis.
• Falsifiable : A hypothesis must be able to be proven false if it is not supported by the data. If a hypothesis cannot be falsified, then it is not a scientific hypothesis.
• Clear and concise : A hypothesis should be stated in a clear and concise manner so that it can be easily understood and tested.
• Based on existing knowledge : A hypothesis should be based on existing knowledge and research in the field. It should not be based on personal beliefs or opinions.
• Specific : A hypothesis should be specific in terms of the variables being tested and the predicted outcome. This will help to ensure that the research is focused and well-designed.
• Tentative: A hypothesis is a tentative statement or assumption that requires further testing and evidence to be confirmed or refuted. It is not a final conclusion or assertion.
• Relevant : A hypothesis should be relevant to the research question or problem being studied. It should address a gap in knowledge or provide a new perspective on the issue.

Advantages of Hypothesis

Hypotheses have several advantages in scientific research and experimentation:

• Guides research: A hypothesis provides a clear and specific direction for research. It helps to focus the research question, select appropriate methods and variables, and interpret the results.
• Predictive powe r: A hypothesis makes predictions about the outcome of research, which can be tested through experimentation. This allows researchers to evaluate the validity of the hypothesis and make new discoveries.
• Facilitates communication: A hypothesis provides a common language and framework for scientists to communicate with one another about their research. This helps to facilitate the exchange of ideas and promotes collaboration.
• Efficient use of resources: A hypothesis helps researchers to use their time, resources, and funding efficiently by directing them towards specific research questions and methods that are most likely to yield results.
• Provides a basis for further research: A hypothesis that is supported by data provides a basis for further research and exploration. It can lead to new hypotheses, theories, and discoveries.
• Increases objectivity: A hypothesis can help to increase objectivity in research by providing a clear and specific framework for testing and interpreting results. This can reduce bias and increase the reliability of research findings.

Limitations of Hypothesis

Some Limitations of the Hypothesis are as follows:

• Limited to observable phenomena: Hypotheses are limited to observable phenomena and cannot account for unobservable or intangible factors. This means that some research questions may not be amenable to hypothesis testing.
• May be inaccurate or incomplete: Hypotheses are based on existing knowledge and research, which may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to flawed hypotheses and erroneous conclusions.
• May be biased: Hypotheses may be biased by the researcher’s own beliefs, values, or assumptions. This can lead to selective interpretation of data and a lack of objectivity in research.
• Cannot prove causation: A hypothesis can only show a correlation between variables, but it cannot prove causation. This requires further experimentation and analysis.
• Limited to specific contexts: Hypotheses are limited to specific contexts and may not be generalizable to other situations or populations. This means that results may not be applicable in other contexts or may require further testing.
• May be affected by chance : Hypotheses may be affected by chance or random variation, which can obscure or distort the true relationship between variables.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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SciGen Teacher Dashboard

Exploring a Hypothesis

Reaction Times in Sports

Constructing a Hypothesis

Writing a Procedure

Reaction Ruler

Duration: Approximately 50 minutes

Students learn the essential elements of a scientific hypothesis and learn to identify whether or not a statement contains these essential elements. Additionally, students learn to write a detailed procedure for a science experiment.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

Students understand the essential components of a hypothesis.

Teacher Tune-up

• What is a hypothesis and why is it so tricky to teach?

Teaching Notes

ACTIVITY OVERVIEW

Introducing the concept of hypothesis (10 minutes)

Working with examples as a class (20 minutes)

Working with examples individually or in groups (20 minutes)

Paraphrase :

When we construct a scientific hypothesis, we include:

• a view that states what we think is true and
• a reason or cause that we can test with a measurement.

Both examples include two statements from the script of the scene about reaction times in baseball.

The first is Malik’s hypothesis that “Boys are better at hitting fastballs than girls because boys have faster reaction times.” This statement has both elements.

It’s important that students recognize that regardless of our feelings or experiences, a statement that contains the essential elements is indeed a scientific hypothesis.

The second model includes Stephanie’s statement that “They lost because everybody has a bad day now and then.” While this statement has a view that Stephanie believes is true, the reason or cause cannot be tested with a measurement. Some students may insist that this can be tested with a measurement. If they do, encourage them to think about how they would measure having a bad day “now and then.” While Stephanie’s statement may be true, it cannot be a scientific hypothesis because it lacks the second element.

There are other correct ways to frame a hypothesis, such as using an if/then statement.

See here for an explanation of this alternate structure as well as an introduction to the terms dependent and independent variable.

Students identify whether or not a statement can be considered a hypothesis.

Check off whether or not the statement contains the components of a hypothesis.

Students write a brief explanation of their thinking for each statement.

Sample responses :

• George’s statement is a hypothesis because it includes both of the essential parts. First, he states his view that he believes fish are dying because of the pollution from the factory. The cause can be tested with a measurement because someone could measure the amount of pollution found in the stream.
• Christina’s statement contains the essential elements of a hypothesis because she can measure the amount of hours that students study and see if those who study more get higher grades. Because her statement includes a view that she thinks is true and a reason that can be tested with a measurement, Christina’s statement is a hypothesis.
• Tashia’s statement is not a hypothesis because it does not contain a cause or reason that can be measured.

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Hypothesis Maker

Ai-powered research hypothesis generator.

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• Social Science Research: Create a hypothesis for your social science research to explore societal or behavioral patterns.

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Plants that are exposed to longer periods of natural sunlight will have faster and healthier growth compared to those that receive limited or artificial light.

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What's Making Us Happy: Recommendations From 'Pop Culture Happy Hour'

What's making us happy: a guide to your weekend viewing, listening and gaming.

Ryan Mitchell

Linda Holmes

Stephen Thompson

Daisy Rosario

Richard Gadd in Baby Reindeer on Netflix. Netflix hide caption

Richard Gadd in Baby Reindeer on Netflix.

This week, musicians pushed back about ticketing , TikTok was the subject of legislation , and Gatsby was on Broadway .

Here's what NPR's Pop Culture Happy Hour crew was paying attention to — and what you should check out this weekend .

Baby Reindeer , on Netflix

Pop Culture Happy Hour

Netflix's 'baby reindeer': a dark, haunting story bungles its depiction of queerness.

Baby Reindeer on Netflix is absolutely insane. It's about a guy who meets a woman who starts stalking him. I do not want to spoil it. It is making me happy and also stressing me out. I think everyone should watch it if you have the space and time. I have a lot of thoughts about it that I've been trying to work through but I enjoyed it. Sometimes you need to sit through something that's going to keep your heart rate at 160, you know? Why not? — Ryan Mitchell

The podcast Who Killed the Video Star: The Story of MTV

There is no Gen-X complaint more overdone than "they don't play videos on MTV anymore." So I didn't think there was anything left to say about that, but that was before I started to listen to a podcast called Who Killed the Video Star: The Story of MTV. This podcast really gets into the history of MTV's original model and its limitations. It goes through how originally, when they were not playing Black artists on MTV very much or at all, MTV's response was: That's not our format. The audience won't respond to it. So then Michael Jackson's "Thriller" comes out and they are completely wrong, and it's the biggest thing in the history of MTV. The whole thing is hosted by former MTV VJ Dave Holmes (no relation) who has also been a panelist on Pop Culture Happy Hour. He just understands pop culture of my exact vintage in a way that very few people do. It is such a good show. — Linda Holmes

Chappell Roan's Tiny Desk Concert

Last fall, pop singer Chappell Roan put out a record called The Rise and Fall of a Midwest Princess. It is joyful and funny and has beautiful, heartfelt ballads on it. I had the privilege of booking and producing her Tiny Desk concert — the set captures the range of her sound because it's funny, it's quiet, it's warm, it's silly. So what is making me happy is the massive, meteoric, heart-swellingly wonderful rise of Chappell Roan. — Stephen Thompson

Playing retro video games on an Anbernic console

I love retro gaming. So I bought the Anbernic RG35XX H. There are a lot of devices that are sold online that you can play a lot of old games on. But this one doesn't require the amount of setup that a lot of those do. As someone who enjoys these games but doesn't actually engage with them as often as I would like, I think I finally cracked the code — and the code was to get the right size device that has the right amount of power. It's been a lot of fun. — Daisy Rosario

More recommendations from the Pop Culture Happy Hour newsletter

by Linda Holmes

I wrote four years ago about my love of simulator games, including Planet Zoo , which I was playing on a PC despite my general preference for console gaming, because that's all there was. WELL. I am excited to tell you that Planet Zoo is now available for consoles (as of just a few weeks ago), and I am playing the heck out of it on my PS5. I love the orderliness of it, I love the cute little animals, and I love the part where I yell in my living room, "WHY ARE MY FLAMINGOS SO UNHAPPY?" The best. Real zoos may be controversial, but a conservation-oriented imaginary zoo is a delight. (Also out now: House Flipper 2 , the new edition of my favorite game where you clean up and rehab houses.)

I'm a big fan of both Padma Lakshmi and writer Helen Rosner, so I unsurprisingly enthusiastically recommend this terrific profile in The New Yorker.

It's rare these days to have much that's good to say about the finances of a publication you treasure, but the surprise news that The Onion was sold to new owners who actually seem to like it was very heartening.

Beth Novey adapted the Pop Culture Happy Hour segment "What's Making Us Happy" for the Web. If you like these suggestions, consider signing up for our newsletter to get recommendations every week. And listen to Pop Culture Happy Hour on Apple Podcasts and Spotify .

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‘hunter got high:’ biden son’s drug, laptop troubles spoofed in remixed afroman song.

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Afroman reprised his 2000 hit song, “Because I Got High,” with a new version making fun of Hunter Biden. 

Baste Records posted on X on Friday about Afroman’s new song,  “Hunter Got High,”  sharing a link to the full video on YouTube. 

“Hey Hunter! Roll another one of those congressional blunts, brotha,” the video starts, as Afroman and an actor portraying Hunter Biden pull up smoking in the back of a black SUV. 

“He was gonna get his laptop fixed, but Hunter got high,” Afroman sings.

“He shoulda let Hillary bleach the whole hard drive. But Hunter got high, Hunter got high, Hunter got high,” he sings along with the actor portraying Hunter and a white-haired man in a mask portraying President Biden.

Beyond the Hunter Biden laptop, Afroman’s new song also takes jabs at alleged influence peddling by the Biden family , as well the Secret Service confirming that cocaine was found at the White House last summer and subsequently closing that probe without naming a culprit. 

Warning: Graphic language

“He thought he had a secret stash, but Hunter got high. The White House got shut down, and we all know why. Hunter got high, Hunter got high, Hunter got high,” the song says. 

Afroman also mocks Hunter Biden’s art career , which has come under fire by House Republicans raising conflict of interest concerns between wealthy buyers and the White House.

The song continues, “Biden never use to start with B-U-Y. Till Hunter got high, Hunter got high, Hunter got high.”

“Ukraine wasn’t part of the plan, till Hunter got high China wasn’t that big a fan, till Hunter got high. He wasn’t gonna split it all, with the old big guy . But Hunter got high, Hunter got high, Hunter got high,” he says.

Baste Records, founded by Matthew Azrieli, bills itself as a “harbinger of the counter culture to cancel culture.” 

Its website says the record company aims to stand for freedom of speech and freedom of thought in what it says has become a predominantly “woke” mainstream music industry. 

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