social media addiction among students research paper

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• Published: 28 August 2024

Academic self-discipline as a mediating variable in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement: mixed methodology

• Özge Erduran Tekin   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4052-1914 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1096 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Health humanities

This study examines the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the effect of university students’ social media addictions on academic achievement. The study sample consisted of 520 university students with a daily social media usage time of four hours or more, selected using the convenience sampling method. Data were collected from 36 cities in Turkey. Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale, Academic Self-discipline Scale, Personal Information Form, and Semi-structured Interview Form were used as data collection tools. The relationships between variables were analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and regression analysis using Process Macro (model 4). In the regression analysis, mediation was tested with the Bootstrap technique. According to the analysis results, social media addiction predicts academic achievement. In addition, academic self-discipline has a partial mediating role in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement. As a result of the content analysis of the interviews, three themes were reached: “The Reasons for Social Media Addiction, The Effect of Social Media Addiction on Academic Achievement, and The Role of Academic Self-discipline in the Effect of Social Media Addiction on Academic Achievement.” The qualitative results obtained supported the quantitative results. Based on all these, suggestions were made based on increasing academic self-discipline to prevent social media addiction from affecting academic achievement.

Introduction

Excessive and misuse of social media is a crucial problem for the young age group, and social media addiction is quite common among university students (Chen and Peng, 2008 ; Ehrenberg et al. 2008 ; Kalaitzaki et al. 2020 ). When the reasons that push university students to use social media intensively are analyzed; the reasons such as communicating with others more easily, having fun, getting away from disturbing experiences and emotional situations and spending time are in the first place (Cohen et al. 2019 ; Özdemir, 2019 ; Zachos et al. 2018 ). Social media addiction has many negative consequences, including academic failure (Kaplan and Özdemir, 2023 ; Masood et al. 2020 ; Shi et al. 2020 ; Zhao, 2023 ). Problematic social media users are unable to control themselves, at this very point self-discipline may be important in preventing social media addiction (Li et al. 2010 ; Zahrai et al. 2022 ). According to research, self-discipline affects problematic internet use behaviors more than any other variable (Kim et al. 2007 ; Li et al. 2013 ). On the contrary, no study in the literature examines the mediating role of academic self-discipline, which represents the sustainability of self-discipline in academic subjects, in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement.

Relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement

Academic achievement is shaped by very comprehensive variables and is challenging to systematize in a specific model (Thomas and Maree, 2021 ; Whelan et al. 2020 ). However, the reflection of generally learned knowledge and skills in students’ examination performances is accepted as a critical indicator of academic achievement. Given that academic achievement significantly affects the student’s development in future processes, it is considered significant to examine what factors increase and decrease academic achievement (Shi and Qu, 2022 ).

It is important to examine the relationship between social media addiction, which is accepted as one of the problematic behaviors, and academic achievement (Zhao, 2023 ). Social media is an inclusive concept that describes the social networking sites and messaging applications that young people frequently use (Wartberg et al. 2020 ). Social media addiction, which is also accepted as an impulse control disorder, consists of problematic behaviors that manifest themselves as an individual’s irresistible desire for social media applications and loss of willpower, neglecting work, relationships, and daily routines due to intensive social media use (Andreassen and Pallesen, 2014 ; Young, 1996 ). Social media use has both positive and negative effects from an academic perspective. Social media can facilitate the exchange of information by connecting students and classrooms, provide a personalized learning environment, address different learning domains, and improve learning motivation (Arquero and Romero-Frı́as, 2013 ; Gazibara et al. 2020 ; Hrastinski, 2008 ; Kasperski and Blau, 2020 ). Therefore, the findings suggest that social media contributes to learning processes when used correctly (Jain et al. 2012 ). In addition, studies show that excessive and improper use of social media applications causes a decrease in academic achievement (Masood et al. 2020 ; Wu and Cheng, 2019 ). Social media negatively affects academic achievement because it distracts attention, causes procrastination, and reduces the time allocated to lessons by causing time loss (Junco, 2012 ; O’Keeffe et al. 2011 ). On the other hand, the self-control levels of individuals may be effective in preventing behaviors, such as spending a much longer time on social media applications than normal usage times and often not being aware of this situation and postponing daily tasks that need to be performed during this time (Diker and Taşdelen, 2017 ; Tutgun-Ünal and Deniz, 2015 ; Zahrai et al. 2022 ).

The mediating role of academic self-discipline

Behavioral theories try to explain the limitations of self-control, and the Uses and Gratifications Theory defines the lack of self-control as the inability to neglect smaller and momentarily pleasurable rewards to achieve larger goals (Katz et al. 1973 ). The conscious development and maintenance of self-control is defined as self-discipline (Bear, 2009 ). However, many disciplines use the concept of self-discipline by, it has also been expressed as self-regulation, self-control, self-motivation, and willpower. Duckworth and Seligman ( 2006 ) used the concepts of self-discipline and self-control interchangeably and defined self-discipline as a conscious and sustainable effort to suppress momentary desires to achieve planned goals. Therefore, it can be said that the concept of self-discipline, which refers to taking and maintaining responsibility, refers to the continuity in the ability of individuals to postpone their wants consciously and needs to achieve their long-term goals (Duckworth and Seligman, 2006 ). Academic self-discipline, which is the equivalent of self-discipline in the academic field, is defined as the ability to stay away from various stimuli by controlling oneself to achieve one’s academic goals, to focus one’s attention on the subject to be studied, and to maintain a certain working order in a planned manner (Pustika, 2020 ). By the definition, the scale used to measure academic self-discipline in this study has two sub-dimensions: Planned study and attention. Therefore, academic self-discipline was analyzed in this study, especially within the scope of these two dimensions.

Concentration is the ability to maintain one’s attention despite being bored, tired, or other negative emotional states by focusing sufficiently on the subject one is working on (Taylor et al. 2002 ). Considering that one of the dimensions of academic self-discipline is concentration, it is assumed that increased academic self-discipline may be effective in academic achievement. Planning is another dimension considered in terms of academic self-discipline (Cao and Cao, 2004 ). When considered within the scope of self-discipline theory, planning also includes perseverance and self-motivation and provides convenience in achieving individual goals and fulfilling tasks (Shi and Qu, 2022 ). Students can achieve their goals for better performance (Malte et al. 2009 ). In a study, it was observed that there was no significant difference between students with high and low academic achievement in terms of self-discipline. However, there were differences in various dimensions of time management, including planning (Fang and Wang, 2003 ). Unlike self-discipline, it can be meaningful to examine academic self-discipline in the axis of planning and attention separately and examine the relationship between academic self-discipline and academic achievement in depth through both quantitative and qualitative data to make more concrete suggestions to increase academic achievement.

The present study

Self-discipline, which consists of three dimensions: concentration, impulse control, and delayed gratification, allows one to consider the possible advantages and disadvantages of the action before taking the action. Thus, it helps the person to stay away from risky behaviors and postpone immediate pleasures by being patient for long-term gains (Taylor et al. 2002 ). Therefore, self-discipline is recognized as one of the main factors affecting students’ academic achievement (Liang et al. 2020 ; Van Endert, 2021 ). Students with insufficient self-discipline face academic failure (Tominey and McClelland, 2011 ). Although studies have shown a relationship between self-discipline and academic achievement (Duckworth et al. 2019 ), it is still unclear how self-control and self-discipline affect academic achievement (Shi and Qu, 2022 ). In addition, it requires self-discipline to focus on academic tasks by moving away from harmful internet or social media use that causes time loss (Mbaluka, 2017 ). Self-discipline is important in controlling behavioral addiction types, such as social media addiction. In addition, considering that self-discipline significantly affects academic achievement (Duckworth and Carlson, 2013 ; Zhao and Kuo, 2015 ), it suggests that high academic self-discipline may have a protective role in the negative effects of impulse behavior disorders, such as social media addiction, on academic achievement. Although there are studies examining the relationship between self-control, self-discipline, and social media addiction (Koç et al. 2023 ; Sağar, 2021 ; Zahrai et al. 2022 ), there is no study investigating the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement with a mixed method. Based on all these, this study aimed to examine the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the relationship between university students’ social media addictions and their academic achievement. The quantitative and qualitative sub-objectives created within the scope of this purpose are as follows.

Quantitative sub-objectives:

-Is there a significant relationship between social media addiction, academic achievement, and academic self-discipline in university students?

Is there a mediating role of academic self-discipline in the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement in university students?

Qualitative sub-objectives:

What are the common themes related to university students’ experiences of social media addiction, academic achievement, and academic self-discipline?

How do academic self-discipline experiences mediate the relationship between university students’ social media addictions and academic achievement?

This study was designed as an exploratory sequential mixed design. With mixed methods, a weak or missing aspect of one of the quantitative and qualitative methods can be covered by the strengths of the other (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2018 ). The calculated regression coefficients guide the examination of the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement and the mediating role of academic self-discipline. However, to better understand the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement and make academic self-discipline-based intervention suggestions, a mixed-method approach was used in this study, considering that it is critical to collect data from students through their opinions.

Participants

The sample of this study consisted of 520 university senior students ranging from 22 to 27 ( \(\bar{x}\)  = 24.43; Sd  = 1.49) studying in various departments (Psychology, Law, Engineering, and Teaching) at state universities in Turkey in the 2023–2024 academic year. Data were collected from 36 cities in Turkey. Considering the ease of accessing the data, the convenience sampling method was preferred. In the convenience sampling method, due to the limitations in terms of the labor force and time, the sample is selected from easily accessible and applicable units (Büyüköztürk et al. 2014 ). Firstly, data were collected from 873 students through Google Forms. Then, the analyses continued with the data obtained from 520 people who stated that their daily social media usage time was four hours or more. It was aimed to provide more reliable information about the effect of social media addiction on the academic achievement of the 520 students, 299 (57.5%) were female, and 221 (42.5%) were male. Of the participants, 307 (57.9%) defined their socioeconomic level as low, 135 (26%) defined their socioeconomic level as medium, and 84 (16.2%) defined their socioeconomic level as high. The students wrote the transcript grade median, which consisted of the calculation of the end-of-term grades of the courses they had taken until the last year. To obtain more comprehensive information about their academic achievements throughout their university life, the sample consisted of final-year university students. In this context, 182 (35%) of the students who participated in the study had general weighted grade point averages between 1.00 and 2.00, 179 (34.4%) between 2.00 and 3.00, and 159 (30.6%) between 3.00 and 4.00.

In the qualitative phase of this study, 20 volunteer students were selected by purposive sampling method from the students who participated in the quantitative data collection phase. To ensure maximum diversity, male and female students studying in different departments were selected and interviews were conducted with students with high levels of social media addiction to obtain in-depth information. In this context, nine of the students aged between 22 and 25 were male and 11 were female. Three of them were law students, four were teachers, four were psychology students and nine were final-year students studying in various engineering departments.

Data collection tools

Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale developed by Andreassen et al. ( 2016 ) was adapted to Turkish culture by Demirci ( 2019 ). The scale was constructed to fulfill the basic addiction criteria of mental preoccupation, mood change, tolerance, withdrawal, conflict, and failed quit attempts. The scale, graded on a five-point Likert scale, consists of six items. The scores that can be obtained from the scale vary between 6 and 30. In the adaptation study, the Cronbach’s alpha internal consistency coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.83 and the test-retest reliability coefficient was calculated as 0.83. The suitability of the scale for use in this study was examined by reliability analysis, and exploratory factor analysis was applied. In this context, the KMO value was found to be 0.89 and the Barlett Sphericity test p  < 0.000, and it was accepted that the data set was suitable for factor analysis. The unidimensional structure of the scale (explaining 64% of the total variance) was also confirmed in this data set. The fact that the factor loadings of the scale ranged from 0.77 to 0.85 indicates that the items of the scale are compatible with the structure in which it is located. In addition, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.89 in this study. Based on all these, it can be said that it is appropriate to use the scale within the scope of this study. Some of the items that make up the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale are as follows:

Have you felt the urge to use social media more and more?

Has using social media too much negatively affected your work/studies?

Would you be uncomfortable or distressed if you were banned from using social media?

The Academic Self-discipline Scale was developed by Şal ( 2022 ) to measure the academic self-discipline levels of university students and adapted to Turkish culture by Erduran Tekin and Şal ( 2023 ). The scale, which consists of eighteen items, has two sub-dimensions “planned work” and “attention.” The scale is scored on a five-point Likert scale and items 6, 7, and 16 are evaluated as reverse. While the scores obtained from the scale vary between 18 and 90, an increase in the scores means an increase in academic self-discipline. In the adaptation study, the structure consisting of two sub-dimensions was confirmed, and the goodness of fit indices of the model indicated an acceptable fit. In the adaptation study, Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the Academic Self-discipline Scale was calculated as 0.86. The suitability of the scale for use in this study was examined by reliability analysis, and exploratory factor analysis was applied. In this context, the KMO value was found to be 0.87 and the Barlett Sphericity test p  < 0.000, and the data set was accepted as suitable for factor analysis. The two-dimensional structure of the scale (explaining 40% of the total variance) was also confirmed in this data set. The factor loadings of the scale ranged from 0.39 to 0.74, indicating that the items belonging to the scale are compatible with the structure in which it is located. In addition, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated as 0.85 in this study. Based on all these, it can be said that it is appropriate to use the scale within the scope of this study. Some of the items that make up the Academic Self-discipline Scale are as follows:

I have my schedule where I plan my study time.

I organize my study environment so that there are no distractions.

If I have planned to study, I can refuse to hang out with my best friend.”

The participants were asked to fill out the Personal Information Form. The form includes sections for age, gender, city of residence, and graduation grades. The academic achievements of the participants were examined based on the General Weighted Grade Point Average (GPA) written on the last semester’s transcript from the undergraduate program they studied. Those with GPAs between 1.00 and 2.00 were considered low academic achievers (2.00 was considered low academic achievement), and those with GPAs between 2.01 and 3.00 were considered medium academic achievers (3.00 was considered medium academic achievement). Those with GPAs between 3.01 and 4.00 were considered high academic achievers.

In the qualitative dimension of the study, semi-structured interview forms created by the researcher in this study were used. These forms were prepared based on the findings obtained by analyzing the quantitative data and researching the literature. After the forms were examined by two expert lecturers, a pilot application was carried out with a student on the comprehensibility of the questions, and the final version was given after the necessary corrections. While one of the most basic ways to ensure validity in qualitative research is the accuracy and detailed reporting of the categories and interpretations obtained, reliability is to minimize the difference in the interpretation of data by different experts (Büyüköztürk et al. 2014 ; Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2019 ). Thus, two academic members who were experts in their fields were consulted during the data interpretation process. The questions in the interview form are as follows:

What are the things that cause you to spend a lot of time on social media tools during the day?

How do you think spending too much time on social media tools affects your academic achievement?

Do you have academic self-discipline? How do you evaluate yourself?

Do you work in a planned way? How do you think working in a planned way affects academic achievement?

Do you ever get distracted while studying because of social media tools? If yes, what measures do you take to prevent social media tools from distracting you while studying?

What do you think you need to improve your academic achievement?

What should happen so that social media does not affect your academic achievement?

Data collection

Considering the ease of access to the data in the present study, the data were collected online using Google Forms. All ethical rules required by scientific research were followed in data collection. Ethics committee approval dated 23.01.2024 and numbered E-35592990-050.01.04-3222142 was obtained from the National Defense University Scientific Research and Publication Ethics Board for the study.

To examine the suitability of the data for parametric tests, kurtosis, skewness, and Z score analyses were performed (Schumacker and Tomek, 2013 ). Multivariate outliers in the data set were analyzed by calculating the Mahalanobis distance. Skewness and kurtosis values were re-analyzed and presented in Table 1 , and it was assumed that the data were normally distributed. In addition to descriptive analyses in which values, such as arithmetic mean and standard deviation, were calculated, ANOVA and t -test analyses were used to determine differences, and correlation analysis was used to determine the relationships between variables. The presence of multicollinearity, one of the prerequisites for regression analysis, was examined through variance inflation factors (VIF) and tolerance values (TV) of the variables in the model. If VIF ≥ 10 and TV ≤ 0.10, the multicollinearity problem is mentioned and the VIF values of the variables in this model are 2.23, and TV values are 0.45, and there is no multicollinearity problem. In this study, the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement was analyzed with the regression of the Bootstrapping Technique (Hayes, 2017 ). Analyses were conducted with SPSS 26 PROCESS programs.

The “content analysis” method was preferred when analyzing qualitative data. With content analysis, the data obtained are conceptualized and organized in a way to be understood, and themes are created (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2019 ). Content analysis aims to collect similar data collected through interviews under certain themes and to put these themes into a regular format. Firstly, the data obtained from 20 interviews were transferred to the computer environment in writing. A total of 62 pages of data were obtained from the interviews. Twenty interview data were recorded with student codes (e.g., P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5). Then, these organized data were regularised with MAXQDA 2020 software. For the analysis, the data were read repeatedly and analyzed within the scope of the research questions. The themes obtained were coded by two more academicians except the researcher. The coding reliability percentage was calculated using the formula “Agreement/(Agreement + Disagreement)” suggested by Miles and Huberman ( 1994 ). Coding reliability above 80% (Miles and Huberman, 1994 ), the lowest recommended percentage of agreement, was achieved, and the reliability was calculated as 90%. In cases where consensus could not be reached on the codes, participant confirmation was used to build consensus and increase reliability. The data obtained were given systematically according to the research questions in the findings section and supported with direct quotations to increase credibility.

Pearson analysis

Within the scope of the first sub-objective of this study, the skewness and kurtosis values of the social media addiction, academic achievement, and academic self-discipline scale scores and the correlation analysis results examining the relationships between the variables are presented in Table 1 .

Considering the data obtained from this study, it can be said that the skewness and kurtosis values are in the range of +−2 and the data have a normal distribution (George and Mallery, 2019 ). As a result of the analyses, it was seen that the social media addiction scores ( \(\overline{{\boldsymbol{x}}}\)  = 15.67) of the data constituting the study group were above the average. Considering the relationship between the variables of this study, as seen in Table 1 , there was a negative and highly significant relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement ( r  = −0.63, p  < 0.01) and a negative and highly significant relationship between social media addiction and academic self-discipline ( r  = −0.74, p  < 0.01). When the relationship between academic achievement and academic self-discipline was analyzed, it was seen that there was a positive and highly significant relationship ( r  = 0.60, p  < 0.01). The findings suggest that as social media addiction increases, academic achievement and academic self-discipline decrease, and as academic self-discipline increases, academic achievement increases.

Results of mediation analysis

Within the scope of the second sub-objective of this study, the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement was analyzed using the Regression-based Bootstrapping Technique. In the analyses, 1000 bootstrap sampling was used and the estimates were evaluated at 95% confidence intervals reflecting the results adjusted for bias error. The model used for the mediation role was designed according to Model 4 proposed by Hayes ( 2017 ) in the presence of one independent, one dependent, and one mediator variable. The model is shown in Fig. 1 , and the analysis results of the mediation of academic self-discipline in the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement are presented in Table 2 :

Social media addiction predicts academic achievement through academic self-discipline [ R 2  = 0.44; F (2-519)  = 203.530; p  < 0.001].

As shown in Fig. 1 , social media addiction directly predicted academic self-discipline negatively ( a  = −0.74; p  < 0.001). Likewise, it was seen that academic self-discipline directly predicted academic achievement positively ( b  = 0.29; p  < 0.001). In addition, social media addiction directly predicted academic achievement negatively ( c  = −0.63; p  < 0.001). When academic self-discipline, the mediating variable, was included in the model, it was observed that this effect was c 1  = −0.42 and the value was still significant.

There was a partial mediation effect since the coefficient resulting from the inclusion of mediator variables in the model was still a significant coefficient and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the significance of the indirect effects of partial mediation determined in the model are given in Table 2 .

It was understood that the partial mediation model was significant [ F (2-519)  = 203.530, p  < 0.001]. Social media addiction and academic self-discipline explained 44% of the variance in academic achievement (Table 2 ). In the mediation analysis using the bootstrapping technique, for the hypothesis of this study to be confirmed, the 95% confidence interval (CI) values obtained from the analysis should not contain a zero (0) value to support the research hypothesis (Gürbüz, 2019 ). The mediating role of academic self-discipline in the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement was significant (Bootstrap Coefficient = −0.22, 95% CI [−0.31; −0.14]), and these confidence intervals did not include any zero (0) point.

Qualitative analysis results

Table 3 lists the codes formed as a result of question-based analyses of the data collected from semi-structured interviews with students.

The codes obtained as a result of the analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted to examine the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the effect of university students’ social media addictions on their academic achievement are brought together in three themes and presented in Table 4 .

The quotations related to the most frequently repeated codes explaining the “Reasons for social media addiction” which constitutes Theme 1, are given below:

Desire to receive news “ When I don’t use social media tools, such as Twitter and Instagram, I miss the current news. There is a new event every minute in our country and I see many things on those platforms that I cannot see on television. Therefore, I find myself constantly looking at Twitter and Instagram (P4).”

Entertainment and relaxation “ Life is already hard and boring. At the moment, if you want to do something outside, everything is expensive. Even going to a cinema is incredibly costly for a student. In this case, social media applications are the place where there is content that relaxes, entertains, and makes you laugh at a cheap price (P17).”

Communicating with others “ Social media tools are as much a part of our body as our hands and feet. Instagram is the main way I communicate with other people, my friends, my date. For example, I always check Instagram to see what stories he has posted . (P9).”

The quotations related to the most frequently repeated codes explaining “The effect of social media addiction on academic achievement”, which constitutes Theme 2, are given below:

Loss of time “ I sit at my desk to study, and then a notification comes. I pick up my phone, thinking I’ll check it for a minute, but that’s not the case. I find myself constantly scrolling through posts and watching meaningless videos. This creates an incredible waste of time. I realize that hours have passed, but I haven’t studied at all because I was looking at Instagram or Twitter (P20).”

Inability to pay attention to the lessons, “ My mind stays on social media tools and I can’t concentrate on my lessons. I’m always looking at who went where and what story they shared. Then I started to envy people’s virtual happiness even though I knew it was not real. I can’t concentrate on my lessons thinking about all these things (P11).”

Inability to work regularly “ I am preparing a full study plan, I start, and I say I will take a 10   min break. In the meantime, I look at social media applications, 10   min has become 40   min. I say it’s okay and start over, but it’s the same again. Even if I work regularly one day, I cannot work regularly the next day. This cycle repeats itself (P1).”

The quotations related to the most frequently repeated codes explaining Theme 3, “The role of academic self-discipline in the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement” are given below:

To be disciplined “ As long as I am disciplined and can control myself, I can stay away from social media tools. Of course, one of the biggest benefits of this is my academic achievement . As I continue to control myself, use social media tools less, and stay away from them while studying, my attention and interest in the lesson increases. I can be more successful (P17).”

To focus on lessons “ Social media tools are a very serious stimulant. At least while studying, it is very useful to take the phone out of the room, and if the computer is open, it is very useful to keep only the file being studied open without opening different tabs. As usage is limited, study time remains. In this case, it allows us to focus more on the lessons and not pay attention to unnecessary stimuli (P13).”

Adhering to the work plan “ When I work more regularly, when I do not pay attention to other things even for a short time during the study and, I can follow my study program prepared for me, this makes me more successful (P6).”

This study aimed to examine the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the relationship between social media addiction and the academic achievement of university students in Turkey. In this context, the first sub-objective of the present research is to examine the relationship between social media addiction, academic achievement, and academic self-discipline. There is a significant negative relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement. When the relationship between academic self-discipline and academic achievement is analyzed, there is a significant positive relationship. Accordingly, as social media addiction increases, academic achievement and academic self-discipline decrease, and as academic self-discipline increases, academic achievement increases. The results obtained from this study are consistent with studies showing that social media addiction negatively affects academic achievement (Kaplan and Özdemir, 2023 ; Masood et al. 2020 ; Shi et al. 2020 ; Zhao, 2023 ).

The second sub-objective of this study is to examine the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the relationship between university students’ social media addictions and academic achievement. It was found that social media addiction and academic self-discipline explained 44% of the variance in academic achievement. The mediating role of academic self-discipline in the effect of social media addiction on academic achievement was significant. To determine the appropriate preventive and intervention mental health services that can be offered to university students, it is important to examine the variables that may mediate the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement when the studies conducted in the literature are examined, seen that self-control and self-discipline are related to student’s academic achievement (Duckworth and Carlson, 2013 ; Liang et al. 2020 ; Mbaluka, 2017 ; van Endert, 2021 ; Zhao and Kuo, 2015 ). The themes obtained within the scope of the third and fourth sub-objectives of the research provide information about the causes of social media addiction, how social media addiction affects academic achievement, and what is the mediating role of academic self-discipline in this effect. When the literature is examined, similar to the results obtained from this study, social media addiction negatively affects academic achievement (Zhao, 2023 ), self-discipline significantly predicts academic achievement positively (Lin, 2021 ), and there are negative relationships between self-control and problematic social media use (Wu et al. 2013 ). Ning and Inan ( 2023 ) examined the mediating role of self-control in the effect of social media addiction on academic success. They concluded that self-control has a mediating role in the relationship between social media addiction and academic success, similar to the results obtained from this study. In another study conducted by Putri et al. ( 2022 ) with university students, it was concluded that high self-discipline reduces social media use. According to the same study, although there is no direct relationship between social media use and academic success, academic success is associated with higher self-control (Putri et al. 2022 ). According to Lindner et al. ( 2017 ), students with high self-control show higher attention skills, are more motivated to fulfill their responsibilities, and have higher academic achievement. In a study examining the mediating role of self-discipline in the relationship between cognitive ability and academic success, it was concluded that the mediating role of self-discipline is significant, and planning is a moderating variable in this relationship (Shi and Qu, 2022 ).

According to the qualitative analysis results, university students exhibit social media addiction behaviors for various reasons such as entertainment, relaxation, receiving news, communicating with others, and habit. These results are consistent with other studies in the literature (Cohen et al. 2019 ; Özdemir, 2019 ; Zachos et al. 2018 ). As a result of the interviews, social media use causes a waste of time, prevents students from devoting themselves to lessons and regular study, and increases their reluctance to study. They have difficulty controlling themselves in terms of social media use, which can be considered the negative effects of social media. According to the students, for social media addiction not to affect academic achievement, they should work in a planned manner, use time effectively, remove distracting stimuli from the environment while studying, pay attention to the lessons, continue their study activities in a disciplined manner, improve their self-control, and follow their study plans continuously. These results support other studies emphasizing the impact of attention, planned study, and time management on academic success (Cao and Cao, 2004 ; Shi and Qu, 2022 ; Taylor et al. 2002 ). Based on all these, although the results obtained from this study are consistent with the literature, more studies are needed examining the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement. On the other hand, no mixed methodology with study has been found that addresses the mediating role of academic self-discipline in the relationship between social media addiction and academic success, and it is assumed that this study will make a significant contribution to the relevant literature. Additionally, this study encourages further examination of the protective role of the academic self-discipline variable in reducing social media addiction and increasing academic achievement.

Conclusion and suggestions

According to the results of this study, while social media addiction reduces academic achievement, academic self-discipline can prevent social media addiction from reducing academic achievement. Thus, it is recommended that academic self-discipline-based psychoeducation practices be implemented to reduce social media addiction among university students and increase their academic achievement. The obtained qualitative results allow us to understand the mediating role of academic self-discipline in this relationship in more detail. Given the themes, it is recommended that preventive guidance activities that can improve academic self-discipline, especially planned work, and attention, should be implemented more by both educators and school psychologists working in universities. Helping students create a structured study plan, providing regular guidance to help them implement this plan, teaching attention exercises and various memory exercises, and giving behavioral assignments to develop self-discipline are examples of these activities. When the themes explaining the reasons that lead students to use the internet are examined, the creation of other entertainment and recreation areas that can replace social media can contribute to distancing university students from social media. On the other hand, more quantitative and qualitative studies are needed in the literature to examine the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement in terms of different variables.

Limitations

This study is limited to the quantitative and qualitative data obtained from students who continue to study as seniors in the 2023–2024 academic year at public universities in Turkey. Although there is no mixed methodology with studies examining the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement variables with academic self-discipline, a very limited number of studies have examined the relationship with self-discipline. This study was supported by studies on self-control and self-regulation, which are used by some researchers instead of the concept of self-discipline. To prevent conceptual confusion and reveal the mediating role of academic self-discipline, such a path was followed, which some researchers may consider a limitation.

Data availability

The data generated and/or analyzed during the present study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. The data cannot be directly placed in a public repository due to limited permissions obtained from the participants. However, the corresponding author is willing to share anonymized data with interested researchers upon request.

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Erduran Tekin, Ö. Academic self-discipline as a mediating variable in the relationship between social media addiction and academic achievement: mixed methodology. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1096 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03633-x

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The effect of social media on the development of students’ affective variables

1 Science and Technology Department, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing, China

2 School of Marxism, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China

3 Government Enterprise Customer Center, China Mobile Group Jiangsu Co., Ltd., Nanjing, China

The use of social media is incomparably on the rise among students, influenced by the globalized forms of communication and the post-pandemic rush to use multiple social media platforms for education in different fields of study. Though social media has created tremendous chances for sharing ideas and emotions, the kind of social support it provides might fail to meet students’ emotional needs, or the alleged positive effects might be short-lasting. In recent years, several studies have been conducted to explore the potential effects of social media on students’ affective traits, such as stress, anxiety, depression, and so on. The present paper reviews the findings of the exemplary published works of research to shed light on the positive and negative potential effects of the massive use of social media on students’ emotional well-being. This review can be insightful for teachers who tend to take the potential psychological effects of social media for granted. They may want to know more about the actual effects of the over-reliance on and the excessive (and actually obsessive) use of social media on students’ developing certain images of self and certain emotions which are not necessarily positive. There will be implications for pre- and in-service teacher training and professional development programs and all those involved in student affairs.

Introduction

Social media has turned into an essential element of individuals’ lives including students in today’s world of communication. Its use is growing significantly more than ever before especially in the post-pandemic era, marked by a great revolution happening to the educational systems. Recent investigations of using social media show that approximately 3 billion individuals worldwide are now communicating via social media ( Iwamoto and Chun, 2020 ). This growing population of social media users is spending more and more time on social network groupings, as facts and figures show that individuals spend 2 h a day, on average, on a variety of social media applications, exchanging pictures and messages, updating status, tweeting, favoring, and commenting on many updated socially shared information ( Abbott, 2017 ).

Researchers have begun to investigate the psychological effects of using social media on students’ lives. Chukwuere and Chukwuere (2017) maintained that social media platforms can be considered the most important source of changing individuals’ mood, because when someone is passively using a social media platform seemingly with no special purpose, s/he can finally feel that his/her mood has changed as a function of the nature of content overviewed. Therefore, positive and negative moods can easily be transferred among the population using social media networks ( Chukwuere and Chukwuere, 2017 ). This may become increasingly important as students are seen to be using social media platforms more than before and social networking is becoming an integral aspect of their lives. As described by Iwamoto and Chun (2020) , when students are affected by social media posts, especially due to the increasing reliance on social media use in life, they may be encouraged to begin comparing themselves to others or develop great unrealistic expectations of themselves or others, which can have several affective consequences.

Considering the increasing influence of social media on education, the present paper aims to focus on the affective variables such as depression, stress, and anxiety, and how social media can possibly increase or decrease these emotions in student life. The exemplary works of research on this topic in recent years will be reviewed here, hoping to shed light on the positive and negative effects of these ever-growing influential platforms on the psychology of students.

Significance of the study

Though social media, as the name suggests, is expected to keep people connected, probably this social connection is only superficial, and not adequately deep and meaningful to help individuals feel emotionally attached to others. The psychological effects of social media on student life need to be studied in more depth to see whether social media really acts as a social support for students and whether students can use social media to cope with negative emotions and develop positive feelings or not. In other words, knowledge of the potential effects of the growing use of social media on students’ emotional well-being can bridge the gap between the alleged promises of social media and what it actually has to offer to students in terms of self-concept, self-respect, social role, and coping strategies (for stress, anxiety, etc.).

Exemplary general literature on psychological effects of social media

Before getting down to the effects of social media on students’ emotional well-being, some exemplary works of research in recent years on the topic among general populations are reviewed. For one, Aalbers et al. (2018) reported that individuals who spent more time passively working with social media suffered from more intense levels of hopelessness, loneliness, depression, and perceived inferiority. For another, Tang et al. (2013) observed that the procedures of sharing information, commenting, showing likes and dislikes, posting messages, and doing other common activities on social media are correlated with higher stress. Similarly, Ley et al. (2014) described that people who spend 2 h, on average, on social media applications will face many tragic news, posts, and stories which can raise the total intensity of their stress. This stress-provoking effect of social media has been also pinpointed by Weng and Menczer (2015) , who contended that social media becomes a main source of stress because people often share all kinds of posts, comments, and stories ranging from politics and economics, to personal and social affairs. According to Iwamoto and Chun (2020) , anxiety and depression are the negative emotions that an individual may develop when some source of stress is present. In other words, when social media sources become stress-inducing, there are high chances that anxiety and depression also develop.

Charoensukmongkol (2018) reckoned that the mental health and well-being of the global population can be at a great risk through the uncontrolled massive use of social media. These researchers also showed that social media sources can exert negative affective impacts on teenagers, as they can induce more envy and social comparison. According to Fleck and Johnson-Migalski (2015) , though social media, at first, plays the role of a stress-coping strategy, when individuals continue to see stressful conditions (probably experienced and shared by others in media), they begin to develop stress through the passage of time. Chukwuere and Chukwuere (2017) maintained that social media platforms continue to be the major source of changing mood among general populations. For example, someone might be passively using a social media sphere, and s/he may finally find him/herself with a changed mood depending on the nature of the content faced. Then, this good or bad mood is easily shared with others in a flash through the social media. Finally, as Alahmar (2016) described, social media exposes people especially the young generation to new exciting activities and events that may attract them and keep them engaged in different media contexts for hours just passing their time. It usually leads to reduced productivity, reduced academic achievement, and addiction to constant media use ( Alahmar, 2016 ).

The number of studies on the potential psychological effects of social media on people in general is higher than those selectively addressed here. For further insights into this issue, some other suggested works of research include Chang (2012) , Sriwilai and Charoensukmongkol (2016) , and Zareen et al. (2016) . Now, we move to the studies that more specifically explored the effects of social media on students’ affective states.

Review of the affective influences of social media on students

Vygotsky’s mediational theory (see Fernyhough, 2008 ) can be regarded as a main theoretical background for the support of social media on learners’ affective states. Based on this theory, social media can play the role of a mediational means between learners and the real environment. Learners’ understanding of this environment can be mediated by the image shaped via social media. This image can be either close to or different from the reality. In the case of the former, learners can develop their self-image and self-esteem. In the case of the latter, learners might develop unrealistic expectations of themselves by comparing themselves to others. As it will be reviewed below among the affective variables increased or decreased in students under the influence of the massive use of social media are anxiety, stress, depression, distress, rumination, and self-esteem. These effects have been explored more among school students in the age range of 13–18 than university students (above 18), but some studies were investigated among college students as well. Exemplary works of research on these affective variables are reviewed here.

In a cross-sectional study, O’Dea and Campbell (2011) explored the impact of online interactions of social networks on the psychological distress of adolescent students. These researchers found a negative correlation between the time spent on social networking and mental distress. Dumitrache et al. (2012) explored the relations between depression and the identity associated with the use of the popular social media, the Facebook. This study showed significant associations between depression and the number of identity-related information pieces shared on this social network. Neira and Barber (2014) explored the relationship between students’ social media use and depressed mood at teenage. No significant correlation was found between these two variables. In the same year, Tsitsika et al. (2014) explored the associations between excessive use of social media and internalizing emotions. These researchers found a positive correlation between more than 2-h a day use of social media and anxiety and depression.

Hanprathet et al. (2015) reported a statistically significant positive correlation between addiction to Facebook and depression among about a thousand high school students in wealthy populations of Thailand and warned against this psychological threat. Sampasa-Kanyinga and Lewis (2015) examined the relationship between social media use and psychological distress. These researchers found that the use of social media for more than 2 h a day was correlated with a higher intensity of psychological distress. Banjanin et al. (2015) tested the relationship between too much use of social networking and depression, yet found no statistically significant correlation between these two variables. Frison and Eggermont (2016) examined the relationships between different forms of Facebook use, perceived social support of social media, and male and female students’ depressed mood. These researchers found a positive association between the passive use of the Facebook and depression and also between the active use of the social media and depression. Furthermore, the perceived social support of the social media was found to mediate this association. Besides, gender was found as the other factor to mediate this relationship.

Vernon et al. (2017) explored change in negative investment in social networking in relation to change in depression and externalizing behavior. These researchers found that increased investment in social media predicted higher depression in adolescent students, which was a function of the effect of higher levels of disrupted sleep. Barry et al. (2017) explored the associations between the use of social media by adolescents and their psychosocial adjustment. Social media activity showed to be positively and moderately associated with depression and anxiety. Another investigation was focused on secondary school students in China conducted by Li et al. (2017) . The findings showed a mediating role of insomnia on the significant correlation between depression and addiction to social media. In the same year, Yan et al. (2017) aimed to explore the time spent on social networks and its correlation with anxiety among middle school students. They found a significant positive correlation between more than 2-h use of social networks and the intensity of anxiety.

Also in China, Wang et al. (2018) showed that addiction to social networking sites was correlated positively with depression, and this correlation was mediated by rumination. These researchers also found that this mediating effect was moderated by self-esteem. It means that the effect of addiction on depression was compounded by low self-esteem through rumination. In another work of research, Drouin et al. (2018) showed that though social media is expected to act as a form of social support for the majority of university students, it can adversely affect students’ mental well-being, especially for those who already have high levels of anxiety and depression. In their research, the social media resources were found to be stress-inducing for half of the participants, all university students. The higher education population was also studied by Iwamoto and Chun (2020) . These researchers investigated the emotional effects of social media in higher education and found that the socially supportive role of social media was overshadowed in the long run in university students’ lives and, instead, fed into their perceived depression, anxiety, and stress.

Keles et al. (2020) provided a systematic review of the effect of social media on young and teenage students’ depression, psychological distress, and anxiety. They found that depression acted as the most frequent affective variable measured. The most salient risk factors of psychological distress, anxiety, and depression based on the systematic review were activities such as repeated checking for messages, personal investment, the time spent on social media, and problematic or addictive use. Similarly, Mathewson (2020) investigated the effect of using social media on college students’ mental health. The participants stated the experience of anxiety, depression, and suicidality (thoughts of suicide or attempts to suicide). The findings showed that the types and frequency of using social media and the students’ perceived mental health were significantly correlated with each other.

The body of research on the effect of social media on students’ affective and emotional states has led to mixed results. The existing literature shows that there are some positive and some negative affective impacts. Yet, it seems that the latter is pre-dominant. Mathewson (2020) attributed these divergent positive and negative effects to the different theoretical frameworks adopted in different studies and also the different contexts (different countries with whole different educational systems). According to Fredrickson’s broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions ( Fredrickson, 2001 ), the mental repertoires of learners can be built and broadened by how they feel. For instance, some external stimuli might provoke negative emotions such as anxiety and depression in learners. Having experienced these negative emotions, students might repeatedly check their messages on social media or get addicted to them. As a result, their cognitive repertoire and mental capacity might become limited and they might lose their concentration during their learning process. On the other hand, it should be noted that by feeling positive, learners might take full advantage of the affordances of the social media and; thus, be able to follow their learning goals strategically. This point should be highlighted that the link between the use of social media and affective states is bi-directional. Therefore, strategic use of social media or its addictive use by students can direct them toward either positive experiences like enjoyment or negative ones such as anxiety and depression. Also, these mixed positive and negative effects are similar to the findings of several other relevant studies on general populations’ psychological and emotional health. A number of studies (with general research populations not necessarily students) showed that social networks have facilitated the way of staying in touch with family and friends living far away as well as an increased social support ( Zhang, 2017 ). Given the positive and negative emotional effects of social media, social media can either scaffold the emotional repertoire of students, which can develop positive emotions in learners, or induce negative provokers in them, based on which learners might feel negative emotions such as anxiety and depression. However, admittedly, social media has also generated a domain that encourages the act of comparing lives, and striving for approval; therefore, it establishes and internalizes unrealistic perceptions ( Virden et al., 2014 ; Radovic et al., 2017 ).

It should be mentioned that the susceptibility of affective variables to social media should be interpreted from a dynamic lens. This means that the ecology of the social media can make changes in the emotional experiences of learners. More specifically, students’ affective variables might self-organize into different states under the influence of social media. As for the positive correlation found in many studies between the use of social media and such negative effects as anxiety, depression, and stress, it can be hypothesized that this correlation is induced by the continuous comparison the individual makes and the perception that others are doing better than him/her influenced by the posts that appear on social media. Using social media can play a major role in university students’ psychological well-being than expected. Though most of these studies were correlational, and correlation is not the same as causation, as the studies show that the number of participants experiencing these negative emotions under the influence of social media is significantly high, more extensive research is highly suggested to explore causal effects ( Mathewson, 2020 ).

As the review of exemplary studies showed, some believed that social media increased comparisons that students made between themselves and others. This finding ratifies the relevance of the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ) and Festinger’s (1954) Social Comparison Theory. Concerning the negative effects of social media on students’ psychology, it can be argued that individuals may fail to understand that the content presented in social media is usually changed to only represent the attractive aspects of people’s lives, showing an unrealistic image of things. We can add that this argument also supports the relevance of the Social Comparison Theory and the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ), because social media sets standards that students think they should compare themselves with. A constant observation of how other students or peers are showing their instances of achievement leads to higher self-evaluation ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ). It is conjectured that the ubiquitous role of social media in student life establishes unrealistic expectations and promotes continuous comparison as also pinpointed in the Interpretation Comparison Model ( Stapel and Koomen, 2000 ; Stapel, 2007 ).

Implications of the study

The use of social media is ever increasing among students, both at school and university, which is partly because of the promises of technological advances in communication services and partly because of the increased use of social networks for educational purposes in recent years after the pandemic. This consistent use of social media is not expected to leave students’ psychological, affective and emotional states untouched. Thus, it is necessary to know how the growing usage of social networks is associated with students’ affective health on different aspects. Therefore, we found it useful to summarize the research findings in recent years in this respect. If those somehow in charge of student affairs in educational settings are aware of the potential positive or negative effects of social media usage on students, they can better understand the complexities of students’ needs and are better capable of meeting them.

Psychological counseling programs can be initiated at schools or universities to check upon the latest state of students’ mental and emotional health influenced by the pervasive use of social media. The counselors can be made aware of the potential adverse effects of social networking and can adapt the content of their inquiries accordingly. Knowledge of the potential reasons for student anxiety, depression, and stress can help school or university counselors to find individualized coping strategies when they diagnose any symptom of distress in students influenced by an excessive use of social networking.

Admittedly, it is neither possible to discard the use of social media in today’s academic life, nor to keep students’ use of social networks fully controlled. Certainly, the educational space in today’s world cannot do without the social media, which has turned into an integral part of everybody’s life. Yet, probably students need to be instructed on how to take advantage of the media and to be the least affected negatively by its occasional superficial and unrepresentative content. Compensatory programs might be needed at schools or universities to encourage students to avoid making unrealistic and impartial comparisons of themselves and the flamboyant images of others displayed on social media. Students can be taught to develop self-appreciation and self-care while continuing to use the media to their benefit.

The teachers’ role as well as the curriculum developers’ role are becoming more important than ever, as they can significantly help to moderate the adverse effects of the pervasive social media use on students’ mental and emotional health. The kind of groupings formed for instructional purposes, for example, in social media can be done with greater care by teachers to make sure that the members of the groups are homogeneous and the tasks and activities shared in the groups are quite relevant and realistic. The teachers cannot always be in a full control of students’ use of social media, and the other fact is that students do not always and only use social media for educational purposes. They spend more time on social media for communicating with friends or strangers or possibly they just passively receive the content produced out of any educational scope just for entertainment. This uncontrolled and unrealistic content may give them a false image of life events and can threaten their mental and emotional health. Thus, teachers can try to make students aware of the potential hazards of investing too much of their time on following pages or people that publish false and misleading information about their personal or social identities. As students, logically expected, spend more time with their teachers than counselors, they may be better and more receptive to the advice given by the former than the latter.

Teachers may not be in full control of their students’ use of social media, but they have always played an active role in motivating or demotivating students to take particular measures in their academic lives. If teachers are informed of the recent research findings about the potential effects of massively using social media on students, they may find ways to reduce students’ distraction or confusion in class due to the excessive or over-reliant use of these networks. Educators may more often be mesmerized by the promises of technology-, computer- and mobile-assisted learning. They may tend to encourage the use of social media hoping to benefit students’ social and interpersonal skills, self-confidence, stress-managing and the like. Yet, they may be unaware of the potential adverse effects on students’ emotional well-being and, thus, may find the review of the recent relevant research findings insightful. Also, teachers can mediate between learners and social media to manipulate the time learners spend on social media. Research has mainly indicated that students’ emotional experiences are mainly dependent on teachers’ pedagogical approach. They should refrain learners from excessive use of, or overreliance on, social media. Raising learners’ awareness of this fact that individuals should develop their own path of development for learning, and not build their development based on unrealistic comparison of their competences with those of others, can help them consider positive values for their activities on social media and, thus, experience positive emotions.

At higher education, students’ needs are more life-like. For example, their employment-seeking spirits might lead them to create accounts in many social networks, hoping for a better future. However, membership in many of these networks may end in the mere waste of the time that could otherwise be spent on actual on-campus cooperative projects. Universities can provide more on-campus resources both for research and work experience purposes from which the students can benefit more than the cyberspace that can be tricky on many occasions. Two main theories underlying some negative emotions like boredom and anxiety are over-stimulation and under-stimulation. Thus, what learners feel out of their involvement in social media might be directed toward negative emotions due to the stimulating environment of social media. This stimulating environment makes learners rely too much, and spend too much time, on social media or use them obsessively. As a result, they might feel anxious or depressed. Given the ubiquity of social media, these negative emotions can be replaced with positive emotions if learners become aware of the psychological effects of social media. Regarding the affordances of social media for learners, they can take advantage of the potential affordances of these media such as improving their literacy, broadening their communication skills, or enhancing their distance learning opportunities.

A review of the research findings on the relationship between social media and students’ affective traits revealed both positive and negative findings. Yet, the instances of the latter were more salient and the negative psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and stress have been far from negligible. These findings were discussed in relation to some more relevant theories such as the social comparison theory, which predicted that most of the potential issues with the young generation’s excessive use of social media were induced by the unfair comparisons they made between their own lives and the unrealistic portrayal of others’ on social media. Teachers, education policymakers, curriculum developers, and all those in charge of the student affairs at schools and universities should be made aware of the psychological effects of the pervasive use of social media on students, and the potential threats.

It should be reminded that the alleged socially supportive and communicative promises of the prevalent use of social networking in student life might not be fully realized in practice. Students may lose self-appreciation and gratitude when they compare their current state of life with the snapshots of others’ or peers’. A depressed or stressed-out mood can follow. Students at schools or universities need to learn self-worth to resist the adverse effects of the superficial support they receive from social media. Along this way, they should be assisted by the family and those in charge at schools or universities, most importantly the teachers. As already suggested, counseling programs might help with raising students’ awareness of the potential psychological threats of social media to their health. Considering the ubiquity of social media in everybody’ life including student life worldwide, it seems that more coping and compensatory strategies should be contrived to moderate the adverse psychological effects of the pervasive use of social media on students. Also, the affective influences of social media should not be generalized but they need to be interpreted from an ecological or contextual perspective. This means that learners might have different emotions at different times or different contexts while being involved in social media. More specifically, given the stative approach to learners’ emotions, what learners emotionally experience in their application of social media can be bound to their intra-personal and interpersonal experiences. This means that the same learner at different time points might go through different emotions Also, learners’ emotional states as a result of their engagement in social media cannot be necessarily generalized to all learners in a class.

As the majority of studies on the psychological effects of social media on student life have been conducted on school students than in higher education, it seems it is too soon to make any conclusive remark on this population exclusively. Probably, in future, further studies of the psychological complexities of students at higher education and a better knowledge of their needs can pave the way for making more insightful conclusions about the effects of social media on their affective states.

Suggestions for further research

The majority of studies on the potential effects of social media usage on students’ psychological well-being are either quantitative or qualitative in type, each with many limitations. Presumably, mixed approaches in near future can better provide a comprehensive assessment of these potential associations. Moreover, most studies on this topic have been cross-sectional in type. There is a significant dearth of longitudinal investigation on the effect of social media on developing positive or negative emotions in students. This seems to be essential as different affective factors such as anxiety, stress, self-esteem, and the like have a developmental nature. Traditional research methods with single-shot designs for data collection fail to capture the nuances of changes in these affective variables. It can be expected that more longitudinal studies in future can show how the continuous use of social media can affect the fluctuations of any of these affective variables during the different academic courses students pass at school or university.

As already raised in some works of research reviewed, the different patterns of impacts of social media on student life depend largely on the educational context. Thus, the same research designs with the same academic grade students and even the same age groups can lead to different findings concerning the effects of social media on student psychology in different countries. In other words, the potential positive and negative effects of popular social media like Facebook, Snapchat, Twitter, etc., on students’ affective conditions can differ across different educational settings in different host countries. Thus, significantly more research is needed in different contexts and cultures to compare the results.

There is also a need for further research on the higher education students and how their affective conditions are positively and negatively affected by the prevalent use of social media. University students’ psychological needs might be different from other academic grades and, thus, the patterns of changes that the overall use of social networking can create in their emotions can be also different. Their main reasons for using social media might be different from school students as well, which need to be investigated more thoroughly. The sorts of interventions needed to moderate the potential negative effects of social networking on them can be different too, all requiring a new line of research in education domain.

Finally, there are hopes that considering the ever-increasing popularity of social networking in education, the potential psychological effects of social media on teachers be explored as well. Though teacher psychology has only recently been considered for research, the literature has provided profound insights into teachers developing stress, motivation, self-esteem, and many other emotions. In today’s world driven by global communications in the cyberspace, teachers like everyone else are affecting and being affected by social networking. The comparison theory can hold true for teachers too. Thus, similar threats (of social media) to self-esteem and self-worth can be there for teachers too besides students, which are worth investigating qualitatively and quantitatively.

Probably a new line of research can be initiated to explore the co-development of teacher and learner psychological traits under the influence of social media use in longitudinal studies. These will certainly entail sophisticated research methods to be capable of unraveling the nuances of variation in these traits and their mutual effects, for example, stress, motivation, and self-esteem. If these are incorporated within mixed-approach works of research, more comprehensive and better insightful findings can be expected to emerge. Correlational studies need to be followed by causal studies in educational settings. As many conditions of the educational settings do not allow for having control groups or randomization, probably, experimental studies do not help with this. Innovative research methods, case studies or else, can be used to further explore the causal relations among the different features of social media use and the development of different affective variables in teachers or learners. Examples of such innovative research methods can be process tracing, qualitative comparative analysis, and longitudinal latent factor modeling (for a more comprehensive view, see Hiver and Al-Hoorie, 2019 ).

Author contributions

Both authors listed have made a substantial, direct, and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

This study was sponsored by Wuxi Philosophy and Social Sciences bidding project—“Special Project for Safeguarding the Rights and Interests of Workers in the New Form of Employment” (Grant No. WXSK22-GH-13). This study was sponsored by the Key Project of Party Building and Ideological and Political Education Research of Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications—“Research on the Guidance and Countermeasures of Network Public Opinion in Colleges and Universities in the Modern Times” (Grant No. XC 2021002).

Conflict of interest

Author XX was employed by China Mobile Group Jiangsu Co., Ltd. The remaining author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Social media's impact on youth is creating additional challenges and opportunities. Social Networking sites provide a platform for discussion on burning issues that has been overlooked in today's scenario. The impact of social networking sites in the changing mind-set of the youth. It was survey type research and data was collected through the questionnaire. 300 sampled youth fill the questionnaire; non-random sampling technique was applied to select sample units. The main objectives were as (1) To analyze the influence of social media on youth social life (2) To assess the beneficial and preferred form of social media for youth (3) To evaluate the attitude of youth towards social media and measure the spending time on social media (4) To recommend some measure for proper use of social media in right direction to inform and educate the people. Collected data was analyzed in term of frequency, percentage, and mean score of statements. Following were main findings Majority of the respondents shows the agreements with these influences of social media. Respondents opine Facebook as their favorite social media form, and then the like Skype as second popular form of social media, the primary place for them, 46 percent responded connect social media in educational institution computer labs, mainstream responded as informative links share, respondents Face main problem during use of social are unwanted messages, social media is beneficial for youth in the field of education, social media deteriorating social norms, social media is affecting negatively on study of youth. Social media promotes unethical pictures, video clips and images among youth, anti-religious post and links create hatred among peoples of different communities, Negative use of social media is deteriorating the relationship among the countries, social media is playing a key role to create political awareness among youth. Introduction Social media is most recent form of media and having many features and characteristics. It have many facilities on same channel like as communicating ,texting, images sharing , audio and video sharing , fast publishing, linking with all over world, direct connecting. it is also cheapest fast access to the world so it is very important for all age of peoples. Its use is increasing day by day with high rate in all over the

Journal of Education Technology in Health Sciences

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Abstract Utilizing the technology made our life very easier and brought the globe in our hand which has got both pros and cons. Young generation is more of techno oriented than the values that makes them to be depending on the social medias easily that affects the domains of health. A study was conducted to assess the Social media addiction among the paramedical students. Quantitative research approach with non experimental, descriptive research design was used. Non probability convenient sampling technique was used to select 140 para medical students who fulfills the inclusion criteria. Self administered structured questionnaire was used. Modified social media addiction likert scale was used with 20 items. Findings of the study shows that vast majority (103(74%)) of the students were addicted to the social media. To conclude, it is the high time for the policy-makers to restrict on this and make provision to improve the interaction skills. Keywords: Social media addiction, Social interactions.

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Effects of Social Media on Academic Performance of High School Students under Pandemic (COVID-19) Situations

8 Pages Posted: 9 Mar 2021

Jurena Abrenica

Central Luzon State University

Marife De Torres

Danilo vargas.

Date Written: March 8, 2021

This study is entitled, “Effects of Social Media on Academic Performance of Don Ramon E. Costales Memorial National High School Students.” The study was conducted at Don Ramon E. Costales Memorial National High School in Villasis, Pangasinan.The Philippines This study aimed to determine the extent of students’ utilization of social networking sites, their reasons for using social media, and their social media preference. it also tried to explore how the different variables such as sex, age, religion, grade level, type of social networking sites, and the number of hours spent in studying affect the extent of their social media usage. Cooperation with the institution was done to administer the survey questionnaires. Binary logistic regression analysis and descriptive methods were used. Findings reveal that majority of the students used Facebook to communicate with their friends and relatives followed by Instagram. The students were using social media daily for 1-5 hours. The only variable that affected the extent of utilization of social media was the respondents’ gender. With 0.87, females were two times more exposed to social media rather than males. The study concludes that females are more exposed to social media rather than males. The use of social media by females has to do with their desire to communicate or share more personal information, revealing more about their personal lives. They use social networking sites to make connections and stay in touch with family or friends. Men, by contrast, use social media to gather the information they need to build influence. Facebook is the most preferred social networking site for students to connect with family and friends. They are entertained by Facebook. They use a long time chatting with friends rather than doing school works. Facebook becomes their daily routine. The study recommends for other researchers who wish to do a similar study, employ other variables which are not tested in the study to find other factors that affect the extent of social media usage of the students.

Keywords: : Effects, Social Media, Academic Performance, High School Students

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Central Luzon State University ( email )

Barangay Bantug Science City of Munoz Science City of Muñoz, Nueva Ecija 3119 Philippines 3121 (Fax)

Danilo Vargas (Contact Author)

Science City of Munoz Science City of Munoz Science City Of Munoz, Nueva Ecija 3121 Philippines 3121 (Fax)

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The global prevalence of social media addiction among university students: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• Review Article
• Published: 22 July 2023

Cite this article

• Nader Salari 1 ,
• Hosna Zarei 2 ,
• Amin Hosseinian-Far 3 ,
• Shabnam Rasoulpoor 4 ,
• Shamarina Shohaimi 5 &
• Masoud Mohammadi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5722-8300 6  

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The growing popularity of social network sites (SNS) and their benefits have made these networks an integral part of many university students' lives. Excessive use of these networks can lead to behavioral disorders among users, of which the most important currently is addiction. This study was conducted to investigate the global prevalence of social media addiction among university students.

Subject and methods

In this systematic review and meta-analysis, the PubMed, Web of Science, Jisc Library Hub Discover, Library of Congress, and Google Scholar databases and search engines were systematically searched to identify studies that reported on the global prevalence of social media addiction among the university student population. As part of the search process, no lower time limit was set, and the searches were last updated in April 2022. The heterogeneity of studies was assessed using the I 2 index, and a random-effects model was used for analysis. Data analysis was performed using Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) software (version 2).

Following the examination of 51 studies with a sample size of 35,520 students, the pooled global prevalence of social network addiction among university students was found to be 18.4% (95% CI: 14.7–22.6%), with the highest prevalence found in studies conducted in Asia, at 22.8% (95% CI: 18.5–27.6%).

The results of this study show that the pooled global prevalence of social media addiction among the university student population is 18.4%. Addiction to these social networks among students is an important public health issue and requires specific attention and policies in order to reduce its prevalence among university students.

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the Student Research Committee of Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences.

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Department of Biostatistics, School of Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran

Nader Salari

Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran

Hosna Zarei

Department of Business Systems & Operations, University of Northampton, Northampton, UK

Amin Hosseinian-Far

Department of Psychiatric Nursing, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Urmia University of Medical Sciences, Urmia, Iran

Shabnam Rasoulpoor

Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

Shamarina Shohaimi

Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Gerash University of Medical Sciences, Gerash, Iran

Masoud Mohammadi

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NS and HZ contributed to the study design. MM performed the statistical analysis and participated in most of the study steps. SHR, HZ, AHF, MM, HGH, and SHSH prepared the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the content of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Masoud Mohammadi .

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Salari, N., Zarei, H., Hosseinian-Far, A. et al. The global prevalence of social media addiction among university students: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Public Health (Berl.) (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-023-02012-1

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Accepted : 03 July 2023

Published : 22 July 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-023-02012-1

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How does social media affect mental health?

The pros of social media, the cons of social media, what’s driving your social media use, signs that social media is impacting your mental health, how to change your social media use, step 1: reduce time online, step 2: change your focus, step 3: spend more time with offline friends, step 4: express gratitude, helping a child or teen with unhealthy social media use, social media and mental health are you addicted to social media.

While many of us enjoy staying connected on social media, excessive use can fuel feelings of addiction, anxiety, depression, isolation, and FOMO. Here’s how to modify your habits and improve your mood.

Human beings are social creatures. We need the companionship of others to thrive in life, and the strength of our connections has a huge impact on our mental health and happiness. Being socially connected to others can ease stress, anxiety, and depression, boost self-worth, provide comfort and joy, prevent loneliness, and even add years to your life. On the flip side, lacking strong social connections can pose a serious risk to your mental and emotional health.

In today’s world, many of us rely on social media platforms such as Facebook, X (formerly Twitter), Snapchat, YouTube, TikTok, and Instagram to find and connect with each other. While each has its benefits, it’s important to remember that social media can never be a replacement for real-world human connection. It requires in-person contact with others to trigger the hormones that alleviate stress and make you feel happier, healthier, and more positive. Ironically for a technology that’s designed to bring people closer together, spending too much time engaging with social media can actually make you feel more lonely and isolated—and exacerbate mental health problems such as anxiety and depression.

If you’re spending an excessive amount of time on social media and feelings of sadness, dissatisfaction, frustration, or loneliness are impacting your life, it may be time to re-examine your online habits and find a healthier balance.  

Speak to a Licensed Therapist

BetterHelp is an online therapy service that matches you to licensed, accredited therapists who can help with depression, anxiety, relationships, and more. Take the assessment and get matched with a therapist in as little as 48 hours.

While virtual interaction on social media doesn’t have the same psychological benefits as face-to-face contact, there are still many positive ways in which it can help you stay connected and support your wellbeing.

Social media enables you to:

• Communicate and stay up to date with family and friends around the world.
• Find new friends and communities; network with other people who share similar interests or ambitions.
• Join or promote worthwhile causes; raise awareness on important issues.
• Seek or offer emotional support during tough times.
• Find vital social and professional connections (such as online therapy ) if you live in a remote area, for example, or have limited independence, social anxiety, or are part of a marginalized group.
• Find an outlet for your creativity and self-expression.
• Discover (with care) sources of valuable information and learning.

Since it’s a relatively new technology, there’s little research to establish the long-term consequences, good or bad, of social media use. However, multiple studies have found a strong link between heavy social media and an increased risk for depression, anxiety, loneliness, self-harm , and even suicidal thoughts .

Social media may promote negative experiences such as:

Inadequacy about your life or appearance . Even if you know that images you’re viewing on social media are manipulated, they can still make you feel insecure about how you look or what’s going on in your own life. Similarly, we’re all aware that other people tend to share just the highlights of their lives, rarely the low points that everyone experiences. But that doesn’t lessen those feelings of envy and dissatisfaction when you’re scrolling through a friend’s airbrushed photos of their tropical beach holiday or reading about their exciting new promotion at work.

Fear of missing out (FOMO) and social media addiction . While FOMO has been around far longer than social media, sites such as Facebook and Instagram seem to exacerbate feelings that others are having more fun or living better lives than you are. The idea that you’re missing out on certain things can impact your self-esteem, trigger anxiety, and fuel even greater social media use, much like an addiction. FOMO can compel you to pick up your phone every few minutes to check for updates, or compulsively respond to each and every alert—even if that means taking risks while you’re driving, missing out on sleep at night, or prioritizing social media interaction over real world relationships. 

Isolation . A study at the University of Pennsylvania found that high usage of Facebook, Snapchat, and Instagram increases rather decreases feelings of loneliness . Conversely, the study found that reducing social media usage can actually make you feel less lonely and isolated and improve your overall wellbeing.

Depression and anxiety . Human beings need face-to-face contact to be mentally healthy. Nothing reduces stress and boosts your mood faster or more effectively than eye-to-eye contact with someone who cares about you. The more you prioritize social media interaction over in-person relationships, the more you’re at risk for developing or exacerbating mood disorders such as anxiety and depression .

Cyberbullying. About 10 percent of teens report being bullied on social media and many other users are subjected to offensive comments. Social media platforms such as Twitter can be hotspots for spreading hurtful rumors, lies, and abuse that can leave lasting emotional scars.

Self-absorption.  Sharing endless selfies and all your innermost thoughts on social media can create an unhealthy self-centeredness and distance you from real-life connections.

These days, most of us access social media via our smartphones or tablets. While this makes it very convenient to keep in touch, it also means that social media is always accessible. This round-the-clock, hyper connectivity can trigger impulse control problems, the constant alerts and notifications affecting your concentration and focus, disturbing your sleep, and making you a slave to your phone .

Social media platforms are designed to snare your attention, keep you online, and have you repeatedly checking your screen for updates. It’s how the companies make money. But, much like a gambling compulsion or an addiction to nicotine, alcohol, or drugs, social media use can create psychological cravings. When you receive a like, a share, or a favorable reaction to a post, it can trigger the release of dopamine in the brain, the same “reward” chemical that follows winning on a slot machine, taking a bite of chocolate, or lighting up a cigarette, for example. The more you’re rewarded, the more time you want to spend on social media, even if it becomes detrimental to other aspects of your life.

Other causes of unhealthy social media use

A fear of missing out (FOMO) can keep you returning to social media over and over again. Even though there are very few things that can’t wait or need an immediate response, FOMO will have you believing otherwise. Perhaps you’re worried that you’ll be left out of the conversation at school or work if you miss the latest news or gossip on social media? Or maybe you feel that your relationships will suffer if you don’t immediately like, share, or respond to other people’s posts? Or you could be worried you’ll miss out on an invitation or that other people are having a better time than you.

Many of us use social media as a “security blanket”. Whenever we’re in a social situation and feel anxious, awkward, or lonely, we turn to our phones and log on to social media. Of course, interacting with social media only denies you the face-to-face interaction that can help to ease anxiety .

Your heavy social media use could be masking other underlying problems , such as stress, depression, or boredom. If you spend more time on social media when you’re feeling down, lonely, or bored, you may be using it as a way to distract yourself from unpleasant feelings or self-soothe your moods. While it can be difficult at first, allowing yourself to feel can open you up to finding healthier ways to manage your moods .

The vicious cycle of unhealthy social media use

Excessive social media use can create a negative, self-perpetuating cycle:

• When you feel lonely, depressed, anxious, or stressed, you use social media more often—as a way to relieve boredom or feel connected to others.
• Using social media more often, though, increases FOMO and feelings of inadequacy, dissatisfaction, and isolation.
• In turn, these feelings negatively affect your mood and worsen symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress.
• These worsening symptoms cause you to use social media even more, and so the downward spiral continues.

Everyone is different and there is no specific amount of time spent on social media, or the frequency you check for updates, or the number of posts you make that indicates your use is becoming unhealthy. Rather, it has to do with the impact time spent on social media has on your mood and other aspects of your life, along with your motivations for using it.

For example, your social media use may be problematic if it causes you to neglect face-to-face relationships, distracts you from work or school, or leaves you feeling envious, angry, or depressed. Similarly, if you’re motivated to use social media just because you’re bored or lonely, or want to post something to make others jealous or upset, it may be time to reassess your social media habits.

Indicators that social media may be adversely affecting your mental health include:

Spending more time on social media than with real world friends . Using social media has become a substitute for a lot of your offline social interaction. Even if you’re out with friends, you still feel the need to constantly check social media, often driven by feelings that others may be having more fun than you.

Comparing yourself unfavorably with others on social media . You have low self-esteem or negative body image. You may even have patterns of disordered eating.

Experiencing cyberbullying . Or you worry that you have no control over the things people post about you.

Being distracted at school or work . You feel pressure to post regular content about yourself, get comments or likes on your posts, or respond quickly and enthusiastically to friends’ posts.

Having no time for self-reflection . Every spare moment is filled by engaging with social media, leaving you little or no time for reflecting on who you are, what you think, or why you act the way that you do—the things that allow you to grow as a person.

Engaging in risky behavior in order to gain likes , shares, or positive reactions on social media. You play dangerous pranks, post embarrassing material, cyberbully others, or access your phone while driving or in other unsafe situations.  

[ Read: Dealing with Revenge Porn and “Sextortion” ]

Suffering from sleep problems . Do you check social media last thing at night, first thing in the morning, or even when you wake up in the night? The light from phones and other devices can disrupt your sleep , which in turn can have a serious impact on your mental health.

Worsening symptoms of anxiety or depression . Rather than helping to alleviate negative feelings and boost your mood, you feel more anxious, depressed, or lonely after using social media.

If you feel that your social media use has become an addiction, or it’s fueling your levels of anxiety, depression, FOMO, or sense of isolation, the following steps can help you modify your habits :

A 2018 University of Pennsylvania study found that reducing social media use to 30 minutes a day resulted in a significant reduction in levels of anxiety, depression, loneliness, sleep problems, and FOMO. But you don’t need to cut back on your social media use that drastically to improve your mental health. The same study concluded that just being more mindful of your social media use can have beneficial results on your mood and focus.  

While 30 minutes a day may not be a realistic target for many of us—let alone a full “social media detox”— we can still benefit from reducing the amount of time we spend on social media. For most of us, that means reducing how much we use our smartphones. The following tips can help:

• Use an app to track how much time you spend on social media each day. Then set a goal for how much you want to reduce it by.
• Turn off your phone at certain times of the day, such as when you’re driving, in a meeting, at the gym, having dinner, spending time with offline friends, or playing with your kids. Don’t take your phone with you to the bathroom.
• Don’t bring your phone or tablet to bed . Turn devices off and leave them in another room overnight to charge.
• Disable social media notifications. It’s hard to resist the constant buzzing, beeping, and dinging of your phone alerting you to new messages. Turning off notifications can help you regain control of your time and focus.
• Limit checks. If you compulsively check your phone every few minutes, wean yourself off by limiting your checks to once every 15 minutes. Then once every 30 minutes, then once an hour. There are apps that can automatically limit when you’re able to access your phone.
• Try removing social media apps from your phone so you can only check Facebook, Twitter and the like from your tablet or computer. If this sounds like too drastic a step, try removing one social media app at a time to see how much you really miss it.

For more tips on reducing your overall phone use, read Smartphone Addiction .

Many of us access social media purely out of habit or to mindlessly kill moments of downtime. But by focusing on your motivation for logging on, you can not only reduce the time you spend on social media, you can also improve your experience and avoid many of the negative aspects.

If you’re accessing social media to find specific information, check on a friend who’s been ill, or share new photos of your kids with family, for example, your experience is likely to be very different than if you’re logging on simply because you’re bored, you want to see how many likes you got from a previous post, or to check if you’re missing out on something.

Next time you go to access social media, pause for a moment and clarify your motivation for doing so.

Are you using social media as a substitute for real life? Is there a healthier substitute for your social media use? If you’re lonely, for example, invite a friend out for coffee instead. Feeling depressed? Take a walk or go to the gym. Bored? Take up a new hobby. Social media may be quick and convenient, but there are often healthier, more effective ways to satisfy a craving.

Are you an active or a passive user on social media? Passively scrolling through posts or anonymously following the interaction of others on social media doesn’t provide any meaningful sense of connection. It may even increase feelings of isolation. Being an active participant, though, will offer you more engagement with others.

Does social media leave you feeling inadequate or disappointed about your life? You can counter symptoms of FOMO by focusing on what you have, rather than what you lack. Make a list of all the positive aspects of your life and read it back when you feel you’re missing out on something better. And remember: no one’s life is ever as perfect as it seems on social media. We all deal with heartache, self-doubt, and disappointment, even if we choose not to share it online.  

We all need the face-to-face company of others to be happy and healthy. At its best, social media is a great tool for facilitating real-life connections. But if you’ve allowed virtual connections to replace real-life friendships in your life, there are plenty of ways to build meaningful connections without relying on social media.

Set aside time each week to interact offline with friends and family. Try to make it a regular get-together where you always keep your phones off.

If you’ve neglected face-to-face friendships, reach out to an old friend (or an online friend) and arrange to meet up. If you both lead busy lives, offer to run errands or exercise together .

Join a club . Find a hobby, creative endeavor, or fitness activity you enjoy and join a group of like-minded individuals that meet on a regular basis.

Don’t let social awkwardness stand in the way . Even if you’re shy, there are proven techniques to  overcome insecurity and build friendships .

If you don’t feel that you have anyone to spend time with, reach out to acquaintances . Lots of other people feel just as uncomfortable about making new friends as you do—so be the one to break the ice. Invite a coworker out for lunch or ask a neighbor or classmate to join you for coffee.

Interact with strangers . Look up from your screen and connect with people you cross paths with on public transport, at the coffee shop, or in the grocery store. Simply smiling or saying hello will improve how you feel—and you never know where it may lead.

Feeling and expressing gratitude about the important things in your life can be a welcome relief to the resentment, animosity, and discontent sometimes generated by social media.

Take time for reflection . Try keeping a gratitude journal or using a gratitude app. Keep track of all the great memories and positives in your life—as well as those things and people you’d miss if they were suddenly absent from your life. If you’re more prone to venting or negative posts, you can even express your gratitude on social media—although you may benefit more from private reflection that isn’t subject to the scrutiny of others. 

[Read: Gratitude: The Benefits and How to Practice It]

Practice mindfulness . Experiencing FOMO and comparing yourself unfavorably to others keeps you dwelling on life’s disappointments and frustrations. Instead of being fully engaged in the present, you’re focused on the “what ifs” and the “if onlys” that prevent you from having a life that matches those you see on social media. By practicing mindfulness , you can learn to live more in the present moment, lessen the impact of FOMO, and improve your overall mental wellbeing.

Volunteer . Just as human beings are hard-wired to seek social connection, we’re also hard-wired to give to others. Helping other people or animals not only enriches your community and benefits a cause that’s important to you, but it also makes you feel happier and more grateful.

Childhood and the teenage years can be filled with developmental challenges and social pressures. For some kids, social media has a way of exacerbating those problems and fueling anxiety, bullying , depression , and issues with self-esteem.

If you’re worried about your child’s social media use, it can be tempting to simply confiscate their phone or other device. But that can create further problems, separating your child from their friends and the positive aspects of social media. Instead, there are other ways to help your child use TikTok, Facebook, Instagram, and other platforms in a more responsible way.

Monitor and limit your child’s social media use. The more you know about how your child is interacting on social media, the better you’ll be able to address any problems. Parental control apps can help limit your child’s data usage or restrict their phone use to certain times of the day. You can also adjust privacy settings on the different platforms to limit their potential exposure to bullies or predators.

Talk to your child about underlying issues. Problems with social media use can often mask deeper issues. Is your child having problems fitting in at school? Are they suffering from shyness or social anxiety? Are problems at home causing them stress?

Enforce “social media” breaks. For example, you could ban social media until your child has completed their homework in the evening, not allow phones at the dinner table or in their bedroom, and plan family activities that preclude the use of phones or other devices. To prevent sleep problems, always insist phones are turned off at least one hour before bed.

Teach your child how social media is not an accurate reflection of people’s lives. They shouldn’t compare themselves or their lives negatively to others on social media. People only post what they want others to see. Images are manipulated or carefully posed and selected. And having fewer friends on social media doesn’t make your child less popular or less worthy.

Encourage exercise and offline interests. Get your child away from social media by encouraging them to pursue physical activities and hobbies that involve real-world interaction. Exercise is great for relieving anxiety and stress , boosting self-esteem, and improving mood—and is something you can do as a family. The more engaged your child is offline, the less their mood and sense of self-worth will be dependent on how many friends, likes, or shares they have on social media. 

More Information

• Study into wellbeing and social media - Details study linking time spent on social media with decreased wellbeing. (Penn Today, University of Pennsylvania)
• Impact on the mental health of young people - Briefing paper analyzing the impact of social media. (Centre for Mental Health)
• Linking child depression - How heavy Instagram and Facebook use may be affecting kids negatively. (Child Mind Institute)
• Hunt, Melissa G., Rachel Marx, Courtney Lipson, and Jordyn Young. “No More FOMO: Limiting Social Media Decreases Loneliness and Depression.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 37, no. 10 (December 2018): 751–68. Link
• Riehm, Kira E., Kenneth A. Feder, Kayla N. Tormohlen, Rosa M. Crum, Andrea S. Young, Kerry M. Green, Lauren R. Pacek, Lareina N. La Flair, and Ramin Mojtabai. “Associations Between Time Spent Using Social Media and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems Among US Youth.” JAMA Psychiatry 76, no. 12 (December 1, 2019): 1266. Link
• Anderson, Monica. (2018, September 27). A majority of teens have been the target of cyberbullying, with name-calling and rumor-spreading being the most common forms of harassment. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Link
• Kross, Ethan, Philippe Verduyn, Emre Demiralp, Jiyoung Park, David Seungjae Lee, Natalie Lin, Holly Shablack, John Jonides, and Oscar Ybarra. “Facebook Use Predicts Declines in Subjective Well-Being in Young Adults.” PLOS ONE 8, no. 8 (August 14, 2013): e69841. Link
• Twenge, Jean M., Thomas E. Joiner, Megan L. Rogers, and Gabrielle N. Martin. “Increases in Depressive Symptoms, Suicide-Related Outcomes, and Suicide Rates Among U.S. Adolescents After 2010 and Links to Increased New Media Screen Time.” Clinical Psychological Science 6, no. 1 (January 1, 2018): 3–17. Link
• Ilakkuvan, Vinu, Amanda Johnson, Andrea C. Villanti, W. Douglas Evans, and Monique Turner. “Patterns of Social Media Use and Their Relationship to Health Risks Among Young Adults.” Journal of Adolescent Health 64, no. 2 (February 2019): 158–64. Link
• Primack, Brian A., Ariel Shensa, Jaime E. Sidani, Erin O. Whaite, Liu Yi Lin, Daniel Rosen, Jason B. Colditz, Ana Radovic, and Elizabeth Miller. “Social Media Use and Perceived Social Isolation Among Young Adults in the U.S.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 53, no. 1 (July 2017): 1–8. Link

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