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The program has developed an extensive catalogue of case studies addressing crisis events. These cases serve as an important tool for classroom study, prompting readers to think about the challenges different types of crises pose for public safety officials, political leaders, and the affected communities at large.

The following cases, here organized into three broad categories, are available through the  Harvard Kennedy School Case Program ; click on a case title to read a detailed abstract and purchase the document. A selection of these cases are also available in the textbooks Managing Crises: Responses to Large-Scale Emergencies  (Howitt and Leonard, with Giles, CQ Press) and Public Health Preparedness: Case Studies in Policy and Management (Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, APHA Press), both of which contain fifteen cases as well as corresponding conceptual material to support classroom instruction.

Natural Disasters, Infrastructure Failures, and Systems Collapse

At the Center of the Storm: San Juan Mayor Carmen Yulín Cruz and the Response to Hurricane Maria (Case and Epilogue) This case profiles how Carmen Yulín Cruz, Mayor of San Juan, Puerto Rico, led her City’s response to Hurricane Maria, which devastated the island and neighboring parts of the Caribbean in the fall of 2017. By highlighting Cruz’s decisions and actions prior to, during, and following the storm’s landfall, the case provides readers with insight into the challenges of preparing for and responding to severe crises like Maria. It illustrates how several key factors—including San Juan’s pre-storm preparedness efforts, the City’s relationships with other jurisdictions and entities, and the ability to adapt and improvise in the face of novel and extreme conditions—shaped the response to one of the worst natural disasters in American history.

A Cascade of Emergencies: Responding to Superstorm Sandy in New York City (A and B) On October 29, 2012, Superstorm Sandy made landfall near Atlantic City, New Jersey. Sandy’s massive size, coupled with an unusual combination of meteorological conditions, fueled an especially powerful and destructive storm surge, which caused unprecedented damage in and around New York City, the country’s most populous metropolitan area, as well as on Long Island and along the Jersey Shore. This two-part case study focuses on how New York City prepared for the storm’s arrival and then responded to the cascading series of emergencies – from fires, to flooding, to power failures – that played out as it bore down on the region. Profiling actions taken at the local level by emergency response agencies like the New York City Fire Department (FDNY), the case also explores how the city coordinated with state and federal partners – including both the state National Guard and federal military components – and illustrates both the advantages and complications of using military assets for domestic emergency response operations.

Part B of the case highlights the experience of Staten Island, which experienced the worst of Sandy’s wrath. In the storm’s wake, frustration over the speed of the response triggered withering public criticism from borough officials, leading to concerns that a political crisis was about to overwhelm the still unfolding relief effort.

Surviving the Surge: New York City Hospitals Respond to Superstorm Sandy Exploring the experiences of three Manhattan-based hospitals during Superstorm Sandy in 2012, the case focuses on decisions made by each institution about whether to shelter-in-place or evacuate hundreds of medically fragile patients -- the former strategy running the risk of exposing individuals to dangerous and life-threatening conditions, the latter being an especially complex and difficult process, not without its own dangers. "Surviving the Surge" illustrates the very difficult trade-offs hospital administrators and local and state public health authorities grappled with as Sandy bore down on New York and vividly depicts the ramifications of these decisions, with the storm ultimately inflicting serious damage on Manhattan and across much of the surrounding region. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Ready in Advance: The City of Tuscaloosa’s Response to the 4/27/11 Tornado On April 27, 2011, a massive and powerful tornado leveled 1/8 of the area of Tuscaloosa, AL. Doctrine called for the County Emergency Management Agency (EMA) to take the lead in organizing the response to the disaster – but one of the first buildings destroyed during the event housed the County EMA offices, leaving the agency completely incapacitated. Fortunately, the city had taken several steps in the preceding years to prepare for responding to a major disaster. This included having sent a delegation of 70 city officials and community leaders, led by Tuscaloosa Mayor Walter Maddox, to a week-long training organized by FEMA. “Ready in Advance” reveals how that training, along with other preparedness activities undertaken by the city, would pay major dividends in the aftermath of the tornado, as the mayor and his staff set forth to respond to one of the worst disasters in Tuscaloosa’s history.

The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: The Politics of Crisis Response (A and B) Following the sinking of the Deepwater Horizon drilling rig in late April 2010, the Obama administration organized a massive response operation to contain the oil spreading across the Gulf of Mexico. Attracting intense public attention, the response adhered to the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, a federal law that the crisis would soon reveal was not well understood – or even accepted – by all relevant parties.

This two-part case series profiles how senior officials from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security sought to coordinate the actions of a myriad of actors, ranging from numerous federal partners; the political leadership of the affected Gulf States and sub-state jurisdictions; and the private sector. Case A overviews the disaster and early response; discusses the formation of a National Incident Command (NIC); and explores the NIC’s efforts to coordinate the actions of various federal entities. Case B focuses on the challenges the NIC encountered as it sought to engage with state and local actors – an effort that would grow increasingly complicated as the crisis deepened throughout the spring and summer of 2010.

The 2010 Chilean Mining Rescue (A and B) On August 5, 2010, 700,000 tons of rock caved in Chile's San José mine. The collapse buried 33 miners at a depth almost twice the height of the Empire State Building-over 600 meters (2000 feet) below ground. Never had a recovery been attempted at such depths, let alone in the face of challenges like those posed by the San José mine: unstable terrain, rock so hard it defied ordinary drill bits, severely limited time, and the potentially immobilizing fear that plagued the buried miners. The case describes the ensuing efforts that drew the resources of countless people and multiple organizations in Chile and around the world.

The National Guard’s Response to the 2010 Pakistan Floods Throughout the summer of 2010, Pakistan experienced severe flooding that overtook a large portion of the country, displacing millions of people, causing extensive physical damage, and resulting in significant economic losses. This case focuses on the role of the National Guard (and of the U.S. military, more broadly) in the international relief effort that unfolded alongside that of Pakistan’s government and military. In particular it highlights how various Guard and U.S. military assets that had been deployed to Afghanistan as part of the war there were reassigned to support the U.S.’s flood relief efforts in Pakistan, revealing the successes and challenges of transitioning from a war-footing to disaster response. In exploring how Guard leaders partnered with counterparts from other components of the U.S. government, Pakistani officials, and members of the international humanitarian community, the case also examines how they navigated a set of difficult civilian-military dynamics during a particularly tense period in US-Pakistan relations.

Inundation: The Slow-Moving Crisis of Pakistan’s 2010 Floods (A, B, and Epilogue) In summer 2010, unusually intense monsoon rains in Pakistan triggered slow-moving floods that inundated a fifth of the country and displaced millions of people. This case describes how Pakistan’s Government responded to this disaster and highlights the performance of the country’s nascent emergency management agency, the National Disaster Management Authority, as well as the integration of international assistance.

"Operation Rollback Water": The National Guard’s Response to the 2009 North Dakota Floods   ( A ,  B , and   Epilogue ) In spring 2009, North Dakota experienced some of the worst flooding in the state’s history. The state's National Guard responded by mobilizing thousands of its troops and working in concert with personnel and equipment from six other states. This case profiles the National Guard’s preparations for and response to the floods and focuses on coordination within the National Guard, between the National Guard and civilian government agencies, and between the National Guard and elected officials.

Typhoon Morakot Strikes Taiwan, 2009 (A, B, and C) In less than four days, Typhoon Morakot dumped close to 118 inches of rain on Taiwan, flooding cities, towns, and villages; washing away roads and bridges; drowning farmland and animals; and triggering mudslides that buried entire villages. With the typhoon challenging its emergency response capacity, Taiwan’s government launched a major rescue and relief operation. But what began as a physical disaster soon became a political disaster for the President and Prime Minister, as bitter criticism came from citizens, the opposition party, and the President’s own supporters.

Getting Help to Victims of 2008 Cyclone Nargis: AmeriCares Engages with Myanmar's Military Government (Case and Epilogue) In May 2008, Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar (Burma) left 138,373 dead or missing and 2.4 million survivors’ livelihoods in doubt, making it the country’s worst natural disaster and one of the deadliest cyclones ever. Friendly Asian countries as well as western governments which previously had used economic sanctions to isolate Myanmar’s military government now sought to provide aid to Myanmar’s people. But they met distrust and faced adversarial relationships from a suspicious government, reluctant to open its borders to outsiders.

China's Blizzards of 2008 From January 10-February 6, a series of heavy snow storms intertwined with ice storms and subzero temperatures created China’s worst winter weather in 50 years. The storms closed airports and paralyzed trains and roads, damaged power grids and water supplies, caused massive black-outs, and left several cities in hard-hit areas isolated and threatened. The disruption of the power supply and transport also severely affected the production and flow of consumer goods and industrial materials, triggering a cascade of crisis nationwide. Coal reserves at power plants were nearly exhausted, production was significantly cut back at big factories, the chronic winter power shortage was exacerbated, and food prices spiked sharply in many areas because of shortages.

Thin on the Ground: Deploying Scarce Resources in the October 2007 Southern California Wildfires  When wildfires swept across Southern California in October 2007, firefighting resources were stretched dangerously thin. Readers are prompted to put themselves in the shoes of public safety authorities and consider how organizations can best address resource scarcities in advance of and during emergency situations.

"Broadmoor Lives:" A New Orleans Neighborhood’s Battle to Recover from Hurricane Katrina (A, B, and Sequel) Stunned by a city planning committee’s proposal to give New Orleans neighborhoods hard-hit by Hurricane Katrina just four months to prove they were worth rebuilding, the Broadmoor community organized and implemented an all-volunteer redevelopment planning effort to bring their neighborhood back to life.

Gridlock in Texas (A and B) As Hurricane Rita bore down on the Houston metro area in mid-September 2005, just a few weeks after Hurricane Katrina had devastated the Gulf Coast, millions of people flocked to the roadways. Part A details the massive gridlock that ensued, illustrating the challenges of implementing safe evacuations and of communicating effectively amidst great fear. Part B explores post-storm efforts to improve evacuation policies and procedures -- and how the resulting plans measured up in 2008, when the area was once again under threat, this time from Hurricane Ike.

Wal-Mart’s Response to Hurricane Katrina: Striving for a Public-Private Partnership (Case and Sequel) This case explores Wal-Mart's efforts to provide relief in the immediate aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, raising important questions about government’s ability to take full advantage of private sector capabilities during large-scale emergencies. (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

Moving People out of Danger: Special Needs Evacuations from Gulf Coast Hurricanes (A and B ) In the face of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, officials in Louisiana and Texas grappled with the challenging task of evacuating people with medical and other special needs to safety. The shortcomings of those efforts sparked major initiatives to improve evacuation procedures for individuals requiring transportation assistance – plans that got a demanding test when Hurricanes Gustav and Ike threatened the Gulf Coast in the fall of 2008. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Hurricane Katrina:  (A) Preparing for the Big One , and  (B) Responding to an "Ultra-Catastrophe" in New Orleans Exploring the failed response to Hurricane Katrina and its implications for the greater New Orleans area, the case begins with a review of pre-event planning and preparedness efforts. Part B details the largely ineffective governmental response to the rapidly escalating crisis.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises; Also available in abridged form.)

Rebuilding Aceh: Indonesia's BRR Spearheads Post-Tsunami Recovery (Case and Epilogue) The December 26, 2004, Indian Ocean tsunami caused tremendous damage and suffering on several continents, with Indonesia's Aceh Province, located on the far northern tip of Sumatra Island, experiencing the very worst. In the tsunami's wake, the Indonesian government faced a daunting task of implementing a large-scale recovery effort, and to coordinate the many reconstruction projects that soon began to emerge across Aceh, Indonesia's president established a national-level, ad hoc agency, which came to be known by its acronym BRR. This case examines the challenges encountered by BRR's leadership as it sought to implement an effective recovery process.

When Imperatives Collide: The 2003 San Diego Firestorm   (Case and Epilogue) In October 2003, multiple wildfires burned across southern California. Focusing on the response to the fires, this case explores what can happen when an operational norm — to fight fires effectively but safely — collides with the political imperative to override established procedures to protect the public.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

"Almost a Worst Case Scenario:" The Baltimore Tunnel Fires of 2001 (A, B, and C) When a train carrying hazardous materials derailed under downtown Baltimore, a stubborn underground fire severely challenged emergency responders. Readers are prompted to give particular attention to the significant challenges of managing a multi-organizational response.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

Safe But Annoyed: The Hurricane Floyd Evacuation in Florida When far more citizens than necessary evacuated in advance of Hurricane Floyd, Florida’s roadways were quickly overloaded and emergency management operations overwhelmed. In detailing these (and other) problems, the case highlights the challenges of managing evacuations in advance of potentially catastrophic events. (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

The US Forest Service and Transitional Fires This case outlines the operational challenges of decision making in a high stress, high stakes situation – in this instance during rapidly evolving wildland fires, also known as "transitional fires." (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

The Tzu Chi Foundation's China Relief Mission Tzu Chi is one of the largest charities in Taiwan, and one of the swiftest and most effective relief organizations internationally. Rooted in the value of compassion, the organization has many unusual operating features -- including having no long term plan. This case explores the basic operating approach of the organization and invites students to explain the overall effectiveness and success of the organization and its surprising success (as a faith-based, Taiwanese, direct-relief organization -- all of which are more or less anathema to the Chinese government) in securing an operating license in China.

Security Threats

Ce Soir-Là, Ils n'Arrivent Plus Un par Un, Mais par Vagues: Coping with the Surge of Trauma Patients at L'Hôpital Universitaire La Pitié Salpêtrière-Friday, November 13, 2015 On November 13, 2015, Dr. Marie Borel, Dr. Emmanuelle Dolla, Dr. Frédéric Le Saché, and Prof. Mathieu Raux were the doctors in charge of the trauma center at L'Hôpital de la Pitié Salpêtrière in Paris, where dozens of wounded and dying patients, most with severe gunshot wounds from military grade firearms, arrived in waves after a series of terrorist attacks across the city. The doctors had trained for a mass-casualty event but had never envisioned the magnitude of what they now saw. This case describes how they rapidly expanded the critical care capacity available so as to be able to handle the unexpectedly large number of patients arriving at their doors.

Into Local Streets: Maryland National Guard and the Baltimore Riots (Case and Epilogue) On April 19, 2015, Freddie Gray, a young African American male, died while in the custody of the Baltimore Police. In response to his death, protestors mobilized daily in Baltimore to vocalize their frustrations, including what they saw as law enforcement’s long-standing mistreatment of the African American community. Then, on April 27, following Gray’s funeral, riots and acts of vandalism broke out across the city. Overwhelmed by the unrest, the Baltimore police requested assistance from other police forces. Later that evening, Maryland Governor Larry Hogan declared a state of emergency and activated the Maryland National Guard. At the local level, Baltimore Mayor Stephanie Rawlings-Blake issued a nightly curfew beginning Tuesday evening.

“Into Local Streets” focuses on the role of the National Guard in the response to the protests and violence following Gray’s death, vividly depicting the actions and decision-making processes of the Guard’s senior-most leaders. In particular, it highlights the experience of the state’s Adjutant General, Linda Singh, who soon found herself navigating a complicated web of officials and agencies from both state and local government – and their different perspectives on how to bring an end to the crisis.

Defending the Homeland: The Massachusetts National Guard Responds to the 2013 Boston Marathon Bombings On April 15, 2013, Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev placed and detonated two homemade bombs near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, killing three bystanders and injuring more than two hundred others. This case profiles the role the Massachusetts National Guard played in the complex, multi-agency response that unfolded in the minutes, hours, and days following the bombings, exploring how its soldiers and airmen helped support efforts on multiple fronts – from performing life-saving actions in the immediate aftermath of the attack to providing security on the region’s mass transit system and participating in the search for Dzhokhar Tsarnaev several days later. It also depicts how the Guard’s senior officers helped manage the overall response in partnership with their local, state, and federal counterparts. The case reveals both the emergent and centralized elements of the Guard’s efforts, explores the debate over whether or not Guard members should have been armed in the aftermath of the bombings, and highlights an array of unique assets and capabilities that the Guard was able to provide in support of the response.

Recovery in Aurora: The Public Schools' Response to the July 2012 Movie Theater Shooting (A and B) In July 2012, a gunman entered a movie theater in Aurora, Colorado and opened fire, killing 12 people, injuring 58 others, and traumatizing a community. This two-part case briefly describes the shooting and emergency response but focuses primarily on the recovery process in the year that followed. In particular, it highlights the work of the Aurora Public Schools, which under the leadership of Superintendent John L. Barry, drew on years of emergency management training to play a substantial role in the response and then unveiled an expansive recovery plan. This included hiring a full-time disaster recovery coordinator, partnering with an array of community organizations, and holding mental health workshops and other events to support APS community members. The case also details the range of reactions that staff and community members had to APS' efforts, broader community-wide recovery efforts, and stakeholders' perspectives on the effectiveness of the recovery.

"Miracle on the Hudson" (A, B, and C) Case A describes how in January 2009, shortly after takeoff from LaGuardia Airport, US Airways Flight 1549 lost all power when Canada geese sucked into its engines destroyed them. In less than four harrowing minutes, Flight 1549’s captain and first officer had to decide whether they could make an emergency landing at a nearby airport or find another alternative to get the plane down safely. Cases B and C describe how emergency responders from many agencies and private organizations on both sides of the Hudson River – converging on the scene without a prior action plan for this type of emergency – effectively rescued passengers and crew from the downed plane.

Security Planning for the 2004 Democratic National Convention in  Boston (A, B, and Epilogue) When the city of Boston applied to host the 2004 Democratic Party presidential nominating convention, it hoped to gain considerable prestige and significant economic benefits. But convention organizers and local officials were forced to grapple with a set of unanticipated planning challenges that arose in the aftermath of the 9/11 terrorist attacks.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

Command Performance: County Firefighters Take Charge of the 9/11 Pentagon Emergency This case describes how the Arlington County Fire Department – utilizing the Incident Management System – took charge of the large influx of emergency workers who arrived to put out a massive fire and rescue people in the Pentagon following the September 11, 2001, suicide jetliner attack.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

Rudy Giuliani: The Man and His Moment Although not long before the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, New York Mayor Rudolph Giuliani had been under fire for aspects of his mayoralty, the post 9/11 Giuliani won national and international acclaim as a leader. This case recounts the details of Giuliani’s response such that students of effective public leadership can analyze both Giuliani’s decisions and style as examples.

Threat of Terrorism: Weighing Public Safety in Seattle (Case and Epilogue) When a terrorist was arrested in late December 1999 at the Canadian-Washington State border in a car laden with explosives, public safety officials worried that the city of Seattle had been a possible target. This case explores the debate that ensued concerning the seriousness of the threat and whether the city should proceed with its planned Millennium celebration.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

Protecting the WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999 (Case and Epilogue) Two very different sets of actors made extensive preparations in advance of the World Trade Organization's Ministerial Conference of 1999 — protesters opposing international trade practices and public safety officials responsible for event security. This case examines the efforts of both, highlighting why security arrangements ultimately fell short.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

The Shootings at Columbine High School: Responding to a New Kind of Terrorism (Case and Epilogue) Within minutes of the shootings at Columbine, numerous emergency response agencies – including law enforcement, fire fighters, emergency medical technicians, and others – dispatched personnel to the school site. Under intense media scrutiny and trying to coordinate their actions, they sought to determine whether the shooters were still active and rescue the injured.

To What End? Re-Thinking Terrorist Attack Exercises in San Jose (Case, Sequel 1, Sequel 2) In the late 1990s, a task force in San Jose, CA mounted several full-scale terrorist attack exercises, but—despite the best of intentions—found all of them frustrating, demoralizing, and divisive. In response, San Jose drew on several existing prototypes to create a new “facilitated exercise” model that emphasized teaching over testing, and was much better received by first responders.

Security Preparations for the 1996 Centennial Olympic Games (A, B, and C) This case describes efforts by state and federal government entities to plan in advance for security protection for the Atlanta Olympics. It also recounts the Centennial Park bombing and emergency response.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

The Flawed Emergency Response to the 1992 Los Angeles Riots (A, B, and C) Following the announcement of the not guilty verdicts for the law enforcement officers accused of beating Rodney King, the City of Los Angeles was quickly overrun by severe rioting. This case reviews how local, county, state, and federal agencies responded and coordinated their activities in an effort to restore order.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises)

Public Health Emergencies

Mission in Flux: Michigan National Guard in Liberia ( Case and Epilogue ) In summer and fall of 2014, thousands of individuals in Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Guinea contracted the Ebola virus. This outbreak of the deadly disease, which until then had been highly uncommon in West Africa, prompted a major (albeit delayed) public health response on the part of the international community, including an unprecedented commitment made by the United States, which sent almost 3,000 active military soldiers to Liberia. “Mission in Flux” focuses on the US military’s role in the Ebola response, emphasizing the Michigan National Guard’s eventual involvement. In particular, it provides readers with a first-hand account of the challenges the Michigan Guard faced as it prepared for and then deployed to Liberia, just as the crisis had begun to abate and federal officials in Washington began considering how to redefine the mission and footprint of Ebola-relief in West Africa. 

Fears and Realities: Managing Ebola in Dallas   ( Case   and  Epilogue ) “Fears and Realities” describes how public health authorities in Dallas, TX - along with their counterparts at the state and local levels, elected officials, and hospital administrators - responded to the first case of Ebola identified on U.S. soil during the 2014 outbreak of the disease. The hugely difficult tasks of treating the patient and mounting a response was made all the more challenging by confusion over the patient's background and travel history, and, eventually, by the intense focus and considerable concern on the part of the media and public at large. Efforts to curtail the spread of the disease were further complicated when two nurses who had cared for the patient also tested positive for Ebola, even though they apparently had followed CDC protocols when interacting with him. With three confirmed cases of the disease in Dallas – each patient with their own network of contacts – authorities scrambled to understand what was happening and to figure out a way to bring the crisis to an end before more people were exposed to the highly virulent disease.  (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Confronting a Pandemic in a Home Rule State: The Indiana State Department of Health Responds to H1N1 When Indiana State Health Commissioner Dr. Judy Monroe learned of the emergence of H1N1 in late April 2009, she had to quickly figure out how to coordinate an effective response within a highly balkanized public health system in which more than 90 local health departments wielded considerable autonomy. She would rely heavily on relationships she had worked hard to establish with local health officials upon becoming commissioner -- but she and her senior advisors would still have to scramble to find new ways to communicate and coordinate with their local partners.

On the Frontlines of a Pandemic: Texas Responds to 2009 Novel H1N1 Influenza A  As cases of a new strain of influenza strike in the spring of 2009, Texas, just over the border from the initial epicenter of the epidemic in Mexico, faces great uncertainty about the severity and extent of the epidemic. State officials, presiding over a highly decentralized public health and health care system and needing to work with school systems and other non-health actors, strive to improvise their response to reduce the spread of this disease, while providing anti-viral drugs and, ultimately, a new vaccine to its citizens. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Tennessee Responds to the 2009 Novel H1N1 Influenza A Pandemic Tennessee, not so severely struck by H1N1 in the spring of 2009 as some other states, expects to encounter worse in the fall. Working through a hybrid state- and local government-run health system, as well as a network of privately run pharmacies, Tennessee officials mobilize to cope with the expected demand for anti-viral medications and to distribute an expected new vaccine. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Harvard Encounters H1N1 In the spring of 2009, as the H1N1 epidemic was beginning to emerge, Harvard University’s medical, dental, and public health schools had to be shut down when a rash of cases and the possibility of widespread exposure emerged among the student body. The case tracks the decision-making by University officials as they cope with the uncertainties surrounding the outbreak of a potentially dangerous emergent infectious disease. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Beijing’s Response to the 2009 H1N1 Pandemic In spring 2009, H1N1 emerged in North America and began to spread rapidly throughout the world. Municipal government officials in Beijing, China – who feared a repeat of their painful experience with SARS in 2003 – responded by conducting health screenings at the airport, quarantining people with flu-like symptoms, and scaling capacity at Beijing’s hospitals. The case describes Beijing’s expansive effort to combat H1N1 and is designed to teach students about Beijing’s government as well as China’s public health system.

Keeping an Open Mind in an Emergency: CDC Experiments with 'Team B'   ( Case   and  Epilogue ) In the early 2000s, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) sought to adapt its protocols for coping with public health emergencies. This case examines the usefulness of one such method, "Team B," which was designed to provide the principal investigating team with alternative explanations for and approaches to the incident at hand.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises; and Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

X-Treme Planning: Ohio Prepares for Pandemic Flu With concern developing about the possibility of a worldwide pandemic of avian flu, the Ohio Department of Health developed plans for how it would handle such an emergency, while at the same time seeking to exercise its nascent incident management system and continue its efforts to develop as an emergency response agency. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Emergency Response System Under Duress: Public Health Doctors Fight to Contain SARS in Toronto (A, B, and Epilogue) When an emergent infectious disease arrived in Toronto in 2003, the Canadian public health system struggled to bring it under control. This case explores the efforts of Canadian public health authorities to identify and understand the mysterious illness, which threatened the health — and lives — of Toronto’s residents and healthcare workers for months on end.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises; and Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Hong Kong Copes with SARS, 2003: The Amoy Gardens (Case and Epilogue) In the last days of March 2003, the frightening new disease known as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, or SARS, seemed to threaten to spread out of control in one of the world’s most densely-populated cities: Hong Kong. The SARS outbreak at Amoy Gardens became an exercise in crisis management for public health officials in Hong Kong—with their counterparts around the world either observing or actively advising.

When Prevention Can Kill: Minnesota and the Smallpox Vaccine Program (Case and Epilogue) Following the 2001 terrorist attacks, President Bush launched a program to vaccinate health workers and emergency responders against smallpox. This case describes that effort, placing particular emphasis on the difficulties that emerged in making that program work in Minnesota. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Charting a Course in a Storm: US Postal Service and the Anthrax Crisis This case describes how the USPS responded when it was struck by devastating anthrax attacks through the mails. It covers the initial response to protect employees, efforts to keep the mails moving to the greatest extent possible, and early steps toward decontamination of facilities and recovery.  (Included in Howitt & Leonard, Managing Crises; and Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

White Powders in Georgia: Responding to Cases of Suspected Anthrax After 9/11 Although no spore of real anthrax showed up in Georgia during the anthrax attack period, the state was inundated with thousands of calls about suspect white powders. The case describes efforts by local and state officials to develop appropriate procedures to triage and prioritize possible cases, conduct tests of possible anthrax, and protect and reassure worried first responders. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

The West Nile Virus Outbreak in New York City (A, B, and Sequel) Case A tells how in the summer of 1999 New York City public health officials discovered sentinel cases of a hitherto unknown disease and identified it with assistance from the state, CDC, veterinary pathologists at the Bronx Zoo, and university researchers. Case B and the Sequel describe how the city organized a massive mosquito spraying effort, first in a single borough and then citywide. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Anthrax Threats in Southern California This case recounts how California officials responded (and over-responded) to an Anthrax hoax in late 1998, as well as how they then developed protocols of response and disseminated them to multiple jurisdictions. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

Coping with Crisis: Hong Kong Public Health Officials and the "Bird Flu"  In 1997, public health authorities in Hong Kong worked to identify and control a dangerous new flu virus not previously known to infect humans. The case focuses on the authorities' communication with the public, as they sought to quell public fears notwithstanding their own incomplete knowledge of the disease. The case, too, describes the crisis management decision to undertake a massive slaughter of Hong Kong chickens, once they were shown to be the host of the deadly but difficult-to-transmit virus.

The City of Chicago and the 1995 Heat Wave (A and B) During the summer of 1995, more than 700 people died of heat-related illness in Chicago, Illinois. With most deaths occurring before the city recognized that an “epidemic” was going on, this case explores the silent crisis that overtook the city. (Included in Howitt, Leonard, and Giles, Public Health Preparedness)

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Theorizing from Qualitative Research in Public Administration: Plurality through a Combination of Rigor and Richness

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Rachel Elizabeth Ashworth, Aoife Mary McDermott, Graeme Currie, Theorizing from Qualitative Research in Public Administration: Plurality through a Combination of Rigor and Richness, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory , Volume 29, Issue 2, April 2019, Pages 318–333, https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muy057

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Scholars emphasize the need for additional rigor in qualitative research. This inadvertently encourages formulaic and standardized approaches that undermine the benefits of theorizing from rich data. Our study extends debate by emphasizing the importance of sound qualitative public administration research that blends rigor with richness and thereby facilitates effective theorization. Evidence from a narrative review of 31 qualitative studies published within six leading public administration journals demonstrates that effective theorizing is linked to transparency in research design, analytic approach, and theoretical contribution. In-depth interrogation of four studies that illustrate “inductive theorizing” and “abductive theorizing” identifies plurality in the balance struck between rigor and richness. We derive a broad set of principles that enable researchers to make a convincing “conceptual leap” between data, analysis, and contribution. We also emphasize the need to accommodate pluralistic approaches to theorizing by nuancing requirements for essential aspects of qualitative reporting, versus those amenable to variation.

Qualitative research has made a significant contribution to theory in the field of public administration ( Andrews and Esteve 2015 ; Riccucci 2010a ), evidenced by landmark studies, such as Selznick’s research in the Tennessee Valley Authority ( Selznick 1949 ) and recent contributions that include Watkins-Hayes’ study of race and representative bureaucracy ( 2011 ) and an analysis of institutional work from Cloutier et al. (2016) . These contributions reflect the ability of qualitative research to push theoretical boundaries and generate theoretical insights ( Bansal and Corley 2012 ). Theorizing involves making convincing inferences to explanations grounded in data, such that it is a process of abstraction by the researcher that maintains a capacity to frame understanding and interpretation for others ( Cornelissen and Durand 2014 ; Welch et al. 2011 ). Historically, public administration scholars have undertaken significant efforts to boost rigor in qualitative research (see Brower, Abolafia, and Carr 2000 ; Feldman et al. 2004 ; Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 , for examples), but have devoted much less attention to theorizing. This is a concern given evidence from management and organization studies that indicates addressing rigor in qualitative inquiry may privilege a focus on methods—fashioned in the image of quantitative research—that serves to undermine pluralism in qualitative theorizing ( Cornelissen 2017 ; Delbridge and Fiss 2013 ; Langley 1999 ).

In light of these critiques, in this study, we contribute to the longstanding debate on qualitative research in public administration by emphasizing the importance of blending rigor with richness. In doing so, we illustrate plurality in the process of effective theorizing. Our analysis is premised on results from a two-stage investigation focused on the subfield of network and collaborative governance. The first stage entailed a systematic narrative review of 31 qualitative studies published within six leading public administration journals ( Andrews and Esteve 2015 ). The second stage involved the development of a detailed narrative account of four case study articles— Bate (2000) , Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) , Ferlie and McGivern (2014) , Saz-Carranza and Ospina (2011) —and illustrates depth and variety in the application of two common theorizing methods: “inductive theorizing” and “abductive theorizing.”Our analysis suggests the need for transparency, consistency and connection in three component elements that underpin theorizing from qualitative research: research design, analytic approach, and theoretical contribution ( Albert et al. 2008 ). In addition, we highlight and emphasize reporting elements that are essential for high quality theorizing, along with those that may vary. As such, the study facilitates rigorous theorizing by supporting qualitative researchers to make a convincing “conceptual leap” between data, analysis, and contribution—regardless of whether they are using a deductive, inductive, or abductive approach—while recognizing and accommodating plurality in terms of the balance between richness and rigor ( Bansal and Corley 2012 ).

The article is structured as follows. First, we review studies of qualitative research in public administration and focus attention on the process and practice of theorizing through qualitative scholarship. Next, we present detail on our methodological approach and research design, before the review and analysis of our empirical evidence. The manuscript concludes by detailing an over-arching framework that comprises a broad set of principles designed to support better qualitative reporting, in a manner that blends rigorous research design with the richness of the qualitative approach, and underpins theorization.

Theorizing in Qualitative Research in Public Administration

In the field of public administration, most commentators have focused on the ways that qualitative scholars can enhance their research reporting ( Jensen and Rodgers 2001 ; Perry and Kraemer 1986 ). Many criticize the derivation of qualitative accounts as opaque ( Brower, Abolafia, and Carr 2000 ; Justice 2007 ; Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 ; Tummers and Karsten 2012 ) and cite the need to make “choices explicit, consistent, and transparent throughout the research process” ( Dodge, Ospina, and Foldy 2005 , 297). Calls for transparency relate to research design, to the transition from data collection to analysis, and to how the data underpin the claimed contribution ( Brower, Abolafia, and Carr 2000 ; Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 ). Yet agreement on standard assessment criteria has proved challenging, due to the plurality of qualitative approaches. Qualitative studies can span rich single case ethnography, through to comparative cases and large data sets premised on a range of data gathering techniques, such as interviews, direct and participant observations, and document collation and review. This results in multiple forms of qualitative data including direct quotes, textual notes, and documentary excerpts.Although quantitative studies also display methodological diversity, the underpinning philosophical differences evident across qualitative methods make it difficult to apply a generic template to assess rigor ( Haverland and Yanow 2012 ; Jensen and Rodgers 2001 ), especially when standard tests of validity and reliability do not easily apply to qualitative approaches ( Dodge, Ospina, and Foldy 2005 ; Ospina 2011 ; White 1986 ). Thus authors raise the concern that judgements of qualitative research are often “based on a problematic definition of quality and misguided criteria” ( Jensen and Rodgers 2001 , 235), with scholars either embracing this version of rigor in ways that reduce the plurality of qualitative research ( Delbridge and Fiss 2013 ), or rejecting the concept in ways that undermine its legitimacy ( Harley 2016 ). This suggests there is a need to achieve a better balance between rigor and richness and develop broad principles to underpin theorizing in qualitative research that accommodate plurality in approach ( McCurdy and Cleary 1984 ; Stout 2013 ; White 1986 ).

Theorizing involves making convincing inferences to explanations grounded in data, and is commonly premised on deduction, induction, or abduction. Deduction involves inference about a particular empirical instance, based on the general case ( Mantere and Ketokivi 2013 ). Deductive approaches start with the generation of expectations from theory. These are interrogated (tested) in research data, with the theory potentially modified as a consequence of empirical findings ( Tavory and Timmermans 2014 ). However, despite their value in predicting, confirming, and disconfirming expectations, deductive approaches are poor at ruling out alternative explanations ( Mantere and Ketokivi 2013 ). This reduces the likelihood of purely deductive qualitative studies. In contrast, induction involves inference to generalization based on the observation of specific instances ( Glaser 1998 ; Eisenhardt 1989 ; Mantere and Ketokivi 2013 ). Researchers familarize themselves with empirical observations and aggregate through comparison ( Glaser and Strauss 1967 ; Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton 2013 ). Thus, inductive approaches are grounded in data and initially premised on abstraction independent of theoretical preconceptions.

However, recent studies have flagged concern that purely inductive empirically derived insights serve to underplay the importance of pre-existing theory ( Reichertz 2010 ). As a result, abduction is receiving increasing attention. Abduction stems from a puzzle, whereby there is an absence of an existing or sufficient theoretical explanation for data, causing the search for a new explanation. As a result, abduction implies a wider and more extended engagement with extant theories than induction (end-stage) and deduction (outset) and is increasingly associated with the development of “new” hypotheses ( Mantere and Ketokivi 2013 ; Tavory and Timmermans 2014 ). Puzzles prompt exploratory inference, and subsequent development of the best-fitting explanations, thereby combining deduction and induction to produce theoretical and empirical insights ( Klag and Langley 2013 ; Mantere and Ketokivi 2013 ; Reichertz 2010 ). This reflects potential for data and theory to augment each other, such that theory enables the researcher to see things in the data that might otherwise be taken for granted and shape new theoretical propositions that, in turn, empirical observations help to evaluate ( Tavory and Timmermans 2014 ).

To summarize, we note that deductive approaches start from extant theoretical understandings, inductive approaches start with an empirical orientation, and abductive approaches often utilize a combination of deductive and inductive aspects in grappling with puzzles. Despite these differences, deduction, induction, and abduction can each enable and support the generation of the conceptual leaps that underpin theorizing—although their trajectories will likely differ.

The process of theorizing can be employed to produce different types of theoretical contribution that include theory generation (also known as building), theory elaboration, or theory testing ( Cornelissen and Durand 2014 ; Lee, Mitchell, and Sablynski 1999 ; Riccucci 2010b ). Deduction is commonly used to test theory, while induction and abduction can be used to elaborate or generate theory. Regardless of approach, Peirce (1931–1935, vol. I, p. X) identifies “finding” and “checking” as distinct and essential components of the theorizing process. So processes of methodological decision making, and the way these are explained, reported, and supported are essential for effective theorizing. Indeed “method is not the enemy of creative theorization, but its closest ally” ( Tavory and Timmermans 2014 , 51). How authors convey their data is an important part of this process as “data never stand on their own” ( Golden-Biddle and Locke 1997 , 57), but both look back to the research situation, and forward to theoretical resolutions.Theorizing tends to occur when authors both show their data, and tell their significance ( Golden-Biddle and Locke 1997 ). In qualitative scholarship and in a practical sense, “showing” tends to involve providing direct quotes or document extracts in the text or tables, while telling is heavier on author interpretation and often presented in the form of a narrative or description that highlights salient characteristics and theoretically significant aspects. Decisions on data analysis and presentation in the form of “showing” and “telling” are critical in underpinning the “conceptual leap” between research data and theoretical contribution—a pivotal moment in theorizing that is not without challenge, in terms of making sense of the data and finding ways to articulate this in theoretical terms ( Gehman et al. 2018 ; Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton 2013 ; Klag and Langley 2013 ).

Finally, in considering theorization in public administration, it is important to reflect on concerns that theorizing from qualitative data has been colonized by modes more typically the preserve of quantitative methods ( Cornelissen 2017 ; Cornelissen and Durand 2014 ; Delbridge and Fiss 2013 ; Llewelyn 2003 ). This is argued to be evident both in how qualitative research is reported, and also in a trend toward translating qualitative data into transferable explanatory factors ( Bluhm et al. 2011 ). Although this shift has enhanced methodological rigor, there are some inherent trade-offs including a loss of plurality in the field, and potential reduction in explanatory richness both empirically and theoretically ( Cornelissen 2017 ). This prompts the question: “ What, then, might allow us to develop more diverse but robust and persuasive theorizing in the future ?” ( Delbridge and Fiss 2013 , 330).

In summary, commentaries on qualitative research highlight a variety of approaches to theorizing. However, they also note a dilemma in terms of strengthening rigor while maintaining the richness of qualitative data. This suggests a need to identify appropriate criteria to underpin theorizing in public administration ( McCurdy and Cleary 1984 ; Stout 2013 ; White 1986 ). We consider next how scholars have addressed these challenges in a specific field of public administration—network and collaborative governance.

A Focus on Network and Collaborative Governance

Previous studies of qualitative research in public administration have been designed to provide systematic and comprehensive overviews of research practices across the discipline (see Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 , for a recent example). In contrast, this manuscript aims to facilitate rigorous theorizing through qualitative research focused on a discrete area of public administration—network and collaborative governance. We select this subdiscipline because the relatively recent shift from hierarchy to collaborative forms of governance has posed a series of novel theoretical puzzles for public administration researchers ( O’Toole 1997 , 2015 ). Although qualitative and quantitative scholars have responded to this challenge in relatively even measure, it is argued that qualitative research is able to make a particularly significant contribution because it is especially able to advance the field in areas of new and limited research through addressing alternative questions (e.g., Watkins-Hayes 2011 ). These include shedding light on what works, where, and why and “generating new hypotheses by examining how complex causal pathways actually occur” ( Moynihan 2012 , 574; O’Toole 1997 ; Rhodes and William 1996 ).

Research in this subfield of public administration tends to focus on configurations, such as service-based networks, public–private partnerships and strategic alliances, predicated on the basis that hierarchies and markets insufficiently address persistent policy problems ( Entwistle 2010 ; McGuire 2006 ). Exploration of a range of issues is evident, including: the internal dynamics of collaboration and the “unique” strategies and skills of collaborative management ( Agranoff 2006 ; Campbell 2012 ; McGuire 2006 ; Meier and O’Toole 2001 ; O’Leary and Vij 2012 ); collaborative leadership ( Waugh and Streib 2006 ); and the behavioral dimensions and experiences of collaboration ( Purdy 2012 ; Reynaers 2014 ). However, our core interest is the theorizing process through qualitative research leading to the production of these insights, rather than network and collaborative governance per se. In the following section of this article, we elaborate on the selection criteria used to identify our study sample.

Selecting and Evaluating Qualitative Studies on Networks and Collaborative Governance

This section outlines further detail on our research design, reports on data collection decisions and explains the analytic approach underpinning our study. In essential terms, data collection entailed the identification of a set of qualitative journal articles relating to network and collaborative governance for further analysis and discussion. This involved a team of three researchers working through four key stages that are described below, and illustrated in figure 1 .

Stage 1: Review

Consistent with the argument that “a review of qualitative research is best served by reliance upon qualitative methods themselves” ( Jones 2004 , 95), the research team engaged in a systematic narrative review ( Greenhalgh et al. 2004 ; Powell, Rushmer, and Davies 2009 ; Powell and Davies 2016 ). The narrative review approach is designed to provide an interpretive, holistic, and nuanced interpretation of qualitative research ( Jones 2004 , 96). The review focused on six leading international journals— Governance, International Public Management Journal, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Public Administration , Public Administration Review , and Public Management Review —selected on the basis that they are the source of world-leading public management scholarship, as indicated in prior research ( Andrews and Esteve 2015 ; Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 ). Articles published within the period 2000–17 were considered, to capture research prompted by the development of “joined-up” organizations and collaborative structures, consistent with a shift toward the “new public service” ( Denhardt and Denhardt 2000 ).

Studies were identified by using the search terms “network governance” and “collaborative governance.” Admittedly, these topics are relatively wide-ranging, so it is important to be specific about what types of studies were included under these headings. To provide a focus for the review, qualitative articles that shed light on the organization, management, and performance of public sector networks were selected for inclusion. However, studies such as those on the role of political actors (e.g., the EU) or the development of policy networks were not included (e.g., Damgaard 2006 ; Le Galès 2001 ). Nor were those focused on governance more broadly (e.g., Behagel and Arts 2014 ). Articles were also excluded on methodological grounds. For example, the study of a collaborative natural disaster system by Wang and Yin (2013) adopts a mixed-methods rather than a purely qualitative approach, and so was omitted. Studies were also excluded if they failed to present empirical qualitative research, or provided reflections on network governance derived from wider qualitative datasets or case studies but did not explicate detail about research design and primary data gathering (e.g., Leach 2006 ; Purdy 2012 ; Weber and Khademian 2008 ). This stage of the analysis resulted in the initial selection of a sample of 43 journal articles.

Stage 2: Refinement

The review team conducted a more detailed analysis of the 43 qualitative articles within the sample. Twelve further articles were excluded at this stage on the basis of their focus, for example, where networks or collaborations were a feature but not a central element of the article’s theoretical contribution. Or when under closer inspection the article did not address issues pertaining to the organization, management, and performance of networks. For example, Gains’ (2009) study of local governance networks in the United Kingdom highlights on the shifting context for local government elites, rather than the organization, management, and performance of the network itself. A sample of 31 articles remained after refinement.

Stage 3: Analysis

In stage 3, the review team began the process of analysis, that involved open and inclusive discussion of the 31 articles. This technique marked the first stage of a process that applied a series of thematic criteria to underpin analysis. Here, these included: theoretical perspective (fields covered within the literature review); qualitative method (case study, interview, observation, documentary analysis); analytic approach (detail of thematic analysis and/or coding procedures employed to support the shift from data to claims) ; presentation of evidence (whether data is “told” in the form of a research narrative, and/or “shown” in quotation or table format); and key contribution to theory. With respect to analytic approach , we anticipated that this would vary depending upon the type of theorizing in play. As previously noted, inductive approaches start with an empirical orientation, deductive approaches start from extant theoretical understandings, and abductive approaches utilize both. In some cases data may be coded, while in others they may be analyzed in broad thematic terms and even though these trajectories will differ, all three approaches should facilitate the generation of the conceptual leaps that underpin theorizing. The emphasis on analytic approach in this study is designed to capture how theory informed the analysis, whether the study was inductive, deductive, or abductive, and how data were analyzed by the researcher.

However, it should be noted it was not possible to discern this information for all cases due to a level of ambiguity within many studies. Consequently, we have sought to provide a summary interpretation of the analytic approach adopted in each case. Further, we note that our sample did not include any examples of purely deductive research. Iterating between the studies and the criteria set, the team then proceeded to agree a summary of each article.

Stage 4: Identifying Illustrative Cases

The 31 studies were then subject to a further stage of narrative review by the research team. This process involved the identification of a subset of four studies that were selected as they provide neat illustrations of the variation in approaches to theorizing through qualitative research. The studies are Bate (2000) , Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) , Ferlie and McGivern (2014) , Saz-Carranza and Ospina (2011) (for reference these are marked * in the first column of Supplementary Table 1 ). The first two studies each adopt an inductive approach but execute this in quite different ways. Bate (2000) provides an example of thick description based on ethnography, while the article by Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) is indicative of interpretive or thematic analyses that have been identified as underrepresented in leading management journals ( Cornelissen 2017 ). The latter two studies engage in different forms of abductive theorizing, combining deduction and induction. Ferlie and McGivern (2014) is noteworthy for its strong upfront utilization of theory and Saz-Carranza and Ospina (2011) provide a particularly comprehensive overview of their analytic approach. Discussion of these cases facilitated the opportunity to develop a broad set of principles to support theorizing in qualitative public administration research. These are presented and reviewed in detail in the closing sections of this article.

Having discussed the research design and analytic approach, we employed in the context of this study, the following section of the article reports on the research findings that emerged from the narrative review. It begins by providing a summary characterization and analysis of the full set of qualitative studies.

Summary of Qualitative Research on Network and Collaborative Governance

Detailed analysis of the full set of studies (which is reported in full in Supplementary Table 1 ) indicates that scholars are addressing significant and important theoretical questions on network and collaborative governance through qualitative research. However, the reporting of information on qualitative methods and data collection among these studies is variable and somewhat ad hoc. Some authors afford particular attention to the sampling rationale, when for other studies this could be more systematically addressed. Similarly, on occasions data gathering is extensively detailed, while elsewhere it is pithily described and, in a minority of articles, only briefly mentioned. Beyond an often broad characterization of analytic approach, there is sometimes a lack of specification of processes underpinning the review, incorporation, and presentation of data. Authors vary in their description of the derivation of themes and codes, and differ in the detail provided regarding the link between data and conceptual claims. Few studies discuss these in detail and those that do, tend to demonstrate abductive theorizing (seldom labeled as such) that combines elements of inductive and deductive approaches.

It is interesting to observe that few articles explicitly identify with, and conform to, a pure grounded theory approach, despite the common perception that most qualitative research adopts this perspective ( Suddaby 2006 ; Tummers and Karsten 2012 ). In terms of the presentation of data and empirical findings, many of the articles rely more on “telling” rather than “showing” their data, but it is important to emphasize that qualitative scholars often face a pragmatic challenge in balancing “showing” data with providing a coherent narrative within a limited word count. Sometimes these “trade-offs”’ are discussed explicitly in concluding sections, along with reflections on the generalizability of the research—for example, Moynihan (2009) identifies that the loss of rich data is associated with his decision to analyze multiple cases. However, in most cases, these choices remain implicit, along with reflections on the wider applicability, implications, and generalizability of findings.

Our overview of the set of 31 qualitative studies on network and collaborative governance provides some support for claims that qualitative studies are developing greater theoretical ambition and sophistication in the specification of their contributions (e.g., Saz-Carranza, Iborra, and Albareda 2016 ; Walker et al. 2013 ). However, our findings resonate with others in identifying that all too often aspects of the qualitative research process remain opaque ( Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 ). This potentially undermines the value of qualitative research and places limitations on the quality of theorizing, especially when there is an inadequate account of the steps taken between data collection, analysis, argument and conclusions.

On the basis of this review, we propose that theorizing in qualitative public administration is likely to be most effective when authors provide transparent accounts for, and outline the connections between, their research design, analytic approach, and theoretical contribution. To further unpack these elements and elaborate examples of the theorizing process, we now move to discuss four illustrative studies derived from the wider set.

Case Studies of Theorizing in Qualitative Research on Network and Collaborative Governance

To demonstrate alternative approaches to theorizing from qualitative research in public administration, we select four contrasting studies to illustrate two common theorizing methods: “inductive theorizing” and “abductive theorizing.” These studies helpfully illuminate pluralist approaches to theorizing through qualitative research, although it should be noted from the outset that the studies highlight the practical challenges of reporting qualitative research and, as such, they do not fully meet the guiding principles proposed in the concluding section of the article.

Inductive Theorizing

The first of the two studies that exhibit inductive theorizing is Bate (2000) . Bate’s study is focused upon implementation problems associated with networked governance and is especially inductive in approach, even for qualitative studies. Eschewing a detailed literature review, the research problem is set out as one of cultural fragmentation that stymies attempts at networked governance. Bate reports on a method that blends action research with ethnography (“action ethnography”) and the reader is promised a dynamic account of change underpinned by an emergent interview schedule, consistent with an inductive approach. Indeed, very soon into the article, Bate launches into rich and contextualized description and manages to organize the data in a coherent manner to capture the chaotic nature of organizational life, without drawing upon themes derived from literature. In the process he avoids a common pitfall of qualitative research, where scholars represent the “messiness” of the “real world” but often render a complex research account that inhibits a strong storyline. A number of implicit analytic strategies are evident in Bate’s presentation of findings. The article temporally brackets the process of change, providing a clear sequencing that assists the reader, while also ordering data to demonstrate organizational problems, early impressions, subsequent diagnosis, and solution ( Langley 1999 ; Langley et al. 2013 ). In this sense, he describes a networked governance process that is ongoing, rather than linear, and one with no end point yet visible. Further, he is careful to avoid a “glossy” story about managerial success, describing the subsequent change as “home-grown” and bottom up.

The persuasiveness of Bate’s account, and underlying theorizing, derives from the transparency he provides within his detailed explication of his research design (see the excerpt provided in figure 2 as an example). The author’s immersion in the empirical setting is evident. He reports that he carried out 150 visits (500 days) over a 2-year period, with myriad opportunities for observation, as well as a large number of interviews (approximately 100). Given his embeddedness within the organizational setting, there are a larger number of direct interview quotes and observations than would be usual, even within qualitative studies. The overall effect of this is one of vicarious engagement with the research site as the reader feels they are transported into the organization in a way that proves particularly engaging. The ethnographic approach prompts an account that incorporates pluralist emotions, interests, and politics that underpin complexity of organizational cultures, with a strong sense of respondents’ voices, as evident in the quote below (taken from Bate 2000 , 492).

Extract from “Implementing Change: The ‘Action Research’ Approach” ( Bate 2000 , 487)

So you’ve got this incredible situation where the doctors won’t cooperate because they’re terrified of losing power; you’ve got managers who can’t make a decision because they’re afraid if they do, there will be a vote of no confidence and they lose their job. And you’ve got the nurses who are, as usual, trying to keep the thing going. (Senior Nurse)

Bate’s approach to analysis is discussed only in general terms and there is an absence of detail on data coding. However, the volume of primary data helps to convince the reader of a body of evidence supporting a “conceptual leap.” A wide range of voices are represented, mitigating the prospect that quotations have been “cherry-picked” to illuminate a predetermined storyline. Finally, given the inductive, emergent and co-created nature of the research process, it is refreshing to read Bate’s critical reflection on his own position within the research study and reassuring to be informed of the robust steps he has taken between research questions, data, analysis, and theory ( Bate 2000 , 488).

Neutrality and even-handedness were central to this process. We were positioned in the space between management and workforce, strenuously avoiding being seen as management-centric (the traditional bias of organization development) and worker-centric … mediating between the different interests and perspectives …

Our second example of inductive theorizing comes from Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) , a study that differs significantly from Bate as a theoretical gap and rationale is evident from the outset. Focused on neglected “downstream issues” that play out at the intra-organizational level, the authors aim to unpack the “black box” of network governance to develop a better understanding of management practice. The strength of theorizing observed within Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) lies partly in an inductive approach applied to understand and explain the impact of partnership configuration on local implementation. This allows the authors to challenge dominant perceptions of network governance effects and, as a result, specify and present a theoretical model in figure form ( figure 3 ; Waring, Currie, and Bishop 2013 , 324). The figure emphasizes the explicit links between empirical findings and key conceptual relationships, thereby outlining the “conceptual leap” by underscoring both the rigor of the underpinning study and the theorizing processes at work.

Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013 , 324) Model of Empirical Findings and Conceptual Relationships

Similar to Bate (2000) , Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) adopt an inductive approach to this research, that involves “an iterative process of close reading of the data, coding, constant comparison, elaboration of emerging themes and re-engagement with the wider literature” (317). However, Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) boost explication of theorizing significantly by detailing the research process through eight paragraphs of text and a supporting figure summarizing coding and thematic analysis (see extract in figure 4 ). To deliver transparency in research design and facilitate theoretical generalization, they provide background on their comparative cases to situate their analysis and elaborate on their sampling strategy. To reduce ambiguity in their analysis, they demonstrate how they developed and tested three levels of codes, including first-order concepts, adhering to respondents’ terms; second-order themes, subsuming first-order codes; and third-order aggregate dimensions ( Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton 2013 ). These stages are especially significant as they inform the oppositional dimensions that subsequently capture differences between their cases and underpin the “conceptual leap” in providing the basis for theory elaboration.

Extract from Figure Summarizing Coding Thematic Analysis ( Waring, Currie, and Bishop 2013 , 318)

Finally, Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) reinforce theorizing through a transparent attempt to connect analysis, the presentation of their data and theoretical contribution—bringing both evidence of the research process, and credibility to the account. In so doing, supporting extracts from illustrative examples of coded data are provided in tables, while narrative reporting incorporates illustrative quotes. Note, Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) are unusual in actively reporting on a full range of data, including that derived from policy documents and clinical operating procedures (see figure 5 , for examples).

Document Excerpts from Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013 , 320)

Abductive Theorizing

The theoretical contributions in our next pair of studies are underpinned by an abductive approach that combines deductive and inductive theorizing techniques. In the first study, provided by Ferlie and McGivern (2014) , theoretical concerns are again apparent from the outset. Labeled as iterative, but displaying abductive characteristics, Ferlie and McGivern (2014) puzzle on the long-term shift to indirect governance. They identify extant accounts as incomplete, and aim to enrich theorization. In the light of this, they incorporate a theoretical perspective from the social sciences previously unapplied to a public service context—Foucault’s theory of governmentality 1 —and in so doing they use the presumptive and conjectural premise of abduction ( Mantere and Ketokivi 2013 ). Development of an interview proforma deductively informed by governmentality and competing theoretical perspectives enables empirical interrogation in pursuit of their theoretical objectives. On this basis, Ferlie and McGivern examine the role of the neo-liberal health care state in the United Kingdom and conclude that the introduction of “managed” networks prompted a degree of enthusiasm for evidence-based management amongst practitioners within case study organizations. They note that their conjecture is upheld, with their proffered approach providing the “best-fitting” set of explanations.

Theorizing is strengthened in this study by an unambiguous set of research questions and a highly transparent account of theoretical implications in the discussion section of the article. Here, a series of contributions is clearly articulated and given further emphasis through the provision of a helpful table (see excerpt provided in table 1 ) that elaborates five aspects of “added value” from an Anglo-governmentality perspective, vis-à-vis the network governance paradigm. The table summarizes the authors’ contention that Anglo-governmentality extends knowledge in public administration, while two additional novel contributions premised on their empirical analysis are also presented.

Extract from “The Key Arguments of Anglo-Governmentality and Network Governance Contrasted Together with our Contribution” ( Ferlie and McGivern 2014 , 77)

Note: Extract is two of seven rows from the full original table.

Although Ferlie and McGivern provide a helpful and clear account of their theoretical contribution, we argue that theorizing also requires a high degree of transparency in research design and analytic approach. In this regard, in the discussion of their methodology, the authors make an explicit and weighty case for the adoption of a qualitative case study approach to their analysis and spend some time considering how case study research can “move beyond surface level descriptions” ( Ferlie and McGivern 2014 , 67). Their ability to provide theoretical generalization is delivered through a comparative case approach, combined with explicit connection with theory to boost external validity. Ideally, the rationale for the research setting and sample could be better explained and connected to subsequent methodological choices. And while their theoretical framework and contribution is elaborated in some detail, little information is given on coding procedures and analytic steps for the two case studies. In particular, the inductive aspects of their analysis are not explicated.

So while Ferlie and McGivern (2014) provide a high degree of transparency in their application of a Foucauldian theoretical perspective to enrich traditional theoretical conceptualizations of governance, and deliver helpful clarity on their research design, some steps taken within their analysis remain opaque. This serves to marginally undermine clarity in their theorizing and somewhat obscures their conceptual leap. Nevertheless, a significant amount of primary data from both cases is reported which allows the reader to engage with the context and gain insight into the effects experienced by those working within the network. Last, the authors do recognize compromises in the presentation of qualitative research, noting, “there is a trade-off between thick description (internal validity) and conceptualization (external validity)” ( Ferlie and McGivern 2014 , 67).

Our second study characterized by an abductive theorizing approach comes from Saz-Carranza and Ospina (2011) . This article unpacks the behavioral dimensions of network governance by examining how network members govern and improve the performance of the “whole” network, while also exploiting collaborative benefits for their home organizations. The authors shed light on the “unity–diversity tension,” identified as a key disruptor of network performance in goal-directed networks and inherent within “whole” systems of network and collaborative governance ( Milward and Provan 2006 ). However, beyond an empirical contribution focused on the behavioral dimensions of network governance, theorizing is explicit and convincing from the outset. In outlining their theoretical contribution, Saz-Carranza and Ospina explain that their research illuminates “the hows and whys of network governance” ( Saz Carranza and Ospina 2011 , 359) and present their claims in bold terms. This is striking considering that claims in qualitative articles tend to be more tentatively written, with caveats regarding the transferability of findings. This certainty stems from a transparent and convincing “conceptual leap,” explanation and evidence that is presented along the way. However, Saz-Carranza and Ospina are a little more circumspect when presenting a framework for governing whole networks, using words such as “tentative,” “emergent,” and “preliminary.” This shift from proposition to suggestion serves to further distinguish between the theory-building and theory-elaborating contributions and builds to their conclusion. Indeed, the article conveys a degree of specificity in the transparency of research design, analytic approach, and theoretical contribution—and the connection between the three—that is, rarely seen within qualitative research.

Theorizing in this study is especially convincing due to the clarity and consistency of detail offered in the documentation of research design and analytic approach. The authors present a rationale for the adoption of a qualitative approach, while also detailing their sampling frame, both in the text and in tabulated form. Running for almost seven pages, the qualitative methods section is one of the most transparent and informative published in public administration. However, we observe that the article runs to nearly 40 pages, emphasizing the trade-off between length and depth in qualitative research and demonstrating the importance of editorial discretion. Greater flexibility in this regard, as well as alternative strategies—such as enabling the placement of methodological material in online appendices—may help to facilitate the publication of qualitative research that provides rigor and richness.

Of particular note in this study is the established connection between the analytic approach underpinning the two phases of study and the subsequent theoretical contribution. Ospina et al. describe the open-ended, inductive, and exploratory first phase of the study, designed to “theory-build” through narrative inquiry, and distinguish this from the second phase of their study where an abductive approach provided “theory elaboration.” Coding processes applied to data in both phases of the research are explained through three paragraphs of text, but also in a tabulated form (see extract provided in table 2 ). Interview data is privileged, relative to the analysis of observation and documentary data, but the explicit and thorough analytic account facilitates a transparent and convincing basis for theorizing and stands in contrast to the fleeting references sometimes found within qualitative studies. Finally, evidence from each of the cases is “shown” using six tables of illustrative quotes (see extract in table 3 ), supplemented by a discussion that “tells” a nuanced account of the experience of managing network dilemmas, with selective quotations that lend credibility to theorizing.

Extract Illustrating Links between Codes across Phases of the Research ( Saz-Carranza and Ospina 2011 , 337)

Note: Extract is 3 of 15 rows from the full original table.

Extract Illustrating Tensions Relative to Diversity and Unity in Networks from Saz-Carranza and Ospina (2011 , 347)

Note: Extract is one of eight rows from the full original table.

Having summarized a set of qualitative studies on network and collaborative governance and illustrated alternative theorizing approaches, we next discuss the implications arising from our review and present a framework that facilitates rigorous theorizing from qualitative research in public administration.

This study presents evidence derived from a two-stage investigation of theorizing in qualitative public administration research, focused on a subset of studies in the field of network and collaborative governance. In line with Tavory and Timmermans (2014 , 7) who reflect, “whatever the theoretical resources the researchers draw upon, one of the seductions of qualitative research is the sense of intellectual adventure,” our analysis of 31 articles underlines the potential “value added” derived from qualitative research. The review indicates that distinctive sets of research questions had been addressed, including those with an exploratory and explanatory orientation drawn from a range of theoretical perspectives.

However, the systematic review also illustrates wide differences in the accounts of qualitative research provided across the set of studies. This suggests the need for a set of broad guiding principles to aid authors and reviewers in providing and prompting greater transparency in accounts of the qualitative research process. In response, in table 4 , we draw together and summarize these principles relative to three key component elements of the research process: research design , analytic approach , and contribution . Research design is fundamentally concerned with how authors report on how their research has been conducted. Analytic approach focuses on how authors move from an account of their data collection to offer interpretation and a series of claims. Finally, contribution involves the way authors articulate and highlight the impact of their theorizing, in terms of whether it enables them to test, elaborate, or generate theory. Our evidence indicates that theoretical claims are more convincing when studies demonstrate sufficient levels of transparency both in their approach to, and representation of, each of these three elements of the research process.

Procedural Assessment Criteria to Underpin Theorizing in Qualitative Research

Nonetheless, we are mindful of previously noted concern regarding the unintended consequences of formulaic and standardized quality criteria. Reflecting this, our review of four illustrative studies also suggests the need for some further nuance. For example, while Bate (2000) and Saz Carranza and Ospina (2011) both provide transparent accounts of research design, they adopt highly differentiated approaches to describing their process of analysis. Specifically, Bate (2000) describes analysis of his action-ethnography in broad procedural terms, noting use of a temporal bracketing strategy, for example. He provides rich description and substantial supporting data without detailed elaboration of the derivation of inductive themes. In contrast, for their comparative case analysis, Saz Carranza and Ospina (2011) focus on explicating coding, detailing specific steps, and providing examples. Both, in different ways, provide convincing support for their theoretical claims.Consequently, a “non-negotiable” element of qualitative research is a comprehensive account of research design, linked explicitly to a study’s research objectives, within the methods section of an article ( Ospina, Esteve, and Lee 2018 ). Theorizing will be less effective in studies that are deficient in these terms. In contrast, it seems there is likely to be greater variation in the reporting of the analytic approach. Although authors should be transparent, we should expect and accommodate plurality in forms of data analysis, coding, and reporting. So, while we are clear that high levels of transparency in all elements of the research process boost theorizing, our guiding principles are reflective of the absence of a set template and standard for explicating analytic approach. As such, they signal that we should be open to diversity in approach to, and the format of, reporting.

Given the plurality of forms of qualitative data and approaches, as well as differentiation in the forms of theorizing undertaken, the guiding principles (and those relating to analysis, in particular) need to be viewed in the round. All of which is consistent with previous research that suggests there is no “one best way” of undertaking and publishing qualitative research ( Haverland and Yanow 2012 ; Jensen and Rodgers 2001 ). However, we do suggest common tenets of good practice and in particular highlight that the link between research design, analytic approach, and theoretical contribution should be made transparent as this is the “golden thread” that supports effective theorizing. The conceptual leap underpinning a theoretical contribution is certainly more substantial and convincing when these elements are expertly and explicitly connected. Consequently, we emphasize and encourage a holistic approach to transparency, both in terms of the provision of detail on each element of the research process and in terms of the connection between research design, analytic approach, and theoretical contribution.

Extant literature highlights that theorizing can contribute in a variety of ways—by testing, elaborating, or generating theory, premised on deductive, inductive, or abductive analysis. In this study, we observe diversity in approaches to theorizing that are inductive and abductive. Our case study analysis portrays different ways that “conceptual leaps” can be made and articulated, with evidence that theorizing is being underpinned by different levels, dimensions, and combinations of rigor and richness. For example, Bate (2000) convinces through a synthesis of rich thick description of data, with rigor derived from a highly transparent account of the research design and underpinning rationale. In contrast, Waring, Currie, and Bishop (2013) provide a rich range of data sources and are highly transparent regarding their analytic approach, delivering rigor in the derivation of their claims. Ferlie and McGivern (2014) demonstrate richness in a convincing application of a novel theoretical perspective to their data, and rigor in transparent mapping of the derivation of their theoretical contribution. However, of the four considered studies, Saz-Carranza and Ospina (2011) satisfies the widest range of criteria as rigor and richness are evidenced in a detailed, persuasive, and reflexive research account that underpins a clear and convincing theoretical contribution. As such, this study best meets requirements specified by Golden-Biddle and Locke (1997 , 65) who argue that theorizing occurs when authors both show their data, and tell their significance.

Our findings indicate that convincing qualitative studies provide different, but sufficient, combinations of rigor and richness. So, contrary to common assertions that there is an oppositional relationship between the two, and an inherent trade-off in their pursuit, we suggest that there is clear potential for both rigor and richness to be attained in qualitative research. Indeed, we would argue that effective theorizing in qualitative research should reflect a complementary synergy between the two. Further, our case studies illustrate that rigor, richness, and their combinations come in a variety of forms. In response, and in the face of concerns raised about the quantitative restyling of qualitative research, we highlight and indeed support and encourage the continuation of plural forms of theorizing through qualitative scholarship, while mindful of the need to fulfill the good practice transparency requirements highlighted earlier.

The study suffers from a series of limitations. For example, our narrative review is focused upon a specific topic within public administration—network governance—and analysis of a different field could potentially yield an alternative set of findings. The field is young relative to other comparators in public administration, and has been at the forefront of recent demands for policy and practice insight. These factors likely influence the kinds of research questions being addressed and types of theorizing in evidence in this subdiscipline. Future research that systematically reviews qualitative study in other subfields of public administration might reveal more or less plurality in theorizing. In addition, we note that our study is premised on review of published articles. These are unlikely to capture the full detail of qualitative studies, their research design or the richness of their data. The articles have also been subject to review processes, such that the preferences of editors and referees, together with journal conventions, may have constrained plurality.

To conclude, this study was designed to extend debate by emphasizing the importance of sound qualitative research in public administration that blends rigor with richness and thereby facilitates effective theorization. We contribute to long-running discussions of qualitative scholarship in public administration and we generate evidence that suggests the need for an over-arching but nuanced set of principles that address the need for consistency and connection within the research process. The proposed guiding principles serve to emphasize essential elements for high quality theorizing, along with those that may vary, given the pluralism evident within, and characteristic of, qualitative research. So we look forward to the wider application, development, and refinement of our ideas in future analyses of qualitative research in other subfields of public administration. We also note that our findings are likely to have relevance beyond qualitative research, with clear potential to speak to debates on mixed methods research ( Atkins and Wilkins 2013 ), where the need for a convincing conceptual leap between theory and data is equally imperative. Finally, we hope that greater attention to theorizing in qualitative research in public administration may result in an improved representation of qualitative scholarship in journals in the field, leaving the discipline better positioned to capitalize upon “its ability to expose theoretical boundaries and push theoretical insights” whether these are generated on an inductive, abductive, or deductive basis ( Bansal and Corley 2012 , 513).

Graeme Currie’s time writing the manuscript was funded by National Institute for Health Research CLAHRC (Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care) West Midlands’. The views expressed here are his own.

We are grateful for support received from the editors and helpful comments received from our three anonymous reviewers. We note our thanks for permission from the authors and from Oxford University Press on behalf of the Public Management Research Association to reuse material from “Ferlie, Ewan and Gerry McGivern. 2014. Bringing Anglo-governmentality into public management scholarship: The case of evidence-based medicine in UK health care. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 24(1): 59–83” and from “Saz-Carranza, Angel, and Sonia Ospina. 2011. The behavioural dimension of governing interorganizational goal-directed networks – Managing the unity-diversity tension. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 21(2): 327–365.” We also note our thanks for permission from Wiley to reuse material from “Bate, Paul. 2000. Changing the culture of a hospital: From hierarchy to networked community. Public Administration 78(3): 485–512.”. © 2000 Blackwell Publishers Ltd. Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. We also acknowledge permission from Wiley to reuse material from “Waring, Justin, Graeme Currie, and Simon Bishop. 2013. A contingent approach to the organization and management of public–private partnerships: An empirical study of English health care. Public Administration Review 73(2): 313–326.” © 2013 by The American Society for Public Administration. DOI: 10.1111/puar.12020.

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The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study Case Study

Introduction.

This paper is aimed at a holistic and comprehensive analysis of the U.S. researched public administration case study by Tarlton et al. within the framework of moral, ethical, philosophical, worldview, and managerial aspects. Thus, primarily from the point of view of moral influences, it should be emphasized that this work clearly expresses an appeal to justice, honesty, and unity as one of the critical components of the modern practice of American public administration (Tarlton et al., 2020). Christian dogmas and currents seem to run like a red thread through the judgments and decisions of leaders, who, in most cases, “plays hard and plays to win” to acquire certain benefits but simultaneously avoid conflicts (Huckabee, 4:30). Nevertheless, in this case, everyone deserves an objective attitude toward their person, qualities, and abilities, regardless of race, skin color, nation, gender, age, and other characteristics.

Accordingly, philosophical influences and trends in the case study are in close contact with ethical elements. Hence, social equity is expressed as “the fair, just, and equitable management of all institutions” (Tarlton et al., 2020). According to the authors, the origins of inequality in the XXI century have long-standing roots arising from natural differences in virtue (Tarlton et al., 2020). Therefore, some remnants of the past, which can be seen in the example of the relationship between the police and some representatives of the American public along the “color line,” require eradication (Tarlton et al., 2020). Hence, according to philosophical influences, justice should be a criterion that every law must meet to be genuinely fair and, therefore, valid and authoritative.

Finally, it is important to emphasize the influences of worldview and ideological attitudes on the decision-making of public administration on justice and equality. It is no secret that everyone has their own worldview, looking at some phenomena from a certain angle and finding a specific meaning in them (Fischer, 2010). For example, personal experience, environment, and cultural aspects allowed American leaders in 1968 during the Minnowbrook Conference to put forward justice and social equity as the crucial values of American public administration (Tarlton et al., 2020). The human worldview is closely connected with historical moments. Thus, modern approaches to governance require integrating new and relevant strategies to eliminate inequality.

It is essential to note that social inequity, in particular, challenges the ethical values and moral code of residents of the United States and the entire planet from the point of view of discrimination and infringement of human dignity, rights, and opportunities. Thus, for example, the low socio-economic status of an individual often determines the unsatisfactory quality of medical services provided and, as a result, increases the risks of harmful consequences to population health (Haverkamp et al., 2018). In general, relying on ethical phenomena, the social polarization of American society has far-reaching implications. Hence, sometimes it entails the precarization, marginalization of certain social groups, criminalization of values and behavior, and political passivity or destructiveness of part of the country’s population.

Moreover, to some extent, social inequality is an obstacle and a problem on the way to statesmanship and wise and balanced leadership decisions. In particular, striving for wisdom concerning the modern state arises during a period of restrictions and crisis (Overeem & Bakker, 2019). Therefore, with the development and accumulation of problems in the field of social inequality, political leaders each time have to consider the situation and implement more improving strategies affecting forces, time, and resources.

Furthermore, problems and issues in the field of equality and unity pose increasingly challenging and complex tasks for the governance of public administrators. Social injustice can undermine the foundations of citizens’ lives and their trust in the courts or the police (Lee, 2021). In general, the problem is fundamental to functioning a wide range of government processes and can change them both for the worse and the better.

Fischer, K. (2010). A Biblical-Covenantal perspective on organizational behavior & leadership . Liberty University.

Huckabee, M. (2019). Huckabee – November 16, 2019 [Video]. TBN. Web.

Haverkamp, B., Verweij, M., & Stronks, K. (2018). Why socio-economic inequalities in health threaten relational justice. A proposal for an instrumental evaluation. Public Health Ethics, 11 (3), 311-324. Web.

Lee, Y. (2021). Government for leaving no one behind: Social equity in public administration and trust in government. Sage Open, 11 (3), 1-11. Web.

Overeem, P., & Bakker, F. E. (2019). Statesmanship beyond the modern state. Perspectives on Political Science, 48 (1), 46-55. Web.

Tarlton, E., Harper, R., Blessett, B., Williams, B. N., & Carter, J. (2020). Addressing social inequity: A case study of success. Journal of Public Management & Social Policy, 27 (1), 87. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2023, October 2). The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-us-researched-public-administration-case-study/

"The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study." IvyPanda , 2 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/the-us-researched-public-administration-case-study/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study'. 2 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study." October 2, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-us-researched-public-administration-case-study/.

1. IvyPanda . "The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study." October 2, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-us-researched-public-administration-case-study/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The U.S. Researched Public Administration Case Study." October 2, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-us-researched-public-administration-case-study/.

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