world war 2 research paper example

World War II Research Paper

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World War II (1939–1945) is regarded as the most widespread and deadliest conflict in human history. The war involved many nations and was fought on battlefronts in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East, Asia, and the Pacific. Led by Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and the United States, the Allies emerged victorious over the major Axis powers, Germany, Italy, and Japan.

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World War II developed, in part, from the resolution of World War I. The peace conferences ending World War I resulted in a victor’s peace, and the vanquished harbored a sense of unfair treatment. The worldwide economic depression that began in the 1920s and continued into the 1930s helped bring about totalitarian regimes in Italy, Japan, and Germany. When democracies could not agree on a forceful, common program to halt aggression in the late 1930s, war began; it expanded with the inclusion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 and the United States in December 1941. When the fighting finally stopped in September 1945, tens of millions of people had died worldwide; the great European colonial empires in Asia and Africa soon would end; and two great powers, the USSR and the United States, found themselves unable to bridge the divide between them and plunged much of the world into a Cold War that lasted until the collapse of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s.

The Build-Up to World War II

On 18 September 1931, the Japanese Kwantung Army claimed that Chinese bandits had blown up the main track of the South Manchurian Railway, and, within a year, Japan seized control of Manchuria and created a puppet regime, Manchukuo. Japan then moved into Inner Mongolia and the Chinese provinces outside the Great Wall. In July 1937, minor hostilities expanded into war. Within several years, the conflict settled into a strange, three-sided affair, as Chinese Nationalist forces, Chinese Communist guerrillas, and the Japanese army faced one another, with Japan largely controlling populated eastern China and the Yangzi (Chang) River valley, the Communists in their base area at Yanan, and the Nationalists at Qongqing in Sichuan Province.

Japanese aggression in Manchuria may have encouraged other dictators to disregard the League of Nations and to challenge the entire Versailles Peace Treaty structure. In January 1933, Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) became chancellor of Germany, and he expanded the army and navy, established an air force, and reoccupied the demilitarized Rhineland without serious protest from France or Great Britain. In March 1938, Hitler forced a unification of Germany and Austria—the Anschluss—and in September 1938 signed a peace accord with France and Great Britain that handed him the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. In March 1939, German forces seized Memel in Lithuania and took control of the remainder of Czechoslovakia. During the summer of 1939, France and Great Britain approached the Soviet Union to assure Poland’s territorial integrity, but the USSR shocked the world when it signed a treaty with Nazi Germany in late August.

Hostilities Begin

Hitler turned to war. On 1 September 1939, the Germany army unleashed a blitzkrieg against Poland, crushing the Polish army in three weeks. After a winter pause, Germany attacked Norway and Denmark on 9 April 1940, securing Norwegian ports and Swedish iron ore shipments. On 10 May 1940, Germany threatened a wheeling movement through the Low Countries and then struck through the supposedly impassable Ardennes forest, unleashing its panzer forces behind the advancing army, driving to the English Channel in several weeks. Only the valiant effort of British seamen lifting more than 300,000 British and Allied soldiers from Dunkirk prevented a complete German victory. Germany turned south against France and forced the French surrender. Hitler apparently wanted to invade Great Britain, in Operation Sea Lion, and the Luftwaffe fought for control over the skies of Britain. Germany’s air force was designed for tactical support of advancing ground forces and not for a strategic air campaign, and it changed objectives too often—from coastal radar stations to fighter air bases to industrial factories, to terrorizing cities. By late summer 1940 the air offensive had failed. Strangely, from late summer 1940 until spring 1941, the German army launched no new offensives; this perhaps represented a major opportunity lost.

Germany next turned east. On 7 April 1941, Germany attacked Yugoslavia and Greece, and quickly conquered both countries. On 22 June 1941, Hitler sent more than 3 million German troops; 3,300 tanks; 7,700 artillery pieces; 2,500 planes; and forces from satellite countries into the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa. Germany lacked accurate information on its enemy and greatly underestimated the challenge. But, in early summer, it appeared Germany would land the knockout blow: as its Army Group North drove on Leningrad, Army Group Center pulled off several huge encirclements of Soviet troops on the way to Moscow, and Army Group South neared Kiev. In late summer, the troops rested, and Hitler ordered the panzer forces of Army Group Center to turn north and south to help these peripheral drives. Turning south, tank forces of Heinz Guderian helped surround 665,000 Soviet troops near Kiev, the largest prisoner-of-war capture in history. When Germany resumed the advance on Moscow, the Soviet Union was ready. Operation Typhoon failed within sight of the Kremlin, and the Soviets counterattacked, catching the German army desperately unprepared. When the Soviet attack petered out in late winter, Germany had suffered grievous losses, and it seemed the Soviet Union could survive.

World War II in the Pacific

The Japanese defeat by the Soviets at the Battle of Nomonhan (Khalkin Gol) on the Mongolian border in August 1939 caused Japan to look south for raw materials; Japanese military leaders settled on a centrifugal offensive centered on the destruction of the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. On 7 December 1941, Japan attacked, and thereafter gained a series of striking victories, including capturing Hong Kong, the Malay Peninsula, and the British stronghold of Singapore, the Mariana and Gilbert Islands, the Philippines, Borneo, the Dutch East Indies, and other island groups to secure a vast resource area and territory behind which to defend these gains.

Japanese leaders, however, suffered from “victory disease,” and instead of building up their defenses in depth to withstand the American counterattack, they continued their offensive. They tried to isolate Australia and threaten India. The result was the fl awed Japanese attack against Midway in early June 1942, which led to the destruction of four fleet carriers, fatally weakening the Japanese navy.

Soviet Union Fights Back

Hitler returned to the offensive on the eastern front in summer 1942, but only had strength to attack to the south, aiming for Stalingrad and Soviet oil facilities by the Caspian coast. The distances exceeded German logistical capacity, and General Friedrich Paulus made a fateful decision to commit the German Sixth Army to a fight for Stalingrad. Under General Vasili Chuikov, the Soviet Sixty-second Army engaged in a valiant, desperate defense featuring house-to-house and even floor-to-floor resistance.

As the battle for Stalingrad raged from summer into the fall of 1942, General (later Marshal) Georgi Zhukov planned for a riposte, positioning vast Soviet forces on the vulnerable flanks of the German position at Stalingrad; the Soviets intended to crash through Romanian and Hungarian positions, race around the German Sixth Army and Fourth Panzer Army, and effect a double envelopment. The Soviets struck on 12 November, and several days later the spearheads met at Kalach and cut off the Germans; in early February 1943, the last survivors surrendered. The Soviets followed this victory with an offensive that pushed the Germans out of Caucasia.

When the spring thaw halted operations, there was a bulge into German defenses around Kursk, and Hitler planned for a double envelopment to destroy Soviet positions after which, presumably, he would go on the defensive. But Hitler delayed the start of Operation Citadel many times, waiting for the new, heavy German tanks, and this delay allowed Zhukov to plan for the expected German advance. The greatest tank battle in history began on 5 July 1943, and the German pincer effort from the north quickly stalled; however, the attack from the south, featuring the cream of the German ground forces, made some headway before Hitler suspended offensive operations owing to the Allied invasion of Sicily. Thereafter, the Soviets seized the initiative and by early fall 1943 freed the eastern Ukraine of German forces; they continued advancing into winter 1943 into the western Ukraine, creating a huge bulge on the southern flank of German Army Group Center.

The force and space ratios on the eastern front clearly favored the Soviet Union. Had Germany not attacked at Kursk and had it dedicated its limited productive capacity to defense, German tactical superiority might have withstood Soviet logistical superiority. But Hitler threw away precious panzers and artillery at Kursk, and the Soviets halted operations only when their supply lines ran out.

On 20 June 1944, the Soviets launched Operation Bagration. The Soviet military achieved a great surprise, fooling German commanders in the east into believing that the attack would go south; the Germans concentrated their limited panzer resources there, largely leaving Army Group Center without tanks. The Soviets attacked, and surged past German positions before the infantry could react or retreat. The advance carried from pre-1939 Russia all the way to the Vistula River and Warsaw in August, when Soviet forces outran their supply lines and halted.

In Air and at Sea

Meanwhile, on other fronts, the Axis powers retreated. To respond to Soviet calls for a “second front,” the United States and Great Britain opened a strategic bombing campaign. Before the development of long-range fighters, the U.S. Eighth Air Force, bombing in daylight, suffered heavy losses, while the nighttime Royal Air Force did little damage against German industrial targets. But Hitler wanted to maintain home front support and gradually withdrew fighter squadrons from the eastern front, and later from France and Italy, to defend Germany. After mid-1943 and the appearance of long-range American fighter planes, the outcome began to favor the Allies.

Similarly, the United States won the Battle of the Atlantic. At first, German U-boats enjoyed great success against the vulnerable American East Coast, and later in Caribbean and South Atlantic waters. Soon the United States constructed more cargo ships than the Germans could sink, and they built escort aircraft carriers, which accommodated only twenty airplanes. The U.S. Tenth Fleet, organized around these carriers and their support ships, hounded German submarines, denying them open areas in which to operate and to surface for battery recharging. The Allies sank more than 80 percent of German submarines.

The Ground War

Finally, the Western Allies began to contest the German army. In November 1942, they launched Operation Torch against French northwest Africa to complement the British Eighth Army’s attack on Erwin Rommel’s Afrika Corps positions near El Alamein in the Western Desert of Egypt. By early May 1943 they forced the Axis surrender in Africa. On July 10, they launched Operation Husky, the invasion of Sicily, and after a six-week campaign crossed into Italy. The Italian government surrendered in September, and most Italian army divisions melted away. The Germans under Field Marshal Albert Kesselring defended well, and progress up the Italian peninsula was slow and costly, but the drain on German resources meant that German commanders could not count on reinforcements from other theaters. On 6 June 1944, the Allies launched Operation Overlord, the invasion of France, commanded by U.S. army general Dwight Eisenhower. Three airborne divisions landed during the night, and five infantry divisions assaulted five beaches: Gold, Sword, Juno, Omaha, and Utah. Despite the difficulty of the hedgerows in Normandy, the Allies brought men and equipment ashore in the expanding beachhead. In late July 1944, the U.S. army launched Operation Cobra; as American forces moved down the Cotentin Peninsula to Avranches and broke out and around the German defense, the U.S. Third Army under General George Patton became operational, and it quickly spread west into the Brittany peninsula and east toward the Seine above Paris. German troops were surrounded near Falaise, and an invasion in southern France, Operation Dragoon, sent American and Free French troops up the Rhone River Valley to meet Patton’s forces near Dijon, cutting off German forces in France.

After Midway, the United States seized the initiative against Japan. At first, it was the desperate fighting on Guadalcanal from August 1942 to February 1943, and then the U.S. advanced on two axes. Admiral Chester Nimitz led the navy advance to the Gilbert Islands and Tarawa in November 1943, to the Marshall Islands and Kwajalein in February 1944, and then to the Marianas in June 1944, and the invasions of Guam, Saipan, and Tinian along with the Battle of the Philippine Sea (also called the Marianas Turkey Shoot). Army general Douglas MacArthur commanded a mixed force that moved up the Solomon Islands chain and leapfrogged Japanese strongpoints on the New Guinea coast, while isolating the 100,000-man Japanese Army in Rabaul in New Britain. In October 1944, MacArthur invaded the Philippines, although fighting would continue there until war’s end. Meanwhile, the Central Pacific offensive moved to Iwo Jima in the Bonin Islands in January 1945 and Okinawa in the Ryukyus in April 1945.

The attack on the Philippines cut off Japanese forces in Southeast Asia, and an Anglo-Indian offensive pushed the Japanese through Burma, though progress, owing to the difficult terrain, was slow. Meanwhile, Chinese government forces managed to occupy a great many Japanese divisions while conserving strength for the expected renewal of the civil war with the Communists.

Victory in Europe

In fall 1944, the pressure on Germany continued. Strategic bombing of Germany caused many casualties, although Albert Speer achieved a production miracle for war goods. The Red Army paused in the center, sweeping into the Balkans and trapping the Germans along the Baltic. By December 1944, the Soviets were at the 1939 German-Polish border and near Budapest in Hungary waiting to resume the offensive. In the west, Eisenhower ordered a halt in operations for winter, owing to supply difficulties. In late December 1944, Hitler launched a desperate gamble, an attack against weak American forces in the Ardennes, hoping to drive toward Antwerp, cut off the British, and force the Americans to surrender. But the German attack lacked sufficient fuel reserves; the Americans, especially around Bastogne, defended fiercely, and when skies cleared Allied airpower battered German formations. As the Soviets launched a winter offensive, the Allies drove to the Rhine and in March 1945 crossed, first at Remagen, and then along the upper Rhine and finally to the north. Meanwhile, the Red Army drove on Berlin, and Soviet forces under Zhukov and Marshal Ivan Koniev engaged in a race to Berlin, which was won by Zhukov’s men at terrible cost. In late April elements of the U.S. and Red armies met at Torgau on the Elbe, and Germany was divided. Hitler committed suicide in his underground bunker in Germany, and on 7 May, German commanders surrendered to Eisenhower in Rheims, France, followed on 8 May 1945, with a surrender to Soviet commanders in Berlin.

Japan Surrenders

The Japanese continued to resist, and American experts predicted a bloody and costly attack on the Japanese home islands. However, in July 1945, at Alamagordo, New Mexico, scientists exploded the first atomic bomb, and several weeks later the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima (6 August) and one on Nagasaki (9 August), compelling Japan’s surrender on 2 September 1945 in Tokyo Bay. World War II ended.

The Aftermath of World War II

The end of World War II brought with it a wide range of significant consequences, many of which were aimed at preventing similar conflicts in the future. War crimes committed by the Axis powers, including the Holocaust, were addressed at the Nuremberg Trials and the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. The United Nations was established with the explicit aim of maintaining international peace and security. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was instituted as a guarantee of the rights for all human beings. The international economic and financial architecture was overhauled and increasingly managed and regulated by the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the World Trade Organization (formerly the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade). The state of Israel was established. Many former colonies won their independence, while other states such as Germany and Korea were divided ideologically and politically. Women began to find new and expanding roles in society on the back of their important contribution to the war effort. War-time technologies, innovations, and management systems were put to good peacetime uses, few more important than the jet engine and the now indispensible computer. Particularly important, learning from the mistakes of the interwar period, Europe (including Germany) was rebuilt under the Marshall Plan, as was Japan, which would soon modernize and rise to major economic power status.

Bibliography:

• Crozier, A. J. (1997). The causes of the Second World War. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
• Delaney, J. (1996). The Blitzkrieg campaigns: Germany’s “Lightning War” strategy in action. New York: Sterling.
• Donnelly, M. (1999). Britain in the Second World War. New York: Routledge.
• Dupuy, T. N., & Martell, P. (1982). Great battles on the eastern front: The Soviet–German War, 1941–1945. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill.
• Glantz, D. M. (2001). Barbarossa: Hitler’s invasion of Russia, 1941. Stroud, U.K.: Tempus.
• Glantz, D. M., & House, J. M. (1995). When titans clashed: How the Red Army stopped Hitler. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas.
• Hart, B. H. L. (1971). History of the Second World War. New York: Putnam.
• Howard, M. E. (1968). The Mediterranean strategy in the Second World War. New York: Praeger.
• Hoyt, E. P. (1993). 199 days: The battle of Stalingrad. New York: Tor.
• Iriye, A. (1987). The origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific. New York: Longman.
• James, D. C., & Wells, A. S. (1995). From Pearl Harbor to V-J day: The American armed forces in World War II. Chicago: Ivan Dee.
• Keegan, J. (1990). The Second World War. New York: Penguin Books.
• Kitchen, M. (1990). A world in flames: A short history of the Second World War in Europe and Asia, 1939–1945. New York: Longman.
• Levine, A. J. (1995). The Pacific war: Japan versus the Allies. Westport, CT: Praeger.
• Morison, S. E. (1963). The two-ocean war: A short history of the United States Navy in the Second World War. Boston: Little, Brown.
• Overy, R. (1995). Why the Allies won. London: Jonathan Cape. Smith, E. D. (1979). Battle for Burma. New York: Holmes & Meier.
• Spector, R. H. (1985). Eagle against the sun: The American war with Japan. New York: Free Press.
• Tucker, S. C. (2004). The Second World War. New York: Palgrave MacMillan.
• Weinberg, G. L. (1994). A world at arms: A global history of World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Williamson, M., & Millett, A. R. (2000). A war to be won: Fighting in the Second World War. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
• Wynn, K. (1997). U-Boat operations of the Second World War. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press.
• Zapantis, A. L. (1987). Hitler’s Balkan campaign and the invasion of the USSR. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Ziemke, E. F. (1968). Stalingrad to Berlin: The German defeat in the east. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
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World War II Research Essay Topics

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Students are often required to write a paper on a topic as broad as World War II , but you should know that the instructor will expect you to narrow your focus to a specific thesis. This is especially true if you are in high school or college. Narrow your focus by making a list of words, much like the list of words and phrases that are presented in bold type below. Then begin to explore related questions and come up with your own cool WWII topics. The answer to questions like these can become a good starting point for a thesis statement .

Culture and People

When the U.S. entered into war, everyday life across the country changed drastically. From civil rights, racism, and resistance movements to basic human needs like food, clothing, and medicine, the aspects of how life was impacted are immense.

• African-Americans and civil rights. What impact did the war years have on the rights of African-Americans? What were they allowed or not allowed to do?
• Animals. How were horses, dogs, birds, or other animals used? Did they play a special role?
• Art. What art movements were inspired by wartime events? Is there one specific work of art that tells a story about the war?
• Clothing. How was fashion impacted? How did clothing save lives or hinder movement? What materials were used or not used?
• Domestic violence. Was there an increase or decrease in cases?
• Families. Did new family customs develop? What was the impact on children of soldiers?
• Fashion. Did fashion change significantly for civilians? What changes had to be made during wartime?
• Food preservation. What new preservation and packaging methods were used during and after the war? How were these helpful?
• Food rationing. How did rationing impact families? Were rations the same for different groups of people? Were soldiers affected by rations?
• Love letters. What do letters tell us about relationships, families, and friendships? What about gender roles?
• New words. What new vocabulary words emerged during and after WWII?
• Nutrition. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the foods available? How did nutrition change at home during the war because of the availability of certain products?
• Penicillin and other medicine. How was penicillin used? What medical developments occurred during and after the war?
• Resistance movements. How did families deal with living in an occupied territory?
• Sacrifices. How did family life change for the worse?
• Women's work at home. How did women's work change at home during the war? What about after the war ended?

Economy and Workforce

For a nation that was still recovering from the Great Depression, World War II had a major impact on the economy and workforce. When the war began, the fate of the workforce changed overnight, American factories were repurposed to produce goods to support the war effort and women took jobs that were traditionally held by men, who were now off to war.

• Advertising. How did food packaging change during the war? How did advertisements change in general? What were advertisements for?
• Occupations. What new jobs were created? Who filled these new roles? Who filled the roles that were previously held by many of the men who went off to war?
• Propaganda. How did society respond to the war? Do you know why?
• Toys. How did the war impact the toys that were manufactured?
• New products. What products were invented and became a part of popular culture? Were these products present only during war times, or did they exist after?

Military, Government, and War

Americans were mostly against entering the war up until the bombing of Pearl Harbor, after which support for the war grew, as did armed forces. Before the war, the US didn't have the large military forces it soon became known for, with the war resulting in over 16 million Americans in service.   The role the military played in the war, and the impacts of the war itself, were vast.

• America's entry into the war. How is the timing significant? What factors are not so well known?
• Churchill, Winston. What role did this leader play that interests you most? How did his background prepare him for his role?
• Clandestine operations. Governments went to great lengths to hide the true date, time, and place of their actions.
• Destruction. Many historic cities and sites were destroyed in the U.K.—Liverpool, Manchester, London, and Coventry—and in other nations.
• Hawaii. How did events impact families or society in general?
• The Holocaust. Do you have access to any personal stories?
• Italy. What special circumstances were in effect?
• " Kilroy was here ." Why was this phrase important to soldiers? 
• Nationalist Socialist movement in America. What impact has this movement had on society and the government since WWII?
• Political impact. How was your local town impacted politically and socially?
• POW camps after the war. Where were they and what happened to them after the war? Here's a starting point: Some were turned into race tracks after the war!
• Prisoners of war. How many POWs were there? How many made it home safely? What were some long-lasting effects?
• Spies. Who were the spies? Were they men or women? What side were they on? What happened to spies that were caught?
• Submarines. Were there enemy submarines on a coast near you? What role did submarines play in the war?
• Surviving an attack. How were military units attacked? How did it feel to jump from a plane that was disabled?
• Troop logistics. How were troop movements kept secret? What were some challenges of troop logistics?
• Views on freedom. How was freedom curtailed or expanded?
• Views on government's role. Where was the government's role expanded? What about governments elsewhere?
• War crime trials. How were trials conducted? What were the political challenges or consequences? Who was or wasn't tried?
• Weather. Were there battles that were lost or won because of the weather conditions? Were there places where people suffered more because of the weather?
• Women in warfare. What roles did women play during the war? What surprises you about women's work in World War II?

Technology and Transportation

With the war came advancements in technology and transportation, impacting communications capabilities, the spread of news, and even entertainment.

• Bridges and roads. What transportation-related developments came from wartime or postwar policies?
• Communication. How did radio or other types of communication impact key events?
• Motorcycles. What needs led to the development of folding motorcycles? Why was there widespread use of military motorcycles by the government?
• Technology. What technology came from the war and how was it used after the war?
• TV technology. When did televisions start to appear in homes and what is significant about the timing? What TV shows were inspired by the war and how realistic were they? How long did World War II affect TV programming?
• Jet engine technology. What advances can be traced to WWII needs?
• Radar. What role did radar play, if any?
• Rockets. How important was rocket technology?
• Shipbuilding achievements. The achievements were quite remarkable during the war. Why and how did they happen?

"America's Wars Fact Sheet." U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, May 2017.

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World War 2 - List of Essay Samples And Topic Ideas

World War 2, spanning from 1939 to 1945, was a cataclysmic event that reshaped the global political and social landscape. Essays might delve into the origins of the war, exploring the political tensions, territorial ambitions, and ideological divides that fueled the conflict. The discourse might extend to the notable campaigns and battles, examining the strategies employed by the Axis and Allied powers. The human cost of the war, the Holocaust, and the war crimes committed could also form a significant area of discussion, alongside the exploration of the resistance movements and the home fronts. Moreover, essays could focus on the aftermath of the war, the establishment of the United Nations, the Nuremberg Trials, and the initiation of the Cold War. The lasting impact of World War 2 on modern warfare, international relations, and the collective memory could provide a profound exploration of the enduring legacy and the lessons derived from this monumental period in history. We’ve gathered an extensive assortment of free essay samples on the topic of World War 2 you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

How did the Treaty of Versailles Caused World War 2

The only thing needed for evil to triumph is for good men to do nothing. Those who act selfishly and maliciously are not particularly part of the majority in their ways of thinking and behaving. All it takes is a few good people to get the tail blazing and doing what needs to be done to keep evil from prevailing. Over the course of history many have been the victims of tyranny and overt xenophobic ruling. World War II and […]

World War 2 Propaganda

In 1932, during the Great Depression, Poland formed a pact of nonaggression with the Soviet Union. Then in 1934 signed a similar pact with Natzi Germany, which was broken five years later. World War Two began due to the United Kingdom Declared war on Germany for their invasion of Poland in 1939. In the same year the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the East, and divides Poland between the two countries. In 1941 the German concentration camps Auschwitz, Treblinka, Majdanek […]

The Profession of Nursing during World War II

The profession of nursing has been a significant aspect of many wars. World War II is no exception. World War II and its aftermath saw many changes for the nursing profession. Nursing during the war and nursing today are extremely different. The roles, working conditions, education and socioeconomic factors during the war impacted nurses both during that time period and today. The role of nurses before the start of the war was very different from nursing today. The majority of […]

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Ethical Abyss: Examining the Nazi Medical Experiments during World War 2

The medical experiments carried out by the Nazis throughout World War II are an extremely unsettling period in the annals of medicine and human rights. The Nazi regime's physicians and scientists conducted these experiments, which resulted in the murder, mutilation, and systematic torture of thousands of concentration camp inmates. The purpose and character of these experiments, the ethical transgressions they constituted, and their enduring influence on medical ethics and human rights law are all aspects of this essay that are […]

Could World War 2 have been Prevented? a Scrutiny of Missed Diplomatic Opportunities

The question of whether World War II could have been prevented looms large in history. It leads us to wonder if this devastating conflict was inevitable or if there were ways to avoid it. By examining the critical decisions and key moments that led to the outbreak of the war, we can identify potential paths that might have stopped this catastrophe from occurring. While it's easy to see things clearly in hindsight, exploring these possibilities highlights the importance of diplomacy, […]

Causes and Effects of World War II

World War II, in terms of casualties and actual material destruction, was the most devastating war in human history. It cost a lot of countries a lot of money, a lot of soldiers, and much more. Economies crashed, governments crumbled, and some would even say that for the countries in the Axis Coalition, that they were in worse shape after World War II then they were during the Great Depression World War II left destruction in many countries, but not […]

Was the World War 2 a Continuation of World War 1?

World War II Research and Family Paper, The Second World War was one of the most tragic wars facing us in the 1900s. The Second World War is the continuation of the First World War but at a completely new level. I'll explain an overview of the war and what it was like to live through it in this research paper. The Genesis of World War II There were many things that could be considered to have caused the war, […]

Was World War 2 a Good War: Unraveling the Complex Tapestry of Morality and Change

The phrase "Good War" regularly appears when discussing how complicated World War II was. This term has many different meanings, and while it is evident that it caused unimaginable misery, agony, and loss, there were unquestionable components of the struggle that brought about constructive change. Suffering and loss were undeniable aspects of the conflict that led to positive change. Let's delve into the arguments surrounding characterization. The notion of World War II as the "Good War" has been cemented in […]

How did the Cold War Affect the World Today

This project is going to be about the Cold War affect at that time and today. The author-topic happened in the United States and the Soviet Union and during the mid of the 40's to late 80's. The author argument about a political and economic struggle between the two superpowers, we can describe it as militarism. This topic is essential to the United States Because the United States emerged as the sole superpower in the world and, capitalism beat communism. […]

Women in World War II

Many changes in the United States occurred with the start of World War II. These changes were heavily influenced by society, propaganda, and different kinds of advertising. One major change was the drastic shift of traditionally male jobs being taken over by women as a great number of men went off to fight in the war. This may seem like a step in the right direction for gender equality, but when the war concluded, women were expected to hand their […]

Societal Impacts of World War II on America

On September 1, 1939, World War II began with Germany invading Poland due to Adolf Hitler’s belief that the Aryan race was superior and that the Jews were the cause of all of Europe’s problems at the time, especially Germany. During this war, Franklin D. Roosevelt wanted to remain neutral, but after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States joined into the war effort. During 1941 the United States was still trying to recover from the […]

The Aftermath and Effects of World War II on the United States

Despite the overall ending of World War II, the effects of the war brought both positive and negative changes to the United States. These changes included different economic, political, and social aspects that transformed America into all that it is today, and whether or not these changes where positive or negative, both are truly important to the history of the United States of America. According to the textbook, some of the positive changes that World War II brought to the […]

The Impact of African Americans during World War II

The United States was seen as a nation divided by the start of World War II. This division was spurred by race and religion. World War II is known for being a war centered around humanity, prejudice and basic human rights. While the Holocaust, Nazi Germany and Pearl Harbor are popular topics regarding World War II African Americans were ultimately the underdogs of the 1940's. The civil rights movements that followed were direct results of their impact during World War […]

The Allied Powers in World War II

The Allies defeated the Axis in World War II. The Axis were defeated because of various reasons. I believe the Axis lost the war because they were inexperienced and their actions throughout the war were not very smart. The Axis powers simply did not have enough supplies to compete with their enemy. The Allied forces have various supplies that gave them an advantage, things like rubber, cotton, nickel, and even oil. The Allied forces were involved with a lot of […]

Richard Nixon Foreign Policy and Cold War

The Cold War began to come to an end once President Richard Nixon stepped into office. He wanted to take a different approach to the international relations by using diplomacy instead of military action. In 1972, Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet premier, and Nixon signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. This treaty made both sides agree to halt all nuclear weapons manufacturing. This would then lead to a big step to ending the threat of nuclear war. Even though Nixon had […]

Penicillin during World War II

Humans and bacteria have co-existed for thousands of years. Many people have fallen to bacterial infections secondary to penetrating wounds or from being in proximity to those who are sick. Since ancient times, people have used honey, wine or vinegar on wound dressings, and used heavy metals such as silver or copper for vases to hold water to prevent bacterial growth (Greener, 2012). Also, our bodies naturally develop defenses against the deadly effects of bacteria, but it never seems like […]

Socratic Seminar Slaughterhouse Five

How does the Vonneguts time shifting technique affect the understanding of the novel? Is there any advantage of structuring the slaughter house five in the teleporting manner? There is a linear story that emerges from the time shifting details of the novel. There is the story of Billy,? who makes his own way through time travel across the era of World War 2 toward the Dresden and show the scene of destruction. Whenever we came to the thread of the narrator, […]

Nursing in World War II

Starting in 1939 with Hitler's invasion of Poland, World War II would officially begin its terror among the world. With an increase in need for soldiers, came a rising need for care and nurses (Levine, 2018). Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States officially entered this war and eventually brought a plethora of nurses with it (Wilson, 2018). American involvement in World War II had an extreme effect on the profession of nursing including the creation […]

World War i Vs World War II

World War I and World War II were very similar in many ways. Both began because of the clash of political ideologies. For example, there were imperialistic, nationalistic, and militaristic countries both involved in the wars. As they were similar, they also differ in a number of ways; none of the countries fighting in World War I had a dictator whereas World War II had multiple dictators from the same few countries. World War I and II also had differences […]

Post-World War II America

World War II was coming to a close. The United States had played a large part in the war by assisting in the victory of the Allies over the Axis Powers from the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor until the Japanese surrender in the summer of 1945. The U.S. had, at first, expressed the intent to remain neutral in the war - When the WWII first began with Adolf Hitler's invasion of Poland in 1939, America portrayed itself […]

American Society after World War II

According to Wiese (2004), the 20th century history of the United States hinges on the post-world war era. Following the World War II, the U.S faced diverse changes which had both adverse and positive impacts on the American society.it was after this war that several policies and programs were formulated to transform the American society. This essay explores a number of issues that had an impact on the American society following the war. Suburbanization is considered to be among the […]

Adolf Hitler and the Holocaust

Introduction Have you ever visited the holocaust museum? Located in Washington D.C., it is a place were we honor the people who died in the Final Solution . The Final Solution was a plan made by adolf hitler to kill off the jews. German authorities persecuted other groups on political, ideological, and behavioral grounds. Among them were Communists, Socialists, Jehovah's Witnesses, and homosexuals. I wonder what the reality was in that time and place. Adolf hitler The one who started […]

World War Ll in History

Over 6 million jews died all in one period of time. All those people died in the holocaust because of Adolf Hitler and his Nazi group. The Holocaust changed the world forever, and is something we will never forget. Jews and many others had to experience harsh conditions, and the Holocaust made such a huge impact on our world. On the evening of April 20, 1889, at an inn called the Gasthof Zum Pommer in the village of Braunau Am […]

What is it that Made Germany and Japan do such a Terrible Act?

It has been a while since World War II, but the atrocities committed against humans in Germany and Japan are still vivid: human trials, massacres, racial discrimination, bacterial weapons, etc. are all unforgivable crimes committed against the world. So what is it that made Germany and Japan do such a terrible act? What horrible things have they done? First, why are they doing such atrocious things? As the leader of the Nazi Party, Hitler was very hated for the Jews. […]

The Effects that World War i and World War II had on Minority Groups in America

At the beginning of the 1900s, many problems were arising overseas that would eventually lead to the First World War. The expansion of the war happened quickly. Overall, thirty-two nations were involved. Twenty-eight of which were a part of the Associated powers (the Allies). The Allies included the British Empire, France, Serbia, the United States of America, Italy, and Russia. The Central Powers that opposed them were Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary, Germany, and the Ottoman Empire. In the beginning, President Woodrow Wilson […]

The Nature of Crime during World War II

What if crime during wartime is viewed the same as crime in normal times? In Nazi Germany, crime during wartime is seen through a different lens in comparison to crime not during wartime. In The Book Thief, by Markus Zusak, Hitler is ruling the Germans with propaganda during World War II, around 1939-1945. During wartime, the nature of crime is atypical because of the circumstantial times that are brought upon them. Liesel and Rudy are only stealing when it is […]

The Holocaust in Two Parts

The beginning of the Holocaust started when WWI ended. Germany lost the war, and Adolf Hitler got furious at Jews, homosexuals, and religious groups like Gypsies, and also, there was a bit of an economic crisis, so he needed to go Thanos and wipe out pretty much half of all Jews, homosexuals, and persecuted religious groups. But before he could do that, he needed to rise to power. HITLER'S RISE TO POWER The roots of Hitler's particularly virulent brand of […]

Eugenics Continued after World War II

Francis Galton first coined the term eugenics as a philosophy to improve humanity by encouraging people with presumed desirable traits to have children, while discouraging those with unwanted' attributes to refrain from reproducing. Galton's theory developed with the assistance of his increasingly famous second cousin, Charles Darwin, and his theory of evolution (Galton). Eugenics theory gained further popularity throughout the 20th century, captivating the attention of medical and government leaders. This lead to the eventual artificial replication of the survival […]

The Backbone of the U.S Navy in World War II

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Race and Territorial Conflict in World War II

Individual ethnic groups possess their own beliefs and ways of doing things. Each group can have varying perspectives; however, some of those perspectives can be overlapping. Some of these ethnic groups have very extremist ways of viewing things. With that being said, many conflicts differ in conformity, social perception, and social cognition. Although these groups pull themselves further and further away from diversity, they all have the same wants; the want of territory. These groups are in a fight of […]

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How To Write an Essay About World War 2

Understanding world war 2.

Before starting an essay about World War 2, it's essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the war and its global impact. World War 2, fought from 1939 to 1945, was a global war involving most of the world's nations, including all the great powers, eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis. Start by outlining the major causes of the war, such as the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy, Japanese imperialism, and the aftermath of World War 1. Discuss key events of the war, including the invasion of Poland, Pearl Harbor, D-Day, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Understanding the geopolitical, economic, and social ramifications of the war is crucial for writing a comprehensive essay.

Developing a Thesis Statement

A strong essay on World War 2 should be centered around a clear, concise thesis statement. This statement should present a specific viewpoint or argument about the war. For example, you might analyze the role of technology in World War 2, the impact of the war on civilian populations, or the consequences of the war on the post-war world order. Your thesis will guide the direction of your essay and provide a structured and coherent analysis.

Gathering Historical Evidence

To support your thesis, gather historical evidence from credible sources. This may include primary sources like documents, speeches, and diaries, as well as secondary sources like scholarly articles and history books. Analyze this evidence critically, considering the context and the source's reliability. Use this evidence to build your argument and provide depth to your analysis of World War 2.

Analyzing the Impact of World War 2

Dedicate a section of your essay to analyzing the impact of World War 2. Discuss various aspects, such as the war's influence on international relations, the economy, technological advancements, and the social changes it brought about. Consider both the immediate and long-term effects of the war, and how it shaped the modern world.

Concluding the Essay

Conclude your essay by summarizing the main points of your discussion and restating your thesis in light of the evidence presented. Your conclusion should tie together your analysis and emphasize the significance of World War 2 in shaping global history. You might also want to reflect on the lessons learned from the war and their relevance to contemporary conflicts.

Reviewing and Refining Your Essay

After completing your essay, review and refine it for clarity and coherence. Ensure that your arguments are well-structured and supported by historical evidence. Check for grammatical accuracy and ensure that your essay flows logically from one point to the next. Consider seeking feedback from peers, teachers, or historians to further refine your essay. A well-written essay on World War 2 will not only demonstrate your understanding of this pivotal period in history but also your ability to engage critically with historical narratives.

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How to Write about World War 2 – Essay Topics & Examples

The Second World War was a turning point in history that changed the world as we know it. Over two thousand days of hardship, courage, victory, and loss still fascinate and influence historians, filmmakers, novelists, and politicians worldwide. You may be asked to write a research paper or an essay on this 20th century conflict as part of your coursework. Our team has prepared several fascinating ideas you may explore in your writing.

• 🎖️ Top 10 World War 2 Topics
• 💡 Interesting WW2 Topics
• 🏆 Best WW2 Research Topics
• 📚 Research Questions
• ✒️ World War 2 Essay Questions
• 📝 World War 2 Essay Examples
• 🪖 General Information about WW2

🔗 References

🎖️ top 10 world war 2 essay topics.

We’ve compiled the topics that can inspire you to write an essay. To make the process simpler, we have included the main messages of each paper.

• Could the Axis powers have been defeated without opening the second front? Explore how the war would have gone without the invasion of Normandy.
• Why did Japan decide to side with Germany and Italy? List the social and political reasons that pushed the Empire of Japan to become an Axis power.
• Explore the impact of the battle for Stalingrad on the course of WW2. Show how the battle of Stalingrad turned the tide of war on the Eastern front.
• What were the causes of Germany’s military success in 1941?   Name the main causes of Germany’s successful assault on the Soviet Union.
• Discuss the dissolution of the British Empire after WW2. Talk about the leading consequences of disbanding the British Empire in its former colonies.
• What led to the start of WW2? Explore political and economic factors that caused the start of the Second World War.
• Was the US justified in using nuclear weapons against Japan? Explain the reasoning behind USA’s decision to drop atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
• Discuss the role of the Munich Agreement in the rise of Nazi Germany . Explain how the Munich Agreement became one of the precursors of WW2 and the occupation of Western Europe.
• Explore the crucial battles of WW2. Discuss the pivotal conflicts of both the Western and Eastern fronts.
• Discuss the initial losses of the USSR in 1941-1942. Assess the reasons behind the colossal losses of the USSR in civilian and military casualties.

💡 Interesting WW2 Argumentative Essay Topics

Look at our list of the most intriguing titles dedicated to the cultural and military developments before, during, and after World War 2. You may find WW2 argumentative essay topics that will resonate with you and help you write an exceptional paper.

WW2 Essay Topics: Culture

Here, we unearth how World War II impacted the world’s cultures, making it a captivating subject for social studies enthusiasts seeking a deeper understanding of this transformative era.

• Explain the cultural impact of WW2 on the movie industry. Tell your readers about how WW2 influenced the American cinematic landscape in movies like Casablanca .
• How WW2 impacted American culture during the Cold War . Explore how the war’s events influenced American society, including its vehement anti-communist sentiment.
• The role of traditional culture in WW2 Japan. Discuss the role of bushido and other traditional elements in Japan’s wartime culture .
• Explore the changes in the USSR’s culture during the war period. Show how WW2 shaped different cultural aspects in the besieged USSR.
• How WW2 influenced the 20th-century music scene. Determine how the war influenced the music scene of the 1940s.
• The cultural impact of WW2 on modern video games. Explore the influence of WW2 on modern video games such as Call of Duty , Wolfenstein , and World of Tanks .
• Art and propaganda in Nazi Germany . Explain how Nazi Germany used art and movies such as Triumph of the Will in its propaganda machine.
• How WW2 changed attitude towards art and architecture. Tell about the main changes in architecture and art in the post-war period.
• Explore Germany’s post-war culture. Explore the cultural landscape of West and East Germany after the war.
• Discuss the cultural differences in North and South Korea after WW2. Show how cultures developed differently on different sides of the Korean peninsula.
• Veteran narratives in WW2 literature: An examination of memoirs and fictional works. Analyze how veterans’ stories, whether based on personal experiences or fictionalized, contributed to the cultural understanding of the war and its enduring impact on society.

WW2 Essay Topics: Military

This section delves into military records. It offers diverse ideas, inviting you to explore the strategic and tactical facets of the Second World War’s unparalleled military campaigns and conflicts.

• Which factors helped launch the German war machine? Explain the laws and decisions that made Germany the military powerhouse of Europe.
• What gave the Japanese superiority in the Pacific Theater? Detail the tactics, strategies, and weaponry that helped the Japanese army wage war in the Pacific.
• How the Lend-Lease Act helped the Soviet war effort. Show the significance of American aid in the USSR’s battles across the Eastern front.
• Explore the main reasons for Italy’s military losses in Africa. Tell about the tactical and strategic factors that caused Italy’s defeat in Africa.
• Compare the Soviet and German military in 1941. Give a rough comparison of the different army types both sides possessed at the start of their conflict.
• Discuss the significance of operation Bagration. Describe the main results of Operation Bagration and its role in the liberation of Belarus and Poland.
• Explore the results of the invasion of Normandy in 1944 . Explore the preparations, execution, and aftermath of D-Day .
• Could Germany have won WW2 with nuclear weapons? Analyze a scenario when Germany got hold of WMDs before the war ended and its consequences.
• Which military innovations spelled the turning point in the war? Tell about the most powerful weapons that helped the Allies win.
• Explore the military tech that was pioneered during WW2. Describe the most remarkable military technology that was developed during the conflict.

🏆 Best WW2 Research Paper Topics

We hand-picked a collection of interesting topics that will make your research paper shine and inspire you to write a great thesis statement . These WW2 research paper titles explore economic transformation and scientific developments during this period.

WW2 Research Paper Topics: Economy

Amid the tapestry of 20th-century wars, World War II emerged as a pivotal economic challenge. We present various research paper topics delving into the war’s economic dimensions. Expand your general knowledge by exploring the profound impact of economics on the global stage during this transformative period.

• What was the economic situation in Europe before WW2? Explore what the economy of European countries was before the war.
• Explore the factors that led to Germany’s economic rise in 1932-1939. Tell how Germany rose to economic power despite the catastrophe of the Weimar Republic .
• Discuss the causes of economic growth in post-war Japan . Describe laws and policies that caused the Japanese economic boom after WW2.
• What were the main factors of US post-war prosperity? Explain how the US enjoyed decades of prosperity post-conflict through generous loans to the suffering parties.
• Assess the impact of the war on the Italian economy. Describe the leading causes of Italy’s economic growth post-WW2.
• Explain the leading causes of industrialization in the pre-war USSR. Tell about the major decisions and policies that led to the USSR’s rapid industrialization in the 1930s.
• Discuss WW2’s impact on the developing world. Explore how the war impacted the developing countries outside the US and Europe.
• Which policies were used to fund the reconstruction of the European economy? Assess policies that led to progress in rebuilding post-war Europe, including the Marshall Plan .
• Explore the impact of war bonds on US military capacity . Showcase how war bonds were crucial in funding the US efforts in the Pacific and other war theaters.
• How the USSR funded its war machine. Explore the sources used for building and maintaining the Soviet military capacity.
• The global economic order and enduring issues: Post-World War II Bretton Woods Conference. Analyze how the decisions made at Bretton Woods, including the creation of the IMF or World Bank, continue to shape global economic policies and financial stability today.

WW2 Research Paper Topics: Science & Technology

Embark on a journey of historical research as we unveil captivating research paper topics in science and technology. You can explore remarkable breakthroughs, like innovations in the construction of planes.

• Could the atomic bomb have been made without WW2? Explain how World War 2 impacted the process of the creation of the atomic bomb.
• The role of German scientists in the NASA space program . Discuss the involvement of German scientists in various NASA projects, including the moon landing project.
• Explore the impact of jet engine development on aviation . Show how the creation of jet engines changed military and commercial aircraft.
• Discuss the impact of the first electronic computers made after WW2. Explore how the first ENIACs were used after WW2 and their influence on modern machines.
• Assess the main scientific breakthroughs of the post-war period. Showcase the main innovations that came around after WW2.
• How did WW2 influence the post-war automobile industry ? Describe the influence of the war on the car manufacturing business.
• What were the leading causes of the American post-WW2 tech boom? Assess the main reasons behind post-war technological advancements in the US.
• Did the invention of the atomic bomb prevent future major wars? Explore how nuclear weapons helped prevent future global wars but still couldn’t stop lesser-scale conflicts.
• Discuss the importance of radar technology during and after the war. Show how radar technology was used during the war and beyond.
• Explore the impact of WW2 on developing body armor technology. Talk about the influence of the war in developing sufficient body protection for police, military, and civilians.
• Naval warfare in World War II: The role of technological advancements in shaping maritime strategies. Discuss how innovations reshaped naval tactics, affected maritime supremacy, and influenced crucial battles in the Pacific and Atlantic theaters.

📚 Top 8 WW2 Research Questions

• Did the US decide to enter the war only after Pearl Harbor?
• Who were the most important political figures during the conflict?
• What were the main events that caused World War 2?
• Which World War 2 battles were the most significant?
• Why is D-Day a significant historical event?
• Which countries participated in World War 2?
• What was the strategic significance of the battle of Britain for the Allied powers in WW2?
• When and how did World War 2 end?

✒️ Top 8 World War 2 Essay Questions

• What are the most impactful technologies that came out after WW2?
• Did the US play a major role in defeating the Axis powers?
• Which countries had the worst casualty rates?
• How were POWs treated by different sides?
• How WW2 changed the world?
• Is there one particular party to blame for the conflict?
• Who lost World War 2?
• How many lives were altered by World War II?

📝 Second World War Essay Examples

We have listed several essay examples to guide you and serve as real examples for your future work. They cover cultural, military, and political aspects in the aftermath of the war for the US and Japan. Each offers an extended response into what post-war societies looked like in these countries.

• Cultural Changes in America after World War II This paper explores several things that defined the 1950s, including the budding civil rights movement, the baby boom, and the rise of anti-communist propaganda. These things shaped the cultural landscape, from arts and literature to music and movies.
• American Power During World War 2 and the Cold War The essay centers around the height of America’s power after the end of WW2 and its inevitable clash with the communist ideology of the Soviet Union. It explores some less reputable tactics the US used to undermine the USSR’s influence on the world.
• Japan and World War II Led by old rivalries with its neighbor China, Japan entered WW2 as a military powerhouse. The paper discusses its initial success in the war theater and the subsequent disastrous results.

🪖 World War 2: General Information You Should Know

Before you start working, it’ll be helpful to learn about the causes and consequences of World War II. These facts will help you better establish the theme of your future essay or research paper. Prepare to dive into one of the most critical periods and learn more about it.

World War 2: Significant Events

World War 2 was the biggest in the history of humankind. During over 2000 days of the conflict, several important events happened:

• September 1, 1939 . Germany invaded Poland and started the war.
• April 9 to June 22, 1940 . Most of Western Europe fell under German jackboots.
• July 10, 1940 . Germany began a massive bombardment campaign in the United Kingdom.
• September 22, 1940 . The signing of the Tripartite Pact and the birth of the Axis Powers.
• December 7, 1941 . Japan launched the attack on Pearl Harbor.
• December 8, 1941 . The US declared war on Japan.
• December 11, 1941 . The US got into military conflict with Italy and Germany.
• June 4 – 7, 1942 . America won the Battle of Midway .
• July 9, 1942. The Allies invaded Sicily.
• September 8, 1943 . Italy surrendered, but its northern territory was still occupied.
• June 6, 1944 . The US launched a landing operation in Normandy.
• August 25, 1944 . Allies liberate Paris.
• December 16, 1944. Germany launched a counterattack known as the Battle of the Bulge .
• February 19, 1945 . US Marines stormed Iwo Jima .
• March 22, 1945 . American troops crossed the Rhine River.
• April 1, 1945 . The US military arrived on the island of Okinawa.
• April 25, 1945 . Soviet and American troops encircled Berlin.
• May 8, 1945 . Germany surrendered to the Allies, ending the war in Europe.
• August 6, 1945 . The US bombed Hiroshima with a nuclear warhead.
• August 9, 1945 . America dropped the atomic bomb on the city of Nagasaki.
• September 2, 1945 . The Japanese surrendered to the Allies.

World War 2: Crucial Facts

In this part, we present crucial facts about the war that shaped the world as we know it. Take a look at the most momentous events of this conflict:

• The war involved 30 countries.
• It was the biggest war waged on the European continent.
• Europe was rebuilt through the Marshall Plan, which invested $12 billion in its economy.
• The Holocaust resulted in the death of almost the entire Jewish population in Europe.
• Germany occupied most of Western Europe and a big part of the USSR.
• Stalingrad became the turning point in the war for the Allies.

World War 2: Casualties

WW2 was one of the bloodiest conflicts in history , not even in military casualties. It was the first war that deliberately targeted civilians in various countries. Scientists and historians still can’t determine the exact number of deaths. Several countries paid the most horrific price in this conflict.

World War 2: Causes

Here, we highlighted the main factors that caused the global conflict and launched World War II. Take a look at its leading causes:

• The unjust Treaty of Versailles . The leading cause of the war lies in the humiliating conditions Germany faced after WWI. Part of its territory was annexed, and the country had to limit its army seriously. The following 20 years of economic and cultural downfall became one of the factors for the rise of Nazism.
• The failure of peace agreements. After WWI, there was a lot of hope for the League of Nations organization . Its main goal was ending wars and leading countries to solve their disputes diplomatically. Unfortunately, all of the efforts failed as military conflicts slowly but surely engulfed the world.
• The rise of authoritarian movements. The failures of diplomacy and democracy in Europe made many nations abandon these principles. It caused the rise of many authoritarian governments in Spain, Italy, and Germany.
• The formation of the Axis powers . In 1940, Italy, Japan, and Germany signed a political and military alliance, forming an anti-communist coalition of countries. They were the primary enemies of the Allies formed by France, the United Kingdom, Canada, the USA, and the USSR.
• German aggression in Europe. Even before the official start of WW2, Germany conducted military operations on the continent. In 1938, it fully annexed Austria and took Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in the autumn of the same year.
• The Great Depression . The European economy was highly indebted to the US. Governments in Germany, Italy, and France couldn’t manage economic growth sufficiently. On October 29, 1929, the US suffered the crash of the New York Stock Market and recalled all foreign loans soon after.

World War 2: Consequences & Results

World War II had long-lasting consequences that changed the world. This segment examines the major social, political, and economic transformations caused by this event.

• End of the euro-centric international power structure. WW2 ended the hegemony of Western Europe. The United States became less isolationist and more involved in global affairs.
• Start of the Cold War . After the Second World War, the US and the USSR became the leading political poles of the world. Both sides wanted to curb the spreading influence of their opponent.
• The end of empires . WW2 saw the disbanding of the French, British, Dutch, Portuguese, and Belgian empires. Many of their former colonies became independent states.
• Democratization of foreign policy . After destroying authoritarian regimes, the US turned to a more democratic foreign policy regarding its close and distant neighbors. It was greatly formed by local and world public opinion.
• A movement for independence in many countries . The fall of European hegemony worldwide caused many of its former territories to struggle for independence . Most prominently, it gave birth to the state of Israel.

We hope you found the right topic in the sea of WW2 research paper topics we offer in this article. Be sure to use our examples and short guide. Share this article with friends who’ll find it helpful.

• World War II in Europe. Timeline with Photos and Text. – The History of Place.
• World War II Timeline Experience. – American Battle Monuments Comission.
• Chronological Timeline of the War. – D-Day, Normandy and Beyond.
• War in the Pacific. – Crown, New Zeland History
• 6 Little Known Facts About WWII. – History, AETN UK
• Human Cost of WWII: A Breakdown of Military and Civilian Deaths. – Kane Dane, Southwest Journal
• World War II Fast Facts. – Cable News Network
• World War II Fatalities By Country. – Kiegan Barron, WorldAtlas
• What Caused Germany to Start Another War? – American Historical Association
• International Relations Since 1945 (INTR-5106). Impact of World War II on Global Politics. – Adeel Hassan, University of Sargodha

Skip to Main Content of WWII

The scientific and technological advances of world war ii.

The war effort demanded developments in the field of science and technology, developments that forever changed life in America and made present-day technology possible.

Of the enduring legacies from a war that changed all aspects of life—from economics, to justice, to the nature of warfare itself—the scientific and technological legacies of World War II had a profound and permanent effect on life after 1945. Technologies developed during World War II for the purpose of winning the war found new uses as commercial products became mainstays of the American home in the decades that followed the war’s end. Wartime medical advances also became available to the civilian population, leading to a healthier and longer-lived society. Added to this, advances in the technology of warfare fed into the development of increasingly powerful weapons that perpetuated tensions between global powers, changing the way people lived in fundamental ways. The scientific and technological legacies of World War II became a double-edged sword that helped usher in a modern way of living for postwar Americans, while also launching the conflicts of the Cold War .

When looking at wartime technology that gained commercial value after World War II, it is impossible to ignore the small, palm-sized device known as a cavity magnetron . This device not only proved essential in helping to win World War II, but it also forever changed the way Americans prepared and consumed food. This name of the device—the cavity magnetron—may not be as recognizable as what it generates: microwaves . During World War II, the ability to produce shorter, or micro, wavelengths through the use of a cavity magnetron improved upon prewar radar technology and resulted in increased accuracy over greater distances. Radar technology played a significant part in World War II and was of such importance that some historians have claimed that radar helped the Allies win the war more than any other piece of technology, including the atomic bomb. After the war came to an end, cavity magnetrons found a new place away from war planes and aircraft carrier and instead became a common feature in American homes.

Percy Spencer, an American engineer and expert in radar tube design who helped develop radar for combat, looked for ways to apply that technology for commercial use after the end of the war. The common story told claims that Spencer took note when a candy bar he had in his pocket melted as he stood in front of an active radar set. Spencer began to experiment with different kinds of food, such as popcorn, opening the door to commercial microwave production. Putting this wartime technology to use, commercial microwaves became increasingly available by the 1970s and 1980s, changing the way Americans prepared food in a way that persists to this day. The ease of heating food using microwaves has made this technology an expected feature in the twenty first century American home.

More than solely changing the way Americans warm their food, radar became an essential component of meteorology . The development and application of radar to the study of weather began shortly after the end of World War II. Using radar technology, meteorologists advanced knowledge of weather patterns and increased their ability to predict weather forecasts. By the 1950s, radar became a key way for meteorologists to track rainfall, as well as storm systems, advancing the way Americans followed and planned for daily changes in the weather.

Similar to radar technology, computers had been in development well before the start of World War II. However, the war demanded rapid progression of such technology, resulting in the production of new computers of unprecedented power. One such example was the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC), one of the first general purpose computers. Capable of performing thousands of calculations in a second, ENIAC was originally designed for military purposes, but it was not completed until 1945. Building from wartime developments in computer technology, the US government released ENIAC to the general public early in 1946, presenting the computer as tool that would revolutionize the field of mathematics. Taking up 1,500 square feet with 40 cabinets that stood nine feet in height, ENIAC came with a $400,000 price tag. The availability of ENIAC distinguished it from other computers and marked it as a significant moment in the history of computing technology. By the 1970s, the patent for the ENIAC computing technology entered the public domain, lifting restrictions on modifying these technological designs. Continued development over the following decades made computers progressively smaller, more powerful, and more affordable.

Along with the advances of microwave and computer technology, World War II brought forth momentous changes in field of surgery and medicine . The devastating scale of both world wars demanded the development and use new medical techniques that led to improvements in blood transfusions , skin grafts , and other advances in trauma treatment . The need to treat millions of soldiers also necessitated the large-scale production of antibacterial treatment , bringing about one of the most important advances in medicine in the twentieth century. Even though the scientist Alexander Fleming discovered the antibacterial properties of the Penicillium notatum mold in 1928, commercial production of penicillin did not begin until after the start of World War II. As American and British scientists worked collectively to meet the needs of the war, the large-scale production of penicillin became a necessity. Men and women together experimented with deep tank fermentation, discovering the process needed for the mass manufacture of penicillin. In advance of the Normandy invasion in 1944, scientists prepared 2.3 million doses of penicillin, bringing awareness of this “miracle drug” to the public. As the war continued, advertisements heralding penicillin’s benefits, established the antibiotic as a wonder drug responsible for saving millions of lives. From World War II to today, penicillin remains a critical form of treatment used to ward off bacterial infection.

Penicillin Saves Soldiers Lives poster. Image courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration, 515170.

Of all the scientific and technological advances made during World War II, few receive as much attention as the atomic bomb . Developed in the midst of a race between the Axis and Allied powers during the war, the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki serve as notable markers to the end of fighting in the Pacific. While debates over the decision to use atomic weapons on civilian populations continue to persist, there is little dispute over the extensive ways the atomic age came to shape the twentieth century and the standing of the United States on the global stage. Competition for dominance propelled both the United States and the Soviet Union to manufacture and hold as many nuclear weapons as possible. From that arms race came a new era of science and technology that forever changed the nature of diplomacy, the size and power of military forces, and the development of technology that ultimately put American astronauts on the surface of the moon.

The arms race in nuclear weapons that followed World War II sparked fears that one power would not only gain superiority on earth, but in space itself. During the mid-twentieth century, the Space Race prompted the creation of a new federally-run program in aeronautics . In the wake of the successful launch of the Soviet satellite, Sputnik 1 , in 1957, the United States responded by launching its own satellite, Juno 1 , four months later. In 1958, the National Aeronautics and Space Act (NASA) received approval from the US Congress to oversee the effort to send humans into space. The Space Race between the United States and the USSR ultimately peaked with the landing of the Apollo 11 crew on the surface of the moon on July 20, 1969. The Cold War between the United States and the USSR changed aspects of life in almost every way, but both the nuclear arms and Space Race remain significant legacies of the science behind World War II.

From microwaves to space exploration, the scientific and technological advances of World War II forever changed the way people thought about and interacted with technology in their daily lives. The growth and sophistication of military weapons throughout the war created new uses, as well as new conflicts, surrounding such technology. World War II allowed for the creation of new commercial products, advances in medicine, and the creation of new fields of scientific exploration. Almost every aspect of life in the United States today—from using home computers, watching the daily weather report, and visiting the doctor—are all influenced by this enduring legacy of World War II.

Like this article? Read more in our online classroom.

From the Collection to the Classroom: Teaching History with The National WWII Museum.

Kristen D. Burton, PhD

Kristen D. Burton is the Teacher Programs and Curriculum Specialist at The National WWII Museum in New Orleans, LA. 

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143 WW2 Essay Topics & Examples

📝 ww2 essay examples, 🏆 best ww2 research paper topics.

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❓ World War II Research Topics & Questions

💣 world war 2 topics for debate, 🪖 ww2 essay topics, 🎖️ interesting ww2 topics to write about, 📢 world war 2 discussion questions.

World War II, the most widespread war in history, lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved more than 100 million people from more than 30 countries. In a state of “total war”, the participants threw all of their industrial, economic, and scientific capabilities behind the war effort. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the strategic bombing of population centers, it resulted in 50 to 70 million deaths. WW2 had a profound impact on the course of history, shaping the world in ways that are still felt today.

If you’re looking for interesting WW2 topics for your argumentative essay, research paper, discussion, or debate, you’re in the right place. We’ve prepared an extensive collection of World War II research topics that can be used for any project. There also are World War II essay examples written by straight-A students.

• Wars in the USA after the World War II The end of the World War II saw the beginning of other wars in the USA such as the war against racial inequality, male dominance, and the Cold War.
• The First and the Second World War Comparison The similarities in the First World War and the Second World War justify why the events are considered two parts of the same war.
• World War II People in "Hitler's Army Bartov’s "Hitler's Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich" contains some valid ideas, but overall it sounds significantly affected by author’s political biasness.
• The Treaty of Versailles in World War II History The treaty of Versailles contributed largely to the outbreak of the Second World War. The convention had imposed much restriction on Germany in extraordinary ways.
• The United States in the Second World War The involvement of the United States into the Second World War was evident, despite the strategy of isolationism; however, the American government was waiting for the reason to start the war.
• Minority Civil Rights in the US After WWII After World War II, the minority groups could access employment opportunities and vote. These developments were realized through advocacy for their civil rights.
• Japanese American Life During and After the World War II The Second World War affected every country and nation in the world. Millions of victims of the war suffered from injustice and the aggressive actions of different parties.
• The Second World War Impact on the USSR This paper proves that after the Second World War, the Soviet Union gained economic and political control at the new territories to spread communist ideology there.
• Discrimination in America Essay This essay on discrimination in America compares Irish vs. Vietnamese immigrants in pre-World War II era and African vs. Native Americans in post-World War II era.
• Women in Combat in the United States' History The history of women in combat roles in the United States military takes us back to the periods of the revolutionary war, civil war, WWI, and WWII.
• American Women in History of World War II There is a gap in data concerning the inclusion of American women in military operations during World War II. Approximately 350,000 women joined the Armed Services in 1941-45.
• American Women in War and Society The history of American women in the military is shorter than that of men. Prejudice and physical differences contributed to women’s limited presence in the armed forces.
• Women in History of World War II: Retrospective The role of women in modern history, particularly since the era of industrialization is extensive but remains understudied in academia and underestimated by the broader society.
• World War II: Picking the Pieces of a Global War World War II exposed how the atrocities of war can alter the course of civilization and redefined the political, technological, and social development of the world after.
• Germany in the World War II The World War II was neither political nor economic war. It was the war against people who did not meet the standards imposed by Hitler.
• Impact of the World Wars on Canadian-American Relations Discussing the Canadian – American relations within the time frames of the First and Second World Wars, the issue of the impact of those wars on both countries should be analyzed.
• Happening and Impact of World War I and II to Britain the First World War made Britain more powerful with so many colonies and empires. At this time it was considered to be great imperial power.
• World War II and Situation in Countries-Participants After the War The end of World War II had heralded along and protracted competition for military and economic supremacy between the United States and the Soviets Union.
• Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: Purpose and Effect The first purpose of bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki was the US President Harry S. Truman's desire to win the war as soon as possible.
• Roles Played by U.S Foreign Policy in the Outbreak of the World War II This paper shall discuss how the Foreign policy of the United States contributed to the outbreak of World War II.
• Austria and France: Impacts and Causes of World War I and World War II This discussion has clearly indicated that the first and second World Wars had an adverse impact on the social, political, and economic well-being of Austria-Hungary and France.
• Domestic Processes in the US During World War II During World War II in the United States there are various significant events that were a test for the nation and people of color, Japanese Americans.
• The Impact of U.S. Foreign Policy Between WWI and 1950s The shifts from isolationism to interventionism had both positive and negative consequences for American society that will be described further in detail.
• United States’ and the USSR’s Political and Economic Concerns at the End of World War II
• World War II: Pacific Theater Overview and Pearl Harbor
• Industrialization and Social Change During World War II
• Japan and China Relations During the End of World War II
• Concentration and Deaths Camps in World War II
• The Historical and Religious Significance of the Bombing of Civilians in World War II
• Civil Rights Movements During the World War II
• Rise of Fascism and the Nazi Party: World War II
• Soviet Union Totalitarianism and Its Impact on the World War II
• The Air Defense Technologies and Aircraft Manufacturing Industry During World War II
• National Identity and Immigration During World War II
• Adolf Hitler and His Anti-semitism Campaign During World War II
• Sir Winston Churchill and His Pivotal Role in World War II
• Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party Caused the World War II
• Nuclear Weapons and Its Effects on the World War II
• Nazi Germany and Mussolini ‘S Italy During World War II
• Justifications for the Use of Atomic Bombs on Japan in World War II
• Building Hitler’s Europe: Forced Labor in the Danish Construction Business During World War II
• The Civil Rights Movement and World War II
• Australia and Japan’s Relationship Since World War II

⚔️ WW2 Topics for Presentation

• The Factors Caused Poverty After World War II and the Policies to Address Poverty
• Auschwitz Concentration Camp During World War II
• American-Soviet Relationship After World War II
• Changing World Politics During World War II
• America and Post World War II Era: New Left Versus Right
• African American Ideologies During World War II
• Major Innovations and Occurred During World War II
• American Women and the World War II Factory Experience
• Human Nature and Behavior: Jews and World War II
• Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin – The Big Three Who Were the Most Powerful Leaders After World War II
• Discrimination and Its Effects on the Military During World War II
• Cultural and Political Revitalization of Post-world War II Europe
• Adolf Hitler and His Influence on the World War II
• Childhood Circumstances and Adult Outcomes: Evidence From World War II
• Nazi Experimentation During World War II
• Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings as the Events That Ended World War II
• Technological Innovations During the World War II
• Atomic Bomb and Its Effects on Post-world War II
• Economic Policies During the World War II and Economic Reconstruction After
• Arab Military Performance During the World War II
• How Was Adolf Hitler Responsible for World War II?
• Did New Deal and World War II Public Capital Investments Facilitate a Big Push in the American South?
• How Did Australia’s Relationship With the USA Develop in World War II?
• Why Were the Major Cities of Britain Bombed by the Germans in World War II?
• How and Why the United States Emerged as the Dominant Global Superpower After World War II?
• How Has World War II Affected the Growth of Information?
• How Did the Involvement of the United States Affect the Outcome of World War II?
• How Did the Corfu Incident Affect the Outbreak of World War II?
• Did the Atomic Bomb End World War II?
• How and Why Yugoslavia, Greece, Poland, and Czechoslovakia Became Involved in World War II?
• Why Was the Versailles Treaty Ineffective at Preventing World War II?
• Why Did the British Government Evacuate Children From Major Cities at the Start of World War II
• Did the Soviets Cause the Defeat of Germany in World War II?
• How Occupied France Financed Its Own Exploitation in World War II?
• How Was America Able to Recover and Rise to Economic Prosperity After the World War II?
• How Lean Manufacturing Evolved After World War II?
• Did Technology and Strategy Affect the Outcome of World War II?
• How Have Family Structures Changed Since World War II?
• How Have the Rights and Freedoms of Women Changed in the Post World War II Era?
• How Did World War II Transform American Society and Government?
• Did the Bretton Woods Conference Help the World Economy After World War II?
• Did Nordic Countries Recognize the Gathering Storm of World War II?
• How the Nuclear Arms’ Race Has Changed the Nature of Warfare Between World War II and Present?
• How Did World War II Change the Attitudes of Women and Minorities Toward Their Status in American Society?
• How the Political and Economic Concerns of the U.S. And the U.S.s.r. Impacted New Governments and Reconstruction in Germany and Japan Post-world War II?
• How Britain Influenced and Shaped Nazi Germany Defeat During World War II?
• Why Did Germany Lose World War II Despite Its Victories Early in the War Term?
• How Did Hitler’s Foreign Policy Lead to the Outbreak of World War II?
• How Europe’s Economy Was in Shambles After the End of World War II and How It Recovered?
• What Role Did the Concentration Camps Play in the Holocaust During World War II?
• The rise of authoritarian regimes in Europe as a cause of World War II.
• The major events and battles of World War II.
• The role of political leaders in World War II: Adolf Hitler, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin.
• The Holocaust and extermination of minority groups by the Nazi regime.
• The use of propaganda by the Axis.
• The role of women in World War II.
• The impact of the war on civilians.
• The role of technology in World War II: new weapons and strategies.
• The liberation of concentration camps and the liberation of occupied territories by Allied forces.
• The aftermath of World War II.
• US involvement in World War II
• Soviet Union’s role in World War II
• Japan’s role in World War II
• Decolonization after World War II
• Resistance movements in World War II
• Civilians in resistance movements
• Prisoners of war in World War II
• Economic factors in World War II
• Intelligence gathering and espionage in World War II
• Impact of World War II on cultural movements
• What Were the Main Causes of World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Start, and Where Did It Begin?
• Who Were the Major Axis Powers During World War 2?
• Did More Germans or Jews Die in World War II?
• How Did World War 2 Impact the Global Economy?
• Why Was Japan So Cruel During WW2?
• Who Were the Major Allied Powers During World War 2?
• Could World War 2 Have Been Won Without the United States?
• What Was the Significance of the Treaty of Versailles in Relation to World War 2?
• How Did Adolf Hitler Rise to Power, and What Role Did He Play in World War II?
• What Was the Battle of Stalingrad, and Why Was It a Turning Point in World War 2?
• Is Germany Still Being Punished in the Present Day Due to World War 2?
• Was It Ever Possible for Germany to Win World War 2?
• How Did WW2 Impact the Home Front in the United States?
• What Was the Role of Winston Churchill in World War 2?
• How Was Japan’s Economy Affected After World War 2?
• Who Were the Worst Generals in World War 2?
• Could Britain Have Survived World War 2 Without the USA?
• What Was the Significance of the Battle of Midway in WW2?
• Which Was the Cruelest Army in World War II?
• Did the USA Cheat in World War 2?
• Why Is World War 2 Called “World” War 2 if It Didn’t Affect the Whole World?
• Who Were the Big Three Leaders of the Allied Powers During World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Affect Japan, Both During and After the War?
• Why Did the German Army Fight to the Bitter End in World War 2?
• What Were the Major Consequences of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings in World War 2?
• Why Did the US Enter World War II?
• How Did World War 2 Impact the Art and Culture of the Era?
• What Was the Role of Espionage and Spies During World War II?
• How Did Stalin’s Purge Affect the Red Army’s Efficiency in WW2?

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World History

World war ii.

Gale provides useful resources for World War II research and education, including World War II primary sources (including government documents) and World War II secondary sources.

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Find out more about World War II, a global conflict that took place between 1939 and 1945 between a bloc of countries known as the Axis Powers and another bloc known as the Allied Powers. While very few nations were neutral in the conflict, the principal actors on the Axis side were Germany, Italy, and Japan, while the Allied nations were Great Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, China, and France. Based on its scale, it was the deadliest international war in history, with millions of military personnel and civilian casualties all over the world, including six million Jews who died in what became known as the Holocaust, a genocide resulting from Nazi Germany’s state-sponsored systematic killing of racial and cultural groups it considered inferior.

Starting in the 1930s, Germany was led by Adolf Hitler and the ultra-nationalist National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or Nazi Party. Germany had been dissatisfied with terms that it faced as one of the losing parties of World War I. The Nazis came to power and believed in the superiority of the “Aryan race,” or white Europeans, and the inferiority of Jews, Slavs, Roma (commonly referred to as gypsies), persons with disabilities, and homosexuals. Their nationalism and their desire to expand their territory mirrored the goals of Italy, led by fascist Benito Mussolini, and the two countries became allies in 1936. This nationalism would attract Japan, led by Hideki Tojo, as the third member of the Axis Powers in 1940, forming the Tripartite Pact.

The war began with Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, prompting the United Kingdom and France to declare war. The following spring Adolf Hitler moved westward, rapidly subduing Denmark, Norway, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. By mid-June 1940, only the United Kingdom was left to oppose the Nazis’ military might. Meanwhile, Italy engaged British forces in North Africa and the Mediterranean.

Initially, the Soviet Union was on the side of the Axis Powers, but Adolf Hitler’s decision to invade the Soviet Union in 1941 caused Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to align with the Allies. As the Nazis quickly penetrated deep into Soviet territory, victory seemed all but assured. During this time, they established a plan known as the “Final Solution” to systematically kill all Jews in the territories under their control. Having already established concentration camps in which to imprison political enemies and other undesirables, the Nazi regime created its first extermination camp at Auschwitz in Poland in 1941, building gas chambers to more efficiently kill prisoners. This was the beginning of the Holocaust.

The invasion of the Soviet Union stalled, however, when an early winter combined with the stress of maintaining long supply lines and a forceful Soviet counterattack brought the advance to a halt. Germany was now facing a protracted war on two fronts. The entrance of the United States to the war following Japan’s surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii on December 7, 1941, brought considerable resources and manpower to the side of the Allies from 1941-1945. President Franklin D. Roosevelt called the fateful event "a day that will live in infamy" as he appealed to the American people to enter the conflict. Congress authorized a declaration of war shortly after the attack. The U.S. Navy, who had been surprised at Pearl Harbor, would later engage with Japan in several key battles in the Pacific region, including the decisive Battle of Midway in 1942.

On the U.S. home front, American women accepted jobs in factories that supplied the military with war materiel and rations, inspiring the iconic wartime image of "Rosie the Riveter." Men joined the ranks of the armed forces, including the U.S. Army and the Air Force. Because of the Pearl Harbor attack, Franklin D. Roosevelt also authorized the detainment of Japanese Americans in internment camps, including Manzanar, for the duration of their time in the war. The discriminatory wartime treatment of Japanese Americans was regarded by many historians as a shameful act in U.S. history.

After the United States joined the war, the Axis powers began to lose key battles in the European theater, including the Battle of Stalingrad in 1942–1943 and the 1943 invasion of Italy that forced Italy to surrender. The war was the first to cover land, sea, and air to such a vast degree with the German Luftwaffe fighting in the sky and German U-boats (submarines) trolling the seas. Bombing raids occurred over several British cities, including London. The most critical military action during the conflict, however, was the massive Allied invasion of France known as D-Day, or Operation Neptune, which launched on June 6, 1944. Also known as the Normandy invasion, it was the largest seaborne invasion in history, as U.S., British, and Canadian servicemen landed on five separate beachheads in Normandy, France, to break through German defenses. The Allies slowly advanced on the western front for nearly a year more, while the Soviet Union pushed German forces back in the east. Following the Allied capture of Berlin, Germany unconditionally surrendered on May 8, 1945. It would have to answer for its war crimes in the internationally conducted Nuremberg Trials.

Despite the loss of its two primary allies, Japan refused to surrender. Hoping to quickly end the war, the United States decided to make use of a new secret weapon it had developed during the war: the atomic bomb. The destruction of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki pushed Japan to surrender on August 15, 1945. WWII was over.

In the aftermath of the war, Europe was divided into a US-led Western bloc and a Soviet-led Eastern bloc to begin the long process of reconstruction. It was not long before these two superpowers became intense military and political rivals, which would lead to the beginning of the Cold War and the nuclear arms race. U.S. servicemen who fought in World War II were commemorated with the establishment of a number of museums and memorial sites, including burial grounds, under the administration of the American Battle Monuments Commission.

World War II Resources

Gale provides scholarly resources, including  databases ,  primary source archives , and  eBooks , to advance researchers' studies.

Gale databases  offer researchers access to credible WW2 databases, including World War 2 primary sources and World War 2 secondary sources covering many history topics, from newspapers, articles, documents, and more, aligned with lesson plans for teaching and guides for additional research.

Gale OneFile: Military and Intelligence

Library resource offering authoritative periodical content covering past and present military affairs.

Gale In Context: World History

This database provides an overview of world history, covering the most-studied events, cultures, civilizations, religions, people, and more.

Gale OneFile: World History

This resource provides balanced coverage of events in world history with relevant articles updated daily - both current thinking and established scholarly work.

Primary Source Archives

Gale Primary Sources  contains full-text archives and digitized literature that provide researchers with firsthand articles from WW2 collections and WW2 primary sources to drive research at your university.

Refugees, Relief and Resettlement: Forced Migration and World War II

Refugees, Relief, and Resettlement: Forced Migration and World War II  chronicles the plight of refugees and displaced persons across Europe, North Africa, and Asia from 1935 to 1950 through correspondence, reports, studies, organizational and administrative files, and much more. It is the first multi-sourced digital collection to consider the global scope of the refugee crisis leading up to, through, and after WWII.

Psychological Warfare and Propaganda in World War II Air Dropped and Shelled Leaflets and Periodicals

Psychological Warfare and Propaganda in World War II Air Dropped and Shelled Leaflets and Periodicals  provides a wealth of information necessary for research in Military history, European Studies, Political studies, German Studies, Conflict Studies, and World War II Studies.

Allied Propaganda in World War II and the British Political Warfare Executive

This collection presents the complete files of the Political Warfare Executive (PWE) kept at the U.K. National Archives as FO 898 from its instigation to closure in 1946, along with the secret minutes of the special 1944 War Cabinet Committee "Breaking the German Will to Resist."

World War II, Occupation, and the Civil War in Greece, 1940-1949 Records of the U.S. State Department Classified Files

This collection charts the Axis occupation during WWII and the terrible hardships experienced by the Greek civilian population.

Testaments to the Holocaust

Testaments to the Holocaust is the online publication of the archives of the Wiener Library, London, the first archive to collect evidence of the Holocaust and the anti-semitic activities of the German Nazi Party.

Gale eBooks

Gale offers a variety of eBooks covering a wide range of WWII studies topics, including Japanese American imprisonment, the Great Depression, Special Ops, and more. Users can add  Gale eBooks  to a customized collection and cross-search to pinpoint relevant content.  Workflow tools  help users easily share, save, and download articles.

Freedom's Promise: Japanese American Imprisonment during World War II, 1 st Edition

Core Library  |  2020  |  ISBN-13: 9781532175664

In 1941, Japanese forces attacked a US naval base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Japan and other countries were fighting in WWII (1939–1945). In response to the attack, the United States entered the war. US officials rounded up Japanese Americans and forced them into prison camps. This book describes the experiences of Japanese Americans and the effects of their imprisonment. Easy-to-read text, vivid images, and helpful back matter give readers a clear look at this subject. Features include a table of contents, infographics, a glossary, additional resources, and an index. Aligned to Common Core Standards and correlated to state standards. Core Library is an imprint of Abdo Publishing, a division of ABDO.

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The Great Depression and the New Deal: Key Themes and Documents, 1 st Edition

ABC-CLIO  |  2017  |  ISBN-13: 9781440834639

This book supplies a complete quick reference source and study aide on the Great Depression and New Deal in America, covering the key themes, events, people, legislation, economics, and policies.

Special Ops: Army Rangers, 1 st Edition

Checkerboard Library  |  2016  |  ISBN-13: 9781680771251

This title introduces readers to the Army Rangers. Engaging text explores the Army Rangers’ history, key missions, role in the US military, major accomplishments, required training, weapons, gear, technology, and other fascinating information. The Ranger Creed, qualifications needed to become a Ranger, training such as the Ranger Assessment and Selection Program and the three phases of Ranger School, the life of a Ranger, and cutting-edge technology and weapons are covered.

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Research Paper Assignment 

Battle of Britain Alan Turing: WWII Code Breaker Battle of Stalingrad Auschwitz Kristallnacht Medical Experiments at Dachau Your final product will be a research/argument paper in which you discuss the impact of a figure or event on Western Civilization. You must cite THREE sources within your paper.  

Timeline for project:

• Formative 3.1 – A third source with a brief explanation on how it will help your paper and why it is a credible and reliable source.

Due end of class_________________

• Formative 3.3--Typed outline with thesis statement, sources cited, section on opposing viewpoint/rebuttal
• Formatives 1.1 & 3.4--Typed draft of paper and works cited page

***Drafts will be graded formatively and reviewed between 4/17-5/1, and will then be handed back for revision***

***Second draft with revisions will be due one week from the date the first draft is returned.   This will potentially be your final summative assessment for this project.  In the event that further revision is needed, you will be required to submit a third draft for your summative assessment***

Targets and Competencies

English Learning Targets Addressed:

1.1 I can write a multi-paragraph exposition with introduction that ends with a thesis statement, body paragraphs with evidence and elaboration, paragraph unity, transitions, and a conclusion.

3.3 I can integrate evidence selectively to maintain the logical order of ideas including considering opposing viewpoints, providing appropriate rebuttals and effectively answering a research question.  3.4 I can document sources using proper internal citations and a works cited to avoid plagiarism.

Western Civilization Target Addressed:

2.6 I can analyze the key events that led to the defeat of Nazi Germany.

4.6 I can analyze how the Nazi use of terror, ideology and propaganda led to the process of dehumanization that culminated in the Holocaust.

Library Databases

Gale World History in Context Extensive resources on this period in history including videos, primary sources, reference materials, and news.

Gale Virtual Reference Library Large collection of full text reference books including primary and secondary sources on the time period and on legal decisions.

Gale Biography in Context Biographical information on important people from this movement.

Tutorial on the notes and highlighting features in Gale products.

Encyclopedia Britannica General information provides a great overview of the people, actions, and influences of this time period.

Encyclopedia Britannica Original Sources Find narrative and primary sources relating to the Civil Rights movement here.

EBSCO ​ General research database which includes biography, primary sources, encyclopedia entries, magazine and newspapers.

Web Resources

Sweetsearch

Google Scholar

The Smithsonian

The Internet Archive

Need More Help?

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• Last Updated: Apr 2, 2021 8:05 AM
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World War 2 Essay: Outline + 100 WW2 Research Topics

This time you have to write a World War II essay, paper, or thesis. It means that you have a perfect chance to refresh those memories about the war that some of us might forget.

So many words can be said about the war in that it seems you will simply get lost in a variety of WW2 research topics and questions.

Still, you do not know what to write about in your World War 2 essay for middle school. Of course, you may look through several free essays in search of ideas. However, you may find our suggestions interesting or get instant writing help right here.

• 🔝 Top 10 Topics
• 🎓 Essay Topics for Student
• 🎖️ WW2 Argumentative Essay Topics
• 💡 More Topic Examples
• 📑 Outline Examples
• 💁 General Info

🔗 References

🔝 top 10 ww2 essay topics.

• Was the battle of Dunkirk a failure?
• WWII technologies that changed our lives
• The outcome of the Nuremberg trials
• Medical experiments during the Holocaust
• Battle of Midway as a turning point in WWII
• Why is penicillin a wonder of World War 2?
• Why is the Bataan Death March a war crime?
• The impact of propaganda during WWII
• Racial segregation in the armed forces during WWII
• What makes the Battle of Stalingrad the deadliest in WWII?

🎓 WW2 Essay Topics for Student

• Contributions of women pilots in World War II
• “Gesture Life” and “Maus”: post-World War II injuries
• The federal government’s actions during World War II
• Rebuilding Europe after World War II
• World War II in Europe: development and costs
• World War II: maskirovka military deception and denials operations
• World War II in the Pacific region
• The second World War’s historical aspects
• The rise and fall of communism after World War II
• South Africa in World War II
• Battle of the Midway during World War II
• World War II: the history of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
• What effect did the World War II wartime experience have on African Americans?
• The battle of Britain during World War II
• World War II was a continuation of World War I
• Communism in Europe and America after World War II
• Camps for displaced persons after the end of World War II
• Nazis prosecution for the World War II crimes
• World War II was avoidable
• Nazi Germany’s resources and demise in World War II
• The United States and East Asia since World War II
• Japan after World War II: main events and modifications
• Atomic bomb technology and World War II outcomes
• Pacific theater of World War II
• Impact of World War II on Balkan nationalism, states and societies
• World War II: internment of the Japanese Americans
• World War II in “The Rape of Europa” Documentary
• The characteristics of successful warfare after the second World War
• Great Depression and World War II impact on the United States economy
• Battle of the Bulge during World War II
• Escape from Sobibor: World War 2 holocaust
• World War II: why Germans lost and allies won
• World War II impact on racial issues in the United States
• Women’s representations before and after World War II
• United States-Japan relations during World War II
• Second World War: cause and technology
• American foreign policy since World War II
• World War II, the Cold War and New Europe
• The Crete battle of World War II
• Home front of the United States during the second World War

🎖️ WW2: Argumentative Essay Topics

As it happens quite often, teachers like to ask students to write an essay on World War II. However, don’t expect it to be easy. It should be something more narrow than the essay about the causes of World War II.

You can use some practical techniques to come up with a suitable topic. For instance, some of the most popular ones are mind mapping and brainstorming. Don’t forget to use questions to create a perfect thesis statement.

But we have made your life so much easier and prepared this comprehensive list of WWII argumentative essay topics. There are also short hints to help you start with your paper.

🔫 World War 2 Essay Topics: Military

• Exploring the effects of WWII on life in Hawaii. Research the impact of those events on the social life of families living there.
• Family memories of the Holocaust. Dig deep and see if you have any (distant) relatives who were the witnesses.
• Something unique about Italy in WWII. Look into some exceptional circumstances that occurred there at the time of the war.
• The origins of the phrase “Kilroy was here.” It is quite a controversial topic, so you might want to study all the sources you can find.
• Nationalist Socialists: examine the importance of the movement in the US. What was its social impact since the war? Describe this in your WW2 essay.
• Write about your town/city. Conduct research to find out about the political changes in your hometown related to war.
• The transformation of the prisoner-of-war camps . Write about what happened to the POW camps after the end of the war.
• The fate of the prisoners of war. Study the documents to get to know what happened to them and whether they continued their healthy lives.
• Describe the spies that participated in WWII. Who were they? What usually happened to those who were caught by different sides?
• The role of women . Discover the contribution of the weaker sex in warfare and write about the most surprising facts.
• How important were the weather conditions for the outcomes of WWII ? Find out which battles were lost or won due to the weather.
• War crimes: consequences. Conduct research to answer the questions about the war crime trials, their outcomes, and the most notorious cases.
• Research the role of the US government in WWII . Compare it to the other governments and analyze the strategies they were using.
• The sense of freedom during the war. For this WW2 essay topic, you would need to look critically at how freedom was suppressed or expanded.
• What was so special about the movements of the troop? Here, you would be expected to provide the answers concerning the secrecy and challenges.
• The experiences of the attack survivors. Find out what was happening during the attack on the military units and the planes.

🤖 World War 2 Essay Topics: Technology

• The role of the submarines in the war. This World War II research topic is all about the importance of the submarines.
• Estimate the destruction in the UK. Find out how many historical places were wiped out as a result of the war.
• Was Winston Churchill prepared for it? Write about the background of that influential leader and how it helped him at the wartime.
• Write about the time the US entered the war. Are there any facts that we still don’t know well enough? What about the timing?
• The miracle of the radar. This WW2 essay topic would be interesting for those who are fascinated by technology. What was the role of that device in WWII?
• Rocket technology and the war. Write about the importance of the rockets and what the moment when they changed the course of the war.
• Building the ultimate warship. What was the driving force of the developments in the field of shipbuilding during WWII?
• Describe the main means of communication during the war. Don’t forget to mention the radio and its impact on the major events in your World War 2 essay.
• The development of bridges and roads. What were the main technological achievements in this field that still impact our everyday life?
• Explain the rise of the popularity of motorcycles during the war. Feel free to mention the folding bikes and their invention.
• The technology we have thanks to the war. Dedicate your WW2 essay to the inventions we can’t live without nowadays that were created during the war.
• What about TVs? You can narrow down this World War II essay question as you wish. For example, write about the shows dedicated to the war.
• The jet engines developed by the needs of war. Look into the reasons why those engines were created during WWII.

💰 WW2 Research Topics: Economy

• What about propaganda? This WWII essay should describe how people in the US were reacting to the war and why.
• The product of war: pop culture elements. Think about products that became popular and maybe even stayed a part of culture after the war ended.
• Toy story: WWII edition. Find out how the war influenced the toy production and whether it was a part of propaganda.
• The major changes in the job market sponsored by WWII. What new roles suddenly appeared on the job market, thanks to the war?
• The power of advertising. To narrow it down, you can even mention how the food packaging was adjusted and why.

🎨 WW2 Research Topics: Culture

• Discover the world of fashion during the wartime. It is one of the cool WWII essay topics. It should be about the new trends for civilians at the time.
• The analysis of artworks created during WWII. Choose a piece of art inspired by war and analyze it. What is its story?
• New times require new family traditions. How were the customs inside the families changed by the war? What about raising children? Highlight these issues in your World War 2 essay.
• The secrets of the love letters during the war. This short essay would require you to dig into the archives and find out what the letters could tell us about the relationships back then.
• What was the unique role of animals in WWII? Dedicate your writing to some type of animal and discuss how they were used.
• The rights of African-Americans during the time of war. Write about how their civil rights were changed and try to find the root causes.
• Food preservation methods: another revolution. This example is all about food and how it was packed and preserved during the war.
• The cases of domestic violence during the cold war. Were the rates higher at the time? Did political tension cause it? This is also a great World War 2 essay topic.
• Expanding the vocabulary. Just like any other part of life, the language also went through some changes. What were the new words that emerged?
• The troubled life of housewife during WWII. Describe the work women used to do at the wartime and how it was changed.
• Still resisting: the movements created by families. Here, you should concentrate on the experience of the families that live in the occupied territories.
• Lifesaving food: the role of nutrition in WWII. Try to research and find the battles that were lost or won due to the availability of food.
• The impact of food rationing on soldiers and families. Write your WW2 essay about the struggles of families and different groups of people.
• What were the common sacrifices of families during the war? In this essay, you would need to look into the negative changes in families’ lifestyles.
• The miracle of penicillin: WWII. This research aims to uncover the importance of penicillin or any other medicine of your choice.
• The clothes that saved lives. Write about different types of clothing and materials that were used to help the soldiers on the battlefield.

💡 World War 2 Essay: More Topic Examples

Below, other suggestions on what you might write about in essays on World War II are presented:

Present in Your World War 2 Essay Alternative Decisions That Could Have Changed the Course of the War Dramatically

Such World War 2 essay will aim to explore some of the greatest decision making mistakes of the world leaders. We do not mean that you should discuss some miraculous history events like “what if Hitler had a heart attack.” In the World War 2 essay devoted to this problem, give realistic alternative decisions that were considered but not realized. Analyze those alternatives that could have changed the end of the war.

“In Your World War Ii Essay, Try to Answer the Question “When Did Hitler Lose the War?”

When did Adolf Hitler lose his chance to win World War II? What was it? These are the World War 2 essay questions you have to answer. Analyze different viewpoints of historians and present your opinion in the essay on World War 2.

Cover the Themes of Atrocity and War-Crimes in the World War 2 Essay

Acts of genocides and atrocity against civil population occurred in such countries as Japan, the Soviet Union, and Germany. Some of them were so horrific and immense that they changed the psyche of many people and different nations. When disclosing this theme in the Second World War essay, tell about Nazi concentration camps, “Death-camps,” the Holocaust , etc.

If you are interested in other  history essay  topics, read our hints for writing terrorism essays . And don’t forget to tell us in comments below your opinion about the World War 2.

📑 World War 2 Essay: Outline Examples

The next is creating a neat outline, which would become a massive help for you during the process of writing. Find examples of World War II essay outlines below!

Example 1. Analyze how some alternative decisions could have changed the course of World War II

Try to pick something realistic. Merely writing that if Hitler suddenly died and the war had never happened is just dull. Get creative and maybe take as a basis some real facts that were considered but never came into life.

• In your World War II essay introduction , present the chosen decision. Include your thesis statement in this part as well. It should be your hypothesis concerning the topic.
• In the main body , give at least three arguments why and how that decision would have changed things. Here, you prove your hypothesis to be right. You may add one counter-argument if you wish. For instance, include the opinion of a historian saying that it wouldn’t change anything.
• In conclusion , state your opinion once again, which is now supported by arguments.

Example 2. When did it happen that Germany lost the war?

Think about when Adolf Hitler might have missed his chance to win World War II. What was it? Include some details. Once again, do your research and consider the opinions of different historians.

• In the introduction to this World War 2 essay , present your point of view. In the thesis statement, write the answer to World War II essay questions clearly and coherently.
• The main body here is for you to include three to five pieces of evidence that may prove you right. If you decide to write an argumentative essay, you might add some contradicting facts, too.
• In the last part of your writing, focus on paraphrasing your thesis statement.

Example 3. World War II: discuss war crimes and atrocity

This essay title is related to all acts of cruelty against the civil population, including genocides. You may want to narrow it down according to your preferences. For instance, you can talk about how concentration camps created by Nazis have changed the people’s psyche.

• Introduce this WW2 essay topic by stating how people have changed after surviving the Death Camps. It might be a good idea to include a sentence at the beginning that may serve as a hook to make your readers interested.
• In the body , present not less than three examples of what you think might be relevant. Those should be proven historical facts if you want your essay to be persuasive.
• Conclude by providing a summary of the facts presented in the main body. Add the paraphrased thesis statement.

💁 World War 2: General Information

World war ii: timeline.

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. And on September 3, 1939, France and Britain, fulfilling their obligations to Poland, declared war on Germany and World War II began.

However, the beginning of World War II was preceded by some events, inextricably related:

• September 18, 1931. Japan attacked Manchuria
• October 2, 1935 – May 1936. Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia, conquered and annexed it
• October 25 – November 1, 1936. On October 25, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy concluded a cooperation agreement. November 1 announced the creation of the “ Rome-Berlin Axis “
• November 25, 1936. Nazi Germany and imperialist Japan concluded the Anti-Comintern Pact, directed against the USSR and the international communist movement
• July 7, 1937. Japan invaded China. The World War II began in the Pacific
• 11-13 March 1938. Germany joins Austria (the so-called Anschluss)
• September 29, 1938. Germany, Italy, Great Britain and France signed the Munich agreement obliging the Czechoslovak Republic to cede Nazi Germany to the Sudetenland (where the critical Czechoslovak fortifications were located)
• 14-15 March 1939. Under pressure from Germany, the Slovaks declared their independence and created the Slovak Republic. The Germans broke the Munich agreement , occupied the Czech lands, and established the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

• March 31, 1939. France and the United Kingdom provided guarantees of the inviolability of the borders of Poland
• 7-15 April 1939. Fascist Italy attacked Albania and annexed it
• August 23, 1939. Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed a non-aggression pact and a secret annex to it, according to which Europe was divided into spheres of influence

Some scientists think that the World War II was a continuation of the World War I ended in 1918.

September 2, 1945, is the date when the World War II ended. Japan, agreed to unconditional surrender on August 14, 1945, officially capitulates, thereby putting an end to World War II.

World War II: Key Facts

• Perhaps, the World War II was one the most destructive wars in modern history. About 27,000 people were killed each day from September 1, 1939, to September 2, 1945.
• The primary opponents were Nazi Germany, fascist Italy, Imperial Japan on the one hand, and the Soviet Union, Great Britain, France the United States , and China on the other.
• Germany capitulated on May 7, 1945 . At the same time, Japan continued to fight for another four months before their capitulation on September 2. Atomic bombs, dropped by American troops on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were first used against Japan.
• The end of the war was marked by Britain losing most of its empire . At the same time, World War II accelerated the revival of the US and Soviet economies as global superpowers.
• After the end of the World War II, the “Cold War” between the US and the USSR started.

World War 2: Casualties

The exact World War II casualties remain unknown. However, historians name that the total number of victims was over 60 million people including military and civilians killed. Below you’ll find the list of states suffered the highest losses:

• 42,000,000 people–USSR
• 9,000,000 people–Germany
• 4,000,000 people–China
• 3,000,000 people–Japan

World War II: Causes

Perhaps, there were many prerequisites for World War II:

• Japan’s victory over Russia in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05) opened the door for Japanese expansion in the Asia-Pacific region
• The US Navy first developed plans to prepare for a naval war with Japan in 1890
• The Great Depression, and the global recession that followed
• The coming to power of Hitler and his statement about the injustice of the Versailles Treaty, signed in 1918
• The creation in 1935 of the Luftwaffe, as a direct violation of the 1919 treaty
• Remilitarization of the Rhineland in 1936
• Anschluss of Austria and the annexation of part of Czechoslovakia
• Italy’s desire to create a Third Rome and Japan’s goal to create an independent state with the Pan-Asian sphere of influence

World War II: Results

The results of World War II are not limited to losses and destruction. As a result of the war, the face of the world changed: new borders and new states appeared, new tendencies of social development emerged, and significant inventions were made.

The war gave a strong impetus to the development of science and technology. Radar, jet aircraft, ballistic missiles, antibiotics, electronic computers and many other discoveries were made or entered into widespread use during the war. The foundations of the scientific and technological revolution were laid, which transformed and continued to change the postwar world.

The ideology of fascism, Nazism, racism, colonialism thoroughly discredited itself; on the contrary, the ideas of anti-fascism, anti-colonialism, democracy, and socialism gained wide popularity.

The human rights recorded in the UN Charter are internationally recognized. The influence of parties and groups that fought for democracy and social transformations–communists, socialists, social democrats, Christian democrats and other democratic forces, has sharply increased.

In many countries, significant reforms carried out: partial nationalization of industry and banks, the creation of a state system of social insurance, the expansion of workers’ rights. In some countries, including France, Italy, Germany, Japan, have adopted new, democratic constitutions. There was a profound renewal of the society, democratization of state and public institutions.

The colonial system disintegration was another significant result and consequence of the Second World War. Before the war, the vast majority of the world’s population lived in colonies, the area, and population of which many times exceeded the metropolitan countries: Britain, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, and Japan.

During the World War 2 and after its end, part of the dependent and colonial countries (Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Indonesia, Burma, Philippines, and Korea) declared itself independent. In 1947, India became independent, divided into two dominions: India and Pakistan. The intense process of liberation of the colonial peoples began, which continued until the complete abolition of the colonies in the second half of the twentieth century.

As a result of the war, the balance of forces in the world has changed dramatically. Germany, Italy, Japan were defeated, for a time turned into dependent countries, occupied by foreign troops. The war destroyed their economy, and they for many years could not compete with their former competitors.

Compared with the pre-war time, the positions of France and even Great Britain weakened considerably. The USA came out of the war significantly strengthened. Having surpassed all other countries economically and militarily, the United States became the sole leader of the capitalist world.

The second “superpower” was the Soviet Union. By the end of the war, the Soviet Union had the most massive land army in the world and substantial industrial potential. The USSR Armed Forces were in many countries of Central and Eastern Europe, East Germany and North Korea.

Some countries liberated by the Soviet Union took the road of non-capitalist development. After the liberation from the occupiers in Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, people’s democratic governments were established with the participation or under the leadership of the Communists, who began profound social transformations. By the Yalta agreements , these countries were considered to be the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union and were in fact under its control.

If the United States became the leader of the capitalist world, then the Soviet Union led the social forces that opposed capitalism. Two main poles of attraction of the world forces, conventionally called the East and the West, were formed; began to build two ideological and military-political blocs, the confrontation of which largely determined the structure of the post-war bipolar world.

The anti-fascist coalition split. Its participants came into conflict with each other, and the “ Cold War ” that lasted more than 45 years, until the collapse of the USSR.

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161 World War 2 Essay Topics + Examples

If you’re searching for compelling World War 2 topics for projects, presentations, or essays, you’ve come to the right place! StudyCorgi has compiled a list of WW2 topics and questions to research or talk about. Feel free to use these essay topics as inspiring ideas for your writing assignments!

🔥 7 Hottest WW2 Essay Topics

🏆 best ww2 topics to write about, 💡 interesting world war 2 research topics, 👍 good world war ii research topics & essay examples, ✅ simple world war 2 essay ideas, ❓ research questions about world war 2, 💣 world war 2 topics for a project, 📝 ww2 research topics.

• Consequences of World War I and World War II
• World War II: Causes, Objectives, and Lessons Learned
• World War II Was Avoidable
• Social Changes Caused by World War II
• World War II Was a Continuation of World War I
• World War II, Its Origins and Consequences
• Why World War II Was Inevitable
• World War II, Its Causes and Long-Term Effects World War II resulted in a decisive power shift away from the leading European states to the Soviet Union and the United States.
• World War II-Occupations: What New Jobs Were Created? This paper discusses occupations in civil activity, in national defense, and to farm labor, and the evolution of unusual occupations from world war II military designation.
• Churchill’s Leadership as a British Prime Minister During World War II The objective of this paper is to analyze Churchill’s leadership qualities, characteristics, and leadership traits that contributed to his success during the Battle of Britain.
• Air Defense Artillery in World War II The history of Air Defense Artillery as an independent branch of the United States Army started on the 20th of June 1968.
• South Africa in World War II The paper states that without South African ports, thousands of Allies’ troops of World War II would not have reached the Middle East theatre.
• Japan After World War II: Main Events and Modifications This paper aims to investigate the situation in which Japan found itself after the events of World War II and how it influenced its society, culture and economic development.
• Escape from Sobibor: World War 2 Holocaust Escape from Sobibor is one of the many movies that focus on the mass murder of Jews in German concentration camps.
• Russian Climate and German Progression in WWII The country’s climate is close to generally continental, even though as it rises from west to east, the influence of the Atlantic Ocean reduces.
• The ‘Rosie the Riveter’ Campaign During World War II The ‘Rosie the Riveter’ campaign during World War II played a pivotal role in shaping the future of women’s rights and opportunities in the workforce.
• The Cold War and American Foreign Policy After World War II American foreign policy in the immediate postwar years targeted both the protection of the world against the Russians’ aggression and the establishment of its global dominance.
• Europe After World War I vs. World War II When reviewing the post-war periods of both wars, it is first necessary to analyze the results of the First World War.
• World War II: The Rise and Fall of Female Labor Force Participation WWII is one of the most controversial events in history because of the damage and development it caused. Millions of people died on the front.
• The United States Economy After World War II The country’s economic conditions during this period were shaped by recessions, manufacturing, and income inequality.
• World War II: The Influence on Japan Japan experienced a major shift in its economy, politics, legal framework, culture, and society as a direct result of World War II.
• Japan’s Position Regarding World War II The history of Japan in the Second World War is ambiguous. The main debate in this area is the position of Japan in the conflict.
• Japanese Internment During World War II Japanese-American internment refers to the forced relocation of numerous Japanese Americans to detention camps by the United States Government during World War II.
• World War II Effects on American Women and Minority Groups The Second World War had a mixed impact on women and minority groups while some minority groups became even more oppressed.
• American Women in World War II American women in World War II became engaged in numerous missions that’s why the importance of the role and objectives of American women in World War II should be investigated.
• Effects of World War II on the Economy and Culture of the U.S. The paper states that WWII affected the U.S economy negatively more than it positively contributed to its growth and sustainability.
• World War I vs. World War II Differences The paper states that there is often a discourse among military historians that the First and Second World Wars are one event or two different ones.
• World War II: Holocaust and Discrimination of the Jews The research paper aims to review several primary and secondary sources discussing the World War II and specifically the discrimination faced by the Jews.
• The Role of the Nazi Ideology in World War II World War II is characterized by the growth of the Nazi ideology, which became the primary factor leading to genocide, civilian murders, and violence peculiar to military actions.
• Changes in Practices of Warfare Since World War II The most important and striking trend in the change in the practice of warfare in the world is that the number of armed conflicts has significantly decreased.
• Las Pachucas During World War II World War II led to social changes and the destruction of old formations with the subsequent creation of new ones. This tendency may be traced to the example of Pachucas.
• World War II and Communism Impact on the US Over the decades, the central economic policy that contributed to the significant growth index in America has been capitalism.
• Fighter Planes: The Role in World War II Fighter planes played the most important role during World War II. These planes were the fastest and easiest to maneuver as they even could be controlled remotely.
• How and Why the US Entered World War 2?
• Cinema During the Great Depression and WWII
• Why Were the Japanese So Cruel in World War 2?
• Jewish Resistance During World War 2
• Relationship Between World War 1 and World War 2
• How the Versailles Treaty Helped Cause World War II?
• Europe After World War 2
• American Foreign Policy Since World War 2
• The Battle Between Russia and Germany During the WW2
• Australia and World War 2
• Crime Rates During World War II
• American Families During WW2
• How Did American Foreign Policy Change After World War 2?
• The Changing Foreign Policy and Alliances During WWII
• Innovations During World War 2
• The Holocaust and the Nazi Regime During World War 2
• Poland Was the Aggressor in World War II
• How Was Air Security Changed After World War 2?
• Women and Society After WWII
• Benito Mussolini and His Impact on World War 2
• The World War II Recruitment Poster Analysis This paper discusses a poster that was created during World War II to recruit men and women for the Women’s Army Corps and the U.S. Marines.
• “Battle of Tinian” Role in World War II The Tinian Island in World War II represented one of the core strategic areas that were central to the U.S. army’s success in fighting the enemy.
• American Presidency During World War II and the Cold War World War II and the advent of the Cold War taught many lessons regarding the American presidency, especially on matters of foreign military policies and strategies.
• “Children in the Holocaust and World War II” by Holliday The book “Children in the Holocaust and World War II” describes what difficulties a brother and a sister experienced in the Lodz Ghetto in Poland during World War II.
• World War II Atrocities: Crimes Against Humanity This paper focuses on the crimes against humanity in World War II. The crimes are not on the battlefield and are unconnected with specific military activities.
• World War II: Maskirovka Military Deception and Denials Operations This paper investigates the impact of maskirovka military deception and denials operations, a component of information warfare. The case study is set during World War II.
• The United States and the World War II: Fighting on Two Fronts The Second World War became the most significant conflict in human history because more than 50 million people were killed, including civilians and jews.
• World War II in the Pacific Region While it is a belief that the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on February 7, 1941, was a massive success for the Axis forces, Imperial Japan failed to achieve all its objectives.
• The Role of American Women in World War II World War II empowered women and opened their liberties as equal citizens of the U.S. Women played a critical effort in the war, reducing the gap in industrial labor.
• Realist Theory View on World War II From a realist theory perspective, the outcomes of World War II were successful since, over the course of it, the two competing powers, competed for national interests.
• The Rise and Fall of Communism After World War II Czechoslovakia’s communism was flawed and destined for failure, being devoted to the Russian paradigm and unsuited for a better-industrialized society.
• Battle of the Midway During World War II The Battle of Midway Atoll was a major naval battle of World War II in the Pacific in June 1942. The victory of the US Navy marked a turning point in the Pacific War.
• Post-World War II Civil Rights Movements The post-war time period was essential for all the minorities who chose to protest for their rights to be established and protected by the US government.
• The Outcomes of World War II: Impact of Technology World War II’s scientific and technological accomplishments were among the most significant and long-lasting effects of a struggle that affected every aspect of society.
• The United States’ Participation in World War II While the United States had significant resources and influence in the West, the country could not have prevented the occurrence of the Second World War.
• World War II: The History of Hiroshima and Nagasaki World War II was a global war that perpetrated the greatest struggle for mankind. This paper undertakes a critical review of why the United States deployed atomic bombs on Japan.
• What Effect Did the World War II Wartime Experience Have on African Americans? World War II was the battle of all races: white, Asian, and Black people. This essay will discover whether they were treated differently during and after the initial strife.
• The Battle of Britain During World War II The Battle of Britain was the first large-scale military campaign in history to be fought exclusively in the air. It was part of World War II.
• Political, Cultural, Economic, and Social Implications of WWII for Germany This paper aims to analyze the transformation that happened to Germany after WWII: Political, cultural, economic, and social implications.
• World War II: “Once Upon a Time” Book by Humphrey The paper reviews Humphrey’s book Once Upon a Time: The 99th Division in World War II based on the USA’s patriotism, internal divisions, and unity of purpose themes.
• Divisions Between the Soviet Union and the USA at the End of the WWII The current paper uses examples to present the issues that led to the division between the United States and the Soviet Union after the Second World War.
• Communism in Europe and America After World War II A review of the factors leading to communist growth in Europe and its failure in the United States is valuable for understanding this critical historical period and its outcomes.
• Change of Population in the USA Since World War Two The population of the minorities since World War II experienced a notable increase. The minority group is consists of Hispanics, Asians, and the growing American Indian people.
• World War II: Impact on American Society World War II had a tremendous impact on people, and its end promoted the middle and working-class Americans to live a better life than they lived before the war.
• Nazi Germany’s Resources and Demise in World War II The efforts of different countries managed to deliver victory after Nazi Germany became unstable and incapable of supporting the ongoing war.
• The United States and East Asia Since World War II World War II changed the world forever for the key players. While the USA and the Soviet Union fought together against the Nazi regime, the relationship between the two remained tense.
• Atomic Bomb Technology and World War II Outcomes The Hiroshima bombing, the event that ultimately led to the surrender of Japan, was an indication of the level of technological advancement.
• American-Japanese Military and Race Conflicts in the Book “War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War” The issues of prejudice, tunnel vision and inability to see the situation from all sides are described in the present book.
• The Fall of the Grand Alliance Against the Axis Powers Before the End of WWII War is political. International politics have an influence on global wars. The Second War was a war of actions, words, and fierce battles between the UK, US, former Soviet Union and the Nazi rule.
• How World War Two Affected Black Immigration? The black population benefited from World War Two in various ways but they also faced untold sufferings at the hands of people who considered them as none or less human beings.
• Post World War II Artist Big names in the sculpture industry as David Smith of the United States of America also could arguably be named as the most influential artists in the industry general.
• Pacific Theater of World War II The four Empires were against the Japanese as each had some interest in controlling the ocean and especially the Pacific Islands.
• WWII and Iraq War Comparative Analysis This paper critically analyzes the use of theories to compare and possibly contrast the two wars, World War II and the War in Iraq.
• Impact of World War II on Balkan Nationalism, States and Societies To the Balkans, the impacts of World War II were enormous on states and societies. The interplay of military and political events from the war affected the region both positively and negatively.
• Women’s Backlash in the 1950s due to WWII The Second World War provided many horrors of war. The perspective of a woman’s position was changed forever. During WWII many women had jobs and were gaining independence.
• World War II: Internment of the Japanese Americans President Roosevelt at the peak of World War II authorized the internment of Japanese citizens living in the United States.
• Japan’s Transformation After World War II Despite the high technological level and dynamism, the economy of Japan remained as an economy of an industrial country and continued developing based on industrial dominants.
• Social Effects in the West After World War II The post-war period was marked by changes in all spheres of social life including social security reforms and employment.
• Social and Economic Problems After World War II Having borne the brunt of the Great Depression and World War II, the American people experienced serious social and economic problems.
• History of Aviation in World War I and World War II Aviation history has various periods that crafted its unique story. It began before the seventeenth century and is known for several momentous events that led to its development, such as World War I and World War II.
• Great Depression and World War II Impact on the United States Economy Both the Great Depression and World War II heavily impacted the US economy in the first half of the previous century.
• Battle of the Bulge During World War II In retrospect, the Battle of the Bulge can be seen as one of the largest strategic mistakes made by Germany due to the false assumption of military superiority.
• Great Depression and World War II for Americans The Americans encountered numerous problems during the period of the Great Depression. The Second World War also led to many problems in the United States.
• World War II: Why Germans Lost and Allies Won World War II began with Germany’s attack on Poland in 1939 and ended with the attack on Japan’s Hiroshima in 1945 with the atomic bomb.
• World War II Impact on Racial Issues in the United States The situation with Japanese-American internees during World War II represents a unique and distinctive experience in American history.
• American Women in WWII-Related Film and Poster This paper examines the film “Casablanca” and the poster “It’s a Woman’s War Too!” in the context of determining the role of women, emphasizing contribution during wartime.
• Women’s Representations Before and After World War II This paper analyzes two paintings representing young women performing leisurely activities and shows the differences between the painting, as well as their common theme.
• United States-Japan Relations During World War II The development of relations between the United States and Japan, which led to the outbreak of war between the two countries, was a very complicated process.
• American Foreign Policy Since World War II This paper is a book review of American Foreign Policy since World War II, by Hook and Spanier. An acclaimed literary work, researchers have used the book in educational and political fields.
• History: American Foreign Policy since World War II The post-Cold War era in the American society can be deemed as an essential epoch in the U.S. history, as it allowed for retrieving the answers to some of the most complicated questions.
• World War II, The Cold War and New Europe The WWII and its aftermath resulted in the development of another opposition of superstates. The former allies were not able to able to determine the spheres of their influence and make a compromise.
• Women in the Workplace After WWII To understand how the position of women in the workplace changed after World War II was over, it is necessary to understand what conditions there were before the end of this war.
• US – Japan Economic Relations in WWII The paper studies international relations between Japan and the USA, Japanese aggression and its role in World War II, and Japan’s economic growth.
• World War II Role for the United States World War II led to changing the women’s roles in the family and society, the general social pattern, and to worsening the economic situation in the United States.
• History of Post WWII Every leader had own plan for the Yalta Conference: Roosevelt claimed for Soviet support in the U.S. Pacific War against Japan, particularly invading Japan.
• The Crete Battle of World War II World War II consisted of various battles among them, the Crete battle in which Germany invaded the territory that was hitherto controlled by the British and Greece troops.
• What Happened in Egypt During World War 2?
• Why Did Japan Get Involved in World War 2?
• Who Defeated Japan in World War 2?
• What Role Did Military Intelligence Play in World War 2?
• Did the Soviets Win World War 2?
• What Are the Roles of African Americans During World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Change the Attitudes of Women and Minorities Toward Their Status in American Society?
• How Did The Versailles Treaty Help World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Affect Surgical Procedures?
• What Made Japan Lose World War 2?
• Why Did France Surrender to Germany at the Beginning of World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Come to an End in Europe?
• What Was the Significance of D-Day to the Outcome of World War 2?
• Did Nordic Countries Recognize the Gathering Storm of World War 2?
• What Effect Did World War 2 Have on Life in Barking and Dagenham?
• Why Did Germany Keep Fighting in World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Begin and End?
• Were the Atomic Bombs Used in World War 2 Justified?
• How Did World War 2 Affect Women’s Rights?
• What Was the Development Process of Atomic Bomb Which Leads Its Impact on World War 2?
• Was Bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki Necessary to End World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Affect Medical Treatment in Tennessee?
• When Did the Soviet Union Turn Against Germany in World War 2?
• Which Country Won the War 2?
• Was the Cold War Inevitable After World War 2?
• What Country Has the Most Deaths in World War 2?
• Why Were British Troops in Egypt in World War 2?
• Which Country Was the Most Important in World War 2?
• Did the Bretton Woods Conference Help the World Economy After World War 2?
• How Did World War 2 Transform American Society and Government?
• The major battles of World War II.
• The Holocaust during WWII.
• The role of the Manhattan Project in WWII.
• Propaganda in WWII.
• Civilian support during World War II.
• Codebreaking in World War II.
• Resistance movements during WWII.
• War crimes in World War II.
• The Pacific theater of WWII.
• The impact of technology on the WWII course.
• The Battle of Stalingrad—the turning point in the Eastern Front.
• The impact of the Yalta Conference decisions.
• The Battle of Kursk—the largest tank battle in history.
• The challenges of the Allied invasion of Italy.
• The role of African Americans in WWII.
• WWII and the Chinese resistance.
• The costs of the Battle of Iwo Jima.
• The implications of the Tehran Conference.
• Long-term psychological effects of WWII on veterans.
• The Soviet partisan movement during WWII.

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• World War Ii Essays

World War Ii Essays (Examples)

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World War II or the

Governments turned out to be involved with original subjects for instance rationing, manpower distribution, home defense, removal in the time of air raid, and reply to job by an enemy control. The confidence and mind of the persons replied to management and publicity. Classically women were militarized to an exceptional degree. The achievement in rallying financial production was a main factor in secondary battle processes. Altogether of the power complicated had educated from their involvements on the Home front throughout orld ar I and strained to use its educations and evade its errors. Holocaust The harassment and genocide were done in different stages. Numerous laws to eliminate the Jews from the civil humanity, most conspicuously the Nuremberg Laws, were passed in Germany years earlier the eruption of orld ar II. Concentration camps were recognized in which convicts were exposed to slave labor up until they expired of tiredness or illness. here…...

mla Works Cited Evans, R.J. (2004). The Third Reich at War 1939 -- 1945. . London: Allen Lane. . Leffler, M.P., & Painter, D.S. (2006). Origins of the Second Wold Warr: An International History. Boston: Routledge. Maddox, R.J. (1995). The United States and World War II. Westview Press. Macmillan Publishing Company. . Nicholas Balabkins. (2005). "Germany Under Direct Controls: Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945 -- 1948." New York: Rutgers University Press,.

World War II in the Context of History and Modern Warfare

World War II in the Context of History and Modern Warfare he 20th Century was simultaneously a Century of exceptional advancement and unsurpassed violence. Why was this a Century of incomparable violence? he quick answer is that we, as a human race, used many of our advancements to become far more efficient killers; where advancements of prior centuries allowed armies to kill tens of thousands, the advancements of the 20th Century enabled armies to kill tens of millions. he longer answer involves military technological revolutions, military inventions used in World War II, business methods that drastically increased war production, the transformation of national wealth to effective fighting power, and the conversion of civilian moral energies into the will to win. Keegan, Overy, Ferguson and Weinberg, in turn, either support those conclusions or, at the very least, do not deny them. Analysis: a. he Four Military echnological Revolutions Knox and Williamson point to four military…...

mla The First World War also resulted in vastly improved infrastructure. Marshall speaks of sophisticated transportation systems moved personnel and supplies in volume and speed that were unknown merely decades earlier.[footnoteRef:27] Keegan, Ferguson, Overy and Weinberg do not dwell on these transportation developments during World War I but Keegan, Overy and Weinberg speak of their extensive use by both the Allies[footnoteRef:28] and the Germans[footnoteRef:29] during World War II. [27 S.L.A. Marshall, World War I (New York, NY: Mariner Books, 2001), p. viii.] [28: Keegan, p. 100; Overy, p. 53; Weinberg, p. 116.] [29: Keegan, p. 116; Overy, p. 49; Weinberg, p. 143.] For example, in approximately 2 weeks in August, 1914, French railway system was so sophisticated and efficient that it transported more than 3,700,000 troops and the Germans transported approximately 2,000,000 well-armed troops through their railway system in even less time.[footnoteRef:30] [30: Marshall, p. viii.] Marshall also asserts that the enormity of this first "World War" required the construction of factories and training of manpower in the technical requirements for manufacturing arms and ammunition, tied intimately to technology but also requiring vastly improved efficiency in living accommodations and all the accoutrements, connections and transportation. For one example, as Essen, the Germans built the Krupp works, consisting of a city-within-a-city of 41,000 workers for the construction of heavy weapons and having its own streets, police force, fire department and traffic regulations.[footnoteRef:31] Marshall provides another example in Woolwich, England, in which one factory and all required materiel and workers were transported and assembled to churn out 30,000 rounds of ammunition each month and transport them.[footnoteRef:32] Weinberg also mentions the importance of the United States' manufacture of munitions during World War I.[footnoteRef:33] Keegan, Ferguson and Overy do not mention munitions factory developments through World War I but assert that the importance of such factories was recognized from the very early stages of World War II.[footnoteRef:34] Marshall also speaks of extensive railways built to transport forces, arms, supplies and artillery. One example is the construction of five new narrow-gauge railway lines across the Fifth Army's operation zone in the Verdun to transport weapons and ammunition to their positions.[footnoteRef:35] Keegan, Ferguson, Overy and Weinberg all speak of the importance of railways for both the Germans and the Allies.[footnoteRef:36] Necessity being the Mother of Invention, the necessities of a first World War led to markedly improved developments,

World War II When Attempting

These men represented a number of virtues and standards that were in accordance with those core, basic elements of humanity that the war threatened. The affection that the author feels for the old breed, in their attempts to help him and others ultimately win their own personal wars against debauchery, are alluded to in the following quotation. War is brutish, inglorious, and a terrible waste. Combat leaves an indelible mark on those who are forced to endure it. The only redeeming factors were my comrades' incredible bravery and their devotion to each other. The Marine Corps training taught us to kill efficiently and to try to survive. ut it also taught us loyalty to each other -- and love. 4 This sense of loyalty and love was the chief 'ammunition' in the real war within World War II. This was a war to maintain one's perspective, dignity, and values in circumstances…...

mla Bibliography Sledge, E.B. With the Old Breed. New York: Presidio Press, 2007. Terkel, Studs. The Good War. New York: The New Press, 1997.

World War II Ww II Manhattan Project

World War II WW II Manhattan Project: Begun in 1939, this project was the codename for the United States' secret Atomic Bomb project. With America's entry into the war, the project grew substantially and ultimately involved more than 125,000 people, 37 separate installations, 13 university laboratories and a number of the nation's top scientists. (History.com: "World War 2: Atomic Bomb") In 1942 the project was put under the control of the U.S. Army with General Leslie Groves in command and obert Oppenheimer as its director. It was also at this time that the project was consolidated and moved to Los Alamos New Mexico where it culminated with the building and detonation of the first atomic device on July 16, 1945. Hiroshima: Hiroshima is the site of the first atomic bombing of a city in wartime and took place on August 6, 1945. The attack was the culmination of the Manhattan Project, America's secret…...

mla References The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project. "FDR's Brain Trust." Accessed 10 Dec. 2012.   http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/brains-trust.cfm  History.com. "The Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki." Accessed 10 Dec. 2012.   http://www.history.com/topics/bombing-of-hiroshima-and-nagasaki

World War II Home Front

Not only did a consumer need the money to make their purchase, they needed government approval in the form of ration stamps and cards. This severe restriction on the economic freedom of American citizens was tolerated due to the dire nature of the conflict. Another change in American society was less noticeable, but every bit as restrictive. Americans became the victims of a constant stream of propaganda ranging from posters covering the walls of public buildings to the newscasts and films shown in theaters. Again, for the sake of the nation, Americans again tolerated an intrusion into a sphere that had traditionally been independent of the government. Members of the Hollywood community participated in propaganda films, made speeches at bond rallies, and performed for the troops. The newspapers and radio media reported only what was approved by the government censors and the American people received a very one-sided view…...

mla Works Cited "Granada Japanese Internment Camp." Colorado.gov: The Official State Web Portal. Web 11 Dec. 2011.   http://www.colorado.gov/dpa/doit/archives/wwcod/granada3.htm  Japanese-American Internment." Smithsonian Education. Web. 11 Dec. 2011.

World War II -- a Catastrophic Event

orld ar II -- a Catastrophic Event that Changed the orld hat was the most crucial and important cause of orld ar II? It would be fair to look to the Nazis and Hitler's fanaticism as the most crucial and important cause of orld ar II. And certainly historians and scholars have few doubts as to Hitler's accountability in the tragic, bloody and catastrophic slaughter in Europe. But what were the events and issues that allowed the Nazis to come to power? hat propaganda did the Nazis use to seal their hold on Germany? Other causes need to be weighed in the matrix of II prior to making the judgment that the Nazi obsession for expansion and for building an Aryan race constituted the most crucial cause of the war. Thesis: The main, the most crucial and important underlying cause of II was the Treaty of Versailles. This paper will detail the specific…...

mla Works Cited Angelfire. (2010). Adolph Hitler. Retrieved March 12, 2011, from   http://www.angelfire.com/wy/wwi/hitler.html . Angelfire. (2010). The Propaganda of the Nazi Party and the Nazi Government. Retrieved March 12, 2011, from   http://www.angelfire.com/wy/wwi/prop.html . Angelfire. (2010). The Treaty of Versailles. Retrieved March 12, 2011, from

World War II -- Life

Food, gasoline, oil, soap, and clothing were all scarcely distributed so as to not take too much away from the people at war (Ames Historical Society). For the first time as well, income taxes were implemented on items as well as withheld from people's checks. Bond buying also became a popular way of funding the war (PBS). Life in the United States transformed after its involvement in World War II. Despite the positive changes that the United States had seen in their economy, Great Britain's experience was not so positive. Europe had already been participating in the full war effort for two years prior to the involvement of the United States. Due to their proximity to enemy countries such as Germany, Japan, and Italy, Great Britain felt the full effects of the war (BBC). While the United States was busy avoiding the war, the citizens of Great Britain lived in…...

mla References: Ames Historical Society. "There's a War On, You Know!" Rationing on the U.S. Homefront during WWII. Ames, Iowa Historical Society, 2004. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. . BBC. "More Information About: The Home Front." BBC HISTORY. BBC, 2013. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. . PBS. "The Home Front." Masterpiece. PBS.org, 2003. Web. 23 Apr. 2013. . "World War II." New York Times (1923-Current file): 1. Aug 12, 1945. ProQuest: Historical Database. Web. 23 Apr. 2013.

World War II Economical and Military Abilities

World War II Economical and military abilities of major participants of the war - Germany Soviet Union France Great Britain Important military campaigns France (including Belgium and Holland) Balkan campaign (Greece and Yugoslavia) ussian campaign Industrial production in 1943 World War II is the most tragic but extremely interesting period of human history of al centuries. It was a regular continuation of previous absurd bloody conflict - World War I. New war began after Germany was defeated in WWI and after winners didn't give Germany any chance to have enough resources to feed own citizens and reconstruct national infrastructure. But British Empire wanted to become richer; United States wished the same. France in fact was destructed even more than Germany and wished to capture not only new territories but also to get as high contribution as it was necessary to restore ruined economics and rebuild vast lands bordering Germany (France was one of the main theaters of war in Europe). ussia…...

mla References 1. The Great World War 1914-1945 -- Volume 1: Lightning Strikes Twice John Bourne, Peter Liddle, & Ian Whitehead 2. Hitler's Gladiator. Charles Messenger, Conway Martim Press, 1988 3. Forbidden Britain -- Our Secret Past 1900-1960

WWII World War II Bring a Number

WWII World War II bring a number of images to the minds of most Americans: the Atomic omb, the Japanese Internment Camps, fighter planes, military jeeps, assault rifles, and soldiers in battle. The overall impression of the war is very masculine, from troops of male soldiers to songs about our "boys" overseas. However, women played a very significant role in World War II, and it is believed by most war historians that without such a strong backing by the female population, America would not have been victorious in the war effort. Women had many roles in the second World War; American propaganda posters proclaimed, "Women In the War: We Can't Win Without Them!" (Giampaoli) Women had to enter the workforce to increase production of wartime goods and to take the place of the male workers that were drafted. Housewives had to completely reinvent the way in which they ran their households.…...

mla Bibliography Giampaoli, Cristina. "Women in World War II: Would Life Ever be the Same?" History 175 Project [online]. San Diego: University of San Diego. [cited 4 May 2005]. Available from World Wide Web: ( http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/st/~cg3/outline.html) The Library of Congress. 2002. "War, Women, and Opportunity." Women Come to the Front: Journalists, Photographers, and Broadcasters During World War II [online]. Washington, D.C.: The Library of Congress. [cited 4 May 2005]. Available from World Wide Web: (  http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/wcf/wcf0002.html ) Leila Rupp, Linda. Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propoganda, 1939-1945. Princeton: Princeton University press, 1978. Wolf, Wehr. 2005. Women Airforce Service Pilots. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia [online]. [cited 4 May 2005]. Available from World Wide Web: (  http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_Airforce_Service_Pilots )

World War II the Role That the

World War II The role that the President of the United States of America played in the entry of America into the II World War is a question that has been debated by historians again and again over the years. The widespread belief is that President Roosevelt, upon becoming aware, by 1937, of the threat being caused to America by Japanese and German expansion, saw no other option but to try to arouse an isolationist nation. The famous speech by the President in October 1937 delivered in Chicago is referred to as the Quarantine Speech. This speech was made about two months after the Japanese invasion of China in order to create awareness of the dangerous situation brought about by the Axis Powers. FDR was also demonstrating, in a landmark decision on America's foreign policy, his stand against the Axis Powers. Due to the widespread opposition to this resolve of the…...

mla 23. "Introduction to the War in the Pacific" 24. "Introduction to the War in Europe" Retrieved at   Accessed on 03/18/2003 http://www.worldwar2history.info/Europe/ . 25. "A New Vision of American Omnipotence" Retrieved at   on 03/18/2003 http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&showHideToc=0&docId=24132330Accessed 

World War II Choices Reexamining

The generally accepted reasoning behind that bombing is that thousands of United States troops would have died in a protracted war and a clear message had to be sent. Regardless of how one assesses the issue, the fallout, no pun intended, from Japan's choice was massive. Depending on how one perceives Weinberg, he did cover all of the normal bases but perceptions of his worldview may lead some to believe that he did not. After all, some may view Truman's choice to bomb Japan as heroic and proper while others may view it as tragic and vile even with the attack on Pearl Harbor and the aggregate actions of both Japan and Hitler over World War II up to and including the Holocaust. No matter how noble and academic someone may seem or portend himself/herself to be, worldview and historical perceptions almost inevitably color the research, perspective and findings of…...

mla Bibliography Keegan, Richard. The Battle for History: Re-Fighting World War II. New York: Vintage Books, 1995. Overy, Richard. Why the Allies Won. New York: WW Norton & Company, 1995. Weinberg, Gerhard. A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II. Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1994.

World War II Japan's Wars of Aggression

orld ar II Japan's wars of aggression and conquest began long before the fascist takeover of the 1930s and the alliance with Nazi Germany in 1940, and the idea that the Japanese were a superior race also had a long pedigree -- as indeed did the Nordic-Aryan racism of the Nazis. Both used the tactics of blitzkrieg and surprise to end up in control of most of Europe and Asia by 1942, before the tide began to turn against them at the battles of Midway and Stalingrad. In 1940 the U.S. armed forces were smaller than those of Belgium and Romania, grew to eleven million by 1944, and became a far more formidable force than the Germans, Japanese, British or Russians would have imagined at the outset. The U.S. military very quickly overcame the deficiencies in training, command and effectiveness it had shown in the early battles like Kasserine Pass and…...

mla WORKS CITED Dower, John W. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. Pantheon, 1987. Mansoor, Peter R. The GI Offensive in Europe: The Triumph of American Infantry Divisions, 1941-45 (University Press of Kansas, 1999).

World War II Propaganda Posters

Even before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government began targeting Japanese-American businessmen and placing them under arrest. Following Pearl Harbor, the efforts expanded beyond businessmen and targeted the whole of the Japanese community. Executive Order 9066 "set into motion the exclusion from certain areas, and the evacuation and mass incarceration of 120,000 persons of Japanese ancestry living on the est Coast, most of whom were U.S. citizens or legal permanent resident aliens." (Children of the Camps). The conditions faced by these people absolutely contravened the principles of liberty that underlined American participation in the war; they were incarcerated without due process, lost their jobs, had to leave their homes, had inadequate medical care, and were surrounded by barbed wire and armed guards, despite the fact that there was no evidence to suggest than even a single Japanese-American was aiding Japan in the war effort. (Children of…...

mla Works Cited The Children of the Camps Project. "Internment History." PBS.org. 1999. PBS. 9 Feb. 2008   http://www.pbs.org/childofcamp/history/index.html . Davis, Ronald. "Racial Etiquette: Racial Customs and Rules of Racial Behavior in Jim Crow America." JimCrowHistory.org. Unknown. Jim Crow History. 9 Feb. 2008 http://www.jimcrowhistory.org/history/history.htm. Harry S. Truman Library and Museum. "Mobilizing for War: Poster Art of World War II."

World War II and Print

Source: German Propaganda Archive, Calvin University This poster translates: "Unshakable, determined to fight, certain of victory! "(German Propaganda Archive). Typical themes in German Propaganda posters were anti-Semitism, a call to the labor force, support and loyalty for Hitler, paper and clothing drives, as well as special programs, such as programs to send children to the countryside for safety. Many of the themes overlapped with American messages. However, as one examines the collection of war posters as a whole, it becomes apparent that both sides had entirely different agendas and different techniques for getting the message across. American posters were more personal and used imagery that captured the audience and pulled at their heartstrings. German posters were often unrealistic in their presentation. The Office of War Information There were several forms of media available during World War II. However, there were several reasons for the choice to use posters as the medium of choice for…...

mla References Bytwerk, Randall, www.calvin.eduCalvin College.German Propaganda Archive. Calvin Universtiy.   http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/posters2.htm  Ellis, R. Getting the Message Out: The Poster Boys of World War II, Part 2. Government Archives. Summer 2005, Vol. 37, No. 2.   http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2005/summer/posters-2.html  Floyd McKay, www.commondreams.orgThe Seattle Times, February 19, 2006. Herman, E. And Chomsky, N. Manufacturing Consent. Pantheon Books, 1988.

World War II D-Day

orld ar II - D-Day D-Day, during orld ar II, June 6, 1944, symbolizes the most significant military accomplishments of this century (Alter, 1994). It was an assault in Normandy, France, between the United States and German Soldiers ("D-Day," 2004). orld ar II was a preventable tragedy and its occurrence represented an immense political failure. It was a national trauma that permanently changed us. The shared experiences of scrap drives rationing, anxiety issues, and personal loss inspired a generational solidarity that still endures. The need to finance the war led to the development of income tax withholding. In 1941, only 7 million Americans filed tax returns and by 1944, 42 million did. Migration of individuals to California and Northern cities was a result of the war (Samuelson, 1994). According to Charles Richardson, of the North Shore regiment, at the time of war, he and his peers had trained and practiced for so…...

mla Works Cited Alter, Jonathon. "A tough act to follow." Newsweek 123.21 (1994): 39-40. "D-Day: June 6, 1944." American History 39.3 (2004): 48-52. Humphreys, Jessica. "Remembering D-Day." Beaver 84.5 (2004): 56-57. Samuelson, Robert. "War and rememberence." Newsweek 123.3 (1994): 39-41.

Choosing one of these wars (the war against Japan during World War II, the Korean War, or the Vietnam War) can you explain how America’s military involvement produced new migration patterns and flows?

One of the more shameful moments in American history was the establishment of internment camps for Japanese-Americans during World War II.  Ostensibly started because the United States was at war with Japan, it is interesting to note that there were no similar internment camps for people of Italian or German descent, despite the fact that Italy and Germany were also part of the Axis powers that fought against the Allies in World War II. 

Prior to World War II, Japanese began immigrating to America for work opportunities.  They initially immigrated to Hawaii, which was annexed by the United....

I am due to submit my long essay proposal for Fields of war and humanitarianism and wants some ideas for my proposal structure to submit?

One of the most interesting issues in international relations is the role that nuclear weapons play in the effort to obtain peace.  Many people suggest that nuclear weapons can preserve peace .  The United States was the first country to actively deploy nuclear weapons in an effort to shorten a war by dropping atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. The widespread destruction, which was unlike anything ever experienced in a war up to that point, is often credited with ushering in the end of World War II, at least in the Pacific....

I would like to get some tips on how to write an essay?

You came to the “write” place for tips on how to write an essay.  We have a comprehensive guide to writing essays, as well as a number of shorter guides on how to complete some of the steps (like writing an outline) that you might need to take in order to complete your essay.  The first thing to do is to figure out what type of essay you are being asked to write.  When you know what type of essay you need to write, you can figure out how to approach it.

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The Effects of World War II on Economic and Health Outcomes across Europe

Iris kesternich.

University of Munich

Bettina Siflinger

James p. smith, joachim k. winter.

We investigate long-run effects of World War II on socio-economic status and health of older individuals in Europe. We analyze data from SHARELIFE, a retrospective survey conducted as part of SHARE in Europe in 2009. SHARELIFE provides detailed data on events in childhood during and after the war for over 20,000 individuals in 13 European countries. We construct several measures of war exposure—experience of dispossession, persecution, combat in local areas, and hunger periods. Exposure to war and more importantly to individual-level shocks caused by the war significantly predicts economic and health outcomes at older ages.

I. Introduction

The Second World War (WWII) was one of the major transformative events of the 20th century, with 39 million deaths in Europe alone. Large amounts of physical capital were destroyed through six years of ground battles and bombing. Many individuals were forced to abandon or give up their property without compensation and to move on to new lands. Periods of hunger became more common even in relatively prosperous Western Europe. Families were separated for long periods of time, and many children lost their fathers. Many, including young children, would personally witness the horrors of war as battles and bombing took place in the very areas where they lived. Horrendous crimes against humanity were committed. Due to WWII, political and economic systems in many countries would be permanently altered.

In this paper, we investigate long-run effects of World War II on late-life economic and health outcomes in Western continental Europe (health, education, labor market outcomes and marriage). We explore several channels through which this war might have influenced individual lives, and document which groups of the population were most affected. Our research relies on retrospective life data from the European Survey of Health, Aging, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) that have recently become available. SHARE covers representative samples of the population aged 50 and over in 13 European countries, with about 20,000 observations. We also collected external data on casualties, timing and location of combat action, yearly GDP by country, population movements, and male-female population ratios. To our individual-level analysis of the multidimensional effects of a major shock that affected life circumstances, we add new dimensions to a rapidly increasing literature that aims at explaining the causes of health and wealth gradients in labor and health economics (see Deaton, 2007 ; Smith, 2009a ; Heckman, 2012 ).

SHARE not only measures major contemporaneous economic and health outcomes of adults over age 50 in these European countries, but includes retrospective modules meant to capture salient parts of early life experiences, including those related to the war. There simply are no micro economic panel data in either the United States or in Europe that have prospectively tracked people for that long a time period. 1 The co-existence of current prospective data combined with retrospective data on key events that preceded the survey baseline opens up important new research opportunities not before possible, and not simply those associated with the WWII. Since the end of WWII, western continental Europe has had a rich and sometime tumultuous economic and political history, the effects of which on its residents are not well documented.

There is legitimate concern about the quality of recall data, particularly for time periods decades in the past. But that concern has been lessened by a realization that recall of events during childhood is better than for other periods of life, particularly if events are salient as they certainly are in this application. Smith (2009b) investigated several quality markers and showed that his childhood health instrument was successful in matching known secular trends in childhood illnesses decades in the past. 2 Moreover, we will provide evidence in this paper that these recalled events in the SHARE retrospective about the war matched the historical record.

One aim of the paper is to illustrate how such retrospective life data can further our understanding of effects of early-life conditions as affected by large external shocks, such as a war. The existing literature measuring impacts of macro-events mostly used “natural experiments” such as wars or famines to study effects of early-life conditions at the aggregate level. Largely due to data reasons beyond their control, the studies of which we are aware could not use individual-level measures of whether a particular person was affected by the war and through which channel. Retrospective life data, such as those from SHARE, contain detailed information and provide the opportunity of studying that issue.

Analyzing different outcomes is a first step in understanding the channels and mechanisms by which wars affect people’s lives. Another possibility is using different measures of war exposure such as the closeness of combat. We construct such measures from external data sources. In addition, SHARE data contain retrospective questions on several possible channels of war exposure: hunger, the absence of the father, dispossession, and persecution.

Given the scale of the war and number of ways it fundamentally changed the world, the existing economic literature using WWII as a natural experiment is surprisingly thin. Moreover, the literature that does exist using WWII is relatively recent and more American in context than European. This may reflect the fact that the popularity of ‘natural experiments’ framework in economics itself post-dated WWII by many decades. Still, it does suggest that excellent research opportunities remain, especially given the wide diversity of European experiences in WWII.

This paper is divided into six sections. The next highlights the main attributes of SHARE data and the additional data we collected for this research. Section III sets the stage for our analysis by presenting evidence of possible changes on which long-term effects of WWII may operate. The fourth section summarizes statistical models that capture impacts of the experience of WWII on individual adult labor market, demographic, and health outcomes. We also present our models of the influence of the war on some of the primary pathways through which it had long lasting impacts—hunger, dispossession, the absence of a father, and marriage. The final section highlights our main conclusions.

II. SHARELIFE Data

A. share and retrospective early-life data from sharelife.

SHARE is a multidisciplinary cross-national panel interview survey on health, socioeconomic status, and social and family networks of individuals aged 50 or over in continental Europe. The original 2004/2005 SHARE baseline included nationally representative samples in 11 European countries (Denmark, Sweden, Austria, France, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, Italy, and Greece) drawn from population registries, or from multi-stage sampling ( http://www.share-project.org/ ). For these countries, a second wave of data collection took place in 2006, and the third wave of data collection on this panel (SHARELIFE) was completed in 2008.

In addition to a standard set of demographic attributes (age, marital status, education), SHARE data include health variables (self-reported health, health conditions, health behaviors), psychological variables (e.g., depression and well-being) economic variables (current work activity, sources and composition of current income, and net wealth (including housing, cars, and all financial assets (stocks, bonds, and cash) minus all debts)).

SHARE’s third wave of data collection, SHARELIFE, collected detailed retrospective life-histories in 13 countries (Poland and the Czech Republic were added in wave 2) in 2008–09. SHARELIFE was based on life history calendar (LHC) methods. The interview starts with the names and birth dates of the respondent’s children (and other information about them including any deaths), which is followed by a full partner and residential history. This information is used to aid in dating of all other events.

The information in the life history includes family composition and type of home (number of rooms, running water, toilet, etc), number of books, and occupation of father. These measures were used to create an index of childhood SES at age 10. A childhood health history is also included based on the Smith module included in the PSID and HRS that queries about individual specific childhood diseases and an overall subjective evaluation of childhood health status ( Smith, 2009b ). In addition, respondents are asked about childhood immunizations and hunger during childhood. Adult health histories and job and income histories were also collected. Moreover, SHARELIFE provides detailed data on within-country region of residence and housing during the full life of respondents (childhood and adulthood).

B. Other Data Sources

In addition to SHARE data, we also use external data sources to identify aggregate channels of war-affectedness. Since WWII affected not only countries differentially, but also regions within countries, we constructed data on combat operations using sources from military history ( Ellis, 1994 ). Using maps of within-country regions for each month during the war, we documented whether armies engaged in battle in that place at that time. We combined these data with information about the region in which respondents lived during each year of WWII and use it as one measure of individual war exposure.

Since we analyze data over a time period of 50 years, we also have to account for country-specific economic performance that may have affected childhood circumstances differently. We therefore use GDP data, which are available for each European country ( Maddison, 2011 ). We also used external data on country-specific civilian and military causalities associated with WWII, population movements, and the sex ratio. Table 1 contains definitions of variables derived from SHARE and SHARELIFE that will be used in our analysis in this paper. Appendix Table A provides a parallel list of variables constructed from external data sources with a documentation of the source that was used.

Variable Definitions

III. The Channels of Long-term Effects of WWII

This section presents descriptive data and reviews the current literature on possible major channels through which WWII might have affected people’s lives well into their older years. The channels include future per capita income growth of countries affected, mortality, changing sex ratios, absence of a father, periods of hunger, migration, dispossession, and persecution. This section is used to motivate the rationale for analyses pursued in section IV.

A. Per Capita Income Growth

If wars alter long-term economic growth, they would permanently depress economic prospects of future generations. Warfare reduces capital stock through the destruction of infrastructure, productive capacity, and housing through bombing and fighting, and results in a relocation of food and other production into military production. It obviously destroys human capital—but the real question for our analysis is will there be catch-up growth, or will the destruction show up many decades later?

Based on Harrison (1998) , table 2 displays GPD per capita of some of the major countries involved in the war relative to that of the US at key illustrative dates. The immediate impact of WWII was apparently quite destructive for the countries involved, especially so for those on the losing side—Germany, Japan, and Italy—presumably reflecting their much larger losses in both physical and human capital during the war. However, by 1973 and certainly by 1987, the European ‘losers’ actually had higher per capita growth than European ‘winners’. What appears to be essential in the long-term was not whether a country was on the winning or losing side, but whether or not they transited to democracy and open-market economies. 3 The poor performance of USSR countries illustrates that point. 4

GDP per Head Relative to US GDP per Head

Source : Harrison (1998) , Table 1 – 10 .

B. Mortality

In 1939, there were about 2 billion people in the world. The best estimates indicate that between 62 and 78 million of them would die due to WWII—more than 3% of the world’s population. While earlier wars also resulted in deaths of civilians, 5 civilians were particularly heavily affected by WWII with about half of the WWII European casualties being civilians. Among civilian deaths, between 9.8 and 10.4 million civilians were murdered for political or racial reasons by the Nazi regime ( Auerbach, 1992 ). Deaths due to the war were very unequally distributed across countries, whether they were military deaths due to combat, civilian deaths, or the holocaust. Figure 1.A displays the fraction of the 1939 population who died in a large array of affected countries. Among European countries covered by our data, Germany and Poland bore the brunt of these casualties. In contrast and for comparative purposes only, American causalities in the European and Asian theatres combined were a bit over 400,000, the overwhelming majority of whom were soldiers. Similarly, total deaths in the UK are estimated to be about 450,000, 15% of whom were civilians.

Figure 1.A.—WWII Casualties as Percent of the Population

Figure 1.B.—Total Number of WWII Casualties in the Population

Figure 1.B displays total number of deaths by type in the same countries. Deaths were highly concentrated in Germany and Poland where deaths measured around 5 million in both countries. In Germany, there were almost as many civilian deaths as military ones, while in Poland civilian deaths including the holocaust are by far the dominant ones. In many of the remaining countries in our data, deaths due to WWII are measured instead in the hundreds of thousands, but still often amount to a large fraction of the pre-war populations in several other countries, particularly Austria and the Netherlands. The other European countries that stand out are those that would comprise most of the Soviet Union, where one in seven perished in the war with about 10 million military deaths and 13 million civilian deaths. Unfortunately, data on these countries are not part of the SHARE network of European countries. 6

C. Sex Ratios and Absence of Father

Mostly men died during the war, producing low male/female ratios in Europe after the war as well as absence of many fathers during respondents’ childhood years. Since the male bias in deaths was concentrated among soldiers as civilian and holocaust fatalities were largely gender neutral, it is countries in figure 1 who experienced many military deaths that were most affected. With 3 million military deaths, the most affected country in our data was Germany.

The top left-hand side of table 3 shows one immediate demographic consequence of the war by listing by country and period when one was age 10 the fraction of individuals who had a biological father absent when they were 10 years old. Once again, the largest effects took place in the war-ravaged countries of Austria, Germany, and Poland. In Austria and Germany, about one in four children lived without their biological fathers when they were age 10 during the war. The legacy persists into years after the war since many who were age 10 during 1950–1955 had fathers who died during the war. In Germany, almost a third of those age 10 in these years were not living with their biological father. Absent father rates fall sharply in the post-1955 years since these children were born after the war. We observe war spikes in other countries as well (Italy, France, Denmark, and Belgium), but the contrasts with the pre- and post-war years are not as dramatic.

Percent of SHARELIFE Respondents with Father Absent at Age 10; by Time Period

Note : The countries are defined as of 2009 when SHARELIFE data were collected. One-year refers to year age 10.

Source : SHARELIFE; Calculations by authors. For sex ratios, see Appendix table A .

Sex ratios before, during, and after the war are contained in the bottom-right half of table 3 . In Germany, the sex ratio dropped from 0.96 in 1939 to 0.72 men per women in the 15–45 age group after the war in 1946. Thus, many women did not marry, and many children grew up without a father. Even after the war, about 4 of the 11 million German prisoners of war remained in captivity, and the last 35,000 German soldiers returned from the Soviet Union in 1955 which further compounded the problem of absent fathers ( Wehler, 2008 ).

One channel by which WWII might have affected long-run adult health and SES outcomes is hunger. World War II caused several severe hunger crises which led to many casualties, and may have had long-term effects on the health of survivors. For example, since the beginning of the German occupation in Poland, the nutritional situation of the non-German population was poor. The average caloric intake for the Polish population was about 930 calories in 1941. The situation was worst in the Warsaw Ghetto where average food rations were limited to about 186 calories per day in 1941.

Similarly, in the fall and winter 1941/1942, Greece was struck by a severe famine with about 100,000 to 200,000 deaths ( Hionidou, 2006 ). In WWII, Greece was under Bulgarian, German, and Italian occupation. The famine was mainly caused by three factors: (1) occupiers imposed a naval blockade; (2) prices to farmers were fixed at such low levels that they were not willing to market their products; (3) mobility between different regions of the country was reduced due to occupation. The nutritional situation returned to acceptable levels towards the end of 1942. Neelson and Stratman (2011) use Cohort Data to show that undernourishment of children who were 1 or 2 years old at the time of the famine had a significantly lower probability of being literate or to complete upper secondary education.

A combination of a food blockade and a harsh winter led to a severe hunger crisis in winter 1944/1945 in the Netherlands. About 20,000 deaths, mainly among elderly men, are attributed to this famine. The famine ended with the end of the German occupation in May 1945. The Dutch famine has been extensively studied because it affected an otherwise well-nourished population at a very specific time and region. Individuals exposed to this famine in utero are shown to suffer from cognitive and mental problems and addiction ( Neugebauer et al., 1999 ; Rooij et al., 2010 ), diabetes and coronary heart disease, and they also perform worse regarding anthropometric and socio-economic indicators ( Almond and Currie, 2011 ).

Germany suffered from hunger between 1945 and 1948 when the food supply from occupied countries ceased. In the US occupation zone, the Office of Military Government for Germany established a goal of 1550 calories per day in 1945, but in the first months of occupation, this goal often could not be met. There were regions where average calories per day were around 700 ( Gimbel, 1968 ). Death rates raised by the factor 4 for adults and 10 for infants during this period. With a good harvest and currency reform in June 1948, nutritional shortages were overcome ( Zink, 1957 ).

Figure 2 demonstrates that hunger episodes during the war were much more severe in war countries than in those countries that did not participate in the war. We also see that there was a great amount of diversity in periods of hunger within war countries. Hunger is more common in regions where combat took place within war countries. Finally and not surprisingly, the experience of hunger was far more common among those of low socio-economic background as a child. With respect to hunger, our analysis shows that the individual-level reports in SHARELIFE match well historical information on the timing and location of hunger episodes we collected from historic sources. To illustrate, in figure 2 the Greek hunger spike occurred in 1941–1942, the Dutch in 1944–45, and the German in 1946–1947.

Percentage of SHARE Respondents Suffering from Hunger: War versus Non-war

E. Dispossession, Persecution, and Migration

SHARELIFE documents the extent of the experience of dispossession of property linked to WWII and its aftermaths. Dispossession was often associated with persecution and resulted in geographic displacement of populations during and immediately after the war. A further advantage of SHARELIFE is that we can observe where and when individuals moved during their lifetimes, including the wartime period.

There were three main periods when people were forced to flee their homelands. During WWII, millions of Jews, but also opponents of the Nazi regime, were expropriated, and often sent to concentration camps and were murdered there. Second, the end of WWII was associated with dramatic border changes in Eastern Europe. These border changes induced millions of individuals to leave their places of residence and flee to other parts of Europe. The Soviet Union annexed territory from some of its neighboring countries, inter alia from Czechoslovakia, Germany, and Poland. Poland in turn received one part of pre-war Germany in compensation. Those Poles having lost their homes in the part occupied by the Soviet Union were moved to the new part, so Poland and with it millions of people were moved westwards.

Figure 3 shows inflows and outflows of populations during and after the end of WWII into the new states in their new borders. Germany lost about one quarter of its territory. About 2 million people have been estimated to have died on the flight. After the war, the remaining territory of Germany was divided into four occupational zones. About 4 million people fled from the approaching Soviet armies to the British and US zone where the occupation was less severe. In Germany, destroyed cities had to accumulate millions of ethnic Germans from other parts of Europe. A further wave of dispossessions happened in Eastern countries after WWII when private property was nationalized in the socialist and communist economies. Even in France, there was a wave of nationalizations at the end of WWII. Mainly banks, energy, and transport firms were nationalized, but there were also some expropriations which happened as penalty for cooperation with the Nazi regime.

Total Inflow and Outflow of Population 1939–1947

The bottom left-hand side of table 3 displays dispossession rates in our SHARE countries by time period with the final column indicating the percent ever dispossessed. Figure 4 complements the data in table 4 by showing the percentage of dispossessed individuals in SHARELIFE for the foreign and native-born populations. In the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland more than 5% of respondents experienced dispossession during their lifetime. For respondents living in Germany and Poland, dispossession happened more frequently during the war period, while they happened after the war in Czechoslovakia. Dispossessed individuals in our sample are over proportionally born outside of the current borders of their country. Analyzing countries of origin, many of them came from Eastern Europe, thus they most probably lost their property with the big wave of nationalizations after WWII. Not surprisingly, it is the foreign-born living in our SHARE countries who were most likely to be dispossessed.

Dispossession of Population in WWII

Number of Observations Available in SHARELIFE; by Country

Note : The countries are defined as of 2009 when the SHARELIFE data were collected. Native born only. War = 1 means that the respondent was living in a war country sometime during World War II.

Source : SHARELIFE; calculations by authors.

IV. WWII and Individual Outcomes: Analysis of SHARELIFE Data

Based on the descriptive data and review in the prior section, we find enormous variation even among war countries in the immediate impact of WWII. Long-term economic or population growth rates seem unlikely to be a primary pathway through which the war’s influence took place. Instead, changing gender ratios induced by differential male mortality in the war appear to be a more plausible pathway operating both through absence of fathers and difficulties faced by women in marrying. Hunger and immediate and long-term stress created by battles, dispossession, and persecution would also appear to be plausible pathways that could impact adult health, both physical and mental, and our later life measures of adult SES.

A. Measures of War Exposure

To analyze long-term impacts of WWII on health and economic outcomes, we use the fact that different countries in Europe and different people in those counties were differentially affected by WWII at different points in time. To study effects on adult outcomes, we use two indicators of being affected by World War II: (a) that one lived in a war country during the war period, and (b) that one was exposed to combat in the area within a country in which one lived during the war. Our first measure essentially creates a war dummy equal to zero for everybody in a non-war country (Denmark, Switzerland, and Sweden), and for everybody born after the war period no matter what country they lived in. Alternatively, it is equal to one for everybody alive in a war country (Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Netherlands, and Poland) during the war period. The war period ends in 1945 for all war countries, while it includes 1946 to 1948 in Germany and Austria, when they were under allied occupation. For these countries, the war period ended with the currency reform in Germany in 1948. Individuals could certainly have been affected by the war even if they were born after the war, but the channels we emphasize in this paper—combat, hunger, dispossession, persecution, and the absence of a father—were more likely to have affected those who lived during the war.

Our second war measure involves constructing a variable indicating whether there were combats and how many combats occurred in the region within the country in which the individual lived during WWII. Thus, in the war countries, we create two dummy variables based on the number of months of exposure the respondent had to combat in the place they lived during the war—0 to 2 months of exposure to combat and 3 or more months of exposure to combat. The purpose of this variable was to test whether actual exposure to combat was an important mechanism for the war effects that we estimate below.

Table 4 provides the list of SHARE countries that are part of our analysis with the sample sizes of those SHARELIFE respondents who experienced the war and those who had no direct experience of war. We did not include Spain in our analysis since Spain experienced a civil war in the late 1930s, so a distinction between whether Spain is a war country or not is very ambiguous. The results were not significantly different if Spain was included.

B. Micro-level Regressions of Adult Health and SES Outcomes

We next turn to our statistical modeling of whether individuals’ experiences during WWII predict their health and socio-economic status in their later adult life. For all of our later-life health and SES outcomes and channel outcomes, our estimating equation takes the form

where Y itc is the late-life outcome of respondent i born in year t and living in country c. Male indicates a respondent was male. War is one of our two measures of war exposure outlined above, which vary by country (or region within a country) and year of birth. Because there may be unmeasured country and year effects associated with these outcomes, λ t is a full set of year of birth dummies and η c is a full set of country dummies. ε itc is a random error term. Since error terms within country and within year may be correlated, we used the cluster option in STATA.

Our principal interest is to obtain estimates of β 1 —the ‘war’ effect in addition to birth-year and country effects. We estimate reduced form models using our two War variables on later adult life health and SES outcomes and the principal channels of war. We consider several adult dependent variables all measured in 2009, the year of SHARELIFE. Health outcomes include prevalence of diagnosed diabetes and heart disease, body height in centimeters (a summary measure of early-life health conditions), whether an individual is depressed using a dummy variable for presence of at least four symptoms on the EURO-D scale, and self-reported health status. Self-reported health status is recorded on a scale excellent, very good, good, fair, and poor which we have translated to a scale from one to five with five the best health status. Our adult SES and economic outcomes include log of household net worth, whether the individual was ever married, and life-satisfaction in 2009. SHARE respondents are asked “On a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 means completely dissatisfied and 10 means completely satisfied, how satisfied are you with your life?” We model this outcome as a score from 0–10.

We have two education measures in SHARE. The first is obtained from baseline SHARE in 2004 and, in an attempt to make the education variable comparable between individuals in the same country, assigns a standardized year for each education value. For example, university graduates in a country would be assigned a 16. The second education variable is available in the second SHARE wave and is equivalent to the actual number of years spent in education. We use the second measure because Poland and the Czech Republic were not part of baseline SHARE and for those two countries the first measure is not available. However, we hypothesize that WWII may have disrupted education for many respondents and resulted in a longer time to complete a given level of education. To test that hypothesis for the sub-sample of respondents who have both measures of education from the second and first SHARE waves, we estimated a model that amounts to the difference between the two education measures (the second-wave education minus the first-wave education variable).

Figure 5 displays the association of three of our key outcomes—education, self-reported health, and depression—with time period of birth using three sub-sets of countries—Germany and Austria combined, other war countries, and the non-war countries. These outcomes are each expressed as the difference between each of the first two kinds of war countries minus the outcome in the non-War countries. For all three outcomes, the outcomes deteriorate relative to the non-war countries for those born at a time they would experience war.

Later Life Outcome Differences between War and Non-War Countries by Period of Birth

Table 5 summarizes results obtained for adult health outcomes and table 6 for adult SES outcomes. We present regressions in the A panels that use only the aggregate war exposure measures and in panel B the measure that distinguishes between very limited exposure to combat (two months or less, including zero) or an more extensive combat exposure (three or more months) with the left-out category being not exposed to war at all. In terms of right-hand side variables, there are no missing values for gender. If the outcome in any particular model is missing, this observation was not included in that specific model. Missing values in our outcomes are relatively rare. In terms of main channels (dad absence, dispossession, hunger, and persecution), missing values are in the order of one in a thousand observations.

Adult Health Outcomes Associated with World War II

OLS regressions include both country dummies and birth-year dummies. Robust standard errors in brackets allow for correlation at year/birth level.

Adult Economic Outcomes Associated with World War II

OLS regressions include both country dummies and birth year dummies. Robust standard errors in brackets allow for correlation at year/birth level.

Consistent with the literature, men have higher levels of adult diabetes and heart disease, lower levels of depression, and report themselves in better subjective health than woman do ( Banks et al., 2010 ; Smith, 2007 ). Our principal concern involves estimates for aggregate war and combat variables. Living in a war country during the period of WWII is consistently statistically significantly associated with higher levels of adult diabetes, being more depressed, and reporting one’s subjective health as worse. Being in a war country during the war increased the probability of diabetes in later life by 2.6 percentage points and depression by 5.8 percentage points while decreasing self-reported health by 9.4 percentage points. These increases are all high relative to baseline rates ( Appendix Table B ). Estimated effects on heart disease and height are not statistically significant.

The B panel of table 5 displays results for months of combat exposure variables—number of months of exposure respondents had to combat in the place they lived during the war in war countries using 0–2 months of exposure to combat and 3 or more months of exposure to combat. These results basically parallel those obtained for the war variable in both direction and magnitude—those with combat exposure were more likely to have diabetes as an adult, were in worse self-reported health, and were more likely to be depressed. The results are weaker for heart problem although 3 or more months of combat exposure increases the likelihood of heart disease as an adult and is statistically significant at the 10% level.

Table 6 repeats the same type of models for adult economic outcomes in 2009. Not surprisingly for these generations, compared to women men achieve more years of schooling, have higher net worth, are less likely to marry, and have higher levels of life satisfaction—common findings in the literature. Our measure of war exposure is strongly associated with all these SES outcomes, except ln Net Worth. Those in a war country during the war achieved about three-tenths of a year less education 7 and achieved lower levels of life satisfaction (about a third of a point lower relative to a mean of 7.6) as older adults. The education difference model suggests that war makes respondents take longer (a third of a year) to reach a given level of education. Similarly, this exposure to war reduced the probability of women being ever married (about three percentage points) but not the marriage probability for men, consistent with the relative scarcity of men due to war. In contrast, ln household net worth is not associated with the wartime experience suggesting that this outcome mainly depends on post-war savings behavior and trends in asset prices. The war combat models in the B panel of table 6 produce roughly similar results in direction and magnitude of these outcomes.

One purpose of our combat variables was to test whether the actual exposure to combat was an important mechanism for the war effects that we estimate above. With the sole exceptions of adult depression ( table 5 ) and live satisfaction ( table 6 ), the estimated magnitude of the worse adult SES and health outcomes appear to be about the same amongst those with large or small exposures to actual combat. 8 This suggests that experiencing combat and battles close by to where you lived during the war are not the primary mechanism by which these war effects operate. The exceptions are of interest since it seems reasonable that frequent exposure to combat is associated with adult depression and lower levels of life satisfaction as the vivid memories of that experience persist into adulthood.

C. Selection Effects

As in any such analysis, there are issues of possible selection effects due to fertility, mortality, and migration that may have biased our estimates. The concern with selective fertility is that high-SES mothers reduced their fertility more during the war, which on average would lead to less healthy babies. SHARE does not contain variables on education of parents so we used instead our measure of childhood SES, acknowledging its possible endogenity. We examined fertility in SHARE in three time periods by SES—pre-war (before 1939), during the war (1939–1945), and post-war (>1945). Childhood SES was split at the median.

In all three periods, fertility is highest in the low-SES groups. But differential changes by SES in fertility across these three time periods do not seem large enough to be producing our results. Comparing pre-War and during-War periods, there was about 0.14 increase in fertility for both low-SES and high-SES groups. Similarly, comparing post-war to during-war periods, average fertility rose by about one child in both SES groups. Moreover, when we added childhood SES measures to our models, which should partly control for any selective fertility associated with the war, our estimates of the long-term effects of war did not change much.

Individuals in our analytical sample are those still alive in 2009 so they are a selected sample of the population that experienced WWII. To the extent that those more affected are less likely to have survived, our results should understate the full effects of war on long-term health and SES outcomes. A more complicated issue concerns differential mortality by SES induced by the war. If mortality due to the War was much higher in low-SES groups (whose health would have been worse anyway), we would further understate health effects of War. We examined data on age of death of father by SES by whether one lived in a war or non-war countries, and by whether you experienced the war as a child (born before 1946). Once again, dividing SES at the median we found the following for the mean age of death of father. Those born after 1946 who did die should be younger but the key comparison is differentials by SES.

For non-war countries, we find that in comparing pre- and post-1945 that the age of death of father decreased by .8 of a year in both low- and high-SES groups. Using the same comparison, the age of father fell by .4 of a year in the war countries, but this was approximately the same for the low- and high-SES groups. Once again, this degree of selection does not seem large enough to be driving our results.

Because of population shifts, especially inflows documented in figure 3 , we confined our analysis to the native-born in each country. Among countries in our data, figure 3 shows that outflows were significant only in Czech Republic, Poland, and Germany. Since it was not encouraged by receiving countries, migration during and after the War was quite difficult in Europe. But there was some migration and one must allow for the possibility that selective migration may influence our estimates on war effects especially for these three countries. Of course, people could have temporarily left combat areas as combat was taking place but stayed inside the same country, which should lead to an understatement of combat effects.

D. Models of Channels of War

We next turn to our estimates of how the micro pathway channels we highlighted above—hunger, dispossession, persecution, and the absence of father—are related to the experience of WWII. SHARELIFE respondents were asked ‘Looking back on your life was there a period of time during which you were hungry?’ If the answer was yes, they were asked when this occurred. Individuals in SHARE are also asked “whether they or their family were ever dispossessed of any property as a result of war or persecution,” and if yes the date of that dispossession. They were also asked whether they had ever been victims of persecution because of their political beliefs, religion, nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or their background. Unfortunately, no time period for that persecution was asked. Finally, the absence of the father is defined as the absence of the biological father at the age of 10. About 8% of our respondents experienced a period of hunger, 9% have lived without their father at age 10, and 5% suffered from persecution and dispossession, respectively. We also included in our models an additional possible pathway—whether a respondent received immunizations as a child.

Table 7 .A shows how micro channels are related to the experience of war. Males are both more likely to suffer from hunger and to be persecuted. The latter is what we expected given that mainly men were politically active during this period of time. Having experienced WWII increases the likelihood of experiencing hunger by about eight percentage points, 9 dispossession and persecution by one percentage point, the absence of a father by two percentage points. These estimates are large relative increases given baseline risks. For example, the probability of experiencing hunger is doubled by war exposure and the probability of an absent dad is increased by 25% in relative terms. The experience of war was associated with a lower probability of immunization as a child, which is unsurprising given that this was wartime. This immunization result may be a pathway through which adult health eventually suffers.

Channels of War Associated with World War II

OLS regressions include country dummies and year dummies.

Robust standard errors in brackets allow for correlation at year/birth level.

In table 7 .B our interest lies in whether the experience of combat is the mechanism that leads to war effects. Once again, the size of these estimates is very similar to those obtained by the country wartime variable. The experience of hunger and absence of the father is somewhat stronger for our respondents who lived in a region strongly affected by combat (3–10 months of combat) than for those in regions with none or only mild experience of combat. However, differences are not large. In fact, we expect the death of men during wartime to not necessarily happen in their region of residence. Persecution is related to war per se, but not necessarily to an increased experience of combat. Thus, combat does come with an increased likelihood of hunger as, for example, was the case in the Dutch hunger winter. It can be due to other aspects of war, as was the case for the Greek and German experience with hunger during WWII. Also, combat led to local deaths of the civilian population, but military casualties and the deaths of fathers often occur far from the families affected by it.

E. The Uneven Consequences of War

In addition to models summarized above, we investigated whether consequences of experiencing WWII vary by respondents’ socio-economic status (SES) as a child by estimating models that included interactions of War variables with childhood SES. Childhood SES is an index generated by factor analysis ( Mazzonna, 2011 ). SES unifies four measures for SES during childhood at age 10. The variables are: logged proportion of number of room in the household and persons living in that household; logged number of books in the household; features in the household, namely warm water, cold water, fixed bath, toilet inside, central heating; and occupation of main breadwinner. For our analysis, we divide childhood SES status into three terciles and label those terciles low, middle, and high.

We separate our analysis of distributional consequences of WWII from our main analysis above since we recognize that childhood SES may partly be endogenous to WWII. Given the destructive scale of WW2 that included bombing that sometimes destroyed civilian homes and movement of men into the military, the possibility of such endogenity is clearly an important caveat to keep in mind. We did re-estimate all models in tables 5 – 7 with these dummy variables for childhood SES terciles included and our estimates of the war barely changed.

Our distributional results are contained in table 8 . All models continue to contain country and year of birth dummies and a dummy for male. We include both main effects for experiencing war and for childhood SES being either low or middle class. To identify distributional effects of war, we include a full set of interactions of the war with childhood SES. Once again, the results obtained are very similar whether we use the war country variable or our combat variable so table 8 only displays the results for the war variable. The outcomes modeled are the same as those in tables 5 – 7 —adult health, adult SES, and channels of war.

War Interaction with Childhood SES Models

We first discuss main effects of childhood SES. Compared to those in the high childhood SES group, those in the lowest one have higher levels of adult diabetes (3.2 percentage points), are smaller in stature as adults (1.8 centimeters), experience higher levels of adult depression (2.5 percentage points), and self-rate themselves in worse adult subjective health. The middle childhood SES group consistently lies between the bottom and top in terms of these adult health outcomes. These results conform to the general finding in the literature that childhood economic circumstances are very predictive of later-life adult economic and health outcomes ( Currie, 2009 ; Case et al., 2002 ; and Smith, 2009b ). Similarly, in accordance with the literature, higher childhood SES is associated with much higher levels of adult education, net worth, and life satisfaction, another indication of the strong economic transmission across generations in these outcomes. The more novel results are in the third panel of table 8 which deals with the channels of war. The probability of being dispossessed was highest in the high childhood SES group, not surprising as there was more to capture. Persecution was also highest in the high SES category, while obtaining childhood immunizations was highest in the lowest SES category. Absent fathers were not strongly differentiated across SES categories.

Finally, we examine differences in associations with war by childhood SES categories. For childhood SES by WWII interactions among the health variables, we find the negative health effects to be either neutral by SES categories or that the negative health effects are concentrated on the middle class as in the summary measure of self-reported health or concentrated in the middle and lower class as with heart disease, possibly reflecting the role of lifetime stress with that disease.

In contrast, we find very strong interactions of a negative middle class war interaction for many of our adult SES outcomes—education, and ln net worth. Life satisfaction decrements associated with the war were concentrated on the lower and middle class. In terms of being ever married, the negative effects of the war were highest on the highest SES women and the lowest SES men. A summary of health and SES outcomes does suggest that the middle class suffered more due to the war with the lower class next in line. Finally, the length of time it takes to achieve a given level of education due to war expands the most for the low and middle class compared to the upper class.

The bottom panel of table 8 shows that some pathways through which war operates are concentrated among the poorest households (hunger and immunizations (present for the middle class), some are concentrated among middle class (dad absent), or the highest SES households (dispossession). Persecution was focused on the middle and upper classes.

V. Conclusions

In this paper, we present a micro analysis of effects of WWII on some key SES and health outcomes of those experiencing the war. To conduct this analysis we use new data—SHARELIFE—that records not only adult outcomes in 2009, but also contains retrospective data for salient aspects of the wartime experiences of respondents. We augment these data with historical information on how WWII affected individuals differently over time and across regions. Our data allow us to analyze which type of individuals were most affected, and by which channels.

Our analysis shows that experiencing war increased the probability of suffering from diabetes, depression, and with less certainty heart disease so that those experiencing war or combat have significantly lower self-rated health as adults. Experiencing war is also associated with less education and life satisfaction, and decreases the probability of ever being married for women, while increasing it for men. We also analyze pathways through which these wartime effects took place and found strong effects for hunger, dispossession, persecution, childhood immunizations, and having an absent father. While a war of the magnitude of WWII affected all social classes to some degree, our evidence does suggest that the more severe effects were on the middle class with the lower class right below them in size of impact.

This paper highlights advantages of having life-histories in prospective studies such as SHARE. Population-based economic panels are relatively recent, but combining them with life-histories covering salient past personal and macro events opens up many new research opportunities of which WWII is only one illustration. This is especially so in Western Europe where the political and economic history of the past four decades is particularly rich and varied.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Alexander Danzer, Angus Deaton, Benjamin Friedman, Edward Glaeser, Dirk Jenter, Olmo Silva, Till von Wacher, participants of the conference on “Fetal Origins, Early Childhood Exposure, and Famine” at Princeton University, September 2011, as well as seminars audiences at Boston University, Harvard University, and the University of Cologne for helpful comments on earlier versions. Sarah Lehner and Johanna Sophie Quis provided excellent research assistance. Kesternich acknowledges financial support from the DFG through SFB/TR 15. Smith is supported by various grants from NIA. This paper uses data from SHARELIFE release 1, as of November 24th 2010 or SHARE release 2.5.0, as of May 24th 2011. The SHARE data collection has been primarily funded by the European Commission through the 5th framework and 6th framework program. SHARELIFE was supported through the 7th framework program. Additional funding from the U.S. National Institute on Aging as well as from various national sources is gratefully acknowledged.

Appendix Table A.—External Data Variable Definitions

Appendix Table B.—Descriptive Statistics

See table 1 for definitions of variables in first column and Appendix table A for definition of War combat variable.

1 PSID, the longest micro-economic panel, began in 1968 more than 20 years after WWII. The longest running European micro-economic panel, GSEOP, began in 1984, almost 40 years after the war.

2 There was also no evidence of backwards attribution of new episodes of adult health problems into a revaluation of childhood health. Adult respondents whose health deteriorated between PSID waves were no more likely than before to say their childhood health was not good or to cite additional childhood health problems ( Smith, 2009b )

3 Waldinger (2012) demonstrated one micro channel on human capital, the loss of Jewish university professors in Germany due to WWII. He shows that the productivity of those departments in Germany which lost a relatively high share of their professors was permanently lowered, while shocks to physical capital due to Allied bombing had returned to their old growth path by the 1960s. More generally, to make up for investments in human capital takes years, while plants and factories can be repaired and replaced much more quickly.

4 A related issue is the impact of WWII on population growth in countries and affected cites. In spite of deaths of large numbers of civilians in WWII, the existing evidence indicates that affected cities went back to old population growth paths in Western Germany and Japan ( Brakman et al., 2004 ), while city growth, but also economic growth, was permanently depressed in East Germany and the Soviet Union ( Acemoglu et al., 2011 ; Brakman et al., 2004 ).

5 For example in WWI there were 16 million total deaths of which almost 10 million were military deaths. Most of the civilian deaths in WWI were due to famine and disease.

6 While we concentrate for data reasons primarily on the effects of World War II in continental Western Europe, the War’s impact was just as stark in the Asian theatre. The two countries most directly affected in terms of number of causalities were Japan and China. About 2 million Japanese soldiers died in the war alongside up to a million Japanese civilians—about 4% of the pre-war Japanese population. The total number of deaths in China is believed to range between 10 and 20 million, with more than 70% being civilians.

7 Ichino and Winter-Ebmer (2004) compare educational outcomes from cohorts affected by the war in Austria and Germany to cohorts in Switzerland and Sweden, using the main economic datasets with information on education and earnings in the countries. They find that the loss of schooling is about a fifth of a year compared to the following cohort. They suggest that the mechanisms are closing down of religious schools, absence of teachers due to the war, absence of students due to escaping bombing, and actual destruction of schools. Akbulut-Yuksel (2009) uses GSOEP to identify effects of destruction of German cities through bombing on schooling. She finds that destruction caused children to attain 0.4 fewer years of schooling. Her estimates suggest that this schooling reduction is mainly due to physical destruction of schools and the absence of teachers. Jürges (2011) uses the Micro-Census to analyze impacts of nutritional shortages in Germany on educational outcomes. He estimates a drop in educational achievements (having more than basic education) of about 5 percentage points for a baseline risk of about 30%. His suggested pathway is nutritional deprivation in utero. Our result of about a third of a year of schooling lies between the estimates of Ichino and Winter-Ebmer and Akbulut Yuksel, but is lower than those of Jürges. However, we include a different set of countries, and not all of them were equally strongly affected by WWII as Germany was.

8 For the two exceptions—depression and life satisfaction—the effect of three or more months of combat greater than 0–2 months is statistically significant at the 1% level.

9 Regarding the influence of hunger on late-life outcomes, we do not present structural estimates of the influence on late-life outcomes as there are no suitable instruments for the whole of Europe. These types of estimations are possible for a smaller set of countries. Van den Berg et al. (2011) use hunger periods caused by WWII for Greece, Germany, and the Netherlands as instruments to establish causal effects of under-nutrition on hypertension and adult height. For Germany, we collected data on monthly caloric rations in regions where respondents live. We see large drops in calories towards the end of the war and in occupation zones with the French and Soviet zone hit hardest. When we regress our health outcomes on average calories available between age 0 and 16 in respondents’ region (again controlling for gender and year of birth), we find that an increase of 1000 kcal per day decreases the chance of suffering from diabetes by 14.3 percentage points, increases SRH by 0.7 points, and increases height by 3.3 centimeters. When we distinguish different age groups (0–4, 5–10, and 11–16), we see strongest results for 0–4 group and impacts on adult depression. This suggests that hunger analysis should not only be seen as operating through nutrition-related outcomes such as adult height, but also and equally through adult outcomes such as depression. Our effects on height are similar to Van den Berg et al. (2011) who find an effect of between 3 and 6 centimeters.

Contributor Information

Iris Kesternich, University of Munich.

Bettina Siflinger, University of Munich.

James P. Smith, RAND.

Joachim K. Winter, University of Munich.

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Introduction and background of the study

Statement of the problem, major causes of world war ii, works cited.

The World War II was a result of national tension among the superpowers of the World War I (Duiker & Spielvogel 24). There are numerous explanations about what caused the World War II. Historians and scholars link the World War II with the unsolved disputes of World War I.

However, modern research on history shows that the major causes of World War II were political imbalance, economic stress and the need for military supremacy (Hart 43). Lack of political agreement among the victors of World War I in Europe is explained as the main cause of World War II.

The World War I had left many countries in Europe helpless and they relied on the victors for their political and economical survival. During that Germany, Britain and France were very influential in Europe and controlled both political and economic activities in the region and other parts of the world (Henig 22).

After the World War I, several political and economic issues were left unsolved and countries in Europe continued to compete for political, economic and military supremacy. This was as a result of the superpower’s desire to extend their territory and acquire more resources to replace what was lost in the World War I.

Additionally; Europe was experiencing hard economic times after the 1930s Great Depression (Roberts 88-89). Consequently, countries ignored the political structure established after the World War I and started invading the weaker ones making them their territories. Although there are several factors that directly and indirectly contributed to the rise of the World War II, lack good political structures was the major cause (Conrad Stein 89).

Immediately after the World War I, most of the countries in Europe were left disorganized both politically and economically. The influential ones such as France, Germany and Britain did not make effective political agreements that could unite all the survivors of the World War I (Conrad Stein 115).

Each of them struggled alone to re-establish itself and become the leader of the others. Although some of the countries in Europe tried to unite the victors of the World War I so that they can maintain global harmony, countries like Germany and Japan failed to support the move and went ahead attacking other countries in order to increase their economic and military superiority. For instance, in Europe Germany invaded Poland while in Asia Japan invaded China.

On September 1 st 1939 the German troops led by Hitler invaded Poland contrary to the warning given by France and Britain. Consequently Britain and France declared war on Germany after failing to address the matter politically with Hitler (Conrad Stein 127).

Lack of global political balance among the World War I victors was the major factor the led to the rise of the World War II. After the World War I, the global community did not establish effective political strategies that could regulate the superior from exploiting the inferior ones (Plowright 62).

On the contrary, all the victors of World War I embarked on invading the less powerful countries in order to extend their territories and improve their economic abilities and military superiority. On the other hand, some countries such as France, Britain and Italy were not in support of superior countries invasion of the inferior ones and were ready to do everything possible to stop such moves.

This was the reason why Britain and France declared war against Germany and Japan thereby propelling a war among them and their supporters (Gruhl 117). Therefore the desire by the Germans under Hitler to conquer other countries and the desire by the Japanese to expand their territory was the key cause of the war in Europe and subsequently the World War II.

The idea of political imbalance among the leading nations after the World War I was also a contributing factor to the World War II. After the World War I, the superpowers from Europe established a political agreement that all nations, regardless of their political, military and economical abilities, should respect the sovereignty of every nation.

However, severe sanctions were put on countries such as Japan and Germany to prevent them from cruel activities witnessed during the World War I. Countries such as Britain and France ensured that the peace agreement signed treated the Germans harshly in order to put their brutal leader, Hitler, in control.

For instance, the agreed peace treaty restricted the German military, reduced its territory both in Europe and in oversea colonies. Worst of all, Germany was required to pay a penalty of over $33 billion as war damages. Following the great depression in Europe,

The sanctions put on Germany in a severe situation and Hitler was not ready to adhere to the demands of the treaty. He therefore re-organized his country and Germany was ready for the war (Plowright 115).

One of the political agreements that were formed after the World War I is the League of Nations. However, there was a problem of appeasement and isolation among the member nations that made the agreement unsuccessful in preventing another war to occur. The truth is that after the World War I, the peace treaty made was unfair to the Germans and this made it even worse because the Germans believed that they were never defeated during the World War I.

Although the Germans were the ones who introduced the idea of the peace treaty after the World War I, they their leaders made the people believe that they had not lost in the battlefield (Finney 45). On the other hand the super Powers failed to make the League of Nations a success. This allowed the likes of Germany to re-organize themselves and declare war on other countries. There was no political support from the superpowers to push through the peace treaty (Henig 80).

The political system that existed in Europe after the World War I was based on the ideologies of few leaders who valued their personal interest and that of their individual nations before those of the international community. Every country in Europe had its own political interests in the treaty and this made individual like Hitler to break the treaty.

Consequently, Britain and France declared war on countries that failed to respect the treaty and the end result was the World War II. Some countries in Europe had also given in to the political requirements of the superpowers whereby they weakened their military hoping that there could be no more war in the future. This made it easier for Germany and other countries that were ready for the war to invade them (Finney 116).

Formation of the League of Nations after the World War I to solve international disputes is also another major factor that led to the rise of the World War II. The league was formed on political grounds and most of the leaders involved in its formation had national goals in mind and very few had international interests.

The league was also formed by the superpowers of the World War I in order to protect their own interests and avoid further invasions. Some of the influential countries such as the USA isolated themselves from the league and this made it to lack political support that could make it effective.

The process of admitting members of the league was also made on political grounds and this made it to lack international support. Countries like the US embarked on the politics of isolation after the World War I. Leaders in the US did not bother much with the international politics and this made it possible for countries in Europe and Asia to continue with the war (Dowswell 73).

The politics of the time were based on nationalism, totalitarianism, and Fascism. The fascists supported the use of military in order to achieve national goals and international cohesion. These included the likes of Italy, Germany and Japan among others. Leaders such as Hitler, Mussolini, Italy and the Japanese imperialists were based on expansionism. They wanted to conquer many territories as possible countries and expand their power and territory (Finney 146).

It is evident from the study that most of the causes of World War II were politically driven (Eubank 98). Although some economic and military factors also contribute to the war, it is the lack of proper international political systems that allowed some leaders to use their military against other nations. Consequently, countries that felt invading other nations was unfair opposed the move using military means and this graduated to the World War II.

Conrad Stein, R. World War II in Europe: From Normandy to Berlin , NJ, United States: Enslow Publishers, Inc., 2011 print.

Dowswell, P. The Causes of World War II , New York, NY, United States: Paw Prints, 2008 print.

Duiker, W. J, & Spielvogel, J. World History: Since 1500 , New York, NY, United States: Cengage Learning, 2008 print.

Eubank, K. World War II: Roots and Causes , New York, NY, United States: San Val, Incorporated, 2006 print.

Finney, P. Remembering the Road to World War Two , New York, NY, United States: Taylor & Francis, 2010 print.

Gruhl, W. Imperial Japan’s World War Two: 1931-1945 , NJ, United States: Transaction Publishers, 2010 print.

Hart, C. The Second World War: 1939 – 45 , CA, United States: Evans Brothers, 2007 print.

Henig, R. B. The Origins of the Second World War: 1933-1941 , KY, United States: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005 print.

Plowright, J. Causes, Course and Outcomes of World War Two , New York, NY, United States: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007 print.

Roberts, P. World War II: The Essential Reference Guide , CA, United States: ABC-CLIO, 2012 print.

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IvyPanda. (2018, June 18). Causes of World War II. https://ivypanda.com/essays/causes-of-world-war-ii/

"Causes of World War II." IvyPanda , 18 June 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/causes-of-world-war-ii/.

IvyPanda . (2018) 'Causes of World War II'. 18 June.

IvyPanda . 2018. "Causes of World War II." June 18, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/causes-of-world-war-ii/.

1. IvyPanda . "Causes of World War II." June 18, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/causes-of-world-war-ii/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Causes of World War II." June 18, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/causes-of-world-war-ii/.

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Technical Reports & Standards Collection Guide

Introduction.

• Technical Reports Collections
• Standards Collection
• American Documentation Institute (ADI)
• Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) Collection
• Synthetic Rubber Project
• Technical Translations (TT) Series
• Locating Technical Reports and Standards
• Research Assistance and Reproductions
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• Using the Library of Congress
• Jennifer Harbster, Head, Science Section, Researcher Engagement & General Collections Division
• Sean Bryant, Reference Librarian, Researcher Engagement & General Collections Division
• Ashley Fielder,  Librarian for Medicine and Life Science. Science Section, Researcher Engagement & General Collections
• Created:  September 22, 2023

Last Updated: May 7, 2024

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Researchers with questions about the collection are encouraged to contact a science or business librarian using the Ask-a-Librarian: Science and Technical Reports or Ask a Librarian: Business online form, by phone, at (202) 707-5639, or in person, at the reference desk, in the Science and Business Reading Room, on the fifth floor of the Library's John Adams Building.

Technical Reports

Technical reports are designed to quickly alert researchers to recent findings and developments in scientific and technical research. These reports are issued for a variety of purposes:

• to communicate results or describe progress of a research project
• to convey background information on an emerging or critical research topic
• to provide lists of instructions or procedures for current practices
• to determine the feasibility of a technology and recommend if research should be continued (and how to evaluate any further progress made)
• to detail technical specifications (materials, functions, features, operation, market potential, etc.)

Technical reports first appeared in the early part of the 20th century. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) published a series of professional papers beginning in 1902, and the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) issued its first report in 1915. But, the format gained importance during World War II, emerged in the postwar era, and remains, to this day, a major tool for reporting progress in science and technology, as well as in education, business, and social sciences research. The names given to series of these publications vary, but are often such generic terms as "technical reports," "working papers," "research memoranda," "internal notes," "occasional papers," "discussion papers" or "gray (or grey) literature." In the physical and natural sciences, "technical report" seems to be the preferred designation. For reports dealing with business, education, and the social sciences, on the other hand, the terms "working paper," "occasional paper," and "memorandum" are often the designations of choice. Other, more specific types of technical reports include "preprints" and "reprints." Preprints generally are versions of papers issued by researchers before their final papers are published by commercial publishers. Preprints allow researchers to communicate their findings quickly, but usually have not been peer reviewed. Reprints are typically released to heighten awareness of the research being conducted in a particular field or at a single institution. The term, "technical report" encompasses all of these designations.

Since many of these publications are intended to provide just a temporary snapshot of current research in a particular field or topic, they may contain the some of following distinctions:

• Rapid communication of new research results
• Dissemination to a targeted audience.
• Detailed methodologies, in order to facilitate review of research results by others
• No peer review, though there is often another selection process for publication (grant, contract, or institutional affiliation)
• Not published by typical commercial publishers (instead reports are issued or sponsored by government agencies, professional associations, societies, councils, foundations, laboratories, universities, etc.)
• Corporate authorship, where present, is typically emphasized

Unfortunately, uncertain availability, limited print runs, and decentralized distribution patterns with little bibliographic information are also often characteristics of this literature.

The Federal Government issues many different types of technical reports. An overview of some of these can be found in a May 2001 GAO report, " Information Management: Dissemination of Technical Reports ." Government issued or sponsored reports contain an additional characteristic - they may be subject to distribution restrictions linked to their classification status. Although references to classified reports may be found in technical reports literature, the security status or limited distribution of reports may make them unavailable to the general public and to the Library as well, as the Library holds only titles in the public domain. Those interested in locating such materials can consult the U.S. Department of Justice's Freedom of Information Act  site for guidance in obtaining these reports.

To enable them to be identified and located, technical reports are assigned report codes by agencies or organizations involved in their production or distribution. These codes may be referred to as "accession numbers," "agency report series numbers," "contract numbers," "grant numbers" or by other names, and include dates and individual report numbers. Typically, reports are assigned multiple codes and these codes help to identify the sponsoring agency, the organization performing the research or the organization disseminating the report.  Most technical reports held by the Library of Congress are not cataloged, and, for these reports, one or more report codes is required for Library staff to check the collections for a report or to locate and retrieve it. For more information about the current Standard Technical Report Number format (STRN) see ANSI/NISO Z39.23- 1997 (S2015) Standard Technical Reports Number Format and Creation . 

Standards are specifications which define products, methods, processes or practices, and are known to have existed as early as 7000 B.C., when cylindrical stones were used as units of weight in Egypt. According to  Office of Management and Budget (OMB) Circular A-119 , as revised in 2016, the term "standard" or "technical standard" refers to:

• common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines or characteristics for products or related processes and production methods, and related management systems practices;
• the definition of terms; classification of components; delineation of procedures; specification of dimensions, materials, performance, designs, or operations; measurement of quality and quantity in describing materials, processes, products, systems, services, or practices; test methods and sampling procedures; or descriptions of fit and measurements of size or strength; and
• terminology, symbols, packaging, marking or labeling requirements as they apply to a product, process, or production method.

Technical standards are not "professional standards of personal conduct; or institutional codes of ethics." (p. 15).

Standards are typically generated by governments or by professional associations and organizations interested in or affected by the subject matter of particular standards. For example, U.S. government standards mandated by the  Fair Packaging & Labeling Act (FPLA)  have standardized the labeling required for packaging in which consumer commodities is sold. Standards set the basis for determining consistent and acceptable minimum levels of reliability and safety, and are adhered to either voluntarily or as mandated by law. For a more complete overview, see the NIST report  " The ABC's of Standards Activities " by Maureen A. Breitenberg (2009).

The Library of Congress standards collection includes military and other federal standards, industry standards, and a few older international standards from Russia, China, and South Africa. Material from the collection is available in various formats, including digital, print, and microform materials. The majority of the Library's standards collection held in the Science Section's Technical Reports and Standards Collection. The collection remains largely uncatalogued, and as a result, most items from this collection are not discoverable in the Library's online catalog. Inquires on Library holdings can be sent to the Science Section using the Science and Technical Reports Ask-a-Librarian form . Some standards, however, are housed in the Library's general collections and discoverable by searching the  online catalog -- the ASTM standards are one example. Other standards are in custody of appropriate specialized research centers, such as the Law Library , which maintains  OSHA standards and some building codes.

About the Science Section

Part of the  Science & Business Reading Room  at the Library of Congress, the Science Section is the starting point for conducting research at the Library of Congress in the subject areas of science, medicine and engineering. Here, reference specialists in specific subject areas of science and engineering  assist patrons in formulating search strategies and gaining access to the information and materials contained in the Library's rich collections of science, medicine, and engineering materials.

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• Last Updated: Jul 3, 2024 11:51 AM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/technical-reports

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Project 2025: A wish list for a Trump presidency, explained

It is billed as a policy "wish list" for the next Republican president that would vastly expand presidential powers and impose an ultra-conservative social vision on the US.

Donald Trump has disavowed the Heritage Foundation's Project 2025 document, though many of its authors worked for his previous administration.

Links between the Trump campaign and Project 2025 have been highlighted by the former president's critics, and this attack line will likely continue at the Democratic National Convention in Chicago this month.

Here's your guide to what the document contains.

Who wrote Project 2025?

It is common for Washington think tanks of all political stripes to propose policy wish lists for potential governments-in-waiting.

The conservative Heritage Foundation first produced policy plans for future Republican administrations in 1981, when Ronald Reagan was about to take office.

It has produced similar documents in connection with subsequent presidential elections, including in 2016, when Trump won the presidency.

A year into his term, the think tank boasted that the Trump White House had adopted nearly two-thirds of its proposals.

The Project 2025 report was unveiled in April 2023, but liberal opposition to the document has ramped up now that Trump has extended his polling lead.

The Republican nominee himself has distanced himself from the proposal.

"I know nothing about Project 2025," he posted on his social media website, Truth Social. "I have no idea who is behind it.

"I disagree with some of the things they're saying and some of the things they’re saying are absolutely ridiculous and abysmal."

But the team that created the project is chock-full of former Trump advisers, including director Paul Dans, who was chief of staff at the Office of Personnel Management while Trump was president.

Mr Dans left the project in late July, clearing the way for Heritage Foundation President Kevin Roberts to take over. He said he was leaving during the presidential election season in order to "direct all my efforts to winning, bigly".

Russell Vought, another former Trump administration official, wrote a key chapter in the document and also serves as the Republican National Committee’s 2024 platform policy director.

More than 100 conservative organisations contributed to the document, Heritage says, including many that would be hugely influential in Washington if Republicans took back the White House.

The Project 2025 document sets out four main policy aims: restore the family as the centrepiece of American life; dismantle the administrative state; defend the nation's sovereignty and borders; and secure God-given individual rights to live freely.

Here's an outline of several of its key proposals.

Project 2025 proposes that the entire federal bureaucracy, including independent agencies such as the Department of Justice, be placed under direct presidential control - a controversial idea known as "unitary executive theory".

In practice, that would streamline decision-making, allowing the president to directly implement policies in a number of areas.

The proposals also call for eliminating job protections for thousands of government employees, who could then be replaced by political appointees.

The document labels the FBI a "bloated, arrogant, increasingly lawless organization". It calls for drastic overhauls of this and several other federal agencies, as well as the complete elimination of the Department of Education.

What does the Republican party platform say?

The party platform includes a proposal to "declassify government records, root out wrongdoers, and fire corrupt employees", pledges to slash regulation and government spending. But it stops short of proposing a sweeping overhaul of federal agencies as outlined in Project 2025.

Immigration

Increased funding for a wall on the US-Mexico border - one of Trump's signature proposals in 2016 - is proposed in the document.

Project 2025 also proposes dismantling the Department of Homeland Security and combining it with other immigration enforcement units in other agencies, creating a much larger and more powerful border policing operation.

Other proposals include eliminating visa categories for crime and human trafficking victims, increasing fees on immigrants and allowing fast-tracked applications for migrants who pay a premium.

Not all of those details are repeated in the party platform, but the overall headlines are similar - the party is promising to implement the "largest deportation programme in American history".

What a Trump second term would look like

Climate and economy.

The document proposes slashing federal money for research and investment in renewable energy, and calls for the next president to "stop the war on oil and natural gas".

Carbon-reduction goals would be replaced by efforts to increase energy production and energy security.

The paper sets out two competing visions on tariffs, and is divided on whether the next president should try to boost free trade or raise barriers to imports.

But the economic advisers suggest that a second Trump administration should slash corporate and income taxes, abolish the Federal Reserve and even consider a return to gold-backed currency.

The party platform does not go as far as Project 2025 in these policy areas. The platform instead talks of bringing down inflation and drilling for oil to reduce energy costs, but is thin on specific policy proposals.

Abortion and family

Project 2025 does not call outright for a nationwide abortion ban.

However, it proposes withdrawing the abortion pill mifepristone from the market, and using existing but little-enforced laws to stop the drug being sent through the post.

The document suggests that the department of Health and Human Services should "maintain a biblically based, social science-reinforced definition of marriage and family".

On this issue at least, the document differs fairly substantially from the Republican platform, which only mentions the word "abortion" once. The platform says abortion laws should be left to individual states and that late-term abortions (which it does not define) should be banned.

It adds that that access to prenatal care, birth control and in-vitro fertilisation should be protected. The party platform makes no mention of cracking down on the distribution of mifepristone.

Tech and education

Under the proposals, pornography would be banned, and tech and telecoms companies that allow access would be shut down.

The document calls for school choice and parental control over schools, and takes aim at what it calls "woke propaganda".

It proposes to eliminate a long list of terms from all laws and federal regulations, including "sexual orientation", "gender equality", "abortion" and "reproductive rights".

Project 2025 aims to end diversity, equity and inclusion programs in schools and government departments as part of what it describes as a wider crackdown on "woke" ideology.

Project 2025's proposals in this policy area are broadly reflected in the Republican platform, which in addition to calling for the abolishing the Department of Education, aims to boost school choice and parental control over education and criticises what the party calls the "inappropriate political indoctrination of our children".

Social Security

Although Heritage has long supported reforming the country's public pension plan, Project 2025 barely touches this third rail of American politics.

The platform says Social Security is a "lifeline" for millions of retired Americans and Republicans will "restore Economic Stability to ensure the long-term sustainability" of the programme.

The plan's future

Project 2025 is backed by a $22m (£17m) budget and includes strategies for implementing policies immediately after the presidential inauguration in January 2025.

Heritage is also creating a database of conservative loyalists to fill government positions, and a programme to train those new workers.

Democrats led by Jared Huffman, a congressman from California, have launched a Stop Project 2025 Task Force.

And many of the proposals would likely face immediate legal challenges from Trump's opponents if implemented.

Four surprises that could upend the 2024 US election

Where biden and trump stand on key issues, four things that could decide who wins us election.