sample research paper for criminology students

Criminology Research Paper

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Introduction

Criminology and measuring crime, time and space, social class, criminology and explaining crime, criminology and preventing crime.

• Bibliography

Criminology is the scientific study of crime as a social phenomena. Edwin Sutherland (1947) noted in an early analysis that criminology investigates the processes of producing laws, breaking laws, and responding to the breaking of laws.

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These processes are three aspects of a somewhat unified sequence of interactions. Certain acts which are regarded as undesirable are defined by the political society as crimes. In spite of this definition, some people persist in the behavior and thus commit crimes; the political society reacts by punishment or other treatment or by prevention. This sequence of interactions is the object-matter of criminology. (P. 1)

Consequently, criminology can be split into three subfields: the study of lawmaking, the study of lawbreaking, and the study of responses to lawbreaking. Because lawmaking and responses to lawbreaking are discussed in other research papers, we shall concentrate on the second branch, lawbreaking.

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Regarding crime, sociologists have investigated numerous avenues of inquiry. They have endeavored to identify crime patterns, i.e., the manner in which criminal conduct is spread over time, place, and social structure. They have attempted to explain crime by identifying the factors that not only distinguish criminals from noncriminals but also account for its occurrence. In addition, they have investigated how crime might be averted. We shall discuss each of these inquiries in turn. Prior to discussing the distribution of crime, however, we must analyze its measurement.

How do we know what we know? is a fundamental question of any intellectual field. The empirical nature of criminology necessitates the use of the scientific method to observe and record crime. To quantify the nature and scope of crime phenomena, researchers employ a range of methodologies. The majority of criminologists’ scientific approaches are quantitative, aiming to count the number and kind of crimes and their connections. Researchers utilize two key types of quantitative data: secondary data derived from official sources and primary data derived from self-reports of criminal activity and victimization.

Official statistics extracted from police records are the most important source of information used to measure the nature and scope of crime. The Federal Bureau of Investigation has sponsored a statewide endeavor to develop a statistical description of crime in the United States since 1930. Today, more than 17,000 police agencies engage annually in the Uniform Crime Report data collecting and reporting program (UCR). The UCR provides information regarding crimes that are known to law enforcement and offenses that have been cleared by law enforcement, typically through arrest. Criminologists sometimes utilize UCR data to calculate a crime rate based on offenses reported to the police or arrests made by the police. A crime rate is superior to a crime count since the rate takes population into account. For example, UCR data for 2003 in the United States indicate a total of 16,503 homicides known to police, a fairly high amount.

However, given the magnitude of the nation’s population—nearly 280 million people—the murder rate in 2003 was among the lowest in the preceding four decades, at 5.7 murders per 100,000 people (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2004). The UCR provides crime statistics broken down by area, community type, and locality. Information identifying the age, color, and gender of criminals is restricted to crimes that have been cleared by police and for which an arrest has been made.

Until recently, the UCR classed major offenses as “Index” or Part I offenses, and less serious offenses as Part II offenses. Index crimes include the following eight offenses: murder and non-negligent manslaughter, forceful rape, robbery, serious assault, burglary, larceny-theft, auto theft, and arson. Traditionally, criminologists, politicians, and the media have depended on index crime data to follow changes in major crime through time and geography. Index data are a composite that conceal substantial variances in the frequency of each infraction. For instance, larceny-theft accounts for more than 60 percent of all Part I offenses (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2004). Consequently, fluctuations in more severe crimes, like as murder and rape, may be obscured by the vast volume of property crimes, such as larceny. Researchers in the field of criminal justice are aware of this and often separate index crimes into two categories: violent crimes and property crimes.

The FBI is now implementing the National Incident Based Reporting System, a new data collection tool (NIBRS). The NIBRS is intended to build upon the UCR by providing police with more information about criminal events, including the nature of the crimes and the characteristics of the perpetrators. This strategy is novel in two ways. First, the NIBRS analyzes occurrences as its core analytical unit. Second, it extends on the UCR by providing more information regarding the nature and types of individual offenses in each crime episode, such as the victim(s) and offender(s) involved, the type and amount of property stolen, and the characteristics of those arrested.

Even though the UCR and NIBRS include a wealth of information, official records pose a number of challenges. A huge portion of every crime gets unreported to the police, which is perhaps the most serious issue. Unreported crimes are referred to as “dark figures” since their nature and scope are unknown. Another problem of official records is that they are compiled, documented, and reported by non-researchers, making them secondary data. According to Thorsten Sellin (1931), each layer of administration in the gathering of official crime data raises the possibility of distortion, bias, or inaccuracy, hence diminishing the data’s usefulness. The data collected from police records have also been challenged for being political artifacts that reflect the operational logics and goals of law enforcement agencies. In addition, the UCR data collecting rules apply a judgment rule known as the hierarchy rule of classification, which sacrifices data regarding criminal episodes involving many crimes. Frequently, when a crime is committed, multiple laws are broken. However, the hierarchy rule dictates that only the most serious offense is reported to the FBI. The rule produces systematic downward bias in UCR data. A final shortcoming is that government records provide inadequate information about the correlates of crime, such as the relationship between victims and offenders, the racial and sexual mix of offenders and victims, and the drug use of offenders. The NIBRS aims to improve official records in light of the last two concerns, notably the hierarchy rule and the limited correlations between crime.

In large part as a result of concerns about the veracity of official data, academics have invented alternative ways for gathering data on crime. The majority of them are self-report questionnaires. The benefit of survey approach is that researchers directly obtain primary data from individuals in criminal activity. This gives researchers greater control over data collecting and facilitates testing of hypotheses. Typically, self-report questionnaires are available in two formats. One form requires people to disclose their own criminal behavior. The second sort of survey questions individuals about their victimization experiences.

A self-report survey of offending asks a sample of persons if and how frequently they have committed any of a variety of offenses during a certain time period. Thornberry and Krohn (2000) attribute the emergence of self-report methodology to Sutherland’s (1940) observation that respectable middle-class individuals are likely to commit crimes but are unlikely to be recorded in police files. Porterfield’s 1946 work was the first to utilize the self-report method in studies of criminal and delinquent conduct, maybe prompted by Sutherland’s observation. His work established the usefulness of self-reports for criminal and delinquent studies. Short and Nye’s (1958) research is primarily responsible for establishing self-reports as a methodological cornerstone of criminology. Throughout the years, criminologists have devoted significant efforts to enhancing the self-report method by creating strategies that increase the validity and reliability of self-reported crime and delinquency (Hindelang, Hirschi, and Weis 1981).

Self-report investigations of criminal behavior can be distinguished by their substantive focus and sample design. Using schools as sampling points is a frequent method for surveying teenagers. Monitoring the Future, an annual study addressing drug use undertaken with a nationally representative sample of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders, is one of the most renowned instances (Johnston, O’Malley, and Bachman, 1996). Other methods of surveying criminal or delinquent behavior include random samples of the broader population. Nationwide Youth Survey (NYS) is one of the most comprehensive national assessments of delinquency (Elliott 1983). The New York State uses a national probability sampling design to survey approximately 1,700 11- to 17-year-olds about their involvement in delinquency as well as a number of attitudinal and experiential issues. Similar to numerous other self-report surveys, the NYS supplies criminologists with data for addressing etiological questions. In addition, New York State utilizes a panel design, allowing researchers to track children through adulthood.

The other sort of self-report questionnaire is the victimization questionnaire. In this study, researchers ask a sample of individuals if and how frequently they had been victims of specific criminal crimes during a specific time period. The most well-known victimization survey is the 1973 National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). This is a twice-yearly, national household survey. In contrast to self-report surveys of offending, which were motivated by the empirical restrictions associated with the police focus on crimes of the lower classes, the NCVS was motivated by the failure of individuals to report crimes to the police. Each year, around 85,000 families and more than 150,000 responders participate, giving the most accurate estimate of real crime in the United States. Unlike the UCR, the NCVS includes information about crimes committed against individuals, regardless of whether the crimes were reported to authorities. Questions address crimes suffered by individuals and their home, whether the offenses were reported to police, as well as victim, household, and perpetrator characteristics in personal crimes. In addition, respondents are asked about their perspectives on the criminal justice system and their motivations for reporting or not reporting crimes. Generally speaking, victimization surveys are limited to the more common and readily identifiable memories. Although it appears that respondents are generally accurate when reporting their experiences as offenders and victims, there is evidence that underreporting is a danger to the validity of self-report studies of both offending (Hindelang et al., 1981) and victimization (Hindelang et al., 1981). (Murphy and Dodge 1981). As a result of embarrassment or a desire to protect their privacy, some respondents may choose not to discuss their criminal past. In addition, respondents do not always recall the infractions they committed or those committed against them, and they may recall offenses as being more recent or more remote than they actually were.

Crime statistics are crucial to the criminological endeavour. They contribute to the establishment of the fundamental social facts of crime, which comprise the objects of explanation and give evidence for the evaluation of explanations. Unfortunately, crime figures are among the most unreliable and challenging of any social phenomenon statistics. It is impossible to correctly estimate the level of crime in any specific location or time period. As stated previously, many crimes go unreported, while others are identified but not reported to police or researchers, and yet others are reported but not legally documented. Thus, any record of crimes can at most be regarded an index of the actual crimes committed. This fact has prompted both caution regarding crime data sources and more research to validate and enhance empiricism in the sector. Comparing the “behavior” of crime indexes across several data sources is a popular solution. Figure 1 displays how victimization data compare to government figures since 1973. Although it is a violation of individuals and property. They dismiss crimes done on behalf of corporations, such as deceptive advertising and price-fixing, as well as “victimless” crimes, such as drug usage and gambling.

     Figure 1

Both types of self-report surveys offer advantages over official crime statistics and are an essential source of crime data. They have access to a wide range of violations, ranging from significant crimes to minor infractions that are unlikely to be reported to police. In addition, by measuring the personal and societal traits of offenders and/or victims, they can supply a wealth of information for evaluating crime theories. Both sorts of self-reports are subject to the same constraints inherent to the self-report method. The fundamental limitations of self-report surveys stem from the size of the sample and the precision of assessment. A survey’s sample size is determined by guaranteeing representative participation and obtaining cooperation throughout the survey questionnaire. Both data sources produce indices that react similarly (growing and declining) across this time frame.

Criminology and Patterns of Crime

Criminologists document crime patterns in order to comprehend the nature and scope of crime. While the general public views many crimes as random acts, criminological research demonstrates that crime is not dispersed randomly among individuals or groups. The focus of criminological research on crime patterns is the relationship between criminal conduct and dimensions of time, place, and social structure. Crime tends to be a “intrastatus” activity, which is a crucial understanding in tracking criminal tendencies. In a significant number of crimes, the statuses used to identify offenders also describe the victims. Criminology has paid considerable attention to a number of contextual and structural factors that explain the fundamental crime patterns. These include the spatial and temporal distribution of crime, as well as the age, gender, race, and social status of the participants.

Criminologists have always been fascinated by the social factors that influence criminal behavior. Social context is characterized by the temporal and spatial characteristics that are connected with criminal behavior. At least three time metrics have been of interest to criminologists: annual patterns, seasonal patterns, and daily patterns. According to historical studies of crime in the United States, significant crime grew in the decades preceding the American Civil Conflict and continued to rise after the war. From roughly 1880 until the 1930s, reported crime generally declined, with the exception of the years before and during World War I. Since then, major crime has generally increased modestly, with a sharper rise commencing in the late 1960s (Gurr 1981). It reached its highest point in 1981 and again in 1991, but then plummeted in the middle and late 1990s and has been slowly dropping ever since (see Figure 2).

     Figure 2

In addition to annual shifts, which reflect historical oscillations, criminologists have identified additional units of time in which crime fluctuates. For instance, crimes tend to increase towards the beginning of the month, when most people receive their paychecks. Most crimes occur over the summer, when youths are out of school and people spend extended periods of time outside and away from their homes. Murders are more likely to occur in the evening, when more people are at leisure, whereas domestic burglaries are more likely to occur during the day, when more people are at work or school and less able to monitor their houses.

Additionally, criminologists have attempted to document the spatial patterns of crime. Researchers have found that the rate of severe crime tends to increase as the population of a community grows. In general, urban areas have a greater crime rate than their suburban and rural counterparts. Consistently, victimization and self-report statistics indicate that crime is concentrated in major metropolitan areas (Sutherland, Cressey, and Luckenbill 1992:176–78). In the United States, however, the extent to which the urban crime rate exceeds the rural crime rate fluctuates over time. As improved communication and transportation have diminished the disparities between urban and rural areas, there is reason to believe that the disparities in crime rates have also decreased, with rural and suburban crime rates increasing more rapidly than urban crime rates. In local communities, crime is typically concentrated in areas characterized by social disadvantage. High-crime neighborhoods typically have higher-than-average percentages of poverty, rental and abandoned properties, single-parent households, and population mobility, all of which impede the organization of the community to prevent crime.

Youth engage in criminal activities. Researchers have found that age is the most accurate predictor of criminal behavior. The correlation between age and criminality is nonlinear. Criminal activity grows with age into adolescence, reaches its peak in late adolescence or early adulthood, and then drops rather rapidly with age before declining more slowly until death. Some have argued (Gottfredson and Hirschi, 1986) that the association between age and crime is constant, regardless of sex, race, and socioeconomic status, as well as across time and space (see Figure 3).

     Figure 3

Criminologists use the term “distance” to characterize the cessation of criminal action as age increases beyond the peak offending ages of late adolescence or early adulthood (Laub and Sampson 1993). Although the majority of offenders “age out” of crime by early adulthood, a small proportion continue to commit crimes throughout their lives. This observation has spurred attention in the significance of age in differentiating between various sorts of offenders. Research on the effects of age at first offense and the trajectory of crime over the life cycle reveals the existence of several types of criminal careers that vary in terms of commencement, duration, and intensity. Individuals who engage in criminal activity at a young age and those who have contact with the judicial system at a younger age are more likely to become chronic offenders or “life-course persisters.” Laub and Sampson (1993) shown that even among first-time and chronic offenders, recidivism can be avoided. According to research in this field, the most prevalent type of criminal career is “adolescent limited,” meaning that criminal behavior is typically confined to adolescence and early adulthood, after which desistance occurs swiftly.

Men have a higher crime rate than women. Frequently, comparisons of sex-specific criminal conduct are given as a frequency or rate ratio of male to female offenses. Although the disparity in the sex ratio of offenders varies by kind of offense, it is largest for more serious offenses. In the United States, the ratio of male to female murder arrests in any given year is approximately eight male arrests to one female arrest. In contrast, the ratio of male to female arrests for theft, one of the least serious offenses, is two males for every female. Self-report data suggest that males are more likely to be involved in criminal activity than females, however these data tend to reveal less disparity in the sex ratio of criminal offending than official data, particularly for less severe offences (Triplett and Myers 1995). Some criminologists claim that the disparity between arrest statistics and self-reports is due to the chivalrous stance taken by criminal justice officials when ladies are the target of law enforcement (Steffensmeier 1993).

The official statistics portray an arresting picture of criminal behavior by race. African Americans are significantly more likely than whites to be arrested, despite the fact that whites account for the vast bulk of arrests. African Americans are responsible for over 40 percent of arrests for major violent crimes and over 25 percent of arrests for significant property offenses, although constituting just 13 percent of the United States’ population (Federal Bureau of Investigation 2004). In contrast, Whites are arrested disproportionately for specific Part II offenses, such as alcohol and driving under the influence offenses. The racial discrepancy in arrests for serious crimes has decreased in recent years, but African Americans have a considerably greater chance of arrest than whites (see Figure 4).

     Figure 4

Some criminologists have proposed that racial prejudice in criminal justice may account for a significant portion of the reported racial discrepancy in official statistics (Tonry 1995). Others have argued that the judicial system and its agents are reasonably objective when processing defendants, implying that racial disparities in official crime figures reflect true racial inequalities in criminal behavior (Wilbanks 1987). Using self-report and victimization data, criminologists have attempted to settle this disagreement by examining race-specific involvement in criminal conduct. Self-report studies of delinquency among African American and white kids imply that racial disparities are significantly smaller than indicated by arrest statistics (Elliott and Ageton 1980).

Criminologists have long assumed a negative link between social class and crime: people at the bottom of the social hierarchy are more likely to be involved in criminal activity than those at the top. According to official statistics, lower-class status correlates with more criminal activity. Those convicted of a crime and sentenced to prison are more likely to be indigent, unemployed, or underemployed.

In spite of this evidence, criminologists have contended that the association between class and crime is less certain than indicated by official statistics. Sutherland was the first criminologist to examine the relationship between class and crime (1940). He noticed that white-collar crimes, or crimes perpetrated by respectable and high-status individuals in the course of their employment, are prevalent while being typically overlooked in official crime statistics. Sutherland’s discovery has led to numerous criticisms of people who believe a negative association between socioeconomic status and criminal behavior.

Conclusions regarding the relationship between class and crime may reflect the information source used. Self-report studies indicate that adolescents from all socioeconomic levels engage in delinquent behavior (Tittle, Villamez, and Smith 1978). However, these studies have been critiqued for failing to precisely define class status and for conflating delinquency with serious criminality (Braithwaite, 1979). (Farnworth,Thornberry, Krohn, and Lizotte 1994).

In conclusion, criminologists have committed significant effort in documenting crime patterns. These patterns are useful for evaluating and planning social responses to crime by policymakers. Correlating crime across dimensions of social context (time and geography) and social structure (age, sex, race, and social class) yields empirical facts that theory must explain.

Throughout the past two centuries, numerous criminology schools have flourished. A school of criminology is a body of thinking that combines a theory of crime causation with control methods required by the theory. In Europe during the eighteenth century, Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham established the classical school as one of the first criminology schools. According to the classical school, crime is a reasonable technique of maximizing one’s self-interest. Individuals are perceived as hedonistic, seeking pleasure and avoiding pain, and rational, calculating the pleasures and pains of possible behaviors and selecting those that promise the most pleasure with the least pain. Individuals will opt to commit a crime if they determine that it delivers the most joy and the least pain relative to other actions. To control crime, the state need merely persuade individuals that committing a crime would result in more pain than pleasure, which can be achieved by raising the severity of punishments. When individuals discover that criminal behavior is less enjoyable, they will pursue more fulfilling activities. During the nineteenth century, the positive school of criminology emerged largely due to the contributions of Cesare Lombroso and his followers. The positive school, which is grounded in the physical sciences, views crime as the result of personal faults or diseases. It asserts that the physical constitution influences behavior and that flaws in biological structure or processes result in criminal conduct. The positive school maintains that punishment is ineffective in reducing crime because criminals do not weigh the pleasures and pains of different actions and choose the one that maximizes pleasure. Instead, it asserts that the only rational approach to controlling crime is to identify and influence its causes. Given that crime is the result of a human defect or disorder, it follows that the most effective method of crime control is to treat the defect or condition in question. This school fell out of favor at the beginning of the twentieth century as the sociological school, which views crime as a product of the social environment, gained popularity. Over the course of the twentieth century, the sociological school has matured and grown to dominate scientific efforts to explain crime.

The sociological school predominantly emerged in the United States. Sociologists have conducted the majority of systematic studies of crime and criminals since the late nineteenth century, when criminology was recognized as a topic of study by the expanding sociology departments of universities. A 1901 survey found that criminology and penology were among the first courses taught under the label of sociology in American colleges (Tolman 1902–1903), and the first issue of the American Journal of Sociology included papers and book reviews on criminology. At the same time, though, American sociologists were impressed by a number of the positive school’s claims. Not until approximately 1915, after the publication of Charles Goring’s The English Convict (1913), was a strong environmentalist perspective developed. This pattern likely caused John Gillin (1914) to make his observation,

The longer the study of crime has continued in this country, the greater has grown the number of causes of crime which may be described as social. This is the aspect in the development of American criminology which has given to that study in this country the title of “The American School.” (P. 53)

The core thesis of the sociological school is that criminal behavior is the outcome of the same conditions and processes as other forms of social behavior. There are two types of analyses of these factors and processes in relation to crime. First, criminologists have attempted to establish a link between variances in crime rates and differences in social organization. Several socioeconomic circumstances, including social and economic inequality, political and economic ideology, and culture and normative conflict, have been studied in relation to differences in the crime rates of societies and units of society. In an early sociological study, Clifford Shaw (1929) utilized the Chicago School’s ecological method, which strongly drew on Durkheim’s analogy of society as an organism, to comprehend the metropolitan distribution of delinquency. He noticed that delinquency was concentrated in specific regions of the city and attributed this to social disarray. He viewed delinquency as a pathology endemic to urban slums, not the individuals who resided there. These regions had high mobility, heterogeneity, and conflict, factors that fostered social disorganization, a condition in which traditional means of social control are ineffective and individuals are free to engage in criminal conduct. In particular, Robert Merton’s (1938) anomie theory was significantly influenced by Durkheim’s functionalist concepts regarding the causes and implications of change in social solidarity. In a seminal remark, Albert Cohen (1955) asserted that differences in the access of social classes to legitimate means of obtaining success correlate with differences in their rates of delinquency. In American society, lower-class children are encouraged to seek the same goals as middle-class children and are evaluated using the same criteria. However, they lack the cultural and economic capital required to effectively compete with children from middle-class families. As a result, many children from disadvantaged backgrounds suffer failure, and in response, they may develop and participate in delinquent subcultures. These two arguments—that high rates of crime can be explained in terms of a breakdown of social organization and that high rates can be explained in terms of a conflict between culturally induced aspirations and structurally limited opportunities—have figured prominently in much macro-level contemporary theory.

Second, criminologists have worked to uncover the mechanisms that lead to the criminalization of persons. In general, their investigations link criminality to socialization differences. One view, advanced by Travis Hirschi (1969) under the umbrella of control theory, holds that criminality is the outcome of a breakdown in socialization. According to this perspective, criminal behavior is a manifestation of inherent instincts. When a person’s connection to society is weak, it is doubtful that he or she will absorb the values and conventions of society or be attentive to the needs and desires of others. The individual lacks control and is therefore free to participate in criminal activity. Edwin Sutherland (1947) and Ronald Akers (1998) expand the notion that criminality results from social learning. According to this viewpoint, criminal behavior is not a manifestation of inherent instincts. Rather, a person learns to engage in illegal behavior similarly to how they learn to engage in noncriminal behavior. The content of education, not the method itself, determines whether a person becomes a criminal. These arguments, namely, that criminality results from a breakdown in socialization and that criminality is a product of socialization, continue to dominate micro-level thinking about crime.

In recent decades, criminologists have pursued alternative methods of analysis. In the 1960s and 1970s, some criminologists began to rethink the key assumptions and themes that had been used to organize criminology. They noticed that criminality is not an inherent quality of a given conduct and that the breach of a criminal statute does not invariably result in the capture and punishment of the offender. Instead, an act is criminal because legislators have made it so, and those who violate the law are selectively captured and punished (Becker 1963). This moves the focus from the criminal to the mechanisms of defining and responding to disruptive behavior (Quinney 1964; Turk 1969). Consequently, criminologists have increasingly focused on patterns of selective law enforcement, asking what types of offenses and offenders are most likely to be treated as crimes and criminals and why? In the course of demystifying the legal system, criminologists also considered the consequences of being labeled and treated as a criminal, arguing that stigmatization reduces a person’s legitimate opportunities for success and alters his or her identity, thereby promoting chronic criminality (Kitsuse 1962; Lemert 1972:62–92).

Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, a number of criminologists attempted to develop comprehensive theories of crime. Traditionally, criminologists have evaluated hypotheses by pitting at least two against one another in a “theory competition” (Akers and Sellers 2004:267). Recognizing that there is nothing to be gained from such rivalry, criminologists have increasingly sought to develop more effective explanatory models by combining aspects of two or more distinct theories of crime. John Braithwaite (1989) incorporated elements of control theory, social learning theory, and labeling theory into his theory of reintegrative shaming, and Charles Tittle (1995) incorporated elements of control theory, social learning theory, strain theory, and Marxist theory into his control balance theory of deviance. Despite the significance of integration initiatives, caution must be exercised in this endeavor. As Akers (1989:24) correctly highlighted, if ideas are combined without respect for their incompatibilities, “theoretical mush” can arise.

Over the years, three crime prevention strategies have been utilized: punitive, defensive, and interventionist. Punitive tactics are predicated on the premise that criminality and crime rates can be lowered by instilling in individuals a strong fear of being penalized for committing crimes. It is believed that inflicting great suffering on criminals both reforms those who are punished (specific deterrence) and discourages others from committing crimes (general deterrence). Much of the legislation that aims to significantly reduce crime is merely an effort to improve the severity or certainty of punishment (Beckett and Sasson 2004). Methods of defense are based on the premise that crime can be decreased by making it difficult for individuals to commit crimes. These solutions include lighting streets, securing doors, and putting valuables in safes (Felson 2002:144–64). The confinement of criminals inside bars so that they cannot victimize strangers is another example of defensive measures. The premise of interventionist tactics is that punishment and defense are insufficient. Rather, it is assumed that criminality and crime rates can be efficiently lowered by identifying and altering the factors that produce them. Methods based on the premise that offenders lack basic interpersonal skills aim to develop their competence in empathy, problem solving, impulse control, and anger management, whereas methods based on the premise that offenders have learned criminal behavior aim to teach them lawful forms of behavior (Cullen 2002). Generally speaking, interventionist tactics think that high crime rates are a result of economic, political, and social organization and that it is folly to leave this structure intact and try to reduce crime rates by punishing or defending against criminals produced by it. Instead, the objective is to reform the economic, political, or social system in order to lower crime rates (Currie 1998).

There is substantial evidence that intervention is or may be the most effective method of reducing crime (Cullen 2002; MacKenzie 2000). As more is discovered about crime, interventionist approaches will have a stronger foundation. If consistently followed, these regulations would safeguard society against crime in three ways.

First, they would ensure the segregation of those whose recurrent involvement in major crime has shown their threat. Although segregation would not change these criminals, it will safeguard society by incapacitating them and demonstrating disapproval of significant lawbreaking. Currently, we are unable to dramatically alter the societal conditions that produce some chronic offenders or their behavior. We can only protect ourselves against this small group of dangerous individuals.

Second, interventionist policies would integrate into law-abiding society a greater number of citizens, including the majority of those who have committed a crime but have not proven to be dangerous. It is generally accepted that social control is derived from the benefits of lawful behavior rather than direct fear of punishment. The effective deterrent is not the dread of legal penalties per se, but rather the fear of status loss (Grasmick and Bursik 1990). However, fear is not what stops criminal action. Rather, a law-abiding citizen is someone who believes that certain actions, such as stealing from a neighbor or attacking a coworker, are inconceivable. In order for crime prevention strategies to be effective, more people must have a stake in adhering to the rules that prohibit criminal behavior.

Thirdly, interventionist policies would identify the social circumstances from which criminal activity is most likely to emanate and make it possible to abolish those circumstances. Instead of eliminating the economic, political, and social attitudes, conditions, and injustices that cause crime, political leaders have decided to rely on fear of punishment (Currie 1998). Punishment appears to be less expensive, but this is not the case. In addition, the emphasis on punishment detracts from the necessity of creating the environment required for household tranquility. If attitudes of shared respect for certain values could be fostered, punitive legislation relating to these values would be unneeded. If, for instance, all members of a community had an equal stake in the concept of private property, it would no longer be necessary to coerce individuals into upholding property rights.

In short, crime would be decreased by absorbing those criminals who can be absorbed, isolating those who cannot be absorbed for defense, and reducing the conditions that are most conducive to crime and hence necessitate the need to absorb some criminals and isolate others. As much as punishment would, the vigorous execution of such rules would demonstrate society disapproval of criminal behavior. Rather than punishment, approval and disapproval of criminals deter crime among the majority of citizens, including the majority of the poor and disadvantaged, from whom the vast majority of criminals originate.

Our knowledge of crime is elementary. Certainly, we have a sense of how crime is distributed along a variety of structural, temporal, and spatial dimensions; we have a sense of the principal variables that affect the occurrence of crime and development of criminality, as well as the general ways in which these variables operate to produce crime and criminality; and we have a sense of the types of methods that appear to be effective in controlling crime. However, more effort must be done before a solid comprehension of crime can be attained.

When we consider criminology in the twenty-first century, we observe that the field is evolving in multiple directions. There are persistent efforts to develop and enhance the methodological tools for documenting crime, testing theories of crime, and evaluating initiatives to combat crime. There are also ongoing efforts to create integrated theories of crime, theories that incorporate not just sociological, but also biological and psychological, factors. Integrated theory is advancing criminology down a path that may eventually identify it as an interdisciplinary field of study as opposed to a sociological specialty. These two streams, one methodological and one theoretical, will become more linked. The analytical state of the art, for instance, enables a broader and more rigorous range of theory-testing initiatives, which promotes the development of theory. Lastly, there are ongoing initiatives to employ criminological knowledge to improve social welfare by reducing rates of first and repeat offenses in a manner that is fair to offenders, victims, and the broader community. These trends are not exclusive to the criminological enterprise. In fact, they reflect sociological tendencies in which sociologists attempt to refine methods, develop unified theories, and apply research to educate public policy and enrich community life.

Bibliography:

• Akers, Ronald L. 1989. “A Social Behaviorist’s Perspective on Integration of Theories of Crime and Deviance.” Pp. 23–36 in Theoretical Integration in the Study of Deviance and Crime, edited by S. Messner, M. Krohn, and A. Liska. Albany: State University of New York Press.
• Akers, Ronald L. 1998. Social Learning and Social Structure. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
• Akers, Ronald L. and Christine S. Sellers. 2004. Criminological Theories. 4th ed. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury.
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Digital Commons @ USF > College of Behavioral and Community Sciences > Criminology > Theses and Dissertations

Criminology Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

Efficacy of Online Social Movements for Sparking Change: The Case of the Missing Murdered and Indigenous Women Movement (#MMIW) , Kacy A. Bleeker

An Examination of Racial Disparities in Arrest Across Florida Counties, 1998-2018: A Test of the Racial Threat and Political Representation Hypotheses , Xavier D. Burch

The Invisible Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation: Boys and Their Barriers to Access to Services , Amanda L. Connella

Damned & Damned: Examining Vexatious Litigation and the Vexatious Litigant Statute in Florida Courts , Sarah L. Harper

The Contributions of Mental Health Issues, Traumatic Brain Injury, and Adverse Childhood Experiences to Recidivism Among Rural Jail Incarcerees , Lauren N. Miley

Assessing the Relationship Between True Crime Documentary and Podcast Consumption, Fear of Crime, and Protective Behaviors , Lauren A. Tremblay

Police Officers’ Perceptions of Gunshot Detection Technology , Courtney L. Weber

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

A Macro Social Examination of the Relationship Between Disabilities and Crime Using Neighborhood and County Level Data , Natasha A. Baloch

Racial Differences in Perceptions of Sanction Severity , Sarah L. Franklin

Juvenile Homicide Offenders: A Life-Course Perspective , Norair Khachatryan

Exploring the Effectiveness of a Life-Skills Program in a Florida Prison Through a Social Bond and General Strain Theory Perspective , Danielle M. Thomas

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Clean Water for All: Examining Safe Drinking Water Act Violations of Water Systems and Community Characteristics , Junghwan Bae

Morality and Offender Decision-Making: Testing the Empirical Relationship and Examining Methodological Implications , Jacquelyn Burckley

The Ring of Gyges 2.0: How Anonymity Providing Behaviors Affect Willingness to Participate in Online Deviance , Cassandra E. Dodge

A Macro Analysis of Illegal Hunting and Fishing Across Texas Counties: Using an Economic Structural Approach , Leo J. Genco Jr.

Self-Protection in Cyberspace: Assessing the Processual Relationship Between Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making, Protection Motivation Theory, Cyber Hygiene, and Victimization , C. Jordan Howell

Racial Threat Theory: A Test of the Economic Threat Hypothesis , Carl L. Reeds

Online Perceptions of Panamanian Prisons and Incarcerated persons: An analysis of YouTube user comments , Mahaleth J. Sotelo

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

Toxic Colonialism and Green Victimization of Native Americans: An Examination of the Genocidal Impacts of Uranium Mining , Averi R. Fegadel

Cross-National Incarceration Rates as Behavior of Law , Christopher J. Marier

The Effects of Perceived Motivations and Mental Distress on the Likelihood of Reporting and Engaging in Self-Protective Measures Among Victims of Stalking , Daniela Oramas Mora

Mental Health and In-Prison Experiences: Examining Socioeconomic and Sex Differences in the Effect of Mental Illness on Institutional Misconduct and Disciplinary Segregation , Rachel E. Severson

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Dating Application Facilitated Victimization: An Examination of Lifestyle-Routine Activities, Self-Control, and Self-Efficacy , Vanessa Centelles

Social Constructionism and Cultivation Theory in Development of the Juvenile “Super-Predator” , Elizabeth R. Jackson-Cruz

Bystander Intervention, Victimization, and Routine Activities Theory: An Examination of Feminist Routine Activities Theory in Cyber Space , Jennifer A. Leili

Sexual Assault and Robbery Disclosure: An Examination of Black’s Theory of the Behavior of Law , Caitlyn N. Muniz

Mass Shootings and Gun Sales: A Study on the Influence of Red and Blue Power , Maria Jose Rozo Osuna

A Multi-dimensional Macrolevel Study of Drug Enforcement Strategies, Heroin Prices, and Heroin Consumption Rates , Alexander G. Toth

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Impact of a Religious/Spiritual Turning Point on Desistance: A Lifecourse Assessment of Racial/Ethnic Differences , Rhissa Briones Robinson

Political Decisions on Police Expenditures: Examining the Potential Relationship Between Political Structure, Police Expenditures and the Volume of Crime Across US States , Xavier D. Burch

Identifying the Personal and Perceived Organizational Characteristics Associated with Job Satisfaction Among Juvenile Probation Staff , Julie M. Krupa

The Role of Organizational Justice in Predicting Attitudes Toward Body-Worn Cameras in Police Officers , Nathaniel L. Lawshe

Yet Another Ferguson Effect: An Exploratory Content Analysis of News Stories on Police Brutality and Deadly Force Before and After the Killing of Michael Brown , Carl Root

The Role of Race/Ethnicity and Risk Assessment on Juvenile Case Outcomes , Tayler N. Shreve

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Intimate Partner Violence and the Capacity and Desire for Self-Control , Krista Taralynne Brewer

School Shootings in the United States from 1997 to 2012: A Content Analysis of Media Coverage , Victoria N. Iannuzzi

Chronic Runaway Youth: A Gender-Based Analysis , Michelle N. Jeanis

A Test of Wikström’s Situational Action Theory Using Self-Report Data on Intimate Partner Violence , Lauren Nicole Miley

An Exploratory Study of Macro-Social Correlates of Online Property Crime , Hyojong Song

Female Incarceration and Prison Social Order: An Examination of Gender Differences in Prison Misconduct and In-Prison Punishments , Elisa L. Toman

Adverse Childhood Experiences and Their Role as Mitigators for Youthful and Non-Youthful Offenders in Capital Sentencing Cases , Jessica R. Trapassi

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

Disinhibition, Violence Exposure, and Delinquency: A Test of How Self-Control Affects the Impact of Exposure to Violence , Wyatt Brown

The Guilty But Mentally Ill Verdict: Assessing the Impact of Informing Jurors of Verdict Consequences , Erin Elizabeth Cotrone

The Relationship between Psychopathic Personality Traits and Lying , Jason A. Dobrow

Delving into the Heart of Victimization Risk: Examining the Interactive Relationship between Demographic Factors and Context , Amy Sheena Eggers

A Power Conflict Approach to Animal Cruelty: Examining How Economic Power Influences the Creation of Animal Cruelty Laws , Leonard J. Genco

The Role of Gender in Self-Control and Intimate Partner Violence , Laura Marie Gulledge

The Restrictive Deterrent Effect of Warning Banners in a Compromised Computer System , Christian Jordan-Michael Howell

Tactics of Sexual Control and Negative Health Outcomes , Anna Elizabeth Kleppe

The Applicability of Criminology to Terrorism Studies: An Exploratory Study of ISIS Supporters in the United States , Amanda Marie Sharp Parker

The Path to Violent Behavior: The Harmful Aftermath of Childhood Trauma , Nicholas Michael Perez

The Effects of Racial Bias on Perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence Scenarios , Batya Yisraela Rubenstein

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Reel or Reality? The Portrayal of Prostitution in Major Motion Pictures , Raleigh Blasdell

Psychopathy and Perception of Vulnerability , Barbara Joyce Dinkins

Effect of Empathy on Death Penalty Support in Relation to the Racial Divide and Gender Gap , Brian Godcharles

Exploring the Interactive Effects of Social Learning Theory and Psychopathy on Serious Juvenile Delinquency , Brandy Barenna Henderson

Tampa Electric Company's Big Bend Utility Plant in Hillsborough County, Florida: A Case Study , Lynne M. Hodalski-Champagne

Thirty Year Follow-Up of Juvenile Homicide Offenders , Norair Khachatryan

Organized Crime in Insurance Fraud: An Empirical Analysis of Staged Automobile Accident Rings , Chris Longino

The Role of Social Support in the Disclosure and Recovery Process of Rape Victims , Jessica Nicole Mitchell

Evaluating the Social Control of Banking Crimes: An Examination of Anti-Money Laundering Deficiencies and Industry Success , Erin M. Mulligan

Elite Deviance, Organized Crime, and Homicide: A Cross-National Quantitative Analysis , Carol L.s. Trent

An Evaluation of the Utah First District Mental Health Court: Gauging the Efficacy of Diverting Offenders Suffering With Serious Mental Illness , Stephen Guy VanGeem

Rape, Race, and Capital Punishment in North Carolina: A Qualitative Approach to Examining an Enduring Cultural Legacy , Douglas Wholl

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

The Tattoo: A Mark of Subversion, Deviance, or Mainstream Self-Expression? , Jocelyn Camacho

Juvenile and Adult Involvement in Double Parricide and Familicide in the U.S.: An Empirical Analysis of 20 Years of Data , Averi Rebekah Fegadel

Predicting Successful Drug Court Graduation: Exploring Demographic and Psychosocial Factors among Medication-Assisted Drug Court Treatment Clients , Autumn Michelle Frei

Experimentally Evaluating Statistical Patterns of Offending Typology For Burglary: A Replication Study , Lance Edwin Gilmore

Developmental Trajectories of Physical Aggression and Nonaggressive Rule-Breaking among At-risk Males and Females during Late Childhood and Early Adolescence , Eugena Givens

Predicting Fear of Crime using a Multilevel and Multi-Model Approach: A Study in Hillsborough County , Jonathan Maskaly

Public Knowledge and Sentiments about Elite Deviance , Cedric Michel

The Influence of Community Context on Social Control: A Multi-Level Examination of the Relationship between Race/Ethnicity, Drug Offending, and Juvenile Court Outcomes , Jennifer Peck

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Assessing the Relationship Between Hotspots of Lead and Hotspots of Crime , Kimberly L. Barrett

A Life-Course Approach to Sexual Offending: Examining the Continuity of Juvenile Sexual Offending into Adulthood and Subsequent Patterns of Recidivism , Maude Beaudry-Cyr

Examining the link between self-control and misconduct in a multi-agency sample of police supervisors: A test of two theories , Christopher Matthew Donner

The Impact of Hyperfemininity on Explicit and Implicit Blame Assignment and Police Reporting of Alcohol Facilitated Rape in a Sample of College Women , Sarah Ehlke

Rurality and Intimate Partner Homicide: Exploring the Relationship between Place, Social Structure, and Femicide in North Carolina , Amelia Kirkland

Self-Control, Attitudinal Beliefs, and White-Collar Crime Intentions , Melissa Anne Lugo

Zero Tolerance for Marginal Populations: Examining Neoliberal Social Controls in American Schools , Brian Gregory Sellers

State-Corporate Crime in the Democratic Republic of Congo , Veronica Jane Winters

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

The Walls Are Closing In: Comparing Property Crime Victimization Risk In Gated And Non-Gated Communities , Nicholas Branic

What Propels Sexual Homicide Offenders? Testing an Integrated Theory of Social Learning and Routine Activities Theories , Heng Choon Chan

A Deadly Way of Doing Business: A Case Study of Corporate Crime in the Coal Mining Industry , Charles Nickolas Stickeler

Deconstructing the "Power and Control Motive": Developing and Assessing the Measurability of Internal Power , Shelly Marie Wagers

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Assessing racial differences in offending trajectories: A life-course view of the race-crime relationship , Michael S. Caudy

Mental Health Courts Effectiveness in Reducing Recidivism and Improving Clinical Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis , Brittany Cross

General Strain Theory and Juvenile Delinquency: A Cross-Cultural Study , Wen-Hsu Lin

General Strain Theory, Race, and Delinquency , Jennifer Peck

Developmental Trajectories of Self-Control: Assessing the Stability Hypothesis , James Vance Ray

Explaining the "Female Victim Effect" in Capital Sentencing Decisions: A Case for Sex-Specific Models of Capital Sentencing Research , Tara N. Richards

A Multilevel Model of Police Corruption: Anomie, Decoupling, and Moral Disengagement , Ruth Zschoche

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

The Emotional Guardianship of Foreign-Born and Native-Born Hispanic Youth and Its Effect on Violent Victimization , Amy Sheena Eggers

The Influence of Narcissism and Self-Control on Reactive Aggression , Melissa L. Harrison

Is There an "Innocent Female Victim" Effect in Capital Punishment Sentencing? , Amelia Lane Kirkland

An Analysis of the Influence of Sampling Methods on Estimation of Drug Use Prevalence and Patterns Among Arrestees in the United States: Implications for Research and Policy , Janine Kremling

A Pathway to Child Sex Trafficking in Prostitution: The Impact of Strain and Risk-Inflating Responses , Joan A. Reid

Victimization Among Individuals With Low Self-Control: Effects on Fear Versus Perceived Risk of Crime , Casey Williams

Theses/Dissertations from 2009 2009

Domestic Violence Within Law Enforcement Families: The Link Between Traditional Police Subculture and Domestic Violence Among Police , Lindsey Blumenstein

Rape Attitudes and Beliefs: A Replication Study , Rhissa Emily Briones

Reel Images: Representations of Adult Male Prisons by the Film Industry , Melissa E. Fenwick

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Home > USC Columbia > Arts and Sciences > Criminology and Criminal Justice > Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses and Dissertations

Criminology and Criminal Justice Theses and Dissertations

Theses/dissertations from 2023 2023.

The Risk of Protection: Examining the Contextual Effects of Child Protective Services on Child Maltreatment Fatalities in the U.S. , Cosette Morgan McCullough

Theses/Dissertations from 2022 2022

Too Feminine for Execution?: Gender Stereotypes and the Media’s Portrayal of Women Sentenced to Death , Kelsey M. Collins

Juveniles, Transferred Juveniles, and the Impact of a Criminal Record on Employment Prospects in Adulthood: An Experimental Study , Joanna Daou

Theses/Dissertations from 2021 2021

Why So Long? Examining the Nexus Between Case Complexity and Delay in Florida’s Death Penalty System , Corey Daniel Burton

The Criminalization of HIV and HIV Stigma , Deanna Cann

Views of Substance Use During Pregnancy: Social Responses to the Issue , Taylor Ruddy

The Spatial Variability of Crime: A Review of Methodological Choice, Proposed Models, and Methods for Illustrating the Phenomenon , Matthew D. Spencer

Community Corrections Officer Decision-Making: An Intersectional Analysis , Amber Leigh Williams Wilson

Theses/Dissertations from 2020 2020

The Utility of Using Virtue Locales to Explain Criminogenic Environments , Hunter Max Boehme

Fostering Resilience in Correctional Officers , Jon Thomas Arthur Gist

The Impact of Race/Ethnicity on Sentencing: A Matching Approach , Travis Jones

Unraveling the Temporal Aspects of Victimization: The Reciprocal, Additive, and Cumulative Effects of Direct/Vicarious Victimization on Crime , Yeoju Park

Theses/Dissertations from 2019 2019

Media Influence on College Students' Perceptions of the Police , Matilda Foster

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Ohio's Certificate of Relief , Peter Leasure

Trends in the Prevalence of Arrest for Intimate Partner Violence Using the National Crime Victimization Survey , Tara E. Martin

Reading Between the Lines: An Intersectional Media Analysis of Female Sex Offenders in Florida Newspapers , Toniqua C. Mikell

Theses/Dissertations from 2018 2018

The Short-Term Self-Control Stability of College Students , Nicholas James Blasco

Developmental Patterns of Religiosity in Relation to Criminal Trajectories among Serious Offenders across Adolescence and Young Adulthood , Siying Guo

Local Incarceration As Social Control: A National Analysis Of Social, Economic, And Political Determinants Of Jail Use In The United States , Heather M. Ouellette

Association Between Perception Of Police Prejudice Against Minorities And Juvenile Delinquency , Kwang Hyun Ra

A Quasi-Experimental Analysis Of School-Based Situational Crime Prevention Measures , Gary Zhang

Theses/Dissertations from 2017 2017

Sex Offender Policies that Spin the Revolving Door: An Exploration of the Relationships Between Residence Restrictions, Homelessness, and Recidivism , Deanna Cann

Untangling the Interconnected Relationships between Alcohol Use, Employment, and Offending , Margaret M. Chrusciel

Inmate Time Utilization And Well-Being , Mateja Vuk

Theses/Dissertations from 2016 2016

The Socio-Legal Construction Of Adolescent Criminality: Examining Race, Community, And Contextual Factors Through The Lens Of Focal Concerns , Patrick Glen Lowery

The Impact Of Deinstitutionalization On Murders Of Law Enforcement Officers , Xueyi Xing

Theses/Dissertations from 2015 2015

Relationships Between Law Enforcement Officer-Involved Vehicle Collisions And Other Police Behaviors , John Andrew Hansen

In the Eye of the Beholder: Exploring the Dialogic Approach to Police Legitimacy , Justin Nix

Criminology on Crimes Against Humanity: A North Korean Case Study , Megan Alyssa Novak

General Strain Theory and Bullying Victimization: Do Parental Support and Control Alleviate the Negative Effects of Bullying , Jonathon Thompson

Theses/Dissertations from 2014 2014

Adultification in Juvenile Corrections: A Comparison of Juvenile and Adult Officers , Riane Miller Bolin

Perception of Police in Public Housing Communities , Taylor Brickley

Neighborhood Disorganization and Police Decision-Making in the New York City Police Department , Allison Carter

The Impact of Race on Strickland Claims in Federal Courts in the South , Wyatt Gibson

Lead Exposure and Crime , Tara Elaine Martin

GETTING AWAY WITH MURDER: HAZING, HEGEMONIC MASCULINITY, AND VICTIMIZATION , TONIQUA CHAREE MIKELL

Theses/Dissertations from 2013 2013

Policing Alcohol and Related Crimes On Campus , Andrea Nicole Allen

Gender and Programming: A Comparison of Program Availability and Participation in U.S. Prisons for Men and Women , Courtney A. Crittenden

Assessing the Impact of the Court Response to Domestic Violence in Two Neighboring Counties , Gillian Mira Pinchevsky

Theses/Dissertations from 2012 2012

Criminal Sentencing In the Court Communities of South Carolina: An Examination of offender, Judge, and County Characteristics , Rhys Hester

Examining the Effects of Religiosity and Religious Environments On Inmate Misconduct , Benjamin Dane Meade

Theses/Dissertations from 2011 2011

Criminologists' Opinions On Correctional Rehabilitation , Heather M. Ouellette

Theses/Dissertations from 2010 2010

A Qualitative Analysis of the Etiology, Manifestation, and Institutional Responses to Self-Injurious Behaviors in Prison , Steven Doty

Theses/Dissertations from 2002 2002

The Effects of Administrative Factors on Police Officer Job Performance , Irick Anthony Geary Jr.

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Strong Research Questions

A strong research question covers a well-defined and well-studied area of research. Strong research topics/questions are:

• clear and simple
• consistent with assignment requirements
• of interest to you

Developing Your Research Question

A broad topic has literally thousands of articles on it, and you won't be able to adequately cover it in your literature review. It will be far easier for you to research and write your literature review if you develop a strong, focused research question:

Do some exploratory research  on your topic idea, in your course textbook and class notes to identify specific issues, arguments, and analytical approaches in your research area and then identify possible relationships between them. 

Ask yourself questions about your research topic : What interests me about this topic? What have people said about it? What gaps, contradictions, or concerns arise as you learn more about it? What relationships are there between different aspects of the topic?

Write a research question that your hypothesis answers : Use the information from your exploratory research and your answers to questions about your broad topic and the area you've decided to explore to build a focused, clear, simple research question

Identify the key concepts of your research question : what concepts will you need to define and measure in a study to answer your research question? How will you operationally define these concepts into numbers that you can analyze?

Identify your variables:  Use your operational definitions to identify and list the independent and dependent variables for your research question. Identify possible confounding variables and the variables you would use to control for them.

Choose a current topic:  Develop a hypothesis for a research area about which articles are continuing to be published. Avoid defunct or little-known areas of research. 

Write about what interests you:  Professors want students to develop experiments in areas that they care about. If you're interested in the topic, it will be more fun for you to do your experiment and write up your research paper, and probably more fun for your professor to read it, too.

Ask your professor  for feedback on whether the hypothesis you develop is a good hypothesis, one that can be tested.

Picking Your Topic IS Research

Once you've picked a research topic for your paper, it isn't set in stone. It's just an idea that you will test and develop through exploratory research. This exploratory research may guide you into modifying your original idea for a research topic. Watch this video for more info:

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428 Criminology Research Topics & Questions for Students

As you might already know, criminology is the study of crime. To be more precise, criminology studies crime as a social trend, including its origin, various manifestations, and its impact on society.

Criminology research influences how the police work, how society treats criminals, and how the community maintains law and order. In this article, you’ll find top criminology research topics for your inspiration. We’ll also look into the main criminology theories and research methods and explain the difference between criminology and criminal justice.

🔝 Top-10 Criminology Research Topics

🔤 what is criminology.

• 🔎 Criminology Research Methods
• 📝 Research Topics for Assignments

🦹‍♂️ Crime Research Topics

• 🚔 Topics in Law Enforcement
• 🕵️ Criminal Investigation Topics

⚖️ Criminal Law Research Topics

• 🔒 Topics to Research in Crime Prevention

🧑‍⚖️ Criminal Justice Research Topics

• 🆚 Criminology Vs Criminal Justice

❓ Criminology Topics: FAQ

🔗 references.

• Criminology as a science: criminology theories.
• The importance of eyewitness evidence.
• The issue of racial bias in the investigation.
• Crime propaganda on social media.
• The leading causes of college violence.
• The benefits of private prisons.
• The debate around gun control.
• The analysis of power abuse among police officers.
• Drunk driving and how to prevent it.
• The importance of forensic psychology in the investigation.

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, supported by the principles of sociology and other sciences, including economics, statistics, and psychology.

Criminologists study a variety of related areas, including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes.
• Reasons behind committing different crimes.
• Impact of crime on individuals and communities.
• Measures for preventing crimes.

Criminology Theories

Criminology theories have appeared as an attempt to answer the question, “What is criminal behavior, and what causes it?” The answer to this question affects how society responds to and prevents crime. Proposing new theories and testing existing ones is essential for criminologists to continue working toward understanding the causes of criminal behavior.

Let’s consider the most relevant criminology theories.

🔎 Research Methods Used in Criminology

There are many research methods used within criminology. Usually, they are divided into two groups: primary and secondary research methods.

Primary Research Methods in Criminology

Primary research in criminology is any type of research that you collect yourself rather than based on secondary sources, such as articles or books. Examples of primary research methods in criminology include the following:

• Surveys and questionnaires. Survey research collects information from individuals through their responses to questions. It is considered one of the most widely used research tools in criminology.
• Experiments. For experiments , researchers take large samples of people who might become or have already been involved in crimes as victims or offenders. Then, they divide these samples into two groups, each receiving a different treatment.
• Interviews. An interview requires participants to answer a set of open-ended questions, often on sensitive topics, such as victimization or criminal behaviors. This method allows criminologists to gain more valuable insights into the research topic.
• Focus groups. A focus group is a small number of demographically similar people gathered to discuss a particular crime-related topic. This method allows criminologists to analyze people’s views, attitudes, and perceptions concerning crime.
• Observations. Observations involve a researcher studying groups or individuals in their natural setting without interfering. It is a common research method within the social learning theory.

Secondary Criminology Research Methods

Secondary research methods use information that was collected by someone else so that you can analyze it and identify the trends. Here are the two leading types of secondary research in criminology:

• Secondary analysis of data. A secondary analysis occurs when a researcher uses data collected by other researchers. You can obtain secondary data from surveys, official crime statistics, or official records.
• Literature review. A literature review involves reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing literature about a specific criminology topic. It helps scholars identify research gaps and problems that need to be addressed.

📝 Criminology Research Topics for Assignments

To write an outstanding research paper on criminology, choose a topic that will spark your interest. Below you’ll find excellent criminology topic ideas for college students.

Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Criminology theory and its main elements.
• Criminology discipline and theories .
• American crime trends and criminological theories.
• The significance of criminological studies in the US.
• Criminology: legal rights afforded to the accused .
• The impact of violence and crime on the tourism industry.
• How did US crime rates change over the last 20 years?
• Classical and positivist schools of criminology .
• Should abortion be treated as a crime?
• Official and unofficial instruments within the criminal investigation.
• Criminology: femininity and the upsurge of ladettes .
• Criminal rehabilitation programs and their significance.
• Shoplifting and how to prevent it.
• Emerging technologies in criminology .
• The effects of illegal immigrants on crime rates.
• Drug trafficking by organized crime groups.
• Criminology and victimology: victim stereotypes in criminal justice .
• Can genetics lead to crime?
• The procedures of crime scene investigation.
• Labeling theory and critical criminology: sociological research .
• Hate crimes in modern society.
• The phenomenon of white-collar crime and its causes.
• How to prevent crimes in the workplace?
• Criminology: the social control theory .
• Stereotypes that surround serial killers and their crimes.
• The comparison of organized crime in New York and Chicago.
• Prevention strategies for small business crimes.
• Criminology: four types of evidence .
• Relations between crime, justice, and the media.

Criminology Research Proposal Topics

• How to prevent intellectual property crimes in cyberspace?
• Identity theft and cybercrime in modern society.
• Contemporary theories in criminology .
• The problem of racial profiling in the US.
• How has criminology contributed to the study of terrorism ?
• Possible solutions to the issue of street harassment .
• Postmodern criminology: the violence of the language .
• Gender bias in the investigation: pink-collar criminals.
• The phenomenon of digital terrorism and how to prevent it.
• How do immigration services help fight against terrorism?
• Green criminology: environmental harm in the Niger Delta .
• How has marijuana legalization influenced crime rates?
• Tools for collecting and analyzing crime evidence.
• How does international law manage war crimes ?
• The due process: criminology .
• What are victimless crimes ?
• The relation between crime rates and poverty.
• National system for missing and unidentified persons.
• Three case briefs in criminology .
• The impact of mental illness on criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing crime rates.
• The use of AI technology in crime prevention and investigation.
• Sexual assault: criminology .
• The role of media coverage in public perception of crime.
• The impact of community policing on reducing crime rates.
• The impact of mass shootings on gun control laws.
• The impact of automation technology on criminology .

Criminology Thesis Topics

• The role of juvenile justice in preventing future criminal behavior.
• Feminism and criminology in the modern justice system .
• The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentencing in the US.
• Drug laws : fighting crime or fueling it?
• Police brutality : a systemic problem in criminal justice.
• Criminology: USA Patriot Act overview .
• The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities.
• How does organized crime affect the global economy?
• The significance of DNA evidence for criminal investigations.
• Use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• The ethics of plea bargaining in criminal cases.
• Mental illness and criminal behavior: breaking the stigma.
• The impact of social media on cyberbullying and harassment.
• Robert Merton’s strain theory in criminology .
• Causes and consequences of police corruption .
• The role of restorative justice in repairing harm caused by crime.
• The effectiveness of treatment programs in reducing drug-related crimes.
• Hernando Washington case: criminology .
• The negative effects of human trafficking on global communities.
• The role of forensic science in crimes investigation.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to imprisonment.
• Integrity as a key value: criminology and war .
• The relationship between poverty, education, and crime rates.
• Cybercrime : the dark side of the digital age.
• Hate crimes: motivations and impact on modern society.
• Feminist perspectives’ contribution to criminology .
• The impact of incarceration on families and communities.

Criminology Research Questions for Dissertation

• Can criminal profiling accurately predict offender behavior?
• How do hate crimes affect individuals and communities?
• How were the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights influenced by the classical school of criminology ?
• What are the psychological effects of cyberbullying on victims?
• What factors contribute to domestic violence , and how can it be prevented?
• How have organized crime groups evolved over time?
• How is statistics used in criminology and criminal justice ?
• Is the death penalty an effective crime deterrent?
• What motivates individuals to engage in white-collar crime?
• What are the consequences of police corruption for society?
• What is variance analysis in criminal justice and criminology ?
• How does drug addiction contribute to criminal behavior?
• How does gender influence criminal behavior and justice outcomes?
• What drives individuals to commit mass shootings?
• What is the broken window theory in criminology ?
• What are the biggest challenges facing criminal justice reform efforts?
• How do urban gangs perpetuate violence and criminal activity?
• How do criminal law and procedures protect individual rights and liberties?
• What is the impact of corporate fraud ?
• What challenges do individuals with mental health issues face in the criminal justice system?
• How can society combat human trafficking and exploitation?
• What measures can be taken to enhance cybersecurity and protect against cybercrime?
• What is the aboriginal crisis from a criminology perspective ?
• How can victimology help us better understand the experience of crime victims?
• What are effective crime prevention strategies for different types of crime?
• What is legal insanity in criminology ?
• How does environmental crime impact communities and the environment?
• How is the peace-making model applied in criminology ?

A significant part of criminology research is dedicated to various types of crimes and their reasons. Consider our crime topic ideas that will spark instant interest in your readers:

• The psychological impact of kidnapping on victims and their families.
• The racialization of crime and cultural panic .
• The ethical considerations surrounding ransom payments in kidnapping cases.
• The effect of burglary on small businesses and their ability to recover.
• The impact of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on homicide rates and patterns.
• Shoplifting: a crime of convenience .
• The effectiveness of different types of anti-theft devices in preventing motor vehicle theft.
• The role of forensic science in investigating arson cases, including the use of accelerant detection dogs.
• The concept of natural legal crime .
• The psychological profiles of white-collar criminals and their motivations.
• The psychological effects of burglary on victims and their sense of security.
• The concept of juvenile crime .
• The role of social media in facilitating and preventing kidnappings.
• The use of forensic evidence in homicide investigations and the challenges of prosecuting homicide cases.
• Sex crime recidivism rates.
• Illegal immigrantion and its effects on crime .
• The effectiveness of international efforts to combat money laundering .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in reducing burglary rates.
• The role of corporate culture in facilitating or preventing white-collar crime.
• Crimes in America: the 9/11/01 terrorist attacks .
• Technology in motor vehicle theft: GPS tracking and remote disabling systems.
• Human trafficking and the exploitation of vulnerable populations.
• Crime and criminals: general characteristics .
• The ethical and moral implications of capital punishment as a response to homicide.
• The effectiveness of fire prevention and education programs in reducing instances of arson.
• US gun control measures and crime rates reduction .
• The use of cryptocurrency in money laundering and illegal activities.
• White-collar crime and the abuse of power in corporate and financial settings.
• Cargo crimes and threats: government accountability office .
• The rise of cyberstalking and its impact on victims’ mental health.
• The effects of pollution on communities and the legal response to environmental crimes.
• Cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking as crimes .
• The effects of society’s reaction to crime.
• The use of technology in financial fraud schemes .
• Crimes against property and their characteristics .
• The intersection of racism and hate crimes against Asian Americans.
• The impact of deforestation on indigenous communities and wildlife.
• Crime types and their harm to society .
• The prevalence of domestic violence and the legal response to it.
• The exploitation of child labor in the fashion industry .
• Race and crime among minorities in the US .
• The ethical implications of using artificial intelligence in law enforcement.
• The psychological effects of hate crimes on victims and their communities.
• How does local television news viewing relate to fear of crime ?
• The evolution of cybercrime and its most common types.
• Parental responsibility for children’s crimes.
• The sex crime: influence of childhood experiences .
• Prostitution : a victimless crime.
• Sociology and media representation of crime.
• The profile of a crime victim .
• A theory of gendered criminology: women’s crime.

🚔 Research Topics in Law Enforcement

Another exciting area within criminology to investigate is law enforcement and police jobs. Have a look at the list of burning and controversial topics we came up with:

• The impact of community policing on crime rates and public trust.
• Law enforcement: online crimes and social media .
• Do body-worn cameras reduce police misconduct?
• The effects of implicit bias on the police use of force.
• Law enforcement cameras as an invasion of privacy .
• The impact of police militarization on community relations.
• Why is mental health training essential for police officers in crisis situations?
• Law enforcement officers’ attitudes regarding body-worn cameras .
• The role of police in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to traditional policing.
• Organizational changes in law enforcement agencies .
• The efficacy of police-community partnership in addressing gang violence.
• The impact of police officer diversity on community relations and trust.
• Local, state, and federal law enforcement in the US .
• The role of police in addressing cybercrime and online harassment.
• The effects of police body language and nonverbal cues on public perceptions.
• Cumulative career traumatic stress in law enforcement .
• Social media and its role in shaping public perceptions of police behavior.
• The role of police discretion in enforcing drug laws and addressing addiction.
• Mindfulness practice in law enforcement .
• The effectiveness of hot spot policing in reducing crime rates.
• Organizational culture in the police department.
• Stress in law enforcement officers and available programs .
• The role of police leadership in promoting ethical behavior and accountability.
• The effectiveness of community-based justice programs for juvenile offenders.
• Law enforcement in colonial America .
• Police-community partnerships for addressing domestic violence.
• The role of police in addressing human trafficking and exploitation.
• Misrepresentation of law enforcement by media .
• School safety and the police.
• How does stress affect the performance of law enforcement officers?
• The law enforcement: verbal communication as the best form of interaction .
• The significance of federal and state law enforcement mechanisms.
• The adverse effects of toxic leadership in quality law enforcement.
• Balance between effective law enforcement and personal liberty .
• The importance of discipline in public services.
• The connection between police salary and rates of police brutality.
• Role of police agencies in law enforcement .
• Police investigative questioning and techniques.
• The issue of corruption in law enforcement.
• Significance of computer forensics to law enforcement .
• Case study: police response to the Ningbo protest.
• Police actions to stop school bullying .
• Law enforcement position in society .
• New technological advances within the police department.
• Do law enforcement cameras violate privacy right?
• Different types of evaluation designs in law enforcement .
• Recognition of women’s right to work as police officers.
• The effectiveness of foot and bike patrols of the streets.
• Firearms types and usage in law enforcement .
• The competencies of international law enforcement authorities.
• Comparison of police brutality statistics for different genders.
• Ethical theories in law enforcement practice .

🕵️ Criminal Investigation Research Topics

The criminal investigation process is another criminology area worth discussing in your research paper. Below you’ll find the most intriguing criminal investigation topics:

• The history and evolution of criminal investigation techniques.
• Crime scene investigation in media and real life .
• The role of forensic science in criminal investigations.
• How does technology impact modern criminal investigations?
• The importance of preserving crime scenes and evidence.
• Crime scene investigation effect in the justice system .
• The ethics of interrogation techniques used in criminal investigations.
• Eyewitness testimony in criminal investigations.
• The role of criminal profiling in solving crimes.
• Organized business crime prosecution and investigation .
• How does media coverage affect criminal investigations?
• The use of informants in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating white-collar crimes.
• Undercover police investigations in drug-related crimes .
• The role of private investigators in criminal investigations.
• The impact of false confessions on criminal investigations.
• How is DNA evidence collected in criminal investigations?
• Importance of toxicology in crime investigation .
• The role of the FBI in national criminal investigations.
• The use of undercover operations in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating organized crime.
• Crime level investigation in the United States .
• Witness protection programs in criminal investigations.
• The impact of plea bargaining on criminal investigations.
• Surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
• Investigating crime with age and mental illnesses factors .
• How are cybercrimes investigated?
• The role of international cooperation in criminal investigations.
• How do racial biases influence criminal investigations?
• Drug trafficking: investigation on Frank Lucas .
• Polygraph tests in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating terrorism-related crimes.
• Homicide investigations and forensic evidence .
• The role of victim advocacy in criminal investigations.
• Lie detector tests in criminal investigations.
• The role of forensic psychology in the investigation .
• The effects of community involvement on criminal investigations.
• The problem of false accusations in criminal investigations.
• Approaches in criminal investigation .
• The use of forensic accounting in financial crime investigations.
• How does the media shape public perception of criminal investigations?
• Key rulings on the conduct of investigators at the scene of a fire .
• The impact of political pressure on criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating human trafficking.
• The Breonna Taylor case and criminal investigation .
• The role of victim compensation in criminal investigations.
• Behavioral analysis in criminal investigations.
• Procedures within crime scene investigation .
• Crime scene reconstruction in criminal investigations.

Criminology goes hand-in-hand with legal studies. If you’re interested in both areas, you should definitely write a research paper on one of the criminal law research topics:

• The evolution of criminal law in the US .
• Criminal law: stolen valor .
• The difference between criminal and civil law.
• Human trafficking and criminal law.
• Types of criminal offenses and the elements of crime.
• International criminal law and measures .
• The role of the burden of proof in criminal cases.
• Criminal defenses and their validity.
• The insanity defense in criminal law.
• Actus reus in English criminal law .
• The controversies around the death penalty.
• Juvenile delinquency and criminal law.
• Cybercrime and its legal implications.
• Criminal law – is graffiti a crime or not ?
• Domestic violence and criminal law.
• Hate crimes and their legal consequences.
• Restitution for victims in criminal law.
• Civil vs. criminal law and differences between them .
• Forensic evidence and its admissibility in court.
• Sexual assault and criminal law.
• The rights of the accused in criminal cases.
• Regulatory criminal laws in the criminal justice system .
• Receiving immunity for testimony in a criminal law case.
• The legal classification of criminal offenses.
• Self-defense in criminal law cases.
• How Canadian criminal law regulates deviant conduct .
• Sentencing guidelines and their impact on society.
• The use of DNA evidence in criminal cases.
• Eyewitness testimony and its reliability in court.
• Fundamental aspects of Canadian criminal law .
• The role of the media in criminal trials.
• The impact of social inequality on criminal justice outcomes.
• The future of criminal law and its impact on society.
• Criminal law in India and access to justice .
• International criminal law and its enforcement.
• Extradition and its legal implications.
• The impact of globalization on criminal law.
• Juvenile vs. adult criminal law .
• The importance of victim rights in criminal cases.
• Restorative justice and its benefits for society.
• Alternatives to incarceration for non-violent offenders.
• Automatism as a defence in criminal law .
• The role of defense attorneys in criminal trials.
• The role of prosecutors in criminal trials.
• The right to a public trial in a criminal law case.
• Civil and criminal law penalties and differences .
• Car searches in criminal investigations by law enforcement.

🔒 Criminology Topics for Research in Crime Prevention

Researching crime prevention allows you to learn more about the strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Have a look at our outstanding crime prevention topic ideas:

• Understanding and explaining crime prevention.
• Theories that explain criminal activities and criminology .
• The effectiveness of community policing in preventing crime.
• The benefits and drawbacks of crime prevention in the US.
• How can education reduce crime rates?
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Technological innovations and their impact on crime prevention.
• The importance of early childhood interventions in preventing criminal behavior.
• The relationship between poverty and crime prevention strategies.
• Youth crime prevention and needs assessment .
• The use of restorative justice in reducing recidivism.
• The effectiveness of gun control laws in preventing gun-related crimes.
• The impact of social media on crime prevention and awareness.
• Crime prevention program in Australia .
• The use of CCTV cameras in preventing crime.
• Evidence for crime prevention programs in developing countries.
• The role of mental health services in preventing criminal behavior.
• Crime prevention practices: overview .
• The effectiveness of community-based programs in reducing juvenile delinquency.
• The use of environmental design in preventing crime by shaping space and behavior.
• Victim support programs for lowering crime rates.
• Situational and social crime prevention approaches .
• The effectiveness of after-school programs in preventing juvenile offenses.
• Techniques for preventing situational and social crime.
• The impact of citizen participation in crime prevention.
• Computer crime prevention measures .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in preventing neighborhood crimes.
• The use of community centers for preventing gang-related crimes.
• The impact of sentencing policies on crime prevention.
• Biometrics recognition and crime prevention .
• The relationship between video game violence and youth crime .
• Social media and cybercrime prevention.
• The role of social workers in crime prevention.
• Three-strikes law for preventing violent crimes .
• Decreasing crime rates through education and medicine.
• The use of animal-assisted therapy for reducing criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of aftercare programs in reducing recidivism.
• Capital punishment as ineffective crime deterrence .
• The main strategies for proactive crime prevention.
• The impact of domestic violence prevention programs on crime rates.
• The use of probation and parole in preventing criminal behavior.
• Juvenile weapon crimes and strategies to address .
• The role of faith-based organizations in crime prevention.
• The use of diversion programs in juvenile crime prevention.
• The distinctions between crime prevention and community safety.
• Preventing crime victimization in international students .
• The impact of agriculture and rural development on crime prevention.

Criminal justice might be a challenging research topic, but it is worth the time and effort. Consider our unique topic ideas for your successful research:

• The effectiveness of community policing.
• The use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• Rehabilitation programs offered in prisons and their efficacy.
• The importance of defense attorneys in the criminal justice system.
• The code of ethics in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice .
• The significance of restorative justice programs.
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws.
• Criminal justice process: felony criminal charge .
• The role of judges in the criminal justice system.
• Probation and parole in the criminal justice system.
• Veterans in the criminal justice system .
• The comparison of prison privatization in the US and UK.
• The main issues women experience in the prison system.
• US terrorism and criminal justice decision-making model .
• The prison system in a democratic society.
• The role of psychologists in the criminal justice system.
• Transgender offenders in the criminal justice system .
• The impact of private prisons on crime rates.
• The effectiveness of victim compensation programs.
• The successes and failures to reform punishment in the criminal justice system .
• Community involvement in the criminal justice system.
• The main challenges of long-term prisoner rehabilitation.
• Technology application in criminal justice .
• The role of victim-offender mediation in the criminal justice system.
• Gender disparity in the criminal justice system.
• Recidivism in criminal justice: the American prison system .
• How does solitary confinement impact people in prisons?
• Legal and ethical issues in international intervention.
• Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system .
• Do mandatory minimum sentences help or hurt?
• The effects of prison on children of incarcerated individuals.
• Psychopathy in the criminal justice system .
• The importance of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system.
• Techniques for influencing criminal justice system change.
• Non-inclusiveness of the criminal justice system .
• The impact of racial profiling on the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for veterans.
• False confessions in the US criminal justice system .
• Racism in the criminal justice system of the US.
• People with disabilities and criminal justice.
• Ethical dilemmas in the criminal justice system .
• Forensic psychology guidelines for criminal justice.
• The impact of technology on jury selection .
• Effective writing and criminal justice .
• The effectiveness of mandatory drug testing for probationers and parolees.
• The effect of wrongful executions on the criminal justice system.
• Discontinuity of care in the criminal justice system .
• The influence of media on criminal justice and community.
• The impact of cybercrime on the global criminal justice system.
• Criminal justice: coerced confessions .
• The role of private prisons in the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for people without housing.
• Criminal justice system and the problem of racism .
• What can be learned from the history of criminal courts?
• Comparison between American and British legislative frameworks.
• Criminal justice case: types of sentences, probation, and final decision .
• The overview of the modern justice system.
• The ethical issue of unwarranted arrests.
• Civil liability in criminal justice .
• The risk groups of juvenile recidivism .

🆚 Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice

Students often confuse criminology with criminal justice because both areas study crime and criminal behavior. Understanding their main differences is essential before conducting research in any of these areas.

Is Criminology a Science?

Criminology can be considered as a science because it uses the scientific method. The scientific method involves five steps: stating the problem, forming the hypothesis, collecting the data, interpreting these data, and drawing conclusions. Within criminology, scientists use standard research methods, such as surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.

What Does Criminology Study?

Criminology studies crime, including its causes, methods of prevention, and responses from law enforcement. It relies on other non-legal studies, such as sociology, psychology, and statistics, to examine the characteristics of people who commit crimes and the effects of criminality on individuals and society.

What Are the Principal Areas of Criminology Research?

Four significant criminology areas include:

• The history of criminology . This area focuses on criminology founders and theories of crime and punishment development.
• Theory of crime causation . This aspect explores if a criminal’s behavior is determined by their social environment.
• Typologies of crime . This field describes different types of crimes and the reasons for committing them.
• Crime prevention efforts . This area studies crime measures that can curb crimes before they occur.

What Are the Principal Types of Research Methods in Criminology?

Criminology uses quantitative (analyzing measurements and statistics) and qualitative (analyzing non-numerical data) research methods to gain valuable insights. The most common scientific methods in criminology are surveys, experiments, secondary data analysis, interviews, historical/comparative research, and ethnography.

• Criminology and Criminal Justice: Pick a Topic | Marquette University
• Criminology Questions & Topics | David H. Kessel
• Topics | Ghent University
• Emergent Issues in Crime & Justice | University of Maryland
• Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice | University of North Texas
• Criminology, Law & Society | UCI Libraries
• What the Data Says (and Doesn’t Say) about Crime in the United States | Pew Research Center
• Types of Criminal Offenses | Justia
• Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses | East Tennessee State University
• Research Overview | The University of Alabama
• Criminology Research | University of Portsmouth
• Research | Arizona State University
• Research Themes | University of Surrey, Centre for Criminology
• Advanced Criminology & Criminal Justice Research Guide | Mardigian Library
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting Started | PennLibraries
• Law and Criminology | University of Plymouth
• Topics for a Criminology Research Paper | Classroom
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Sample APA-Style Papers (7th edition)

The following links provide samples of student-paper formatting in APA's 7th edition style.  The first is from APA's web site; the second is from Purdue OWL's web site.

• Sample APA Student Paper This document from the APA web site illustrates the 7th edition formatting of a student paper. This format is a simplified version of the professional paper format (excluding things like running heads, etc.).
• Purdue OWL Sample Student Paper This sample student paper in APA 7th edition comes from PurdueOWL. It can be used to supplement the example from the APA web site, or stand on its own.

The following links provide samples of professional-paper formatting in APA's 7th edition style.  The first is from APA's web site; the second is from Purdue OWL's web site.  The formatting of these professional papers is a bit more involved than that of the student sample papers.

• Sample APA Professional Paper This sample professional paper from the APA web site illustrates the 7th edition formatting for a paper submitted for publication to a professional journal.
• Purdue OWL Sample Professional Paper This sample paper from Purdue OWL illustrates in 7th edition formatting a professional paper. It can be used to supplement the APA sample paper or it can stand alone.

Quotations and Paraphrases in APA Style (7th edition)

• Quotations (APA 7th Edition) This link takes you to a page on the official APAstyle.org web site with information that includes how to cite both direct and indirect quotations (short and long), how to cite material for direct quotations that do not contain page numbers, and more.
• Quotations--PurdueOWL (APA 7th edition) On this "Basics: In-Text Citations" page from PurdueOWL, scroll down to see explanations and example for quotations both short (under 40 words) and long (40+ words). In addition, it gives guidance about paraphrases/summaries and how to use in-text citations to document their original source(s).

Formatting an Annotated Bibliography in APA Style (7th edition)

• Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): Annotated Bibliographies This helpful page from PurdueOWL explains the purpose of annotated bibliographies, what they often contain, and why they're helpful.
• Guidelines for Formatting Annotated Bibliographies (APA, 7th ed.) This document provides guidance for formatting annotated bibliographies, including a sample annotated bib.

Formatting a Literature Review in APA Style (7th edition)

While APA doesn't itself provide an example of how to format a literature review, it does provide some guidance in its Publication Manual * about the content of a lit review:

Literature Reviews:

• provide summaries and evaluations of findings/theories in the research literature of a particular discipline or field;
• may include qualitative, quantitative, or a variety of other types of research;
• should define and clarify the problem being reviewed;
• summarize previous research to inform readers of where research stands currently in regard to the problem;
• identify relationships, contradictions, gaps, and inconsistencies in the current literature;
• suggest next steps or further research needed to move toward solving the problem.  (APA, 2020, Section 1.6, p. 8)

* American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association: The official guide to APA style (7th ed.). American Psychological Association.

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Criminological Research

Before criminology became a part of the justice system, there was a chasm between targeting the root of criminality and the cat-and-mouse chase between the police officers and the criminals. What law enforcers fail to consider for most of history is that these elements themselves are also victims of a flawed system. By disregarding the root of the problem, we are only exhausting our resources on an endless chase. Criminology research plays a pivotal role in bridging the gap and improving law enforcement. When we understand why crimes happen, we can provide better interventions.

Criminology research is a means of understanding criminality to improve criminal justice and law enforcement. Several criminology research are exploratory research . The researchers collect and analyze data of a crime, policy, or approach in which little is known. The researchers may also propose changes and amendments for future reference. The research can also be descriptive , wherein we elaborate observations about a crime or our response to one. Explanatory research can expound on the nature of the crime in relation to the offender, nature or psychology of the criminal, as well as other behaviors that affect law enforcement. We can also apply the findings in applied research in deciding if a policy or intervention is effective.

Imprint on Reality

Crime prevention starts with crime reduction. How do we reduce crimes? We can build tall gates around our houses and subdivisions. We can saturate our community with the police force and security personnel . We can set up security cameras at every corner of every street. We may do these, but we don’t have the power and resources to sustain them for long-term, country-wide implementation. Aside from feasibility, there are other concerns with the approach. A controlled living environment will eventually dent individual rights and liberties. We need research to find the best solutions. We have witnessed an overhaul in criminal justice and law enforcement, owing to criminological research that challenged the norms.

Challenge the status quo

People viewed police visibility as an effective crime deterrent. It had been a belief since the 13th century, and everyone just went along with the idea. So the government spent billions to maintain the practice, despite the lack of scientific evidence supporting the theory. The idea was challenged a few times before. A comprehensive study by the Kansas City Police Department showed that routine preventive patrol had no difference in crime rates in the city. This research showed that previously held beliefs could be wrong. With research, we can manage our resources better with more effective ways of preventing crime than stick with the baseless convention.

Marriage of research and politics

Criminal justice used to be “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.” This treatment of crimes leaves the decision for the penalty in the hands of the offended party. Revenge justice is unreliable because the gravity of the crime may be disproportionate with the punishment exacted to the offender. Research is focal to our acknowledgment of the inhumane effect of the archaic justice system. The integration of criminological research in policy proposals  helped us understand the nature of criminality. The policies are becoming more responsive to what we have learned from the findings. We have abandoned the cruel punishments and moved on to measures that respect the person.

Fulcrum of Modern Justice System

Justice isn’t just about punishing the guilty and vindicating the innocent. We also have to monitor the system if its policies and programs are at par with the need of the community. There is no one-size-fits-all solution, so justice agencies have to assess their performance and if the results reflect the ideal outcomes. Research not only plays a role in crime prevention, but it can also evaluate the performance of existing practices. The following are examples of research papers that remodeled the United States criminal justice system.

1. Investigation Research Example

2. Crime Prevention Research

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3. Research on Threat Handling

Size: 82 KB

4. Research on Career Criminals

Size: 497 KB

5. Study on Case Attrition

6. Research on Court Bail Policy

Size: 86 Kb

7. Research on Sentencing Policy

Size: 923 KB

8. Research on Treatment of Offenders

Size: 127 KB

9. Study on Policy Evaluation

Size: 945 KB

10. Research on Effects of Abuse

Size: 34 KB

11. Sample Criminology Research

Size: 251 KB

Reinforcing the revolution

Research has done much for the US criminal justice system. As an agent of justice, you are not exempted from the responsibility to contribute to this growth. The studies that redefined justice and its derivatives started from an idea. Here is how you begin with your study.

1. Know what you want

Any undertaking requires time and resources. And when you’re using the public’s or an organization’s money, any expense should be justified by results of equal value. You have to have an idea on what you want to accomplish with your study. This is your research goal, and this influences the totality of your research design, from methodology to data presentation. What do you want to find out? Are you exploring a new idea? Are you describing the efficiency of a present intervention? Decide on what you want for this research. It will keep you from going astray in the middle of work.

2. Move the wheel forward

You can spin a wheel and say there is movement. However, that doesn’t get you away from where you stand. Similarly, rehashed ideas will stagnate a field. The progress in criminal justice is brought about by researchers putting forth new ideas to the table. When you are planning a research , you have to read related literature on what has been done about the subject. As you go through the articles, ask yourself what you can do. You can gain insights on how the researchers went with their investigation. With the introduction of new information, the onward momentum of the domain is maintained.

3. Gain green light

Unless you’re an affluent person who can support the cost of extensive research, you are likely to need the approval of a board or panel to proceed with your study. People submit research proposals , either for study grants or permission to start a project. In the document, you will justify the need for such an investigation. Since you will be persuading the people to support your endeavor, you have to outline your concrete plan and show that you are capable of the task. Preparedness and knowledgeability show in sections like data collection and analysis method and the project timeline .

4. Get the ball rolling

Now that you have a vision on what your research will focus on and how you will address the objectives, the next thing to do is to conduct the study. Gather relevant data that will help answer your research questions and perform the appropriate data treatment. In data analysis , graphical illustrations are better at helping you see patterns and trends that aren’t apparent in the raw data. However, all this effort would be put to waste if you keep your findings to yourself. Research in criminology remodeled the justice system because they were relayed to the appropriate channels.

To inflict harm unto others for the sake of doing harm isn’t natural for us. That is why we have to understand what pushes a person to cross moral lines. When we learn what drove and will drive people to the dark side, we can offer the specific help that each person needs and effective preventive measures. Full hostility towards lawless elements didn’t stop crimes more than it harmed individual liberties. In addressing criminality, we need more than brawn.

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Department of   Sociology and Criminology

Criminology student research.

The program draws its students from a variety of academic backgrounds, including sociology, psychology, political science, and criminal justice.  In addition, some students enter with professional experience, although not necessarily in the area in which they plan to concentrate.  Others enter the graduate program directly upon completing their undergraduate work.  This diversity contributes to a stimulating learning environment and a wide range of research topics.

Students augment their research competence and professional credentials by collaborating with faculty on research projects, conference presentations, and scholarly publications. Below are some recent publications  by current and former students in our program.

Current Students

• Gladfelter, Andrew ,  Brendan Lantz,  and R. Barry Ruback. Forthcoming. “The Complexity of Hate Crime and Bias Activity: Variation across Contexts and Types of Bias.”   Justice Quarterly . 
• Howard-Tripp, Alyssa,  Corina Graif, and  Sarah Fry . Forthcoming. “Public Housing”. Invited chapter in  The American Middle Class: An Economic Encyclopedia of Progress and Poverty , edited by Robert Rycroft. Greenwood: Santa Barbara, CA.
• Jacobsen, Wade C.  and Cecily R. Hardaway. Forthcoming. “Heterogeneity in Research on African American Boys and Men: Focusing on Resilience, Social Networks, and Community Violence.” In  Boys and Men in African American Families , edited by L Burton, D Burton, S M McHale, V King, and J Van Hook. New York: Springer.
• Knoth, Lauren  and R. Barry Ruback. Forthcoming. “Reporting Crimes to the Police Depends on Relationship Networks: Effects of Ties among Victims, Advisors, and Offenders.”   Journal of Interpersonal Violence . 
• Lantz, Brendan  and R. Barry Ruback. Forthcoming.  “A Networked Boost: Burglary Co-offending and Repeat Victimization.”   Crime and Delinquency .
• Lantz, Brendan  and R. Barry Ruback. Forthcoming. “The Relationship between Co-offending, Age and Experience using a Sample of Adult Burglary Offenders.”   Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology .
• Ruback, R. Barry, Cynthia Kempinen, Leigh Tinik, and  Lauren Knoth .  Forthcoming.  “Communicating Risk Information at Criminal Sentencing in Pennsylvania: An Experimental Analysis.”   Federal Probation .
• Staff, Jeremy,  Nayan Ramirez , and  Kelsey Cundiff . “The Vanishing Teenage Worker in the United States.” Forthcoming in  Young People’s Development and the Great Recession: Uncertain Transitions and Precarious Futures,  edited by Ingrid Schoon and John Bynner. Cambridge University Press.
• Staff, Jeremy, Jennifer L. Maggs,  Kelsey Cundiff , and Rebecca Evans-Polce. 2016. “Childhood Cigarette and Alcohol Use: Negative Links with Adjustment.”  Addictive Behaviors  62:122-128.
• Ulmer, Jeffery T. and  Julia Laskorunsky . 2016.  “The Role of Juvenile Adjudications in the Disproportional Incarceration of African American and Hispanic Defendants.”   Journal of Crime and Justice  39(1):9-27.
• Ulmer, Jeffery T. and  Julia Laskorunsky . 2016.  “Sentencing, Policy, and Race, Ethnic, and Gender Disparities.”  Pp. 170-186 in  Advancing Criminology and Criminal Justice Policy edited by T. Blomberg, J. Mestre Brancale, K. Beaver, and W. Bales.  New York:  Routledge. Whichard, Corey  and Richard B. Felson. 2016. “Are Suspects Who Resist Arrest Defiant, Desperate, or Disoriented?”   Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency  53:564-591.
• Felson, Richard and  Brendan Lantz . 2015. “When Are Victims Unlikely to Cooperate with the Police?”  Aggressive Behavior  42: 97-108.
• Lantz, Brendan  and  Robert Hutchison .  2015.  “Co-offender Ties and the Criminal Career: The Relationship between Co-offender Group Structure and the Individual Offender.”  Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 52:658-690.
• McLanahan, Sara and  Wade C. Jacobsen . 2015. “Diverging Destinies Revisited.” Pp. 3-23 in  Families in an Era of Increasing Inequality: Diverging Destinies , edited by PR Amato, A Booth, SM McHale, and J Van Hook. New York: Springer.
• Staff, Jeremy,  Corey Whichard , Sonja E. Siennick, and Jennifer L. Maggs. 2015. “Early Life Risks, Antisocial Tendencies, and Preteen Delinquency.”  Criminology  53:677-701.
• Staff, Jeremy,  Nayan Ramirez , and Mike Vuolo. 2015. “The Transition to Adulthood Matters.” Pp. 137-146 in  Diverging Destinies: Families in an Era of Increasing Inequality , edited by Paul Amato, Alan Booth, Susan McHale, and Jennifer Van Hook.  New York: Springer.
• Ulmer, Jeffery T. and  Julia Laskorunsky .  2015. “Sentencing Policy and Practices in Pennsylvania.”   Oxford Handbooks in Criminology and Criminal Justice , edited by M. Tonry.  New York: Oxford University Press.
• Ruback, R. Barry,  Andrew Gladfelter , and  Brendan Lantz .  2014.  Paying Restitution: An Experimental Analysis of the Effects of Information and Rationale.   Criminology & Public Policy ,  13 , 405-436.  (Included in the National Institute of Justice’s CrimeSolutions.gov repository of evidence-based justice programs)
• Forste, Renata and  Wade C. Jacobsen . 2013. “Divorced Mothers and Higher Education in Utah.”  Marriage & Family Review  49(4): 330-348.  

Former Students (2013-2016)

• Frisco, Michelle L.,  Marin R. Wenger , and Derek A. Kreager. Forthcoming. “Extradyadic Sex and Union Dissolution among Married and Cohabiting Young Adults.”  Social Science Research.
• Gladfelter, Andrew , R. Barry Ruback. Forthcoming. “Victims’ Needs and Restorative Justice.  Forthcoming in C. Robertson (Ed.)  Handbook on Victims Issues in Criminal Justice .  New York: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.
• Becker, Jacob . 2016. “The Dynamics of Neighborhood Structural Conditions: The Effects of Concentrated Disadvantage on Homicide over Time and Space.”  City & Community  15:64-82.
• Light, Michael T . and Jeffery T. Ulmer. 2016. “Explaining the Gaps in White, Black and Hispanic Violence Since 1990: Accounting for Immigration, Incarceration, and Inequality.”  American Sociological Review  81(2):290-315.
• Light, Michael T . 2016. “The Punishment Consequences of Lacking National Membership in Germany, 1998-2010.”  Social Forces  94: 1385-1408. 
• Kreager, Derek A.,  Daniel Ragan , Holly Nguyen, and Jeremy Staff. 2016. “When Onset Meets Desistance: Cognitive Transformation and Adolescent Delinquency Experimentation.”  Journal of Developmental and Life Course Criminology  2:135-161 .
• Light, Michael  and John Iceland. 2016. “The Social Context of Racial Boundary Negotiations: Segregation, Hate Crime, and Hispanic Racial Identification in Metropolitan America.”  Sociological Science  3:61-84.
• Painter-Davis, Noah . 2016. “Immigration Effects on Violence Contextualized The Role of Immigrant Destination Type and Race/Ethnicity.”  Sociological Perspectives  59: 130-152
• Silver, Eric and  Leslie Abell . 2016. “Beyond Harm and Fairness: A Study of Deviance and Morality.”  Deviant Behavior  37:496-508 .
• Ulmer, Jeffery T.,  Noah Painter-Davis , and Leigh Tinik. 2016. “Disproportional Imprisonment of Black and Hispanic Males:  Sentencing Discretion, Processing Outcomes, and Policy Structures.”  Justice Quarterly  33(4):642-681.  
• Cundiff, Patrick , and Duane F. Alwin. 2015. “Changing Beliefs about Crime and Punishment in American Society.”  Journal of Law and Criminal Justice  3: 49-66.
• Harris, Casey T ., Jeff Gruenewald, and  Noah Painter ‐ Davis . 2015. “Hispanic Immigration and Black Violence at the Macro‐Level: Examining the Conditioning Effect of Victim Race/Ethnicity.”  Sociological Forum  30:62-82.
• Warner, Cody . 2015. “On the Move: Incarceration, Race, and Residential Mobility.”  Social Science Research  52:451-64.
• Steffensmeier, Darrell,  Casey T. Harris , and  Noah Painter-Davis . 2015. “Gender and Arrests for Larceny, Fraud, Forgery, and Embezzlement: Conventional or Occupational Property Crime Offenders?”  Journal of Criminal Justice  43: 205-217.
• Felson, Richard B. and  Patrick Cundiff . 2014. “Sexual Assault as a Crime Against Young People.”  Archives of Sexual Behavior  43: 273 -284.
• Graif, Corina,  Andrew S. Gladfelter , and Stephen A. Matthews. 2014. “Urban Poverty and Neighborhood Effects on Crime: Incorporating Spatial and Network Perspectives”.  Sociology Compass  8: 1140–1155.
• Light, Michael T ., Michael Massoglia, and Ryan D. King. 2014. “Citizenship and Punishment: The Salience of National Membership in U.S. Criminal Courts.”  American Sociological Review  79: 825-847.  
• Light, Michael T . 2014. “The New Face of Legal Inequality: Noncitizens and the Long-Term Trends in Sentencing Disparities across U.S. District Courts, 1992-2009.”  Law & Society Review  48: 447-478.
• Osgood, D. Wayne, Mark E. Feinberg,  Lacey N. Wallace , & James Moody. 2014. “Group position and substance use.”   Addictive Behaviors  39: 923-933.
• Ragan, Daniel.   2014.  Revisiting “what they think”:  Adolescent drinking and the importance of peer beliefs.   Criminology 52 :488-513.
• Ragan, Daniel , D. Wayne Osgood, and Mark Feinberg.  2014.  Friends as a bridge to parental influence:  Implications for adolescent alcohol use.   Social Forces 92: 1061-1085.
• Remster, Brianna . 2014. “Self-Control and the Depression-Delinquency Link.”  Deviant Behavior  35:66-84.
• Ruback, R. Barry,  Valerie Clark , and  Cody Warner .  2014.  “Why are Crime Victims at Risk of Being Victimized Again?  Substance Use, Depression, and Offending as Mediators of the Victimization-revictimization Link.”   Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29:157-185.  Siennick, Sonja , Jeremy Staff, D. Wayne Osgood, John E. Schulenberg, Jerald G. Bachman, and  Matthew VanEseltine . 2014. “Partnership Transitions and Antisocial Behavior in Young Adulthood: A Within-Person, Multi-Cohort Analysis.”   Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency  51:735-758.
• Siennick, Sonja , Eric A. Stewart, and Jeremy Staff.  2014. “Explaining the Association between Incarceration and Divorce.”  Criminology  52:371-398.
• Warner, Cody . and John D. McCarthy. 2014. “Whatever Can Go Wrong Will: Situational Complexity and Public Order Policing”.  Policing and Society  24:566-587.
• Burchfield, Keri  and Eric Silver. 2013. “Collective Efficacy and Crime in Los Angeles Neighborhoods: Implications for the Latino Paradox.”  Sociological Inquiry  83:154-176.
• Cundiff, Patrick . 2013. “Ordered Delinquency? The “Effects” of Birth Order on Delinquency.”  Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin  39:1017-1029.
• Felson, Richard B. and  Luke Bonkiewicz . 2013 “Guns and Trafficking in Crack Cocaine and Other Drug Markets.”    Crime & Delinquency  59: 319-343.  
• Firebaugh, Glenn,  Cody Warner , and Michael Massoglia. 2013. “Fixed Effects, Random Effects, and Hybrid Models for Causal Analysis.” Pp. 113-132 in Handbook of Causal Analysis for Social Research (Stephen Morgan, Editor). New York: Springer.
• Harris, Casey  and  Ben Feldmeyer . 2013. “Latino Immigration and White, Black, and Latino Violent Crime: A Comparison of Traditional and Non-Traditional Immigrant Destinations.”  Social Science Research  42:202-16.
• Kreager, Derek A., Richard Felson,  Cody Warner , and  Marin R. Wenger . 2013. “Women’s Education, Marital Violence, and Divorce: A Social Exchange Perspective.”  Journal of Marriage and Family  75:565-581.
• Massoglia, Michael, Glenn Firebaugh, and  Cody Warner . 2013. “Racial Variation in the Effect of Incarceration on Neighborhood Attainment.”  American Sociological Review  78:142-165.
• Osgood, D. Wayne, Mark E. Feinberg, Scott D. Gest, James Moody,  Daniel T. Ragan , Richard Spoth, Mark Greenberg, and Cleve Redmond. 2013. “Network Effects of PROSPER on the Influence Potential of Prosocial versus Antisocial Youth.  Journal of Adolescent Health  53: 174-179.
• Osgood, D. Wayne,  Daniel T. Ragan ,  Lacey Wallace , Scott D. Gest, Mark E. Feinberg, and James Moody. 2013.  “Peers and the Emergence of Alcohol Use: Influence and Selection Processes in Adolescent Friendship Networks.”  Journal of Research on Adolescence 23(3): 500-512.  Parks, Michael , D. Wayne Osgood, Richard B. Felson, Samantha Wells, and Kathryn Graham.  2013. “Third Party Involvement in Barroom Conflicts.”   Aggressive Behavior  257–268.
• Staff, Jeremy, John Schulenberg, Jerald Bachman,  Michael Parks , and  Matthew VanEseltine . 2013. “Identifying Good and Bad Jobs in Adolescence.” Pp. 26-45 in  Health and Safety of Young Workers: Proceedings of a U.S. and Canadian Series of Symposia . National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Publication No. 2013-144.
• Ulmer, Jeffery T. and  Casey Harris .  2013. “Race and the Religious Contexts of Violence: Linking Religion and White, Black, and Latino Violent Crime.”   The Sociological Quarterly  54(4):610-646. 

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What is a Literature Review?

The scholarly conversation.

A literature review provides an overview of previous research on a topic that critically evaluates, classifies, and compares what has already been published on a particular topic. It allows the author to synthesize and place into context the research and scholarly literature relevant to the topic. It helps map the different approaches to a given question and reveals patterns. It forms the foundation for the author’s subsequent research and justifies the significance of the new investigation.

A literature review can be a short introductory section of a research article or a report or policy paper that focuses on recent research. Or, in the case of dissertations, theses, and review articles, it can be an extensive review of all relevant research.

• The format is usually a bibliographic essay; sources are briefly cited within the body of the essay, with full bibliographic citations at the end.
• The introduction should define the topic and set the context for the literature review. It will include the author's perspective or point of view on the topic, how they have defined the scope of the topic (including what's not included), and how the review will be organized. It can point out overall trends, conflicts in methodology or conclusions, and gaps in the research.
• In the body of the review, the author should organize the research into major topics and subtopics. These groupings may be by subject, (e.g., globalization of clothing manufacturing), type of research (e.g., case studies), methodology (e.g., qualitative), genre, chronology, or other common characteristics. Within these groups, the author can then discuss the merits of each article and analyze and compare the importance of each article to similar ones.
• The conclusion will summarize the main findings, make clear how this review of the literature supports (or not) the research to follow, and may point the direction for further research.
• The list of references will include full citations for all of the items mentioned in the literature review.

Key Questions for a Literature Review

A literature review should try to answer questions such as

• Who are the key researchers on this topic?
• What has been the focus of the research efforts so far and what is the current status?
• How have certain studies built on prior studies? Where are the connections? Are there new interpretations of the research?
• Have there been any controversies or debate about the research? Is there consensus? Are there any contradictions?
• Which areas have been identified as needing further research? Have any pathways been suggested?
• How will your topic uniquely contribute to this body of knowledge?
• Which methodologies have researchers used and which appear to be the most productive?
• What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful to you?
• How does your particular topic fit into the larger context of what has already been done?
• How has the research that has already been done help frame your current investigation ?

Examples of Literature Reviews

Example of a literature review at the beginning of an article: Forbes, C. C., Blanchard, C. M., Mummery, W. K., & Courneya, K. S. (2015, March). Prevalence and correlates of strength exercise among breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer survivors . Oncology Nursing Forum, 42(2), 118+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.sonoma.idm.oclc.org/ps/i.do?p=HRCA&sw=w&u=sonomacsu&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA422059606&asid=27e45873fddc413ac1bebbc129f7649c Example of a comprehensive review of the literature: Wilson, J. L. (2016). An exploration of bullying behaviours in nursing: a review of the literature.   British Journal Of Nursing ,  25 (6), 303-306. For additional examples, see:

Galvan, J., Galvan, M., & ProQuest. (2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (Seventh ed.). [Electronic book]

Pan, M., & Lopez, M. (2008). Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Pub. [ Q180.55.E9 P36 2008]

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Evidence Matrix for Literature Reviews

The  Evidence Matrix  can help you  organize your research  before writing your lit review.  Use it to  identify patterns  and commonalities in the articles you have found--similar methodologies ?  common  theoretical frameworks ? It helps you make sure that all your major concepts covered. It also helps you see how your research fits into the context  of the overall topic.

• Evidence Matrix Special thanks to Dr. Cindy Stearns, SSU Sociology Dept, for permission to use this Matrix as an example.
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256 Research Topics on Criminal Justice & Criminology

Are you a law school student studying criminal behavior or forensic science? Or maybe just looking for good criminal justice topics, questions, and hypotheses? Look no further! Custom-writing.org experts offer a load of criminology research topics and titles for every occasion. Criminological theories, types of crime, the role of media in criminology, and more. Our topics will help you prepare for a college-level assignment, debate, or essay writing.

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• The role of media in criminology.
• Cultural explanation of crime.
• Benefits of convict criminology.
• Main issues of postmodern criminology.
• Is criminal behavior affected by the politics?
• How does DAWN collect data?
• The limitations of crime mapping.
• Personality traits that trigger criminal behavior.
• Community deterioration and crime rates.
• Does experimental criminology affect social policy?

🔬 120 Criminology Research Topics & Ideas

Here are 100 criminology research topics ideas organized by themes.

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General Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Criminology as a social science.
• Criminology and its public policies.
• History of criminology.
• Crime commission: legal and social perspectives .

Criminal Psychology Research Topics

• What is the nature of criminal behavior?
• How does the lack of education affect the incarceration rates?
• Childhood aggression and the impact of divorce
• The effect of the upbringing on antisocial adult behavior
• How do gender and cultural background affect one’s attitude towards drug abuse ?
• Forensic psychology and its impact on the legal system
• What is the role of criminal psychologists?
• Different types of forensic psychological evaluations
• What’s the difference between therapeutic and forensic evaluation?
• Does socioeconomic status impact one’s criminal behavior?

Criminology Research Topics: Theories

• What crimes are typical for what ages?
• How does the type of crime correspond with the level of exerted aggression ?
• What is the connection between citizenship (or lack thereof) and law violation?
• How does education (or lack thereof) correspond with crime level?
• Does employment (or lack thereof) correspond with law violation?
• What is the connection between family status and law violation?
• Does gender affect on the type of law violation?
• How does ownership of firearms correspond with law violation?
• Does immigrant status correlate with law violation?

• Is there a connection between mental health and law violation?
• What are the causes of violence in the society?
• Does the crime rate depend on the neighborhood ?
• How does race correspond with the type of crime?
• Do religious beliefs correspond with law violation?
• How does social class correlate with crime rate?
• What are the reasons for the homeless’ improsonment?
• How does weather correspond with law violation?

Criminology Topics on Victimization

• Biological theories of crime: how do biological factors correspond with law violation?
• Classical criminology: the contemporary take on crime, economics, deterrence, and the rational choice perspective.
• Convict criminology: what do ex-convicts have to say on the subject?
• Criminal justice theories: punishment as a deterrent to crime.
• Critical criminology : debunking false ideas about crime and criminal justice.
• Cultural criminology: criminality as the product of culture.
• Cultural transmission theory: how criminal norms are transmitted in social interaction.
• Deterrence theory: how people don’t commit crimes out of fear of punishment.
• Rational choice theory : how crime doing is aligned with personal objectives of the perpetrator.
• Feminist Criminology: how the dominant crime theories exclude women.
• Labeling and symbolic interaction theories: how minorities and those deviating from social norms tend to be negatively labeled.
• Life course criminology : how life events affect the actions that humans perform.
• Psychological theories of crime: criminal behavior through the lense of an individual’s personality.
• Routine activities theory : how normal everyday activities affect the tendency to commit a crime.
• The concept of natural legal crime.
• Self-control theory : how the lack of individual self-control results in criminal behavior.
• Social construction of crime: crime doing as social response.
• Social control theory : how positive socialization corresponds with reduction of criminal violation.
• Social disorganization theory : how neighborhood ecological characteristics correspond with crime rates.
• Social learning theory : how (non)criminal behavior can be acquired by observing and imitating others.
• Strain theories : how social structures within society pressure citizens to commit crime.
• Theoretical integration: how two theories are better than one.

Criminology Research and Measurement Topics

• Citation content analysis (CCA): a framework for gaining knowledge from a variety of media.
• Crime classification systems: classification of crime according to the severity of punishment.
• Crime mapping as a way to map, visualize, and analyze crime incident patterns.
• Reports and statistics of crime: the estimated rate of crime over time. Public surveys.
• Drug abuse warning network (DAWN): predicting trends in drug misuse.
• Arrestee drug abuse monitoring (ADAM): drug use among arrestees.
• Edge ethnography: collecting data undercover in typically closed research settings and groups through rapport development or covert undercover strategy.
• Experimental criminology: experimental and quasi-experimental research in the advancement of criminological theory.
• Fieldwork in criminology: street ethnographers and their dilemmas in the field concerning process and outcomes.
• Program evaluation: collecting and analyzing information to assess the efficiency of projects, policies and programs.
• Quantitative criminology: how exploratory research questions, inductive reasoning , and an orientation to social context help recognize human subjectivity.

Criminology Topics on Types of Crime

• Campus crime: the most common crimes on college campuses and ways of preventing them.
• Child abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Cybercrime : cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, phishing.
• Domestic violence : gender, ways of detection and prevention, activism.
• Domestic violence with disabilities .
• Elder abuse : types, prevalence, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Environmental crime. Natural resource theft: illegal trade in wildlife and timber, poaching, illegal fishing.
• Environmental crime. Illegal trade in ozone-depleting substances, hazardous waste; pollution of air, water, and soil.
• Environmental crime: local, regional, national, and transnational level.
• Environmental crime: climate change crime and corruption.
• Environmental crime: wildlife harming and exploitation.
• Hate crime: how prejudice motivates violence.

• Homicide : what motivates one person to kill another.
• Human trafficking : methods of deception, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Identity theft : methods, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Gambling in America .
• Juvenile delinquency : risk groups, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
• Juvenile Delinquency: Causes and Effects
• Organizational crime: transnational, national, and local levels. Ways of disrupting the activity of a group.
• Prostitution : risk groups, different takes on prevention policies, activism.
• Robbery : risk groups, ways of prevention, prosecution and punishment.
• Sex offenses: risk groups, types, prevalence, ways of detection and prevention.
• Terrorism: definition, history, countermeasures .
• Terrorism : individual and group activity, ways of detection and prevention.
• Theft and shoplifting : risk groups, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.
• Counter-terrorism: constitutional and legislative issues .
• White-collar crime : types, ways of detection, prevention policies, prosecution and punishment.

Criminology Topics on Racism and Discrimination

• How systemic bias affects criminal justice?
• How discriminatory portrayal of minority groups in the media affects criminal justice?
• Racial profiling : targeting minority groups on the basis of race and ethnicity.
• Racism and discrimination towards African-Americans .
• Racial profiling : what are the cons? Are there any pros?
• How discriminatory is the UK Court System?
• How discriminatory is the US Court System?

Other Criminology Research Topics

• Corporate crime : the ruling class criminals.
• Genetics: illegal research and its dangers.
• Hate crime : the implications in criminal justice.
• Serial killers : risk groups, ways of detection and prevention.
• Serial killers: portrayal in media.
• Organized crime : how does it affect criminal justice?
• Crime prevention programs.
• Street lighting: does it reduce crime?
• Terrorism prevention technology.
• Identity theft : risk groups, ways of deception, prevention policies.
• Due process model: procedural and substantive aspects.
• Crime control in criminal justice administration.
• Types of drugs: how do they affect the users?
• Smart handheld devices: their function for security personnel.
• Social media : its impact on crime rate.
• Public health: how does criminal justice affect it?
• Psychometric examinations: what is their role in criminal justice?
• National defense in the US.
• National defense in the UK.
• Sexual harassment : the role of activism, ways of responding, prevention and prosecution.
• Substance abuse : military.
• Criminology and criminal justice jobs: a full list.

🌶️ Hot Criminal Justice Topics

• The history of modern police.
• Different types of prison systems.
• Is situational crime prevention effective?
• How to prevent wrongful convictions.
• Challenges faced by crime victims.
• The advantages of community corrections.
• How do ethics influence criminal justice?
• Disadvantages of felony disenfranchisement.
• Does correctional system in the USA really work?
• Possible problems of prisoner reentry process.

💂 116 Criminal Justice Research Topics & Questions

Here are some of the most typical and interesting criminal justice issues to dazzle your professor.

• Prison system : the main problems and the hidden pitfalls.
• The question of gender: why are there more men who receive capital punishment than women?
• Kidnapping and ransom: common features, motifs, behavior patterns.
• Crime prevention : key principles.
• Firing a gun: what helps professionals understand whether it was deliberate or happened by accident?
• Cybercrime : the legal perspective.
• Internet vigilantism: revenge leaks.
• Hate crime on the Internet: revenge leaks, trolling, defamation.
• Crime and justice in mass media .
• Parental abduction laws.
• Sex offender registry: pros and cons.
• The deterrence theory and the theory of rational choice : are they relevant in the modern world?
• Sexual assault in schools and workplaces.
• Jury selection: how is it performed?
• Experimental criminology: the latest innovations.

• Wildlife crime: areas of prevalence, ways of prevention.
• Felony disenfranchisement laws: when do they apply?
• The relation between organized crime and corruption .
• Victim services: what help can a victim of a crime get?
• Prison rape and violence: the psychological aspect, ways of prevention.
• Juvenile recidivism : what are the risk groups?
• Forensic science : role and functions in modern criminal justice.
• Shoplifting: how to prevent theft?
• Witness Protection Program: who is eligible and how to protect them.
• Date rape : what are the ways for the victims to seek legal assistance?
• Substance abuse and crime: correlation or causation?
• Identity theft: dangers and consequences in the modern world.
• Online predators: what laws can be introduced to protect kids? Real-life examples.
• Civil and criminal cases: how to differentiate?
• Domestic abuse victims: what laws protect them?
• Elder abuse : what can be done to prevent it?
• The strain theory : the unachievable American dream.
• Concepts of law enforcement: pursuing criminal justice .
• Ethics and criminal justice: the unethical sides of law enforcement.
• The top problems to be solved by law enforcement today.
• Information sharing technology: how has it helped in the fight against terrorism ?
• Terrorism in perspective: characteristics, causes, control .
• Serial killers : types.
• Drug use and youth arrests.
• Aggressive behavior : how does it correlate with criminal tendencies?
• Community corrections : are they effective?
• Sentencing: how does it take place?
• Punishment types and the established terms.
• Unwarranted arrest: when is it acceptable?
• Human trafficking in the modern world.
• Human trafficking: current state and counteracts .
• The role of technology in modern forensics .
• Similarities and differences between homicide , murder, and manslaughter.
• Types of offenders: classification.
• Effects of gun control measures in the United States .
• The role of crime mapping in modern criminal justice.
• Male crimes vs female crimes: are they different?
• Prisons : the problems of bad living conditions.
• Victimization : causes and ways of prevention.
• Victimology and traditional justice system alternatives .
• Rape victims: what are their rights?
• Problem-solving courts: what underlying problems do they address?
• Mandatory sentencing and the three-strike rule.
• Have “three-strikes” laws been effective and should they be continued?
• Criminal courts : what can be learned from their history?
• Hate crimes : what motivates people to commit them?
• Youth gangs: what is their danger?
• Fieldwork: how is it done in criminology?
• Distributive justice : its place in criminal justice.
• Capital punishment : what can be learned from history?
• Humanities and justice in Britain during 18th century .
• Abolition of capital punishment .
• Criminals and prisoners’ rights .
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Campus crime: what laws and precautions are there against it?
• Criminal trial process: how does it go?
• Crimes committed on a religious basis: how are they punished?
• The code of ethics in the Texas department of criminal justice .
• Comparison between Florida and Maryland’s legislative frameworks .
• Fraud in the scientific field: how can copyright protect the discoveries of researchers?
• Prosecution laws: how are they applied in practice?
• The classification of crime systems.
• Cyberbullying and cyberstalking: what can parents do to protect their children?
• Forgery cases in educational institutions, offices, and governmental organizations.
• Drug courts : how do they work?

Controversial Topics in Criminal Justice

Want your work to be unconventional? Consider choosing one of the controversial topics. You will need to present a number of opposite points of view. Of course, it’s acceptable to choose and promote an opinion that you think stands the best. Just make sure to provide a thorough analysis of all of the viewpoints.

You can also stay impartial and let the reader make up their own mind on the subject. If you decide to support one of the viewpoints, your decision should be objective. Back it up with plenty of evidence, too. Here are some examples of controversial topics that you can explore.

• Reform vs. punishment: which one offers more benefits?
• Restorative justice model : is it the best criminal justice tool?
• The war on drugs : does it really solve the drug problem?
• Criminal insanity: is it a reason enough for exemption from liability?
• Juvenile justice system : should it be eliminated?
• Drug testing on the school ground.
• Police brutality in the United States .
• How to better gun control ? 
• Why Gun Control Laws Should be Scrapped .
• Pornography: is it a type of sexual violence?
• Whether death penalty can be applied fairly?
• Jack the Ripper: who was he?
• The modern justice system: is it racist?
• A false accusation: how can one protect themselves from it?
• Concealed weapons: what are the criminal codes of various states?
• Race and crime: is there a correlation?
• Registering sex offenders: should this information be in public records?
• Juvenile delinquency and bad parenting: is there a relation?
• Assessing juveniles for psychopathy or conduct disorder .
• Should all new employees be checked for a criminal background ?
• Are delinquency cases higher among immigrant children?
• Restrictive housing: can it help decongest prisons?
• Homegrown crimes: is there an effective program against them?
• Prostitution: the controversy around legalization .
• Eyewitness testimony : is it really helpful in an investigation?
• Youthful offenders in boot camps: is this strategy effective?
• Predictive policing : is it effective?
• Selective incapacitation: is it an effective policy for reducing crime?
• Social class and crime: is there a relation?
• Death penalty: is it effective in crime deterrence?
• Extradition law: is it fair?
• Devious interrogations: is deceit acceptable during investigations?
• Supermax prisons: are they effective or just cruel?
• Zero tolerance: is it the best policy for crime reduction?
• Marijuana decriminalization: pros and cons.
• Marijuana legalization in the US .

Now that you have looked through the full list of topics, choose wisely. Remember that sometimes it’s best to avoid sensitive topics. Other times, a clever choice of a topic will win you extra points. It doesn’t depend on just the tastes of your professor, of course. You should also take into account how much relevant information there is on the subject. Anyway, the choice of the topic of your research is up to you. Try to find the latest materials and conduct an in-depth analysis of them. Don’t forget to draw a satisfactory conclusion. Writing may take a lot of your time and energy, so plan ahead. Remember to stay hydrated and good luck!

Now, after we looked through the topic collections on criminology and criminal justice, it is time to turn to the specifics in each of the fields. First, let’s talk more extensively about criminology. If you are training to be a criminologist, you will study some things more deeply. They include the behavior patterns of criminals, their backgrounds, and the latest sociological trends in crime.

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In the field of criminology, the specialties are numerous. That’s why it’s difficult to pinpoint one career that represents a typical member of the profession. It all depends on the background of a criminologist, their education, and experience.

A criminologist may have a number of responsibilities at their position. For example, they might be called forth to investigate a crime scene. Participation in autopsies is unpleasant yet necessary. Interrogation of suspects and subsequent criminal profiling is another essential duty.

Some professionals work solely in research. Others consult government agencies or private security companies. Courts and law firms also cooperate with criminologists. Their job is to provide expert opinion in criminal proceedings. Some of them work in the prison systems in order to oversee the rehabilitation of the convicted.

Regardless of the career specialty , most criminologists are working on profiling and data collection. A criminologist is another word for an analyst. They collect, study, and analyze data on crimes. After conducting the analysis, they provide recommendations and actionable information.

A criminologist seeks to find out the identity of the person who committed the crime. The time point of a crime is also important, as well as the reason for it. There are several areas covered by the analysis of a criminologist. The psychological behavior of the criminal or criminals is closely studied. The socio-economic indicators are taken into account. There are also, of course, the environmental factors that may have facilitated the crime.

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Some high-profile cases require a criminologist to correspond with media and PR managers extensively. Sometimes criminologists write articles and even books about their findings. However, it should be noted that the daily routine of a professional in the field is not so glamorous. Most criminologists do their work alone, without the attention of the public.

The research a criminologist accumulates during their work is extensive. It doesn’t just sit there in a folder on their desk, of course. The collected statistics are used for developing active criminal profiles that are shared with law enforcement agencies. It helps to understand criminal behavior better and to predict it. That’s why a criminologist’s work must be precise and accurate for it to be practical and useful. Also, criminology professionals must have a good grasp of math and statistics.

Thinking of a career in criminology? You will need to, at the very least, graduate from college. There, you’ll master mathematics, statistics, and, of course, criminology. An associate’s degree may get you an entry-level position. But the minimum entry-level requirement is usually the bachelor’s degree. The best positions, though, are left for the professionals with a master’s degree or a PhD.

Just having a degree is not enough. To succeed as a criminologist, you will require all your intelligence, commitment, and the skill of analyzing intricate situations. An aspiration to better the society will go a long way. You will need to exercise your creative, written, and verbal communication skills, too. An analytical mind will land you at an advantage.

Criminology: Research Areas

Times change and the world of crime never ceases to adapt. The nature of criminal transgression is evolving, and so do the ways of prosecution. Criminal detection, investigation, and prevention are constantly advancing. Criminology studies aim to improve the practices implemented in the field.

There are six unified, coordinated, and interrelated areas of expertise. Within each, the professionals are busy turning their mastery into knowledge and action.

The first research area is the newest worry of criminology – cybercrime. The impact of this type of crime is escalating with every passing day. That’s why it’s crucial for the law enforcement professionals to keep up to date with the evolving technology. Cybercrime research is exploring the growing threat of its subject at all levels of society. Cybercrime may impact people on both personal and governmental levels. Cybercrime research investigates the motivation and methodology behind the offenses and finds new ways to react.

The second research area is counter fraud. Crimes that fall under this category include fraud and corruption. The questions that counter fraud research deals with are many. How widely a crime is spread, what method is best to fight it, and the optimal courses of action to protect people and organizations.

The third research area is that of forensics. The contemporary face of justice has been changed by forensic science beyond recognition. Nowadays, it’s much harder for criminals to conceal their activity due to evolved technologies. The research in forensics is utilizing science in the identification of the crime and in its reconstruction. It employs such techniques as DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.

What is forensic interviewing? It helps find new ways to gather quality information from witnesses and crime scenes. It also works on developing protocols that ensure the protection of this human data and its correct interpretation by police.

The fourth research area is policing. Police service is facing a lot of pressing issues nowadays due to budget cuts. At the same time, police officers still need to learn, and there are also individual factors that may influence their work.

The fifth research area is penology. It’s tasked with exploring the role of punishment in the criminal justice system. Does punishment aid the rehabilitation of perpetrators, and to what extent? The answer will help link theory to practice and thus shape how criminal justice practitioners work.

The sixth research area is that of missing persons. Before a person goes missing, they may display a certain pattern of behavior. The study of missing persons helps to identify it. The results will determine the handling of such cases.

Now that we know what criminology is, it’s time to talk about criminal justice.

While criminology focuses on the analysis of crime, criminal justice concentrates on societal systems. Its primary concern is with the criminal behavior of the perpetrators. For example, in the USA, there are three branches of the criminal justice system. They are police (aka law enforcement), courts, and corrections. These branches all work together to punish and prevent unlawful behavior. If you take up a career in criminal justice, expect to work in one of these fields.

The most well-known branch of criminal justice is law enforcement. The police force is at the forefront of defense against crime and misdemeanor. They stand against the criminal element in many ways. For instance, they patrol the streets, investigate crimes, and detain suspects. It’s not just the police officers who take these responsibilities upon themselves. There are also US Marshals, ICE, FBI Agents, DEA, and border patrol. Only after the arrest has been made, the perpetrator enters the court system.

The court system is less visible to the public, but still crucial to the criminal justice system. Its main purpose is to determine the suspect’s innocence or guilt. You can work as an attorney, lawyer, bailiff, judge, or another professional of the field. In the court, if you are a suspect, you are innocent until proven guilty. You are also entitled to a fair trial. However, if they do find you guilty, you will receive a sentence. Your punishment will be the job of the corrections system.

The courts determine the nature of the punishment, and the corrections system enforces it. There are three elements of the corrections system: incarceration, probation, and parole. They either punish or rehabilitate the convicts. Want to uptake a career in corrections? You may work as, including, but not limited to: a parole officer, a prison warden, a probation officer, and a guard.

📈 Criminal Justice: Research Areas

The research areas in criminal justice are similar, if not identical, to those of criminology. After all, those are two very closely related fields. The one difference is that criminal justice research has more practical than theoretical applications. But it’s fair to say that theory is the building blocks that practice bases itself on. One is impossible without the other unless the result you want is complete chaos.

So, the question is – what topic to choose for the research paper? Remember that the world of criminal justice is constantly changing. Choosing a subject for research in criminal justice, consider a relevant topic. There are many pressing issues in the field. Exploring them will undoubtedly win you points from your professor. Just make sure to choose a direction that will give you the opportunity to show off both your knowledge and your analytical skills.

Not sure that your original research direction will be appreciated? Then choose one of the standard topics. Something that is widely discussed in the media. And, of course, make sure that you are truly interested in the subject. Otherwise, your disinterest will translate into your writing, which may negatively affect the overall impression. Also, it’s just more enjoyable to work on something that resonates with you.

What can you do with your research paper? Literally anything. Explore the background of the issue. Make predictions. Compare the different takes on the matter. Maybe there are some fresh new discoveries that have been made recently. What does science say about that?

Also, remember to backup all your arguments with quotes and examples from real life. The Internet is the best library and research ground a student could hope for. The main idea of the paper, aka the thesis, must be proven by enough factual material. Otherwise, it’s best to change your research direction.

And, of course, don’t put it all off till the last minute. Make a plan and stick to it. Consistency and clever distribution of effort will take you a long way. Good luck!

🤔 Criminal Justice Research FAQs

Criminological and criminal justice research are the scientific studies of the causes and consequences, extent and control, nature, management, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the social and individual levels.

Criminal justice and criminology are sciences that analyze the occurrence and explore the ways of prevention of illegal acts. Any conducted personal research and investigation should be supported by the implemented analytical methods from academic works that describe the given subject.

There are six interrelated areas of criminology research:

• Cybercrime research makes law enforcement professionals keep up to date with the evolving technology.
• Counter fraud research investigates cases of fraud and corruption.
• Forensics research utilizes science: DNA recovery, fingerprinting, and forensic interviewing.
• Research in policing investigates individual factors that may influence the work of police officers.
• Penology explores the role of punishment in the criminal justice system.
• The study of missing persons helps to identify patterns of victims’ behavior.

There are seven research methods in criminology:

• Quantitative research methods measure criminological and criminal justice reality by assigning numerical values to concepts to find patterns of correlation, cause and effect.
• Survey research collects information from a number of persons via their responses to questions.
• Experimental research assesses cause and effect in two comparison groups.
• Cross-sectional research studies one group at one point in time.
• Longitudinal research studies the same group over a period of time.
• Time-series designs study the same group at successive points in time.
• Meta-analysis employs quantitative analysis of findings from multiple studies.

The basis of criminological theory is criminological research. It influences the development of social policies and defines criminal justice practice.

Criminological research doesn’t just enable law students to develop analytical and presentational skills. The works of criminal justice professionals, scholars, and government policymakers dictate the way law enforcement operates. The newest ideas born out of research identify corrections and crime prevention, too.

Here is a step-by-step instruction on how to write a criminal justice research paper:

• Choose a topic
• Read the materials and take notes
• Come up with a thesis
• Create an outline for your work
• Draft the body
• Start with a cover page, an abstract, and an intro
• List the methods you used, and the results you got
• Include a discussion
• Sum it up with a conclusion
• Don’t forget a literature review and appendices
• Revise, proofread, and edit

The most common types of methodologies in criminal justice research include:

• Observation of participants.
• Surveys and interviews.
• Observation of focus groups.
• Conducting experiments.
• Analysis of secondary data and archival study.
• Mixed (a combination of the above methods).

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• The Differences Between Criminal Justice and Criminology: Which Degree Is Right for You? (Concordia St. Paul)
• Corporate Crime: Britannica
• The Development of Delinquency: NAP
• Databases for Research & Education: Gale
• A CS Research Topic Generator: Purdue University
• A Introduction To The Federal Court System: US Department of Justice
• Criminal Justice Research Topics: Broward College
• Research Topics in Criminology: Cambridge Institute of Criminology
• CRIMINOLOGY: University of Portsmouth
• Research: Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, University of Maryland
• Criminal Justice: RAND
• Research Methods in Criminal Justice: Penn State University Libraries
• Research: School of Criminology and Criminal Justice, Arizona State University
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting started (Penn Libraries)
• Criminology Research Papers: Academia
• The History & Development of the U.S. Criminal Justice System: Study.com
• CRIMINAL JUSTICE & CRIMINOLOGY: Marshall University
• Criminal Justice: Temple University
• Criminal Justice: University of North Georgia
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The schools of criminology seems like such a fascinating field — it’s definitely not for the lighthearted though! Here in the Philippines, criminology as a course is highly underrated; hopefully that’ll change!

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Criminology Research Papers Samples For Students

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Do you feel the need to examine some previously written Research Papers on Criminology before you get down to writing an own piece? In this free database of Criminology Research Paper examples, you are given a fascinating opportunity to explore meaningful topics, content structuring techniques, text flow, formatting styles, and other academically acclaimed writing practices. Exploiting them while composing your own Criminology Research Paper will surely allow you to complete the piece faster.

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Sample Research Paper On Theories Of Criminal Behavior

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The Rational Choice Theory is one of the most common and widely accepted theories in criminology. This theory is useful to deter criminal activity by changing the environment that might invite the attention of criminal elements. This theory has a crime displacement application. Most of the initiatives for crime prevention use the Rational Choice Theory. This theory proves that criminals make a rational choice when selecting targets by weighing the pros and cons (Akers, 1990).

Origins of the theory

Good criminal behavior theories research paper example.

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Research Design Research Papers Example

Good research paper on social structure crime theories, introduction:, death penalty in the united states research paper, prepared and submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the:, sample research paper on criminal behavior patterns, section 1: proposal.

Within the major profession of criminology, one recurring problem is the explanation of criminal behavior patterns and their relationship to crime, involving the subtopics of the sociological legal and psychiatric aspects of crime which contribute to defining and elaborating on criminal behavior.

Section 2: Body Sections

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GOAL STATEMENT: To determine the profile of robbers arrested in the state of Massachusetts. INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: a. Gender b. Ethnicity c. Age d. Employment e. Educational Background

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

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Introduction When considering the characteristics of the crime as relatively independent phenomena one can understand this phenomenon as socially dangerous one. At the same time, crime is only an element of the public events. Existing and functioning in society, it permeates all different areas and various public attitudes. From this perspective, crime is a social phenomenon, which could be discussed qualitatively. Consequently, this assignment is aimed at analysis of the teaching dataset of British Crime Survey 2007-2008.

Literature Review

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Social control theory obtained popularity across the 1960s which sociologists had different notions about crime. During the period, Travis Hirschi presented forth the innovative control theory rendering. This was a theory based on the existing social control concepts. The intent of this paper is to establish the links between school, family and other social aspects serve as ways of diminishing an individual’s propensity in deviant behavior.

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