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Finding Theses and Dissertations

Search options.

• Browse or search  DigiNole  (includes ETD manuscripts from 2003 to present)
• Browse or search  Proquest’s Dissertations and Theses Full Text  database (requires log in for off-campus access).

Questions about policies and submission of Electronic Theses and Dissertations (ETDs) can be directed to The Graduate School’s  Manuscript Clearance Advisor , 850-644-0045. 

Questions about access to ETDs can be directed to University Libraries’  repository manager .

About ETDs at FSU

The production, approval, access and long-term preservation of theses and dissertations at Florida State University is a joint effort of The Graduate School, University Libraries and ProQuest/UMI. The Graduate School manages the policies and processing of these manuscripts with students and academic departments; ProQuest includes the manuscript in their Dissertation and Theses Database (PQDT); University Libraries preserves and makes the manuscripts accessible through the library.

FSU requires electronic submission of theses and dissertations (ETDs) using ProQuest’s UMI ETD Administrator system. The graduate manuscripts are also archived in DigiNole , FSU’s institutional repository, a service of University Libraries. All theses and dissertations are also cataloged in the  University Libraries OneSearch .

Browse theses and dissertations produced at FSU from 2003 to present in DigiNole. Thesis and dissertations produced prior to 2003 are recorded in the catalog. Many of them are held in the Special Collections department. 

ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (All records) With more than 2 million entries, PQD&T is the single, central, authoritative resource for information about doctoral dissertations and master's theses. Dissertations published from 1980 forward include 350-word abstracts written by the author. Master's theses published from 1988 forward include 150-word abstracts.

WorldCat Dissertations and Theses Provides access to over 5 million records of dissertations and theses available in OCLC member libraries catalogs in the WorldCat database.

ERIC Many theses and dissertations done by educators are indexed in this database.

Purchase a copy through ProQuest Purchase unbound copies of dissertations and theses with express delivery to your home, school or office. Select from the over 1.9 million graduate works available.

Center for Research Libraries foreign dissertations More than 750,000 dissertations produced for universities outside of the United States and Canada.

Theses Canada Portal Approximately 300,000 records of theses and dissertations on microform in Library and Archives Canada's collection. Of these approximately 50,000 are also available electronically.

Index to Theses A comprehensive listing of theses with abstracts accepted for higher degrees by universities in Great Britain and Ireland since 1716.

Registry of Open Access Repositories (ROAR) Access to the research literature pre- and post-peer-review through author self-archiving in institutional repositories.

Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (NDLTD) Browse or search through several ETD collections, typically across multiple institutions at once.

How Do I Order A Dissertation?

• Article Number: 000035336

If your library subscribes to the  ProQuest Dissertations & Theses  (PQDT) database, you should be able to access it  here . You will find PQDT listed as "Interdisciplinary - Dissertations & Theses" in the Database pull-down menu. Once you search and find the dissertation that you are seeking, you should be able to order the dissertation within the database. If you have difficulty accessing the database, contact your library reference staff for help accessing ProQuest.

https://support.proquest.com/s/article/How-Do-I-Order-A-Dissertation?language=en_US

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Resources to Find Dissertations: Home

Description.

This page provides links to databases and websites to find dissertations. This includes links to general databases to find dissertations, databases focused on the humanities, foreign dissertations, dissertations on religion, and dissertations hosted by other universities.

General Databases

Humanities dissertations, foreign dissertations, religion dissertations, dissertations of universities, yale divinity library.

Science Dissertations

• Last Updated: Aug 22, 2023 5:35 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.yale.edu/dissertations

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Dissertations and Theses: Access/Order a Thesis or Dissertation

• Music Dissertations and Theses
• Access/Order a Thesis or Dissertation
• Getting your thesis bound

UI doctoral dissertations approved since January 1, 1952 and electronic theses and dissertations approved since January 1, 2003 are available for purchase from Dissertation Express , a product of ProQuest.  You may choose from either unbound, shrink-wrapped print copies or PDF files.

Embargo information

The Graduate College has  information for graduates who wish to extend or add an embargo to their electronic thesis or dissertation.

Permission to Digitize your Thesis or Dissertation

Theses and dissertations previously submitted in print will be digitized with permission of the author or copyright holder. The University Libraries encourages graduates to provide this permission so that their work can reach the widest possible audience. If you would like to grant this permission to the University Libraries, please use this form . Theses and dissertations will be digitized as time allows and will not become immediately accessible.

Borrowing print

Theses and dissertations circulate to UI patrons like other books.  Since some are held in branch libraries, the libraries annex and storage, it is best to check the online catalog for location and availability information and check the hours the library building is open.  If you are not able to check-out the item in person, Interlibrary Loan (ILL) is an option.  Contact the ILL department at your local public, college, or university library and have them submit an interlibrary loan request from the University of Iowa. 

Accessing electronic

Iowa Research Online :  UI electronic theses and dissertations published online since 1999 may be accessed here.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Database:  Full-text access to University of Iowa titles listed in ProQuest's database, dated from 1861 to the present, is available at http://purl.lib.uiowa.edu/proquest/ui .   Access is limited to users affiliated with the University of Iowa.

Titles not held at University of Iowa Libraries

If a dissertation or thesis is not available online or at the University of Iowa Libraries and you are affiliated with the University of Iowa, please place a request through Interlibrary Loan .  They will try to borrow a print copy from another library.

Andrea Terrones Anderson

• << Previous: Music Dissertations and Theses
• Next: Getting your thesis bound >>
• Last Updated: Feb 27, 2024 2:28 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.uiowa.edu/dissertations

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How can I find theses and dissertations?

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For Harvard theses, dissertations, and prize winning essays, see our How can I find a Harvard thesis or dissertation ? FAQ entry.

Beyond Harvard, ProQuest  Dissertations and Theses G lobal database (this link requires HarvardKey login) i s a good place to start:

• lists dissertations and theses from most North American graduate schools (including Harvard) and many from universities in Great Britain and Ireland, 1716-present
•  You can get full text from Proquest Dissertations and Theses through your own institutional library or you can often purchase directly from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Express.  

Other sources:

Databases beyond ProQuest Dissertations & Theses:

Some out of copyright works (pre-1924) are available via large digital libraries. Search online for the title.

Networked Digital Library of Electronic Theses and Dissertations ' Global Search scans participating international libraries

The Center for Research Libraries ' Dissertations database includes many non-US theses.

WorldCat  describes many masters' & PhD theses. Use "Advanced Search" and limit to subtype "thesis/dissertation." No full text; it just tells you what libraries have reported having copies.

There are several excellent guides out there with international search recommendations like  University College London's Institute of Education Theses and Dissertations LibGuide .

Institutions:

At the institution where the work originated or the national library of the country (if outside the US):

Online institutional repositories (like Harvard's DASH ): If the work was produced after the  school's repository was established, it may well be found here in full text. 

Libraries: Check the library catalog. There's often a reproductions service ($) for material that hasn't been digitized, but each school has its own policies. Most schools have some kind of "ask a librarian" service where you can ask what to do next.

At your own institution (where applicable) or public library: While many institutions will not lend theses and dissertations or send copies through Interlibrary loan, your Interlibrary Loan department may be able to help you acquire or pay for reproductions. 

• Current Harvard faculty, staff and students: Once you identify a reproduction source you can place a request with Harvard Library ILL  (in the notes field, ask for help with funding).

For Harvard theses and dissertations, see " How can I find a Harvard thesis or dissertation? "

If you're having trouble locating or acquiring a copy of/access to a dissertation, try " Why can't I find this thesis or dissertation?" 

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Dissertations

D.B.A. Dissertations

Ed.D. Dissertations

Psy.D. Dissertations

Other Universities’ Dissertations

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses  (24-page preview) ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (PQDT) is the world’s most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses. Find nearly three million searchable citations to dissertation and theses from around the world. ProQuest provides a 24-page preview of all dissertations in this collection. Although PQDT only provides a 24-page preview, students can obtain a print copy of the full dissertation through interlibrary loan.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Open (Full Text) ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Open (PQDT Open) offers free PDF full text of dissertations and theses published as open access works.

Open Access Theses and Dissertations (Includes links to full text when available) Open Access Theses and Dissertations (OATD) indexes open access graduate theses and dissertations published around the world. Metadata comes from over 600 colleges, universities, and research institutions. OATD currently indexes over 1.5 million theses and dissertations. Although OATD includes links to the full text.

OCLC WorldCat Dissertations and Theses (Abstract Only) The OCLC catalog of dissertations and theses lists dissertations available in libraries across the United States. Although OCLC WorldCat Dissertations and Theses does not provide full text access, students can obtain a print copy of the full dissertation through interlibrary loan.

Dissertation Express  is an online ordering service, through which students and faculty members can browse and purchase from over 1.9 million graduate dissertations and theses. Dissertations ordered online are available in unbound shrink-wrapped format only.

To order, please give your dissertation request and a check to a Twin Cities Library staff member. Make the check payable to ProQuest. It is less expensive to order through Twin Cities Library’s account than as an individual ($33 versus $44). Twin Cities Library will order the dissertation from ProQuest, take care of the billing and invoice, and alert you when your dissertation is available for pick up.

Finishing Your Dissertation Jumpstart your dissertation with the following Twin Cities Library books, which will guide you through the process from topic generation to defense.​

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Finding Theses and Dissertations: Borrowing & Purchasing

• Finding UNC Theses & Dissertations
• Finding Other Theses & Dissertations

Borrowing a thesis or dissertation from UNC:

If you have a valid One Card or UNC Borrower's Card, you can check out theses and dissertations held by UNC Libraries that are listed as "available" in the catalog. If you are not currently affiliated with UNC, you can request a copy of a dissertation or thesis held at UNC through your library's Interlibrary Loan program.

Borrowing a thesis or dissertation held at a non-UNC library:

UNC-Chapel Hill students, staff, and faculty can request a dissertation or thesis held at another library through UNC's Interlibrary Loan Service . Please note dissertations and theses that are requested from another library are subject to that library's lending policies.

To purchase a copy of a UNC Chapel Hill dissertation:

If it was done after 1959, it can be purchased from ProQuest Dissertation Express. Orders can be placed online or by phone (1-800-521-3042).

If it is a dissertation not available from ProQuest Dissertation Express, or is a master's thesis or dissertation not available for loan, or is an honors thesis, contact the North Carolina Collection .

To purchase a copy of a non-UNC-Chapel Hill dissertation:

UNC-Chapel Hill students, staff, and faculty can make requests for the library to purchase Library copies of dissertations using the Request a Title for Purchase online form.

Orders can be placed through Proquest Dissertation Express . PDFs and unbound copies can be ordered online. There is a telephone number (1-800-521-3042) as well as a mail-in form for ordering microforms and bound copies.

UNC-Chapel Hill faculty, staff, and students can purchase an unbound paper copy of a dissertation through an Interlibrary Loan request for approximately $20.

• << Previous: Finding Other Theses & Dissertations
• Last Updated: May 16, 2023 12:44 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.unc.edu/disthesis

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ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global

• What is ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global
• ProQuest Dissertations eLearning Companions

E-Learning Modules

Webinar recordings, powerpoint presentations, additional resources, support center articles.

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ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global   is a wealth of unique global scholarship, which is a credible and quality source to Uncover the Undiscovered research insights and intelligence in easiest and most effective ways. The equitable discoverability of more than 5 million dissertations and theses with coverage from year 1637, allows researchers to amplify diverse voices and place their research in a global context. The database offers nearly 3 million full texts for most of the dissertations added since 1997.

By leveraging the rich citation data found in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global and with new citation insight tool, researchers can benefit from focused pathways of discovery to build foundational knowledge on various research topics. Over 200,000 new dissertations and theses are added to the database each year to enrich the citation data continuously.

For more information about the ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global , navigate to the Content Page .

ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global   Database  is also part of ProQuest One Academic .  ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global resides on the ProQuest Platform. For more information about the ProQuest Platform search and display features, see the  ProQuest Platform LibGuide .

The Dissertations Bootcamp eLearning Modules are a free resource that help support graduate student planning, writing, and research.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Student, Citation Connections

Here you can have a preview of the new features just launched for the Cited Reference documents in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Librarian

Intended for Librarians who want to learn how to use the database's advanced search to support subject area research at their institution. Duration: 2 minutes.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Student, Searching Titles and Languages

This session reviews how Students, both Masters or PhD, can use the database's advanced search to identify known dissertations by title and search/analyze by languages other than English. Duration: 3 minutes.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Student, Searching Names

This session reviews how Students, both Masters or Ph, can use the database's advanced search to identify dissertations of known Authors or Advisors and further refine/analyze them. Duration: 4 minutes.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Student, Cited References

This session reviews how Students, both Masters or PhD, can use the dissertations to retrieve and explore further the Cited References. Duration: 4 minutes.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Student, Supplemental Files

This session reviews how Students, both Masters or PhD, can identify dissertations with Supplemental files which may contain useful materials for their graduate work. Duration: 3.5 minutes.

ProQuest Dissertations and Theses for the Student, Subject Searching

This session will show Students, both Masters or PhD, some Search techniques both Basic and Advanced to locate dissertations on a certain topic. Duration: 5.5 minutes.

Webinar Title : Best Practices for Searching ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global

This session demonstrates how users can utilize the best practices of searching the " ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global  database" to connect with relevant information for their academic work. Duration:  52 minutes.

Materials in English - Figures (Database size) and Platform features images now updated as of March 2023

• PQDT Global Basic Version PPT
• PQDT Global Advanced Version PPT
• PQDT Global Citation Connection PPT
• ProQuest ETD Dissemination Program
• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Citation Index Training Assest: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Citation Index PPT- February 2024
• Marketing Toolkit
• New! Embedded eLearning for Undergraduates
• Request Training
• Top Dissertations
• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Citation Index
• FAQ- What’s New for PQDT
• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Data Used in Research Projects
• New Change in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (PQDT) Structure and its Impact on Usage Reports in 2023
• New Change in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (PQDT) Structure and its Impact on Saved Searches & Alerts
• Best Practices for Incorporating ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Product into EBSCO Discovery
• Next: Content >>
• Last Updated: Apr 2, 2024 10:49 AM
• URL: https://proquest.libguides.com/pqdt

Finding Dissertations

• Finding NYU Dissertations

Finding Dissertations from Other Institutions

• International Resources

There are three methods for acquiring or borrowing a dissertation completed at an institution other than New York University.

Dissertations and Theses Global  (ProQuest Digital Dissertations) This database indexes doctoral dissertations in all disciplines which were completed at participating, accredited North American colleges and universities. Some institutions outside of North America, mostly in Great Britain, are included but coverage is not exhaustive. Dissertations added to the database after 1980 contain abstracts. Most dissertations included since 1997 are available in full-text. 

Interlibrary Loan If you are an NYU student, staff or faculty member, you can place a request for a dissertation through our interlibrary loan service and we'll  try to borrow a copy from another institution on your behalf.

Proquest Dissertation Express You may purchase copies of many North American dissertations (including NYU dissertations) directly from Proquest/UMI. Dissertation authors can order a copy of of their dissertations through this service at a discounted price.

• << Previous: Finding NYU Dissertations
• Next: International Resources >>
• Last Updated: Mar 29, 2024 1:48 PM
• URL: https://guides.nyu.edu/dissertations

Searching ProQuest's Dissertations & Theses: Full Record: Citation & Abstract

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Full Record: Citation & Abstract

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Citation & Abstract Tips

1. Record Tool Bar

When viewing a full record, use one of the tools to work with the item.

Add to selected items lets you mark the record and create a list of items to work with later on.

Save to My Research adds the records to your My Research account where they will be stored and available each time you sign in to the My Research account.

Email or Print any marked items.

The Cite tool generates a bibliography in any of the supported styles available from the pull-down menu. Copy and paste the generated bibliography into a document and make any necessary edits. Remember to always check for accuracy.

Export items into a bibliographic manager like RefWorks (subscription and account required) or to the RIS file format. Exporting moves a copy of the record out of ProQuest and into one of the bibliographic managers or supported file formats.

Save is used to save the records as a PDF, RTF, HTML, or a text only file. Choose to include the level of record detail you want to save and a citation style. A permanent link to each document will also be saved with your file.

Tags are relevant words or phrases that you assign to items in ProQuest to help you organize your research and classify items. They can be made private or public and you can add as many tags to a document as you like. In order to create tags, you must have a My Research account, but you do not have to have a My Research account to view tags created by other users. For additional information, please see the please see the My Research section of this guide.

The Share button allows you to share links to documents with other ProQuest users via social networking sites. Move your mouse over the button to display and select from a list of featured available services. With the list displayed, click More... to display a complete list of available services.

2. Other Formats

When you select to view the C itation & Abstract format of the full record, you will see links to Preview – PDF, F ull text - PDF, if full text is available and/or Order a copy . Each record will contain links to the available document formats and any linking tools that the library administrator has enabled to help locate the full text.

Please consider that not all records have full text available from ProQuest and you may only have a link to view the Citation / C itation & Abstract (the full record).

Preview – PDF: you can click this icon to view a preview of the first few pages of a dissertation or thesis in PDF format (up to the first 24 pages of the document or the first 10% of the content).

Full Text – PDF: Where available, you can view documents in Portable Document Format (PDF). This can be used across many different types of computers and browsers, and will preserve the look and feel of the original document in terms of fonts, layout, and images.

Order a copy: Our online discovery service Dissertation Express contains a searchable database of dissertations and theses, copies of which are available for direct purchase. It lists the document formats available for purchase, including electronic PDF, Unbound Paper Copy, Softcover Paper Copy, Hardcover Paper Copy, 35mm Roll Microfilm, and Microfiche (ProQuest Dissertations and Theses only). See screenshots to the right . Note that account administrators can also set up custom order a copy links using the ProQuest Administrator Module.

If your library has enabled tools to locate full text for you, you may see additional links here.

3. References

When provided by the author, References  contain the citations of resources used to help contribute thoughts and ideas discussed within the current document. If one of the References is available to your library through another ProQuest database, you will be able to click on the reference to view the full record.

Cited by displays a list of other ProQuest documents that include the current document in their list of References .

Documents with shared references provides a list of the ProQuest documents that have References in common with the current document.

4. More Like This

Click on See similar documents to display five suggested items that are related to the current record. ProQuest analyzes the keywords in the full record and then suggests similar items. To see more similar items, click Next 5 .

Search within indexing terms  displays the indexed subject terms for the record and allows you to choose relevant subjects. When you click Search, ProQuest looks for documents in your currently selected databases that are indexed using ALL of your selected terms. It is possible to come across records that do not include subject terms and therefore this feature may not be available. In other cases additional index terms such as the author may appear in this section.

5. Abstract

The Abstract provides a summary of the document and may include a translate option. ProQuest will translate the abstract from English to any of the 14 languages currently supported. When you click Translate , a disclaimer will advise you that this is an "on-the-fly" machine translation and is not intended to replace human translation.

6. Indexing

The Indexing section displays the other indexed fields that did not appear at the top of the record. The indexed fields are also known as searchable fields . One exception is the Document URL field and this is not part of the searchable fields list, but instead provides a link to the full record. This is a persistent or durable URL that you can bookmark or save to give you access to the full record at another time.

Please see the S earchable Fields section of this guide for a complete list of fields.

7. Supplemental files

In cases where there are dissertations that have been submitted with supplemental files, this icon indicates the presence of additional supporting material. Additional icons will indicate the type of material, for example, audio/video, text files, images, scripts, data files, and so on.

In some cases, you may have to download specific software or plug-ins in order to be able to view supplemental files; for example, if you want to view a 3D simulation, you would not be able to unless you had previously installed the software that was used to create the file.

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‘Total Disgrace’: Anger, Frustration as Mass Heating Failures Across Russia Leave Thousands in the Cold

P ODOLSK, Moscow region – Residents throughout Russia affected by unprecedented winter heating outages in recent days have expressed their frustration and urged local authorities to restore heating in their homes.

In Podolsk, a town some 30 kilometers south of the capital Moscow, at least 149,000 residents — nearly half of its population — were left without heating when a heating main burst at a nearby private ammunition plant.

“It’s a total disgrace. There is no heating and no hot water. We have to sleep in sleeping bags,” Yuri, a local resident, told The Moscow Times.

“I have no words to describe how bad the situation is," said Yuri, who declined to provide his surname. "We have had no heating for almost six days."

Heating issues have affected residents in the Moscow region, where temperatures have plunged to as low as minus 20 degrees Celsius in the past week, as well as people in the Far East Primorye region , the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg , Penza , the southern Voronezh and Volgograd regions and more.

In the Tver region, a group of residents filmed an appeal to President Vladimir Putin, saying that they “are freezing from the cold” in the village of Novozavidovsky.

“We're literally being killed by the cold,” a woman in the video said, adding that they have been sending requests to local authorities since September after their houses were connected to a boiler room whose power was reportedly insufficient.

“This is some kind of torture and extermination of the population 100 kilometers from Moscow,” she added.

Residents of the Moscow region town of Elektrostal lit a fire in the street to draw the authorities’ attention to the heating problem.

“It’s impossible to stay in our houses. We're freezing!” a group of women in the video said.

Suffering from subzero temperatures, residents are placing the blame on local authorities and utility services for failing to take necessary precautions and not taking action to resolve the situation.

“We are sending complaints everywhere but no one listens to us. We have portable heaters working in every room, but the temperature inside is still 10 degrees Celsius,” Yelena from Podolsk said.

“There is a clinic and a hospital, as well as kindergartens, where there is no heating. And we have no answers, no assistance, no explanation,” Yelena added.

Podolsk authorities opened temporary heating centers and declared a state of emergency.

Local authorities linked the heating problems to the fact that the town is heated by a boiler plant owned by the Klimovsk Specialized Ammunition Plant, a private ammunition factory and one of the largest weapon cartridge production enterprises in the country.

“The facility is under tight security conditions, which limits our ability to oversee winter preparations,” the Moscow region’s Vice Governor Yevgeny Khromushin said last week. “We were unaware of the problem for nearly a day.”

An unidentified Moscow region official and two senior executives at the plant were arrested on suspicion of providing unsafe services, Russia’s Investigative Committee, which probes major crimes, said in a statement Tuesday.

Investigators said that Podolsk’s deputy mayor was accused of misusing authority by issuing a readiness certificate for the boiler house at the plant.

In the neighboring Tver region, the authorities opened a criminal case over the laundering of over 84 million rubles ($938,993) in heating bills paid by residents, the Astra Telegram channel reported this week, citing unidentified sources. According to investigators, the heads of the local water intake and boiler house misappropriated the heating payments for personal use.

Reacting to the heating failures, Putin on Tuesday asked Emergency Situations Minister Alexander Kurenkov to provide heat and electricity to the affected residents.

The outages appear to be the latest effect of several decades of crumbling infrastructure in Russia which have been linked to endemic corruption and mismanagement.

The overall decay of Russia's municipal infrastructure surpassed 70% in 2022, the pro-Kremlin newspaper Izvestia reported .

According to Sergei Pakhomov, head of the State Duma’s Construction, Housing and Utilities Committee, water pipes that were 90 years old or even older were still in use as recently as two years ago in some cases.

Housing, utilities and communal services are a common source of problems for Russians during the winter.

In St. Petersburg, residents regularly complain about extensive ice coverage on city streets and sidewalks, with many people ending up in the hospital over the years due to slipping and falling accidents.

In the Siberian republic of Khakassia, two villages were left without electricity last month due to apparent issues with outdated communication systems.

In the winter of 2020, five people in the Perm region were killed after a pipe burst.

When asked about the latest heating outages, Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov acknowledged the problems and linked them to poor municipal infrastructure, saying that people “had to endure a lot of inconvenience in the cold and without electricity.”

"Despite all the titanic efforts to update all housing and communal services systems, there's still a certain part that remains considerably deteriorated. These programs will continue, but it is impossible to update all pipes and all housing and communal services systems in 10-15 years,” Peskov said.

As for now, residents affected by heating issues appear to lack optimism that the problems will be solved efficiently.

"It's been a week since we've had heating, and the temperature in my apartment is around 11 degrees Celsius,” Podolsk resident Lidiya told The Moscow Times.

“Unfortunately, no one knows when it will be repaired,” she added.

Turn Your Curiosity Into Discovery

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40 facts about elektrostal.

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 02 Mar 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

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Mental states via possessive predication: the grammar of possessive experiencer complex predicates in Persian

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• Published: 05 April 2024

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• Ryan Walter Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0003-5627-3833 1  

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Persian possesses a number of stative complex predicates with dâshtan ‘to have’ that express certain kinds of mental state. I propose that these possessive experiencer complex predicates be given a formal semantic treatment involving possession of a portion of an abstract quality by an individual, as in the analysis of property concept lexemes due to Francez and Koontz-Garboden (Language 91(3):533–563, 2015 ; Natural Language and Linguistic Theory 34:93–106, 2016 ; Semantics and morphosyntactic variation: Qualities and the grammar of property concepts, Oxford University Press, 2017 ). Augmented with an analysis of prepositional phrases introducing the target of the mental state and an approach to gradability in terms of measure functions (Wellwood in Measuring predicates, PhD dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 2014 ), the analysis explains various properties of possessive experiencer complex predicates, including the behavior of target phrases, the ability of the non-verbal element to be modified by a range of adjectives, the direct participation of the non-verbal element in comparative constructions, and the ability of degree expressions to modify both the non-verbal element and the VP containing the complex predicate. Theoretically, the analysis ties transitive mental state expressions to the grammar and semantics of property concept sentences, which are expressed via possessive morphosyntax cross-linguistically, and connects with syntactic proposals that independently argue for a universal underlyingly possessive morphosyntax for mental state predicates (Noonan in Case and syntactic geometry, PhD dissertation, McGill University, 1992 ; Hale and Keyser in Prolegomenon to a theory of argument structure, MIT Press, 2002 ). The work here also motivates modifications to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s original proposal, and opens new questions in the original empirical domain of the analysis of possessive predicating strategies for the expression of property concept sentences.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

It is common cross-linguistically for property concept sentences , the translational equivalents of English predicative adjectival sentences, to be expressed morphosyntactically via possession of an abstract noun (Dixon 1982 , Baglini 2015 , Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2015 , 2017 , Hanink et al. 2019 ). Such possessive predicating strategies for the expression of property concept sentences have been noted and analyzed in a variety of languages, such as Ulwa (Koontz-Garboden and Francez 2010 ; Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2017 ), Hausa (Newman 2000 ; Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2017 ), Wolof (Baglini 2015 ), Basaá (Hanink et al. 2019 ), and Washo (Hanink and Koontz-Garboden 2021 ), among others. To give just one example, the majority of property concept sentences in Hausa are formed through a combination of the preposition da ‘with’ with an abstract noun of sensory quality, such as karfi ‘strength,’ yielding sentences like (1) to express the proposition ‘we are strong.’ Crucially, da is also used in the language to express possession more generally, hence its designation as a language with a possessive predicating strategy for the expression of property concept sentences.

Previous work on possessive predication in the grammar of property concept sentences has focused on the translational equivalents of adjectives, as many languages with a small, closed (or non-existent) class of adjectives make use of the possessive predicating strategy (Dixon 1982 ; Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2017 ). However, one can ask similar questions about the expression of properties by lexical categories other than adjectives. For instance, Baglini ( 2015 ) and Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) point out that the grammar of Wolof groups possessive predicating property concept lexemes with non-possessive predicating stative verbs , both intransitive and transitive. The authors of these works conclude that both types of expression have denotations built from the same ontology. We thus might expect to find languages with possessive predicating strategies for the expression of transitive statives.

We don’t have to go far to find possessive paraphrases for transitive statives: even in English such paraphrases are possible, and it is not uncommon to speak of having faith in someone or having an interest in something. This said, the possessive strategy is often very marked and unidiomatic, especially when the mental state noun is unmodified, and in some cases is very odd.

A better testing ground for investigating the properties of possessive predicating mental state predicates would be a language in which a possessive strategy is the primary means for expressing such predicates. Footnote 1

In this paper, I examine the use of possessive predication in Persian to express a range of mental states , serving as the translational equivalents of transitive stative verbs in English. Persian, a language with a small, closed class of verbs, is an ideal language to investigate the behavior of possessive predicating strategies for the expression of mental state predicates, because the majority of mental state predicates are expressed via a combination of the possessive verb dâshtan and an abstract noun naming the particular mental state. For example, the translational equivalents of the English stative verbs love and hate are expressed by eshgh dâshtan and nefrat dâshtan , literally ‘to have love’ and ‘to have hatred,’ respectively, as in (3).

I propose that these possessive experiencer complex predicates be analyzed as involving possession of a portion of an abstract quality by an individual, as in Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s ( 2015 , 2016 , 2017 ) analysis of property concept sentences. Augmented with an analysis of prepositional phrases introducing the target of the mental state and an approach to gradability in terms of measure functions (Wellwood 2014 ), the analysis explains various properties of possessive experiencer complex predicates, including the distribution of target phrases in and outside of complex predicates, the ability of the possessed nominal to be modified by a range of adjectives, the direct participation of the nominal in comparative constructions, and the ability of degree morphemes and other modifiers to attach at both the nominal and VP level with the same meaning.

Theoretically, the analysis ties mental state predicates to the grammar and semantics of property concept sentences: mental state nominals are property concept lexemes describing human propensities in Dixon’s ( 1982 ) sense, and likewise pattern with other quality nouns not only in Persian, but also in other languages, including English. Moreover, possessive predicating strategies for mental state predicates exist in languages, other than Persian, such as Sorani Kurdish and Irish, suggesting a broader cross-linguistic applicability of the proposal. Finally, an adequate account of the phenomena reported here motivates modifications to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s original proposal for the analysis of property concept sentences, and opens new questions in the original empirical domain of possessive predication in such sentences, particularly concerning the extent of the modifiability and compositional flexibility of quality-denoting nominals.

The paper is structured as follows. Section  2 contains background on the Persian language, including a discussion of complex predicates. Section  3 introduces the primary empirical focus of the paper, what I call possessive experiencer complex predicates, which make use of a possessive-predicating strategy for expressing a variety of mental state predicates, and details some of their noteworthy properties. Section  4 introduces Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis of property concept sentences in terms of possession of portions of qualities, shows that the NVEs of possessive experiencer complex predicates behave like quality nouns, and develops a preliminary analysis of possessive experiencer complex predicates, staying as close to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s assumptions as possible. In so doing, the section also demonstrates problems that arise with this initial analysis. Section  5 proposes revisions to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis, and shows how the new analysis overcomes the problems with the preliminary analysis in Sect. 4, and details additional correct predictions. Section  6 considers the implications of the proposal beyond Persian by providing evidence for the existence of possessive predicating strategies for the expression of mental state predicates in languages other than Persian, with analogous phenomena occurring in Sorani Kurdish and the Celtic languages Irish and Scottish Gaelic, and considers an analysis of English-like mental state verbs constructed from the ingredients of the analysis of the Persian phenomena discussed throughout the paper. Section  7 concludes the paper by taking stock and discussing avenues for future research.

2 Background on Persian

Persian (also known as Farsi ) is a southwestern Iranian language (Indo-European), spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan as an official language. It exhibits thorough nominative-accusative alignment with differential object marking of specific NPs. The basic word order is SOV, but is otherwise head-initial: the language has prepositions rather than postpositions, nouns precede adjectives in the NP, and embedded clausal complements follow the head verb or noun. Verbs have distinct past and present tense stems. The past tense stem is predictable from the infinitive ( didan ‘to see’ → did ‘saw (3.sg)’) but the present stem is usually unpredictable ( did am ‘I saw,’ but mi bin am ‘I see’). (4), (5), and (6) illustrate a few of these properties.

Persian has several distinct varieties, partially depending on which country it is spoken in: the main varieties are Iranian Persian, Afghan Persian (Dari), and Tajiki Persian (Tajik) (Karimi 2005 ; Jasbi 2015 ). Footnote 2 Moreover, Persian is diglossic: many differences exist between the formal language and the colloquial language, and include differences in agreement suffixes of verbs, nominal suffixes, and systematic differences in pronunciation (Jasbi 2015 ). The Persian sentences and judgments reported in this paper, unless otherwise noted, come from elicitation sessions conducted by the author with three native speakers of colloquial Iranian Persian, and it is this variety that I refer to simply as Persian throughout this paper.

2.1 Possession and the ezâfe construction

Persian has a possessive verb, dâshtan ‘to have.’ It is mostly used the way ‘have’ is used in English, namely, to express possession, whether alienable or inalienable. Footnote 3

For possession within the noun phrase, Persian makes use of the ezâfe (lit. addition) construction. The ezâfe morpheme surfaces as - e after consonants and - ye after vowels. Ezâfe is insensitive to the distinction between alienable and inalienable possession: an ezâfe morpheme is obligatory regardless.

Ezâfe is used for possession within the NP and more generally for modification of a noun by adjectives as well as by other nouns. If there are multiple adjectives or nouns within an NP, an ezâfe vowel appears between each one.

Several analyses exist of the ezâfe construction, ranging from treating it as a marker of Case on +N elements (Samiian 1994 ; Larson and Samiian 2020 ), a marker of agreement triggered after roll-up movement (Kahnemuyipour 2014 ), and a linker affixed to heads at PF (Ghomeshi 1997 ). I take no stance on the correct analysis of ezâfe , and though I generally take it to be semantically vacuous, nothing hinges on this choice. My goal is simply to flag its existence and describe its properties for readers not familiar with Persian, as ezâfe appears in examples featuring nominal modification throughout this paper.

2.2 Complex predicates

While Persian possesses an open class of nouns and adjectives, verbs form a closed class: there are only around 115 simplex verbs in the language (Khanlari 1973 ; Mohammad and Karimi 1992 ), and new members cannot be freely added to the category. To compensate for its relatively small inventory of verbs, Persian makes heavy use of complex predicates, also known as light verb constructions and compound verbs . Complex predicates involve a combination of a simplex verb, termed the light verb , and a noun, adjective, or prepositional phrase, termed the non-verbal element , or NVE (Dabir-Moghaddam 1995 ; Karimi 1997 ; Folli et al. 2005 ; Karimi-Doostan 2011 ). Common light verbs in Persian include kardan ‘to do/make,’ shodan ‘to become,’ zadan ‘to hit,’ xordan ‘to collide,’ dâdan ‘to give,’ and dâshtan ‘to have,’ among others. The examples below provide examples of complex predicates with a variety of light verbs and NVE types.

Complex predicates may be compositional, in which case the meaning of the entire complex predicate is predictable from the meanings of the light verb and NVE (Karimi 1997 ; Folli et al. 2005 ; Karimi-Doostan 2011 ). They can also be idiomatic, in which case the meaning of the complex predicate does not clearly follow from the meaning of its components. The distinction between compositional and idiomatic complex predicates has grammatical consequences. Importantly for the purposes of this paper, the NVE of compositional complex predicates can be modified using the ezâfe construction, as in (20) and (21).

Idiomatic complex predicates, on the other hand, do not permit modification of their NVE. For example, the complex predicate dust dâshtan ‘to like, love’ (lit. have friend) does not permit modification of its NVE.

3 Mental state predicates via possessive complex predicates

The complex predicate strategy extends as well to verbs expressing mental states. Specifically, a number of expressions that act as translational equivalents of English mental state verbs occur with the verb dâshtan ‘to have.’ (23)provides a non-exhaustive list of such possessive experiencer complex predicates.

These complex predicates occur with an NP possessor acting as the experiencer of the mental state. The individual the experiencer bears the mental state toward, which I refer to as the target of the mental state, is introduced by a prepositional phrase, headed either by be ‘to’ or az ‘from, of,’ depending on the particular mental state nominal acting as the NVE.

Possessive experiencer complex predicates are compositional rather than idiomatic in Karimi’s (1997) sense. This can be seen from the fact that the NVE can be modified by a range of adjectives by means of the ezâfe construction. Adjectives that may modify the NVE include ajib ‘strange,’ shadid ‘intense,’ and kâmel ‘complete,’ among others.

Moreover, the NVE of these complex predicates is gradable: the complex predicates in (23) above can be modified by ziyâd ‘much,’ intuitively referring to the “size” of the mental state.

It is also possible to express comparison with possessive experiencer complex predicates by directly modifying the non-verbal element with the comparative bishtar ‘more.’ The expression of comparison in this way is completely productive: all of the complex predicates in (23) can be directly modified by bishtar . The standard of comparison is introduced by tâ , literally ‘until,’ which is used more generally with clausal comparison. Footnote 4

An analysis of possessive experiencer complex predicates should explain the ability of the non-verbal element to be modified by adjectives as an independent nominal, and should also account for its gradability. In addition to this, an ideal account would tie the analysis into a broader class of phenomena cross-linguistically.

4 Possessive experiencer complex predicates as possessed property concepts

In what follows, I introduce Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s ( 2015 , 2016 , 2017 ) approach to property concept sentences as possession of portions of abstract qualities (see also Koontz-Garboden and Francez 2010 ; Hanink et al. 2019 ; Hanink and Koontz-Garboden 2021 ). I begin by discussing Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s results, motivate applying their general approach to possessive experiencer complex predicates by showing that the NVEs of such complex predicates pass Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s diagnostics for quality nouns, and then develop an initial analysis of possessive experiencer complex predicates using their framework. I ultimately show that applying their analysis with minimal modifications leads to problems in explaining certain properties of the Persian data, and motivate a revised analysis in Sect. 5.

4.1 Possessive predicating strategies in property concept sentences

Francez and Koontz-Garboden observe that, cross-linguistically, property concept sentences, translational equivalents of what in English are expressed as predicative adjectival sentences, are often expressed via possession of an abstract mass noun, what they refer to as a possessive predicating strategy. Different languages may make use of a variety of possessive predicating strategies, including a nominal possessive strategy (Ulwa, (41)), a prepositional strategy (Hausa, (42)), or a verbal strategy (Wolof, (43)), among others. Crucially, the strategy used to express property concepts in these languages is the same strategy the language uses for possession more generally, as can be seen in the (b) sentences below.

Francez and Koontz-Garboden develop an account of this phenomenon that takes the surface morphosyntax seriously. On their approach, the abstract noun denotes a set of portions of abstract qualities, themselves a subsort of individual. Footnote 5 These qualities are mass entities ordered by two relations: a partial order interpreted as the parthood relation (Link 1983 ), and a total preorder that intuitively expresses the size of the portion of the quality in question. Finally, the possessive morphosyntax serves to existentially close the quality variable and relate it to an individual (the possessor) via the possessive relation π . The existential quantifier is restricted to those portions that “stand out” in the sense of Kennedy ( 2007 ), by virtue of having a significant or noteworthy size, or having a size few other portions have in the context. This is needed to model the fact that possessive predicating property concept sentences, much like their adjectival counterparts in other languages, are context dependent: (43-a) is true if Awa’s intelligence is sufficiently high to count as smart in the context. In the absence of any contextual restriction, (43-a) would be predicted to be true in contexts where Awa possesses any amount of intelligence, no matter how small. Such weak truth conditions, however, do not adequately capture the meaning of sentences like (43-a).

The context dependence of possessive predicating property concept sentences is implemented in Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis by endowing the possessive verb with an interval argument, which is provided by the context. Here, an interval is a proper subset of portions in the denotation of the quality noun that exceed a threshold in the size preorder on qualities. More precisely, the interval is required to be left-bounded , in the sense that for some portion q in the denotation of the quality noun of which the interval is a subset, every portion in I exceeds q in the preorder. A formal definition from Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) is provided in (44).

Interval: For any quality P, an interval I ⊂ P is a set of portions such that ∃q ∈ P[I = {p : q ≤ p}] (Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2017 , p. 45, ex. (13))

We are now in a position to see how Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis works. The Wolof sentence in (43-a) is analyzed as in (45): xel ‘mind’ is a predicate of portions of the quality mind . am ‘have’ existentially closes the property variable z and relates it to the individual awa via π . The notation ∃z I expresses a restriction of the existential quantifier to portions in the interval I. Footnote 6 The interval argument is further required to be a subset of the quality contributed by the abstract noun, here mind as contributed by xel .

Francez and Koontz-Garboden (2017) follow Jacobson ( 1999 ) in adopting what they call a “directly compositional” approach to context dependence, on which context dependent expressions do not denote a proposition upon combining with all of their arguments. That is, just as for Jacobson a sentence containing a pronoun, such as Mary likes him , is analyzed as a function λx.likes(Mary,x) from individuals to truth values, Francez and Koontz-Garboden propose that the denotation of a possessive predicating property concept sentence is a function from intervals to truth values, as in (46-a). In order to have a truth value, context must provide an interval to saturate the interval argument of (46-a), delivering the truth conditions in (46-b). Footnote 7

This analysis not only provides a compositional analysis of possessive predicating property concept sentences, but also accounts for their context dependence: because the contextually provided interval is a proper subset of the set of portions encoded by the quality noun, not every portion in the quality noun’s denotation will be high enough in the preorder to be an element of the interval. In this way, in the example above, Awa’s intelligence is required to stand out by virtue of being large enough to be included in the contextually provided interval of mind .

One can immediately appreciate the similarities between the phenomena Francez and Koontz-Garboden investigated and the Persian phenomena discussed in Sect. 3: these also involve a possessive predicating strategy for expressing a state. Crucially, dâshtan is used for possession more generally in Persian.

4.2 Mental state nouns are quality nouns

The connection between property concept sentences and possessive experiencer complex predicates is deeper than a shared syntax: mental state nominals pass a range of diagnostics proposed by Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) to distinguish quality nouns from ordinary count and mass nouns. In what follows, I lay out Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s diagnostics for quality nouns, and then demonstrate that mental state nouns in English pass these diagnostics. I then show that Persian possesses analogous diagnostics that group mental state nouns with other quality nouns in the language, while distinguishing them from ordinary mass and count nouns.

First, quality nouns in English are known to permit amount readings with wh-exclamatives (48). This distinguishes them from concrete nouns, whether count or mass, which lack amount readings with wh-exclamatives (49) (Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2017 ).

Wh-exclamatives with mental state nouns also possess amount readings in English, as (50) demonstrates.

Second, using naturally occurring examples from the Web, and drawing on work by Morzycki ( 2012 ), Francez and Koontz-Garboden point out that quality nouns may be modified by modifiers in the big class, such as big , huge , and major , on a reading that measures the extent of a property (51), as well as by modifiers in the utter class, such as utter , outright , and absolute (52). Crucially, such modifiers are unacceptable with ordinary mass nouns (53). The idea is that quality nouns, though behaving like mass nouns in many respects, are inherently totally preordered by a size relation, while mass nouns are not, explaining the two classes’ differential modifiability by big and utter class modifiers.

As can be seen in the natural occurring examples below, mental state nouns behave like other quality nouns in being compatible with both big class modifiers (54)and utter class modifiers (55), providing further support for the quality analysis of such nouns generally.

Furthermore, although not included in Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s set of diagnostics, mental state nouns (56)and quality nouns (57)pattern together in permitting modification by utmost , while ordinary nouns cannot be modified by utmost (58).

These diagnostics have analogues in Persian: just like their English mental state noun counterparts, the NVE of a possessive experiencer complex predicate behaves like a quality noun. First, the NVE can be used with a che ‘what’ exclamative, with the same amount reading as other quality nouns (59). Crucially, other quality nouns that do not refer to mental states, such as zur ‘strength’ and jor’at ‘courage,’ also possess amount readings with che exclamatives (60), while concrete count and mass nouns lack such a reading (61).

What’s more, Persian has an expression nehâyat ‘extremity, utmost’ which can compose with mental state nouns (62) as well as other quality nouns (63), but not with concrete nouns (64). This is reminiscent of the interaction between big/utter -class modifiers and quality nouns in English discussed above, and, more directly, the interaction of such nouns with utmost .

Altogether, these diagnostics strongly suggest that a quality semantics for mental state nouns in general, and for the NVEs of possessive experiencer complex predicates in particular, is on the right track. Footnote 8

4.3 Applying Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis to possessive experiencer complex predicates

I propose that the possessed property concept analysis be extended to Persian possessive experiencer complex predicates. I begin by considering a direct application of Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s (2017) proposal to the Persian data, and ultimately argue for a modification of their approach to accommodate components of possessive experiencer complex predicates that are not shared with other possessive predicating property concept sentences.

On my proposal, as in Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s, the non-verbal element is a quality noun, and denotes a set of portions of an abstract quality corresponding to the mental state experienced. (65) demonstrates this analysis for alâghe ‘interest,’ which is treated as a predicate of portions of the quality interest .

alâghe ⇝ λ p e . interest (p)

As for dâshtan , I follow Francez and Koontz-Garboden for the time being in analyzing it as in (45-b), where it introduces the possessive relation between a portion of a quality and an individual, existentially quantifies over the portion argument of the property concept, and requires that portion stand out with respect to the left-bounded interval I, as in (66).

dâshtan ⇝ λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ x e . λ I⊂P.∃z I [ π (x,z)]

The quality noun and the possessive verb compose straightforwardly by Function Application, yielding (67).

λ x e . λ I⊂ interest .∃z I [ π (x,z)]

Before we can proceed to the truth conditions for sentences with possessive experiencer complex predicates, we need to consider the question of the semantics of target prepositional phrases and how they compose with the denotation of the complex predicate derived in (67). I turn to this in the next subsection, and show that it leads to problems for Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach.

4.4 Problem 1: composing the target phrase

Possessive experiencer complex predicates differ from the property concept lexemes that Francez and Koontz-Garboden studied, by virtue of having not just a possessor, but also a PP argument expressing the target of the emotional state encoded in the NVE, the individual loved, hated, of interest, etc. These targets are introduced by the prepositions be ‘to’ or az ‘of/from,’ as discussed previously. This leads to our first compositional issue in applying Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis to possessive experiencer complex predicates: there is no clear way to compose a possessive VP with a target phrase. The reason for this is that the possessive verb, upon composing with the quality noun, expects an individual argument representing the possessor of the quality, and an interval argument. While an interval on Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach is a set of portions itself, and the target phrase, if defined appropriately, could saturate this argument, this would interfere with the interval argument’s role in ensuring that the portion argument stands out in the context, and would cause further problems for the analysis of gradability on Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis. I conclude that the target phrase cannot be identified with the interval argument, and thus that there is no way to compose the possessive VP with the target phrase on the analysis in Francez and Koontz-Garboden (2017).

The other possibility that would maintain Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis of possessive VPs would be to treat target phrases as nominal modifiers, in which case they would compose with the quality noun rather than with the VP. An analysis that accomplishes this treats the prepositions be and az as functions from individuals to functions from predicates to predicates, where the individual argument stands in the Target relation to an individual (68).

be/az ⇝ λ x e . λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) λ y e .P(y) ∧ target (y) = x

Following composition with its first individual argument, the target phrase may compose with the quality noun, returning a predicate of portions which may in turn serve as the argument of dâshtan . Once the individual argument correspondsing to the possessor is saturated, we derive a predicate of left-bounded intervals of portions, completing the analysis. (69)provides the analysis of (25) on the approach developed thus far.

While this analysis works compositionally, it suffers from two problems. First, nominal modifiers, such as adjectival and prepositional phrases, follow the noun in Persian. This can be seen in the behavior of target phrases modifying quality nouns outside of possessive constructions, as in (70).

Prepositional phrases do precede bare noun objects in the VP, however, as can be seen in (71).

If target phrases modify the quality noun in a possessive experiencer complex predicate, it is strange that they would precede the noun. On the other hand, PP-Noun order is expected if the target phrase modifies the VP.

The second problem concerns the meaning of the sentence derived in (69). The predicted truth conditions for Maryam be ’elm alâghe dâre (lit. Maryam has interest toward science) are as in (72).

〚 Maryam be ’elm alâghe dâre 〛 = 1 iff ∃z \(^{I\subset \{\text{p: \textsc{interest}(p)} \wedge\text{ \textsc{target}(p)} = \textit{science}\}}\) [ π ( maryam ,z)]

In words, the sentence is true iff Maryam has a portion in the contextually provided interval, which is required to be a subset of portions of interest whose target is science. While this does correctly require that the portions at issue have science as their target, the consequence is that Maryam’s portion of interest must stand out specifically with respect to portions of interest whose target is science, rather than portions of interest more generally. Intuitively, this seems to be too restrictive: a portion of interest should stand out with respect to other portions of interest, rather than just those with the same target. More seriously, this leads to a problem for the analysis of comparisons between portions with different targets, which I take up in the next section.

4.5 Problem 2: gradability and comparison of VPs and quality nouns

On Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach, the gradability of possessive predicating property concept sentences is handled by appealing to the left-bounded interval argument of the possessive verb. The comparative, whose denotation is given in (73), takes the VP as an argument, along with the comparative standard and the main clause subject, and asserts that the set of intervals derived by applying the VP denotation to the comparative standard is a subset of the set of intervals derived by applying the VP to the main clause subject.

λα . λ x e . λ y e . α (y) ⊂ α (x), where α is a function of type <e<<p,t>,t>> Footnote 9

They then apply this approach to the analysis of comparatives in the Misumalpan language Ulwa, which makes use of possessive predicating property concept sentences in the form of quality nouns with a possessive suffix -ka . The comparative applies to the possessed NP, and, upon composing with the standard phrase and the subject, returns true iff the set of intervals of tallness containing Clementina’s portion of height is a subset of the set of intervals containing Abanel’s portion of height (74-b).

The denotation of the comparative in Francez and Koontz-Garboden is designed to handle possessive VP comparisons in Ulwa. If we adapt this approach to Persian, we expect that comparatives and other degree modifiers should be able to modify VPs. This turns out to be correct: both ziyâd ‘much’ and bishtar ‘more’ can adjoin to the VP, as the following examples show.

A straightforward application of Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis predicts the availability of VP comparisons. However, there are two major issues with their approach. First, while the analysis in (73) is able to handle possessor comparisons like that in (75-b), where the target and standard of comparison involve distinct possessors, it does not extend to comparisons involving distinct targets, as in (76).

To see this, recall that, on the assumption that target phrases compose with the quality noun, the interval argument of the possessive VP is restricted to sets of portions of a certain kind with a specific target. In the case of (76), for instance, we predict the meaning of the main clause VP to be as in (77-a), where the interval argument is restricted to sets of portions of hatred whose target is Ali. This leads to the truth conditions in (77-b).

On the reasonable assumption that portions have unique targets, Footnote 10 the set of intervals of portions of hatred whose target is Hasan is disjoint from the set of intervals of portions of hatred whose target is Ali. As it is not possible for the former set to be a subset of the latter, we make the undesirable prediction that comparitives like (76) are contradictions. Footnote 11

The second problem concerns the ability of ziyâd and bishtar to directly modify the quality noun, as discussed in examples (35)-(40) in Sect. 3, some of which I repeat below for convenience. That ziyâd and bishtar are indeed modifying the noun can be seen by the presence of ezâfe , which, as noted above, appears between the noun and any adnominal modifiers.

On Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis, the comparative takes arguments of type <e<<p,t>,t>>. As such, it simply cannot compose with the quality noun, which is of type <p,t>. We thus have no analysis of the gradability of the quality noun independently of the possessive VP in which it is contained. Footnote 12

4.6 Interim summary

I have argued here that a direct application of Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis with minimal modifications to possessive experiencer complex predicates leads to problems with the analysis of target phrases and gradability. In what follows, I propose modifications to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis that overcomes the problems discussed above, in addition to making a variety of additional desirable predictions.

5 A new possessive predicating analysis for possessive experiencer complex predicates

In this section, I propose a possessive predicating analysis of possessive experiencer complex predicates that builds off of Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s work, but makes modifications to their analysis in order to solve the problems noted in the previous section.

First, I continue to maintain Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis of quality nouns as predicates of portions; the analysis of a quality noun will thus continue to be as in (65) above, repeated as (80) below for convenience.

I also maintain my proposal for the analysis of target phrases as functions from predicates to predicates, with target prepositions being functions from individuals to such functions, as in (68). The analysis of the target phrase be/az Ali will thus be as in (81). Footnote 13

be/az Ali ⇝ λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ p e .P(p) ∧ target (p) = ali

5.1 The meaning of the possessive verb

The first modification I make to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis concerns the denotation of the possessive verb dâshtan . I arrive at the new analysis by removing the interval argument and the existential quantification over the portion argument and lambda abstracting over the portion argument. The revised analysis of dâshtan is thus as in (82).

dâshtan ⇝ λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ x e . λ p e .P(p) ∧ π (x,p)

As in Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach, dâshtan takes the quality noun as an argument. Upon doing so, the result is a function from individuals to predicates of portions, as in (83).

λ x e . λ p e . interest (p) ∧ π (x,p)

Because the portion argument is available for composition at the VP-level, we can compose the target phrase with the possessive VP in a way that overcomes the previously noted problems with Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis. I propose that the target phrase, analyzed as a function from predicates to predicates, composes with the possessive VP via a standardly available rule of function composition , defined in (84).

Function Composition

f ∘ g = λ y.f(g(y))

Essentially, Function Composition works by saturating an argument of one function, applying the second function to the result, and then abstracting over the saturated argument place of the first function. This allows us to compose the target phrase with the possessive VP despite the presence of the possessor argument. The compositional process is shown for our running example, repeated in (85), in (86). Footnote 14

〚be ’elm alâghe dâre〛

= 〚be elm〛 ∘ 〚alâghe dâre〛

= λ y e .〚be elm〛(〚alâghe dâre〛(y))

= λ y e .( λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ p e .P(p) ∧ target (p) = science λ x e . λ p e . interest (p) ∧ π (x,p) (y))

= λ y e .( λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ p e .P(p) ∧ target (p) = science λ p e . interest (p) ∧ π (y,p))

= λ y e . λ p e . interest (p) ∧ π (y,p) ∧ target (p) = science

Once the target phrase composes with the possessive VP, all that is left is to saturate the possessor argument by Function Application. Once this is done, we have a nearly complete analysis of basic examples like (85), the analysis of which is as in (87).

λ p e . interest (p) ∧ π ( maryam ,p) ∧ target (p) = science

Finally, we need to saturate the portion argument, so that a sentence with a possessive experiencer complex predicate is truth-evaluable. I propose that this be accomplished by a rule of existential closure, defined in (88).

∃(P) → ∃p e [ C (p) ∧ P(p)]

Here, the existential quantifier encodes an additional restriction on portions, C , which can be construed as the property of standing out in the context, in much the same way as Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s left-bounded interval argument. In other words, the existential quantifier requires not only that a portion with the property P exist, but also that it stand out in the context. Footnote 15 The tree in (89)provides an illustration of the complete compositional analysis of our running example in (85).

5.2 Gradability and comparison

The second major modification I make to Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis involves the approach to gradability. Having removed the interval argument from the possessive VP, I cannot make use of Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis of the comparative.

Instead, I adopt an analysis of the comparative based on the use of measure functions , following Wellwood ( 2014 ). On this approach, the comparative introduces an underspecified measure function μ , which directly measures the size of the portion argument and compares it to the maximal degree of the measure in the standard clause headed by tâ . Footnote 16

bishtar ⇝ λ d d . λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ p e .P(p) ∧ μ (p) > d

Upon composing with the degree denoted by the standard clause, bishtar may compose with the quality noun directly via Function Application. The compositional analysis of a nominal comparative like (39), repeated in (91), is provided in (92), where δ represents the degree contributed by the standard phrase headed by tâ . Footnote 17 (93) provides the full truth conditions for the comparative.

∃p e [ C (p) ∧ interest (p) ∧ π (maryam,p) ∧ target (p) = science ∧ μ (p) > max ( λ d d .∃p’ e [ interest (p’) ∧ C (p) ∧ π (maryam,p’) ∧ target (p’) = religion ∧ μ (p’) ≥ d])]

On this analysis, a quality noun comparative like (91) is true if Maryam’s portion of interest toward science has a greater measure than that of her portion of interest toward religion, as desired.

What’s more, the analysis already has the means to analyze VP comparisons: just as target phrases may compose with the possessive VP via Function Composition, bishtar may compose with the VP in the same fashion. This means that we can analyze sentences like (76) or the example in (94), chosen to be parallel to (91) analyzed in (93).

The tree below provides the compositional analysis of (94).

The meaning derived in (95)is the same as that derived for quality noun comparison as in (93), as desired. We are thus able to analyze both VP and quality noun comparisons in Persian.

To conclude this section, I provide an analysis of ziyâd ‘much.’ I posit a similar entry to that for bishtar , but have the measure of the quality greatly exceed the contextual standard of the measure function (96). Footnote 18

ziyâd ⇝ λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ p e .P(p) ∧ μ (p) >> std ( μ )

(98)gives the analysis of (36), repeated in (97), with ziyâd composing with the NVE once again by Function Application. As with bishtar , ziyâd may compose with both the quality noun and the possessive VP, the latter via Function Composition, with the same meaning in (98), as desired.

∃p e [ C (p) ∧ hate (p) ∧ μ (x) >> std ( μ ) ∧ π (roya,p) ∧ target (p) = hasan]

Here, the gradability of the NVE is guaranteed without requiring that quality nouns have the same type as possessive VPs, as required for Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis of comparatives in Ulwa, nor does it require recourse to another strategy treating quality nouns as denoting measure functions or being otherwise endowed with a degree argument (Morzycki 2009 ). Rather, reference to degrees is contributed by functional material, with the noun contributing a property of measurable individuals.

5.3 Addressing the problems from Sect. 4

The analysis developed in the previous subsections addresses all of the problems that arise when applying Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis with minimal modifications, discussed in Sect. 4. First, it solves the problem of the composition of the possessive VP with target phrases. Second, precisely because target phrases can compose with the possessive VP, rather than the quality noun, their position to the left of the noun is unsurprising: their position is simply the expected position of VP modifiers. Third, the new analysis does not predict that comparatives with distinct target phrases are contradictions, but instead captures their correct truth conditions. Finally, my analysis accommodates the gradability of the possessive VP in Persian as well as the gradability of the quality noun itself, and thus improves on Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s analysis, which accommodates the former but not the latter.

In addition to presenting a solution to the problems noted in Sect. 4, the analysis makes a number of additional predictions that I show to be correct below.

5.4 Additional predictions

First of all, if the non-verbal element denotes a predicate of portions of a quality, and such portions are in turn a subsort of individual, their ability to be modified by adjectives, as demonstrated in examples (31)-(34), is expected. For example, if an adjective phrase like ajib ‘strange’ is treated as a predicate modifier, then it can compose with a predicate of portions straightforwardly, as in (99).

Second, since target phrases are treated as functions from predicates to predicates on my analysis, we expect that they should be able to compose not only with the possessive VP by function composition, but also directly with the NVE via Function Application, and that they should be able to appear with the NVE in its nominal use outside of complex predicates. This prediction is borne out: the target phrase may appear with independent mental state nominals. Further, as noted previously, the target phrase occurs to the right of the quality noun, as expected for nominal modifiers in Persian more generally.

Note that these examples are definite. This is easily accommodated on my analysis, given the type of quality nouns as properties and the independently motivated presence of Partee’s ( 1987 ) ι type-shifter in Persian (Jasbi 2020 ). They can be analyzed as in (102), with ι applied to the subject.

intense ( ι p e [ terror (p) ∧ target (p) = ∩ lion ∧ π ( speaker ,p)])

A final prediction concerns the behavior of comparatives with possessive experiencer complex predicates. Recall that on my analysis existential closure applies to saturate the portion variable, delivering the truth conditions in (93), repeated in (103)for convenience.

∃p e [ C (p) ∧ interest (p) ∧ target (p) = science ∧ π (maryam,p) ∧ μ (p) > max ( λ d d .∃p’ e [ C (p) ∧ interest (p’) ∧ target (p’) = religion ∧ π (maryam,p’) ∧ μ (p’) ≥ d])]

Note that the existential quantifier comes with a requirement that the portion it quantifies over stand out in the context. This amounts to a prediction that comparatives with possessive experiencer complex predicates entail the positive: in other words, we expect (37), repeated in (104), to entail hatred of Ali and Hasan, and (39), repeated in (105), to entail interest in science and religion.

This prediction turns out to be correct: comparatives with possessive experiencer complex predicates entail reaching a positive threshold for the possessed mental state. In particular, (106)and (107)demonstrate that it is not possible to deny hatred/interest for the target if a comparative has been uttered in the previous discourse. Footnote 19

5.5 Apparently recalcitrant data: relativized and quantified NVEs

To conclude this section, I turn to an apparent problem for the analysis. On my analysis, as on Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s, the first argument of the possessive verb is a predicate of individuals, corresponding to the quality noun, which, in all examples discussed thus far, denotes a set of portions of an abstract quality. However, there appear to be cases in Persian in which the NVE of a possessive experiencer complex predicate does not obviously denote a predicate. In particular, there are examples in which the NVE is relativized (108), questioned (109), or quantified (110). Footnote 20

Regarding (108), on most approaches to the structure and interpretation of relative clauses (Sauerland 1998 ; Bhatt 2002 ; Hulsey and Sauerland 2006 ), the moved component, whether a null operator or the head noun, depending on the analysis, leaves a trace of type e . Since dâshtan expects a predicate of portions as an argument, the trace, being of type e , cannot compose with dâshtan , and a type clash results. Similarly, wh -phrases and quantified NVEs are scope-taking elements, and, on a Quantifier Raising analysis (May 1985 ; Kratzer and Heim 1998 ), would be structurally and semantically parallel to the relative clause case. We would therefore expect a type e trace as the argument of dâshtan in these examples, and, all else being equal, the analysis would (108)-(110) to be unacceptable, contrary to fact.

It turns out, however, that there is a solution to this apparent puzzle that is fully compatible with an analysis in which dâshtan takes a property argument. In particular, if the trace of movement is of type e , it can be shifted to a predicate via Partee’s ( 1987 ) ident type-shifter, defined below. Footnote 21

ident (c) := λ y e .y = c

The ident -shifted trace is now of type <e,t>, and is thus an appropriate argument for dâshtan . A derivation using this approach is shown in (113), based on the quality NP with a relative clause in (108), repeated below for convenience.

Similar analyses are possible for (109) and (110): both involve scope-taking elements that can be analyzed in terms of (covert) Quantifier Raising, leaving a trace that can be converted into a predicate via ident . The upshot is that the existence of moved and quantified NVEs does not present a technical problem for a possessive predicating analysis on which dâshtan takes a predicate argument.

6 Beyond Persian: mental state nouns and possessive predication cross-linguistically

While I have focused on Persian in this paper, my analysis receives independent support outside of Persian. For one, possessive-predicating strategies for the expression of mental state is not limited to Persian, and is attested in several other languages in a way that tracks the morphosyntactic strategy used more broadly in the language in question. Moreover, several proposals have been made in syntactic theory that decompose stative transitive verbs into possessive structures (Noonan 1992 ; Hale and Keyser 1999 , 2002 ), suggesting that the approach can be applied to languages like English as well.

6.1 Possessive-predicating strategies for mental state expressions outside Persian

Persian is not alone in constructing mental state predicates by means of a possessive predicating strategy. For one, one can see from the examples in Sects. 1 and 4.2 that both English and Italian are able to make use of a possessive predicating strategy for the expression of mental states, even if this is not the most common strategy utilized by these languages. This said, there are a number of languages that use possessive predication as a primary strategy to express mental states. Moreover, we see the same kind of variation in possessive predication as Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) observed for other kinds of property concept sentences. For example, in Sorani Kurdish, a Northwestern Iranian language, mental state predicates exist that are expressed using an existential construction with a prepositional target phrase (114), where the possessor is expressed as a possessive clitic on the possessed NP, amounting to what Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) call a existential possessive NP strategy (114). In addition to the clitic, the possessor may be expressed as a topic phrase at the beginning of the sentence. Importantly, this existential construction is the same one used for possession in the language more generally (115). Footnote 22

Even outside of the Iranian language family, one can find languages that express mental states by means of a possessive strategy. For instance, the Celtic languages Irish and Scottish Gaelic make use of an existential construction to express both possession and mental state predicates, using what Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) call a property pivot strategy , in which the quality noun is the existential subject, and both the possessor of the quality and its target are introduced by prepositional phrases. A closer look at Irish reveals that such a possessive predicating strategy exists for many of the same predicates that Persian constructs with dâshtan . The following examples are drawn from Noonan ( 1992 ) and from Foras na Gaeilge ’s Irish dictionary. Footnote 23

The same analysis I have proposed for Persian can be extended to Sorani and Irish, differing only in how the components of the meaning are distributed throughout the structure. Footnote 24 For example, the existential possessive NP strategy of Sorani can be analyzed by having the possessive clitic introduce possessive semantics, with the prepositional phrase introducing the target (124).

The clitic composes directly with the quality noun, while the target preposition composes with an individual, producing a phrase of type <p,t>, which can in turn compose with the quality NP. (125)provides a compositional analysis for (123)using the proposal in (124). Footnote 25

The analysis of Irish is essentially analogous to that of Sorani immediately above. The difference would lie in that the possessor is introduced by the preposition ag , with a semantics as in (126).

〚 ag 〛 =  λ x e . λ P \(_{< e,t>}\) . λ p e .P(p) ∧ π (x,p)

This analysis predicts quality nouns to be modifiable and gradable like their Persian equivalents, and to otherwise behave like quality nouns in the language. The fact that they can be so modified can already be seen in examples above: for example, in the Sorani sentence in (114-a), rqek ‘hatred (indef.)’ is modified by zor ‘much’ using the ezâfe construction, in the same way that Persian NVEs can be modified by ziyâd ‘much.’ Likewise, in the Irish sentence in (122), suim ‘interest’ appears with a quantifier aon ‘any,’ suggesting these may permit quantification in a manner similar to Persian NVEs. I leave further exploration of the properties of these constructions to future research.

6.2 Decomposing transitive stative verbs

A number of syntactic approaches to verbal argument structure have proposed that stative transitive verbs of the sort found in English be decomposed into an underlying mental state noun and a possessive element, either a preposition or a verb (Noonan 1992 ; Hale and Keyser 1999 , 2002 ; Harves and Kayne 2012 ). For example, Noonan ( 1992 ) decomposes both English love and its Irish possessive equivalent into a possessive structure containing a stative NP and a possessive verb have (127).

Decomposition of love from Noonan (1992: 201, ex.21)

In a similar vein, Hale and Keyser ( 2002 ) point out that English has several possessive paraphrases for stative transitives, alternating with a have and give form where the root of the verb is realized as a nominal.

For this, and other reasons, such as the inability of stative transitives to form middles, Hale and Keyser decompose them into a combination of a verb and a prepositional phrase, with the target phrase in the specifier of the prepositional phrase and the mental state expressed as a noun acting as the complement of P.

Hale and Keyser’s (2002, p. 41, ex. (26)) decompositional analysis of respect the truth

Given this existing tendency in the syntactic literature to decompose stative transitive verbs into possessive predicating structures, it is perhaps no surprise that there should be languages that express mental states primarily via possessive predication: languages like Persian simply express on the surface an underlying structure common to all languages. What’s more, this means that the analysis I have proposed for Persian is applicable to languages like English. As an example, the syntax in (129)could be endowed with a quality semantics similarly to what I proposed for Persian, with the P head taking the quality noun as its first argument, followed by the DP argument in its specifier.

Even outside of decompositional approaches to the argument structure of stative verbs, there is reason to think that stative transitive verbs share a common, quality-based core with possessive predicating property concept sentences. For instance, Baglini ( 2015 ) and Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) point out that, in Wolof, possessive predicating property concept lexemes pattern with stative transitive verbs in, e.g., their compatibility with the degree modifier lool ‘very’ and the comparative gën . Non-stative predicates and possessive VPs with mass nouns are unacceptable with both, suggesting that quality possession is at issue.

In this way, the semantics of quality possession can be extended straightforwardly to languages that express mental states via transitive verbs, in much the same way that such a semantics can be extended to lexical adjectives for property concept sentences more generally (Menon and Pancheva 2014 ).

7 Taking stock and areas for future research

I have examined the properties of possessive experiencer complex predicates in Persian, demonstrating the modifiability and gradability of their NVEs. I proposed that they be analyzed as instances of possessive predicating property concept sentences, extending Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s semantics for quality possession to mental state constructions, while enriching the general approach with an analysis of target phrases as predicate modifiers, an existential closure rule, and a measure function approach to comparatives and ziyâd (Wellwood 2014 ). I showed that the approach captures key properties of these constructions, such as their modifiability and gradability, and makes further correct predictions about their behavior. I then showed that the proposal can be extended to explain the properties of expressions encoding mental state outside of Persian by showing that the possessive predicating strategies for mental states in languages like Sorani Kurdish and Irish can be endowed with a similar analysis to Persian and extending the approach to a decompositional analysis of mental state verbs in the style of Hale and Keyser ( 2002 ).

In addition to explaining the properties of possessive experiencer complex predicates in Persian, this work forges a more general connection between the grammar of mental state predicates and that of property concept sentences cross-linguistically. In particular, this work provides direct support for Baglini ( 2015 ) and Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s ( 2017 ) approach that posits a shared ontology between possessive predicating property concept sentences and transitive stative verbs, by virtue of the fact that the latter are instantiated by possessive predication in some languages. It further develops a semantics that aligns well with extant analyses in the syntactic literature that take stative transitives to be decomposed into a nominal head expressing a mental state and a prepositional or verbal head expressing possessive or target semantics.

This work leads to a number of directions for future research. In what follows, I discuss a few of these areas, as well as questions raised by the work that, though I provide preliminary answers to here, certainly require further investigation.

7.1 Cross-linguistic variation

In Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s ( 2017 ) approach, qualities and the nouns that characterize them see very little compositional action, as they are existentially quantified off by the possessive very early in the derivation of property concept sentences. However, given the gradability of quality nouns in Persian, along with their greater degree of syntactic freedom, it would be illuminating to revisit Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s original domain of inquiry, and examine the gradability of the quality nouns themselves in languages with a possessive predicating strategy for property concept sentences more generally. For example, do languages like Wolof and Hausa show evidence of the gradability of the quality noun independently of the possessive verb phrase, and can they be moved or quantified? Or do quality nouns vary in their syntactic independence and gradability, such that gradability only arises in the possessive construction?

7.2 Possessive attitudinal complex predicates

While in this paper I have concentrated on mental state predicates corresponding to certain kinds of emotional states, such as love and hatred, Persian also makes use of a possessive predicating strategy to express a number of propositional attitude predicates, particularly concerning belief, desire, and need. (132)gives several examples of such complex predicates.

Like possessive experiencer complex predicates, these expressions may appear with a target phrase (133). Given their nature as propositional attitude predicates, they may also take clausal complements expressing the content of the attitude (134).

Also like possessive experiencer complex predicates, the NVE of these complex predicates is modifiable.

While I leave an in-depth study of this class of complex predicates to future research, a promising approach would be to treat the NVEs of these complex predicates as content nouns, building on analyses of clausal embedding (Kratzer 2006 , Moulton 2009 , Elliott 2017 ). This would involve embedding a possible worlds semantics for attitude predicates within the quality semantics, with possessive predication introducing the attitude holder. Such an approach would deliver a unified analysis for possessive predicating mental state predicates in Persian, while also accounting for the properties particular to attitudinal complex predicates.

7.3 The typology of qualities

Another question, raised by an anonymous reviewer, concerns what determines whether a portion of an abstract quality may relate to an individual. I take this question to ultimately relate to why the qualities discussed in this paper, such as love, hatred, and interest, possess targets, and therefore appear with target phrase arguments, but the qualities discussed by Francez and Koontz-Garboden, such as courage and beauty, do not.

In attempting an answer, I think it is instructive to consider similar variation in the domain of events. For example, running events may occur simply by virtue of there being a runner, while events of kicking may entail the existence of something kicked, or they may not, as when one moves one’s leg in a kicking motion. However, there can be no eating unless there is both someone doing the eating and something being eaten.

The domain of qualities can be broken down along similar lines: some qualities, such as courage or beauty, exist solely by virtue of being possessed, and are not directed at other individuals. Other qualities, such as sadness or anger, may be directed at certain things (my sadness at John’s death, my anger at Jim, etc.), but need not be. Finally, there are qualities, such as love and hatred, which, like eating, depend on two individuals for existence: they must be possessed by one individual, and directed at another in order to exist in the first place. This would put qualities on a par with other subsorts of individuals, and pave the way for a more fine-grained typology of qualities.

7.4 Qualities vs. states

Lastly, there has been recent work on mental state and attitude verbs from the perspective of neo-Davidsonian event semantics, particularly Pasternak ( 2019 ), focusing on their gradability and corresponding measures of intensity. For example, Pasternak’s system explains the gradability of desire reports via an interaction between the altitudes of mental states qua eventualities and a measure function that is monotonic with respect to the part structure of those eventualities and their corresponding altitudes.

The work reported here has different explanatory goals from Pasternak’s: while Pasternak aims to explain the gradability of mental state verbs and a corresponding connection to the preference ordering at the heart of desire reports, my own concern has been with the expression of mental states via possessive predication and their semantic composition, with an analysis of modification and gradability as an additional boon of the analysis. Still, the choice between states and qualities is worth addressing, and I conclude the paper with a brief discussion of this issue.

As mentioned above, the measure functions at stake in the analysis of adjectives and mental state verbs as predicates of states, as in the work of Wellwood ( 2014 ) and Pasternak ( 2019 ), respectively, are required to be monotonic with respect to the parthood relation assumed for states, events, and ordinary individuals (Schwarzschild 2002 ). The relevant notion of monotonicity is defined in (136), and states that if s is a proper part of s’, then the measure of s must be strictly less than the measure of s’.

s \(<_{part}\) s’ → μ (s) < μ (s’)

The monotonicity of measurement explains why sentences like (137)may be interpreted as comparing the distance or temporal duration of the two events of running, but not their speed: distance and duration are monotonic measurements on running events, because a running event necessarily lasts longer than its parts, but speed is not, because the parts of a running event do not necessarily have lower speeds than the whole.

John ran more than Mary (duration, distance, *speed)

Extending the claim to adjectives qua predicates of states and to mental state verbs amounts to the claim that measurements of, say, heat are monotonic with respect to hot states, and measures of intensity are monotonic with respect to mental states.

An issue arises for this approach, however: temporal duration should be monotonic on mental states as well. After all, intuitively, if I hate Mary from 1 pm to 3 pm, then there is a part of that state of hatred that lasts from 1 pm to 2 pm. And yet temporal duration does not seem to be available as a reading for comparatives with mental state predicates; the only reading available is one of intensity. This is true of English mental state verbs, and it holds true for Persian possessive experiencer complex predicates as well: (138)is not true in a context in which I have simply hated Ali for longer than I have hated Hasan, with no differences in the amount of hatred I have for them. Footnote 26

If temporal duration is not available with mental state comparisons, it must be because it is not a monotonic measurement on states. This would mean, given the definition of monotonicity in (123), that parts of states are not necessarily shorter in duration than the wholes of which they are part. That is to say, a part of a state of love or hatred (or, indeed, heat) may last just as long as a state of which it is part, but must be less intense than the larger state. This, however, makes mental states seem less like typical Davidsonian eventualities, the part structure of which is ordinarily intrinsically related to their spatiotemporal organization, and much more like portions of qualities, the part structure of which, on Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach as well as my own, is respected by their intrinsic size pre-order, but need not be connected to their temporal duration. In other words, the unavailability of temporal duration as a monotonic measurement in examples like (138)is expected on a quality possession analysis, but is not clearly so on the neo-Davidsonian state analysis. Though future work may provide a more in-depth comparison of the neo-Davidsonian and quality possession approaches, the discussion here at least provides some indication that the quality possession analysis is on the right track.

Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) present a similar argument for investigating possessive predicating strategies for translational equivalents of adjectives in languages other than English. Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 , p. 23) write:

Languages vary in the extent to which they employ possessive and predicative strategies. For example, English and other Germanic and Romance languages employ both strategies, but the possessive one is very limited in scope, and in cases in which both exist with a single notional category, as in (i), the possessive member is very marked and, in many cases, unidiomatic. (i)

Larson and Samiian ( 2020 ) refer to the three main dialect groups of Persian as iPersian, aPersian, and tPersian, respectively. As I do not compare different varieties of Persian in this paper, I do not make use of this terminology here.

dâshtan has an additional, unrelated use as a marker of progressive aspect (Taleghani 2010 ).

Persian is also able to express the standard of comparison with the preposition az ‘from.’ My consultants preferred the use of tâ here, in part due to the difficulty of processing sentences with both standard-marking az and the target prepositional phrase, itself sometimes headed by az .

Throughout this paper, I follow Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ) in having variables p, p’, q, etc. range over portions of qualities. However, since these are more commonly used as variables over propositions in the formal semantics literature, to avoid confusion I explicitly type all variables with a type subscript, with variables over portions of type e , truth values of type t , and functions of type < σ , τ >, where σ and τ stand for any type. This departs slightly from the presentation in Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ), who treat portions as of type p , with type e reserved for ordinary count and mass individuals. However, since they explicitly treat portions as subsorts of individual, I take this to be only a presentational departure, rather than one with serious technical implications.

In other words, ∃z I requires that portions z be a member of I, and could alternatively be written as ∃z∈I. Likewise, ∃z \(^{I\subset \text{\textsc{mind}}}\) could be expressed as ∃z∈I⊂ mind , requiring z to be a member of a left-bounded interval, which is in turn a subset of the quality mind . I have chosen to maintain Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s notation here.

Francez and Koontz-Garboden are not explicit about how exactly the context saturates the interval argument. Where explicitness is required in what follows, I represent the contextually provided interval as an argument in the syntactic structure, and otherwise note that it is contextually provided.

There is another diagnostic for quality nouns, not directly applicable in English or Persian: quality nouns are known to be compatible with certain quantifiers in Italian, particularly nessun(o) ‘no,’ which are not compatible with ordinary mass or plural count nouns (Tovena 2001 ; Francez and Koontz-Garboden 2017 ; Zamparelli 2020 ).

Nessun is also compatible with mental state nouns, as (65)demonstrates with naturally occurring examples from the Web.

Recall that p is the type of portions for Francez and Koontz-Garboden ( 2017 ), a subsort of individual.

See, for example, Landman ( 2012 ) on the Unique Role Requirement for thematic roles, which states that thematic roles are functions from events to individuals. In other words, exactly one individual may bear any particular thematic role to an event.

Note that nothing changes if the meaning of the comparative is adjusted so that it denotes a relation between sets of intervals, an adjustment Francez and Koontz-Garboden themselves make to account for the equivalents of clausal comparatives in Ulwa. The two intervals will still be sets of portions with different targets, and are thus disjoint.

Both Li ( 2019 ) and Zhang ( 2020 ) propose extensions of Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s framework to deal with possessive predicating property concept sentences in Mandarin, which are gradable, and to differentiate them from other possessive constructions in the language, which are not. While these analyses are insightful in their own right, neither solves the problem of the direct participation of quality nouns in comparatives: on both analyses, gradability is introduced by the possessive verb, as in Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach.

A reviewer asks if target phrases permit other kinds of arguments, such as kind and quantificational noun phrases. The complement of the target preposition may indeed be a kind-denoting expression, as well as a quantified noun phrase, as the following two examples show.

I set aside kind and quantificational targets in the main text. That said, their properties are not really a problem for the analysis. For instance, if kinds are a type of individual (Carlson 1977 ; Chierchia 1998 ), the analysis I develop below for target phrases handles them straightforwardly. For quantified noun phrases, a range of solutions, such as Quantifier Raising (May 1985 ), may be adopted that permit interpretation of a quantificational argument in a position that expects an individual argument.

An alternative to the analysis in terms of function composition is one in which the subject is introduced below the target phrase, say in the specifier of the possessive VP, and undergoes raising to subject position in a higher specifier. This would saturate the possessor argument with a trace (interpreted as a type e variable), allowing the target phrase to compose with the VP, followed by abstraction over the variable, which is finally saturated by the possessor in subject position. I have chosen to use function composition in the main text largely because it enables composition to proceed in situ , but nothing hinges on this choice.

C can in fact be explicitly restricted to be a left-bounded interval of portions. The main difference from Francez and Koontz-Garboden’s approach, then, would be that C is not compositionally active.

I assume here a clausal analysis of tâ standards in Persian, and with it, a standard approach to the structure and interpretation of clausal standards, with operator movement, degree abstraction, and maximization over the resulting set of degrees (Kennedy 1999 ; Wellwood 2014 ). I further assume that the standard clause, while composing directly with bishtar , undergoes a process of right dislocation that accounts for its position to the right of the verb in the main clause of a comparative.

Some evidence for a clausal analysis of tâ standards comes from the fact that the complement of tâ is not restricted to a single phrase, and may contain multiple constituents from the underlying clause, as in (90).

Such an example is difficult to accommodate on a phrasal approach to tâ standards, but is straightforwardly treated on the clausal analysis I adopt here. Still, the properties of comparative standards in Persian remain very much understudied in both the descriptive and formal literature on the language, and future research that sheds light on these properties would be valuable.

For reasons of space, I omit the compositional analysis of the standard clause, though see the previous footnote for a brief description of the analysis assumed.

Though I gloss ziyâd as ‘much’ in English, there are reasons for not assimilating it to the analysis of English much proposed in Wellwood ( 2014 ), on which it would simply denote a contextually provided measure function. For one, ziyâd is not used in the same range of constructions as much . For example, while English forms degree demonstratives and degree questions using this/that/how much , Persian uses qadr ‘amount’ to form such constructions.

In general, ziyâd is used more specifically to express large amounts, and is not readily modifiable. This is captured in the analysis proposed here, as ziyâd , unlike the comparative bishtar , introduces no degree argument, and simply requires the measure provided to exceed a standard.

This entailment to the positive does not occur with adjectival comparisons in Persian. (106), for instance, does not sound contradictory, as is generally expected of comparatives on, for instance, any degree-based analysis (Cresswell 1976 ; Kennedy 1999 ; Schwarzschild and Wilkinson 2002 ).

I have said nothing about the analysis of adjectives and adjectival comparisons in Persian in this paper, and I remain neutral with respect to their analysis. That said, given that nominal and VP comparisons make use of bishtar , and adjectival comparisons uniformly make use of the suffix -tar , it is not unreasonable to suppose that their semantic properties may be quite different. I thank an anonymous reviewer for asking about the entailments of comparatives with possessive experiencer complex predicates vs. adjectival comparisons.

I thank an anonymous NACIL3 reviewer for pointing this out to me, and for providing (108).

This is reminiscent of Zimmermann’s ( 1993 ) solution to the composition of quantificational noun phrases with intensional verbs, such as seek , which he analyzes as taking property arguments. For those quantificational NPs that cannot be converted into a property, the NP is instead scoped over the intensional VP, with an ident -shifted variable bound by the quantifier in the object position of the intensional verb. I am grateful to an anonymous reviewer for pointing out the relevance of Zimmermann’s analysis to this problem.

Many thanks to Saman Meihami and Baban Mohammed for contributing and discussing the Sorani Kurdish data here.

The dictionary is available online at www.focloir.ie , and provides example sentences to illustrate usage.

An alternative to this transparent analysis of the Irish sentences is to simply treat Irish as underlyingly structurally similar to Persian, but with syntactic conditions ruling out the pronunciation of the verb as have . This is essentially the approach taken in Noonan ( 1992 ) and Harves and Kayne ( 2012 ): for these authors, Irish lacks have as a lexical item capable of spelling out a possessive structure, and the prepositional phrases are present for Case-theoretic reasons. On this approach, there would be no underlying syntactic difference between Persian and Irish, and the analysis of Irish would be essentially the same as the analysis of Persian.

This analysis assumes that the existential verb heje serves to existentially close the portion variable, but nothing hinges on this. For instance, the verb may be treated as semantically vacuous, with an Existential Closure operation saturating the portion variable as in the analysis of Persian.

Pasternak is aware of this issue for his approach, and argues that, despite first impressions, temporal duration is available for mental state comparatives in the right context. He offers the following context (Pasternak 2019 , pp. 294-295):

For instance, imagine that some psychologists are running a study in which subjects are sent into house parties, where they witness various pleasant and unpleasant scripted events. The subjects are given a remote with a single button, and told to hold down the button whenever they decide they want to leave, and let go of the button whenever they stop wanting to leave. The remote does not provide any way of indicating how intense their desire to leave is. Now suppose that Subject A held the button from 7 pm to 10 pm, while Subject B only held the button from 6 to 6:30 and from 9:30 to 10. Thus, Subject A was uncomfortable for a total of three hours, while Subject B was uncomfortable for just one. In this scenario, it seems reasonable for a psychologist looking at the recorded results to report the following: (65) The results show that over the course of the evening, Subject A wanted to leave more than Subject B did.

While Pasternak’s (65) may be felicitous in this context for some speakers (my own judgments are unclear), this context only establishes that want may permit temporal duration as a monotonic measure; similar contexts are difficult to construct for the mental states my own analysis is concerned with. Incidentally, Persian does not express desire reports using a possessive predicating strategy, but with the verb xâstan .

While the existence of a lexical verb for the expression of desire reports may simply be a coincidence, it is also possible that desire reports are not built on a quality possession semantics, which may explain their compatibility with temporal duration readings of comparatives.

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Acknowledgements

Many thanks to Mohsen Mahdavi Mazdeh, Shahriar Hormozi, and Saman Meihami for their judgments and comments on the Persian data, to Andrew Koontz-Garboden, Jila Ghomeshi, Vera Hohaus, Jens Hopperdietzel, Simin Karimi, and the audiences at the third North American Conference on Iranian Linguistics and TripleA 10 for their feedback and suggestions. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for the aforementioned conferences, Amy Rose Deal, and two anonymous reviewers at Natural Language Semantics, whose comments and insights greatly improved the paper. Finally, thanks go to Saman Meihami and Baban Mohammed for data from Sorani Kurdish, and to Niamh Kelly for discussion of the Irish data, in Sect.  6.1 .

This work was supported by ERC-2017-COG769192, awarded to Andrew Koontz-Garboden.

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Smith, R.W. Mental states via possessive predication: the grammar of possessive experiencer complex predicates in Persian. Nat Lang Semantics (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050-024-09221-8

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11050-024-09221-8

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