good research questions on religion

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215 Religion Research Paper Topics for College Students

Studying religion at a college or a university may be a challenging course for any student. This isn’t because religion is always a sensitive issue in society, it is because the study of religion is broad, and crafting religious topics for research papers around them may be further complex for students. This is why sociology of religion research topics and many others are here, all for your use.

As students of a university or a college, it is essential to prepare religious topics for research papers in advance. There are many research paper topics on religion, and this is why the scope of religion remains consistently broad. They extend to the sociology of religion, research paper topics on society, argumentative essay topics, and lots more. All these will be examined in this article. Rather than comb through your books in search of inspiration for your next essay or research paper, you can easily choose a topic for your religious essay or paper from the following recommendations:

World Religion Research Paper Topics

If you want to broaden your scope as a university student to topics across religions of the world, there are religion discussion topics to consider. These topics are not just for discussion in classes, you can craft research around them. Consider:

The role of myths in shaping the world: Greek myths and their influence on the evolution of European religions
Modern History: The attitude of modern Europe on the history of their religion
The connection between religion and science in the medieval and modern world
The mystery in the books of Dan Brown is nothing but fiction: discuss how mystery shapes religious beliefs
Theocracy: an examination of theocratic states in contemporary society
The role of Christianity in the modern world
The myth surrounding the writing of the Bible
The concept of religion and patriarchy: examine two religions and how it oppresses women
People and religion in everyday life: how lifestyle and culture is influenced by religion
The modern society and the changes in the religious view from the medieval period
The interdependence of laws and religion is a contemporary thing: what is the role of law in religion and what is the role of religion in law?
What marked the shift from religion to humanism?
What do totemism and animalism denote?
Pre Colonial religion in Africa is savagery and barbaric: discuss
Cite three religions and express their views on the human soul
Hinduism influenced Indian culture in ways no religion has: discuss
Africans are more religious than Europeans who introduced Christian religion to them: discuss
Account for the evolution of Confucianism and how it shaped Chinese culture to date
Account for the concept of the history of evolution according to Science and according to a religion and how it influences the ideas of the religious soul
What is religious education and how can it promote diversity or unity?7
Workplace and religion: how religion is extended to all facets of life
The concept of fear in maintaining religious authorities: how authorities in religious places inspire fear for absolute devotion
Afro-American religion: a study of African religion in America
The Bible and its role in religions
Religion is more of emotions than logic
Choose five religions of the world and study the similarities in their ideas
The role of religious leaders in combating global terrorism
Terrorism: the place of religion in promoting violence in the Middle East
The influence of religion in modern-day politics
What will the world be like without religion or religious extremists?
Religion in the growth of communist Russia: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
Religion in the growth of communist China: how cultural revolution is synonymous with religion
The study of religions and ethnic rivalries in India
Terrorism in Islam is a comeback to the crusades
The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping world diplomacy
The role of the Thirty Years of War in shaping plurality in Christianity
The religion and the promotion of economics
The place of world religions on homosexuality
Why does a country, the Vatican City, belong to the Catholic Church?
God and the concept of the supernatural: examine the idea that God is a supernatural being
The influence of religion in contemporary Japan
Religion and populism in the modern world
The difference between mythical creatures and gods
Polytheism and the possibility of world peace
Religion and violence in secular societies?
Warfare and subjugation in the spread of religion
The policies against migrant in Poland is targeted against Islam
The role of international organizations in maintaining religious peace
International terrorist organizations and the decline of order

Research Paper Topics Religion and Society

As a student in a university or MBA student, you may be requested to write an informed paper on sociology and religion. There are many sociology religion research paper topics for these segments although they may be hard to develop. You can choose out of the following topics or rephrase them to suit your research interest:

The influence of religion on the understanding of morality
The role of religion in marginalizing the LGBTQ community
The role of women in religion
Faith crisis in Christianity and Islamic religions
The role of colonialism in the spreading of religion: the spread of Christianity and Islam is a mortal sin
How does religion shape our sexual lifestyle?
The concept of childhood innocence in religion
Religion as the object of hope for the poor: how religion is used as a tool for servitude by the elite
The impact of traditional beliefs in today’s secular societies
How religion promotes society and how it can destroy it
The knowledge of religion from the eyes of a sociologist
Religious pluralism in America: how diverse religions struggle to strive
Social stratification and its role in shaping religious groups in America
The concept of organized religion: why the belief in God is not enough to join a religious group
The family has the biggest influence on religious choices: examine how childhood influences the adult’s religious interests
Islamophobia in European societies and anti-Semitism in America
The views of Christianity on interfaith marriage
The views of Islam on interfaith marriage
The difference between spirituality and religion
The role of discipline in maintaining strict religious edicts
How do people tell others about their religion?
The features of religion in sociology
What are the views of Karl Marx on religion?
What are the views of Frederic Engels on religion?
Modern Islam: the conflict of pluralism and secularism
Choose two religions and explore their concepts of divorce
Governance and religion: how religion is also a tool of control
The changes in religious ideas with technological evolution
Theology is the study of God for God, not humans
The most feared religion: how Islamic extremists became identified as terrorist organizations
The role of cults in the society: why religious people still have cults affiliations
The concept of religious inequality in the US
What does religion say about sexual violence?

Religion Essay Topics

As a college student, you may be required to write an essay on religion or morality. You may need to access a lot of religious essay topics to find inspiration for a topic of your choice. Rather than go through the stress of compiling, you can get more information for better performance from religion topics for research paper like:

The origin of Jihad in Islam and how it has evolved
Compare the similarities and differences between Christian and Judaism religions
The Thirty Years War and the Catholic church
The Holocaust: historic aggression or a religious war
Religion is a tool of oppression from the political and economic perspectives
The concept of patriarchy in religion
Baptism and synonym to ritual sacrifice
The life of Jesus Christ and the themes of theology
The life of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.) and the themes of theology
How can religion be used to promote world peace?
Analyze how Jesus died and the reason for his death
Analyze the event of the birth of Christ
The betrayal of Jesus is merely to fulfill a prophecy
Does “prophecy” exist anywhere in religion?
The role of war in promoting religion: how crusades and terrorist attacks shape the modern world
The concept of Karma: is Karma real?
Who are the major theorists in religion and what do they say?
The connection of sociology with religion
Why must everyone be born again according to Christians?
What does religious tolerance mean?
What is the benefit of religion in society?
What do you understand about free speech and religious tolerance?
Why did the Church separate from the state?
The concept of guardian angels in religion
What do Islam and Christianity say about the end of the world?
Religion and the purpose of God for man
The concept of conscience in morality is overrated
Are there different sects in Christianity?
What does Islam or Christianity say about suicide?
What are the reasons for the Protestant Reformation?
The role of missionaries in propagating Christianity in Africa
The role of the Catholic church in shaping Christianity
Do we need an international religious organization to maintain international religious peace?
Why do people believe in miracles?

Argumentative Essay Topics on Religion

Creating argumentative essay topics on religion may be a daunting exercise regardless of your level. It is more difficult when you don’t know how to start. Your professor could be interested in your critical opinions about international issues bordering on religion, which is why you need to develop sensible topics. You can consider the following research paper topics religion and society for inspiration:

Religion will dominate humanity: discuss
All religions of the world dehumanize the woman
All men are slaves to religion
Karl Marx was right when he said religion is the return of the repressed, “the sigh of the oppressed creature”: discuss
Christianity declined in Europe with the Thirty Years War and it separated brothers and sisters of the Christian faith?
Islamic terrorism is a targeted attack on western culture
The danger of teen marriage in Islam is more than its benefits
The church should consider teen marriages for every interested teenager
Is faith fiction or reality?
The agape love is restricted to God and God’s love alone
God: does he exist or is he a fiction dominating the world?
Prayer works better without medicine: why some churches preach against the use of medicine
People change religion because they are confused about God: discuss
The church and the state should be together
Polygamous marriage is evil and it should be condemned by every religion
Cloning is abuse against God’s will
Religious leaders should also be political leaders
Abortion: a sin against God or control over your body
Liberty of religious association affects you negatively: discuss
Religious leaders only care about themselves, not the people
Everyone should consider agnosticism
Natural laws are the enemy of religion
It is good to have more than two faiths in a family
It is hard for the state to exist without religion
Religion as a cause of the World War One
Religion as a tool for capitalists
Religion doesn’t promote morality, only extremisms
Marriage: should the people or their religious leaders set the rules?
Why the modern church should acknowledge the LGBTQ: the fight for true liberalism
Mere coexistence is not religious tolerance
The use of candles, incense, etc. in Catholic worship is idolatrous and the same as pagan worship: discuss
The Christian religion is the same as Islam

Christianity Research Paper Topics on Religion

It doesn’t matter if you’re a Christian or not as you need to develop a range of topics for your essay or project. To create narrow yet all-inclusive research about Christianity in the world today, you can consider research topics online. Rather than rack your head or go through different pages on the internet, consider these:

Compare and contrast Christian and Islam religions
Trace the origin of Christianity and the similarity of the beliefs in the contemporary world
Account for the violent spread of Christianity during the crusades
Account for the state of Christianity in secular societies
The analysis of the knowledge of rapture in Christianity
Choose three contemporary issues and write the response of Christianity on them
The Catholic church and its role towards the continuance of sexual violence
The Catholic church and the issues of sexual abuse and scandals
The history of Christianity in America
The history of Christianity in Europe
The impact of Christianity on American slaves
The belief of Christianity on death, dying, and rapture
The study of Christianity in the medieval period
How Christianity influenced the western world
Christianity: the symbols and their meaning
Why catholic priests practice celibacy
Christianity in the Reformation Era
Discuss the Gnostic Gospels and their distinct historic influence on Christianity
The catholic church in the Third Reich of Germany
The difference between the Old Testament and the New Testament
What the ten commandments say from a theological perspective
The unpredictable story of Moses
The revival of Saul to Paul: miracle or what?
Are there Christian cults in the contemporary world?
Gender differences in the Christian church: why some churches don’t allow women pastors
The politics of the Catholic church before the separation of the church and the state
The controversies around Christian religion and atheism: why many people are leaving the church
What is the Holy Trinity and what is its role in the church?
The miracles of the New Testament and its difference from the Old Testament’s
Why do people question the existence of God?
God is a spirit: discuss

Islam Research Paper Topics

As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers:

Islam in the Middle East
Trace the origin of Islam
Who are the most important prophets in Islam?
Discuss the Sunni and other groups of Muslims
The Five Pillars of Islam are said to be important in Islam, why?
Discuss the significance of the Holy Month
Discuss the significance of the Holy Pilgrimage
The distinctions of the Five Pillars of Islam and the Ten Commandments?
The controversies around the hijab and the veil
Western states are denying Muslims: why?
The role of religious leaders in their advocacy of sexual abuse and violence
What the Quran says about rape and what does Hadiths say, too?
Rape: men, not the women roaming the street should be blamed
What is radicalism in Islam?
The focus of Islam is to oppress women: discuss
The political, social, and economic influence of modernity on Islam
The notable wives of prophet Muhammad and their role in Islam: discuss
Trace the evolution of Islam in China and the efforts of the government against them
Religious conflict in Palestine and Israel: how a territorial conflict slowly became a religious war
The study of social class and the Islamic religion
Suicide bombers and their belief of honor in death: the beliefs of Islamic jihadists
Account for the issues of marginalization of women in Muslim marriages
The role of literature in promoting the fundamentals of Islam: how poetry was used to appeal to a wider audience
The concept of feminism in Islam and why patriarchy seems to be on a steady rise
The importance of Hadiths in the comprehension of the Islamic religion
Does Islam approve of democracy?
Islamic terrorism and the role of religious leaders
The relationship of faith in Islam and Christianity: are there differences in the perspectives of faith?
How the Quran can be used as a tool for religious tolerance and religious intolerance
The study of Muslims in France: why is there religious isolation and abuse in such a society?
Islam and western education: what are the issues that have become relevant in recent years?
Is there a relationship between Islam and Science?
Western culture: why there are stereotypes against Muslims abroad
Mythology in Islam: what role does it play in shaping the religion?
Islam and the belief in the afterlife: are there differences between its beliefs with other religions’?
Why women are not allowed to take sermons in Islam

Can’t Figure Out Your Religion Paper?

With these religious research paper topics, you’re open to change the words or choose a topic of your choice for your research paper or essay. Writing an essay after finding a topic is relatively easy. Since you have helpful world religion research paper topics, research paper topics on religion and society, religion essay topics, argumentative essay topics on religion, Christianity research paper topics, and Islam research paper topics, you can go online to research different books that discuss the topic of your choice.

However, if you require the assistance of professional academic experts who offer custom academic help, you’ll find them online. There are a few writing help online groups that assist in writing your essays or research paper as fast as possible. You can opt for their service if you’re too busy or unmotivated to write your research paper or essay.

The Best 50 Religion Research Topics to Use for Students

In our multi-religious and multicultural society, crafting a great research paper on religion is a challenging task. Indeed, this challenge starts from the first stage of preparing your paper: identifying a good religious research paper topic. Further, it is almost impossible to write a paper without offending one or more religious feelings, especially when working on the history of religion. To make writing your paper easy, you must start by picking good religious paper topics.

In this paper, we list 50 religion research paper topics and a guide for selecting the best. If you want to get good grades, start with the right step- the best topic.

Why You Need the Best Religion Research Paper Topics

When working on any research paper, the most important step is identifying the topic. Indeed, the topic determines the direction you will take with the paper. Here are other benefits of selecting the best topics for a religious research paper.

It allows you to work on the preferred area of interest.
With a good topic, you do not get bored midway.
A great topic offers you the opportunity to fill knowledge gaps in the field of religious studies.
It is your opportunity to make your contribution felt.
Picking the best topics is the first step to better grades.

How to Pick the Best Topics for a Religious Research Paper

Now that you know the benefits of selecting the best topics for your religious papers, you might be wondering, “How do I pick it?” Here are some useful tips to help you identify the best:

Brainstorm your religious study subject. This will help you to get the best ideas to work on.
Comprehensively research your area of interest. For example, you might be interested in the history of religion, church and social action, creationism, or modernism and religion.
Look at the latest happenings. Things such as religious involvement in economics and education might inspire your paper ideas.
Follow your teacher’s recommendation. Often, professors give guidelines to students on the areas they should work on. For example, if you were covering a certain area in your religious education studies class; your teacher might ask you to pick topics from that section only. But in most cases, teachers leave the topics open for students to select on their own.
Read other research on religious studies. Most researchers point at gaps that exist in the niche so that later students can work on them. This is a great place to commence your research paper.

The Best Religious Topics for a Research Paper

Whether you prefer working on religious controversial topics or philosophy of religion essay topics, we have listed the best 50 ideas to get you started. Check them and pick them as they are or tweak them to fit your preferred format.

Christian and economics.
Religion and homosexuality.
Black churches.
Christianity history.
Comparing and contrasting Christian and Islam history.
A closer look at world religions without gods.
The concept of religion and soul.
The impact of religious laws on morality.
The phenomenon of trickster gods.
The impact of Greek religion on European culture.
Impact of religion on American culture.
Impact of religion on Chinese culture.
Comparing the similarities of images of gods in different religions.
How does gender affect religion?
Islam in modern India.
What is the future of religion?
Afterlife: What are the differences in diverse religions?
What are the main causes of the faith crisis?
Analyzing the influence of female clergy on religion.
Relooking at the reincarnation concept.
What role do men have in religion?
The impacts of yoga on religion.
Can faith remove the harshness of adolescence?
Why is Ramadhan referred to as the holy month?
Comparing religious counselors to classical psychologists.
A closer look at the main differences between the bible and Koran.
What is the importance of Christmas for Christians?
Creationism.
Religion and science.
How do people implement different religious practices today?
Should atheism be considered another form of religion?
Judaism: A closer look at its history.
Analyzing attitudes towards sex in the Christian religion.
Children: Are they considered innocent in all religions?
A closer look at the history of Hinduism.
A closer look at the existence of God as a supernatural being.
Comparing and contrasting monotheistic cultures.
Female goddesses.
Chaplain-ship: How does it trigger peace and harmony?
Impact of women in the history of Christianity.
What are the implications of forced religion on people?
Religion and terrorism.
Religion in the workplace.
Religion and evolution.
Nordic mythology.
A world without religion: Is it possible?
Applying religion to address global problems.
The primal religions.
Do you think religion should play a role in modern politics?
Do you think religion influences societal virtues?

Got the Best Religion Topics to Write About – What Next?

Now that you have a list of the best world religion research paper topics, it is important to appreciate that the journey of writing your assignment has just started. The next step is to write down your paper in line with your teacher’s guidelines. This is where your writing skills come into play. Well, it is never easy for many students. Often, some lack good writing skills, have other engagements, or acquire the right resources is a challenge. For others, the deadline is too tight and almost impossible to beat. The best idea is to seek affordable college assignment writing help.

After selecting the best topics, be they sociology or religion research topics or religious debate topics, writing help is provided by experts with years of experience in academic writing. They have handled such papers before and are willing to help you craft the best paper for top grades. Well, do not let that religious research paper stress you anymore, let a professional help you!

Interesting Religion Research Paper Topics To Write About

Updated 18 Jun 2024

Religion has been a part of our societies since the beginning of time. From primitive animalistic beliefs to complex polytheistic pantheons, it has changed and evolved to suit our civilizations. This is what makes religion research paper topics so fascinating.

When choosing a topic, you can take several approaches. You can focus on the history of a certain religion, its specifics in terms of beliefs and rituals, how it has impacted society, and its potential future, or focus on religion systems in general, analyzing the differences between them and what might’ve caused them.

While the list of potential religion essay topics is endless, choosing the right one is important. Religion is often an extremely personal matter, so a careless approach might lead to conflict and hurt. Moreover, it is hard to avoid personal bias while talking about religious experiences.

That’s why we offer you this list of relevant topics that are interesting to explore. Choose the one that suits you best and explore human beliefs' nature and history.

Choose the Best Religion Topics For a Research Paper

Selecting the right item from the list of religious essay topics can be challenging, so here are some tips that might help you:

Select a topic you’re at least somewhat interested in – this way it will be easier for you to concentrate on the research and ensure the quality of your work;
Make sure there are scientific sources related to the topic, and they are not limited to opinion pieces – facts have more weight in the research than opinions;
Avoid topics that are based on a biased view of a certain religion;
Avoid attacks and critique of religious leaders and personalities;
If there are several views on a topic – make sure to cover all of them, or avoid it.

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List of Religion Research Paper Topics

The societal impact of organized religion and religious beliefs as a whole is immense. Researching it gives us a glimpse into how human civilization has changed and how our value system has evolved. However, a lot of religious research topics are too complex. So, here are some of the most relevant religion research paper topics you can have fun completing.

Historical and Comparative Studies

The evolution of monotheism in ancient civilizations.
Comparative analysis of creation myths across different cultures.
The role of women in Hinduism versus Christianity.
The impact of the Reformation on European society.
Religious syncretism in the Caribbean: A study of Vodou and Santería.
The Crusades: Religious fervor, politics, and impact on East-West relations.
Ancient Egyptian religion and its influence on later Abrahamic religions.
The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road.
The role of prophecy in Abrahamic religions: A comparative study.
Shamanism in indigenous cultures: Practices and worldviews.

Religion and Society

The influence of religion on modern legal systems.
Secularism and its effects on contemporary religious practices.
Religion and its role in the integration of immigrants.
The impact of social media on religious organization and practice.
Religious extremism: Causes, consequences, and responses.
Interfaith dialogue: Challenges, successes, and impacts on global peace.
The role of religion in public education: A comparative analysis.
Religion and LGBTQ+ rights: A global perspective.
The economics of religion: How faith contributes to wealth and poverty.
Religion and environmental ethics: Spiritual responses to climate change.

Theology and Philosophy

The concept of evil in different religious traditions.
Free will and predestination in Islamic theology.
Theological responses to the problem of suffering.
Mysticism in Christianity and Islam: A comparative study.
The influence of Greek philosophy on early Christian thought.
Religious pluralism: Theological and philosophical perspectives.
The concept of the soul in world religions.
Faith and reason in the Age of Enlightenment.
The role of meditation in Eastern and Western spiritual practices.
Death and the afterlife: How religions interpret the end of life.

Contemporary Issues in Religion

The role of women in contemporary religious leadership.
Religious responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The impact of globalization on indigenous spiritual practices.
Atheism and secular humanism: Philosophical foundations and societal impact.
The intersection of religion and technology: Ethical considerations.
Religious symbolism in popular culture.
The politics of religious freedom in the 21st century.
Conversion and religious identity in the modern world.
The role of pilgrimage in contemporary religious practice.
Religious dietary laws and their significance in a globalized world.

Specific Religious Studies

The development of Zen Buddhism in Japan.
Sufism and its contribution to Islamic art and culture.
The significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls for understanding early Christianity.
Hindu festivals and their socio-cultural significance in India.
The evolution of Jewish thought from the Torah to modern Zionism.
Indigenous African religions and their resistance to colonialism.
Sikhism: History, practices, and global diaspora.
The Bahá'í Faith: Principles, persecution, and global community.
Neo-Paganism and the revival of ancient European religions.
Scientology: Origins, beliefs, and controversies.

Christianity Research Paper Topics

Christianity is one of the biggest religions around the world, with billions of followers. Its impact on the history of the world cannot be overestimated. So, here are some of the most interesting aspects you can learn more about:

The Development of the Early Christian Church
The Influence of Martin Luther and the Reformation
Christian Mysticism and Spiritual Practices
The Role of Christianity in the Abolition of Slavery
Comparative Study of Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy
Christianity and Science: Historical Perspectives
The Impact of Vatican II on the Catholic Church
Christianity and Contemporary Ethical Issues
The Growth of Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa
Christian Symbols and Their Meanings

Buddhism Essay Topics

Buddhism is another major ideology that should not be overlooked. Its Eastern roots make it distinctly different from a lot of other religions around the world. So, there is a lot to learn about it, especially if you’re not closely familiar with it:

The concept of emptiness (Śūnyatā) in Mahayana Buddhism.
The role of meditation in achieving enlightenment in Theravada Buddhism.
The influence of Buddhism on contemporary Western culture.
A comparison of Zen Buddhism in Japan and Chan Buddhism in China.
The Four Noble Truths and their relevance to modern life.
The spread of Buddhism along the Silk Road: Historical impacts and cultural exchanges.
The ethical implications of the Buddhist Five Precepts in the context of global issues.
The evolution of Buddhist art and architecture across Asia.
The Dalai Lama's role in modern Tibetan Buddhism and global peace efforts.
The intersection of Buddhism and science in understanding the mind and consciousness.

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Theology Research Paper Topics

Theology applies a scientific approach to religious practices. So, while talking about religion research topics, it’s important to mention the research of theological methods and the history of this branch of science. Here are some of the themes you can consider:

The concept of God in Christian and Islamic theology: A comparative study.
Liberation theology and its impact on social justice movements.
Theological responses to the problem of evil in different religious traditions.
The role of women in the theology of the early church.
Process theology and its implications for understanding divine action.
The influence of Augustine's theology on Western Christian thought.
Eco-theology: Exploring religious perspectives on environmental conservation.
The development of Trinitarian doctrine in the early Christian church.
Theological perspectives on human suffering and divine providence.
The intersection of theology and technology: Ethical considerations in the digital age.

Islam Research Topics

Islam is another major religion that deserves thorough research and careful consideration. The image of it is often demonized in the West, but there is a lot more to it. Here’s what you can write about it:

The evolution of Islamic jurisprudence (Fiqh) through history.
Sufism and its role in shaping Islamic spirituality and practice.
The impact of Islam on the development of science and philosophy in the Golden Age.
Gender roles and rights in Islamic law: A contemporary analysis.
The concept of Jihad in Islam: Historical and modern interpretations.
Islamic finance and banking: Principles and global impact.
The significance of the Hajj pilgrimage in Muslim life and society.
The role of the Prophet Muhammad in Islam compared to prophets in other religions.
Modern Islamic political movements: Origins and objectives.
Interfaith dialogue between Islam and other world religions: Challenges and opportunities.

Siddhartha Essay Topics

Siddhartha is the birth name of the founder of Buddhism, and it is the name of the novel about the spiritual journey of his contemporary. Both deserve research in the religious and philosophical context:

The journey of self-discovery in Hermann Hesse's "Siddhartha."
The role of the river as a symbol in "Siddhartha."
Comparing and contrasting Siddhartha's relationships with Kamala and Govinda.
The theme of enlightenment in "Siddhartha" versus traditional Buddhist teachings.
The significance of names and identity in "Siddhartha."
The influence of Indian philosophy on Hesse's "Siddhartha."
The concept of time in "Siddhartha" and its impact on the protagonist's spiritual journey.
The role of nature in Siddhartha's quest for enlightenment.
Siddhartha's changing views on wealth and materialism throughout the novel.
The portrayal of teacher-student relationships in "Siddhartha" and their importance in Siddhartha's spiritual development.

Religion Systems Topics

The role of ritual in establishing and maintaining religious systems.
Comparative analysis of monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
The impact of colonialism on indigenous religious systems.
The evolution of religious systems in response to modernity and secularism.
Syncretism: How different religious systems merge and influence each other.
The function of myth in religious systems across cultures.
Religious systems and their influence on gender roles and norms.
The relationship between religious systems and political power structures.
The role of pilgrimage in various religious systems.
The future of religious systems in a globalized world: Trends and predictions.

Advice on How to Write a Religion Essay

Writing an essay about religion has a lot of pitfalls. If you want to get a good grade on your task, you need to do it right. Here are some tips that might help you write an excellent essay on a religious topic:

Avoid including personal biases and opinions – criticizing any religion is a slippery slope, but doing it from an emotional or experienced-based standpoint is even worse. Remember that the views and values of one person do not define the views of the whole group;
Structure your paper – a well-structured paper is easy to read and understand. It will better illustrate your point and will show your organized and systematic approach to research;
Check your sources for credibility – unfortunately, there are a lot of pseudoscientific opinions and works around religious topics. Even if some of them have certain merit, it is better not to include them in your work;
Explore your religion research topics from different perspectives – the best way to avoid bias in your research is to present the opinions from opposite sides. This will result in a well-rounded paper that will not claim to know a “single truth”, but rather apply scientific methods to religious research;
Try to provide the context – religious texts are often complex and filled with symbolism. You can easily find contradicting statements in them, but, in order to present them fairly, you need to provide the context for them. This does not require a retelling of the whole text, but the general situation needs to be mentioned.

If these tips still do not help, we’re ready to assist you. Visit our research paper writing services , choose a professional author that suits you, and get help with your religion research paper right now!

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35 Inspiring Theology and Religion Research Topics for Undergraduates

Table of contents

Picture this – you're sitting at your desk, a blank document open on your screen, the cursor blinking back at you. The task? A research paper for your theology and religious studies class. The problem? You have no idea what your topic should be. We've all been there. Whether you're a novice researcher or a seasoned academic, choosing a research paper topic can be daunting.

But fear not, brave scholar! Whether you're interested in the spiritual beliefs that have shaped societies over millennia or the philosophical debates that underpin religious thought, theology and religious studies offer a vast, rich field to explore. So, let's turn that daunting task into an exciting opportunity. In this blog post, we'll explore 30 inspiring research topic ideas for undergraduate theology and religious studies students. But first, let's better understand this intriguing field of study.

The Power of Interfaith Dialogue

Interfaith dialogue plays an instrumental role in promoting understanding, respect, and peace between people of different religious and cultural backgrounds. It encourages constructive conversations that facilitate empathy and respect for diversity. Here are several aspects to focus on:

1. Necessity of Interfaith Dialogue in a Multicultural Society

Explore how interfaith dialogue can help create cohesive multicultural societies.
Potential sources: Studies on multicultural societies, case studies on successful interfaith dialogue initiatives.

2. The Role of Interfaith Dialogue in Peacebuilding

Analyze how interfaith dialogue has been used as a tool for peacebuilding in areas of religious conflict.
Potential sources: Reports from international peacekeeping organizations, historical accounts of conflict resolution.

3. Interfaith Dialogue and Mutual Understanding

Discuss the significance of interfaith dialogue in promoting mutual understanding and respect among diverse religious communities.
Potential sources: Interfaith dialogue guides, accounts of interfaith initiatives.

4. Education and Interfaith Dialogue

Examine the role of education in fostering interfaith dialogue and how it can be integrated into educational curricula.
Potential sources: Educational policies, studies on religious education.

5. The Role of Religious Leaders in Interfaith Dialogue

Investigate the influence of religious leaders in encouraging or discouraging interfaith dialogue.
Potential sources: Statements and speeches of religious leaders, accounts of interfaith meetings.

6. Interfaith Dialogue and the Media

Discuss the role of media in promoting or impeding interfaith dialogue, and how it can be used constructively.
Potential sources: Media studies on religious coverage, case studies on media's role in interfaith initiatives.

7. Obstacles to Effective Interfaith Dialogue

Identify common obstacles to interfaith dialogue and propose strategies to overcome them.
Potential sources: Studies on interfaith dialogue, reports on religious conflicts.

8. Interfaith Dialogue and Social Justice

Explore how interfaith dialogue can contribute to social justice movements and the advocacy for human rights.
Potential sources: Reports from human rights organizations, accounts of social justice movements involving interfaith dialogue.

9. The Future of Interfaith Dialogue

Consider the future of interfaith dialogue in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world.
Potential sources: Futuristic studies on religion, expert opinions on the future of interfaith dialogue.

10. Case Studies of Successful Interfaith Dialogue

Analyze case studies of successful interfaith dialogue initiatives and draw lessons from them.
Potential sources: Records of successful interfaith dialogues, interviews with participants.

In this journey of understanding the power of interfaith dialogue, it's crucial to approach each topic with respect and sensitivity, acknowledging the diversity of beliefs and practices within and across religious traditions.

Exploring World Religions: Comparative Studies

Exploring world religions through a comparative lens allows for a deeper understanding of the diversity, complexity, and richness of different religious traditions. This section of the dissertation could delve into the following areas:

1. Methodologies in Comparative Religion

Discuss various approaches to comparative religion studies, their benefits, and potential limitations.
Potential sources: Academic texts on comparative religious studies, methodology guides.

2. Comparative Analysis of Major World Religions

Examine key religious concepts, beliefs, practices, and rituals across major world religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, and others.
Potential sources: Religious texts, scholarly articles, ethnographic studies.

3. Similarities and Differences in Religious Practices

Identify and discuss similarities and differences in the ways that different religions approach worship, ritual, and community life.
Potential sources: Ethnographic studies, scholarly articles on religious practices, religious texts.

4. Comparative Analysis of Religious Philosophies

Analyze the philosophical underpinnings of different religions, comparing their approaches to questions of morality, existence, knowledge, and the nature of the divine.
Potential sources: Religious philosophy texts, scholarly articles on religious philosophies, expert opinions.

5. Comparative Study of Religious Myths and Stories

Compare and contrast the myths, stories, parables, and legends that form part of the narrative traditions of different religions.
Potential sources: Religious texts, scholarly articles on religious narratives, studies on mythology.

6. Interactions and Influences among Religions

Discuss historical interactions between different religions and how they have influenced each other's development and practices.
Potential sources: Historical accounts, scholarly articles on religious interactions, studies on syncretism.

7. The Role of Religion in Society: A Comparative Analysis

Analyze the societal roles of religion in different cultures and societies, examining how different religions interact with and influence social structures, norms, and values.
Potential sources: Sociological studies on religion, case studies, historical accounts.

8. Comparative Study of Religious Reform Movements

Compare and contrast various religious reform movements across different religions, examining their causes, impacts, and outcomes.
Potential sources: Historical texts, scholarly articles on religious reform movements, case studies.

9. The Evolution of Religions Over Time

Explore how various religions have evolved over time, comparing the ways in which they have adapted to changes in society, science, and technology.
Potential sources: Historical studies, scholarly articles on the evolution of religions, religious texts.

10. Case Studies in Comparative Religion

Conduct in-depth case studies of particular aspects of different religions, drawing out points of comparison and contrast.
Potential sources: Case study reports, academic articles, religious texts.

Comparative studies of world religions can serve to broaden our perspectives, deepen our understanding, and foster greater respect for the variety of religious experiences and expressions around the world.

Religious Influences on Society and Culture

Religion profoundly influences society and culture. It is a force that shapes our understanding of morality, law, and human relationships, influences our arts and literature, and plays a key role in social cohesion and conflict. This section of the dissertation would explore these influences in the following ways:

1. The Role of Religion in Shaping Morality

Investigate how religion forms moral codes and principles in different societies, examining the ways in which these codes shape behavior and social norms.
Potential sources: Sociological and philosophical texts, religious doctrines, scholarly articles on morality and religion.

2. Religion and the Formation of Law

Explore how religious principles have influenced legal systems around the world, from religious laws themselves to secular laws influenced by religious thought.
Potential sources: Legal texts, religious scriptures, scholarly articles on law and religion.

3. Religious Influences on Arts and Literature

Examine how religion has influenced various art forms and literature, from religious iconography in visual arts to religious themes in literature.
Potential sources: Art history texts, literary analysis, scholarly articles on religion in arts and literature.

4. The Impact of Religion on Social Cohesion and Conflict

Discuss the dual role of religion in promoting social unity and causing conflict, drawing from historical and contemporary examples.
Potential sources: Sociological and historical texts, case studies, news articles, scholarly articles on religion and conflict.

5. Religion and Cultural Identity

Explore how religion contributes to the formation of cultural identities and how these identities can influence religious practices and beliefs.
Potential sources: Cultural studies, ethnographic research, scholarly articles on religion and identity.

6. Religious Influences on Gender Roles

Examine the role of religion in shaping gender norms and expectations in different societies.
Potential sources: Gender studies, sociological texts, scholarly articles on religion and gender.

7. The Role of Religion in Education

Investigate the role of religion in shaping education systems, curricula, and philosophies of education.
Potential sources: Education policy documents, scholarly articles on religion and education.

8. Religion and Social Change

Analyze the role of religion in social movements and societal changes, such as civil rights movements, environmental movements, or movements for gender equality.
Potential sources: Historical texts, sociological studies, scholarly articles on religion and social change.

9. The Influence of Religion on Healthcare and Well-being

Discuss how religious beliefs and practices can influence attitudes towards health, disease, medical ethics, and well-being.
Potential sources: Medical ethics texts, scholarly articles on religion and health, case studies.

10. Case Studies in Religious Influence

Conduct in-depth case studies of specific instances of religious influence on society and culture.
Potential sources: Case studies, historical texts, academic articles, cultural analyses.

Religion's pervasive influence on society and culture is a fascinating area of study. Understanding these influences can provide insight into how societies function, how cultures develop, and how individuals form their identities and worldviews.

Religion and LGBTQ+ Rights: A Comparative Study

The intersection of religion and LGBTQ+ rights is a hotly debated topic in both academic and public spheres. Understanding how different religions view and influence LGBTQ+ rights can provide valuable insights into broader societal attitudes and legal frameworks. Here are some aspects you could delve into:

1. Religious Doctrines and LGBTQ+ Rights: A Comparative Analysis

Compare the doctrines of different religions regarding LGBTQ+ issues.
Explore how these doctrines have evolved over time.
Potential sources: Religious texts, theological studies, writings from religious leaders.

2. The Role of Religion in Shaping Societal Attitudes Towards the LGBTQ+ Community

Analyze the influence of religious beliefs on societal attitudes towards the LGBTQ+ community.
Explore differences and similarities across various cultures and religions.
Potential sources: Sociological studies, surveys on religion and societal attitudes, academic papers on religion and LGBTQ+ rights.

3. The Impact of Religious Lobbying on LGBTQ+ Legislation

Examine the influence of religious lobbying on laws related to LGBTQ+ rights.
Consider both progressive and conservative religious movements.
Potential sources: Legislation history, records of religious lobbying activities, studies on religion and public policy.

4. LGBTQ+ Rights Advocacy Within Religious Communities

Explore the role of LGBTQ+ advocacy groups within religious communities.
Discuss how these groups navigate the intersection of religious beliefs and LGBTQ+ rights.
Potential sources: Statements and publications from advocacy groups, news articles, interviews with advocacy group members.

5. Religion, Conversion Therapy, and Mental Health

Investigate the practice of conversion therapy within religious communities.
Discuss its impacts on mental health and legal responses to this practice.
Potential sources: Psychological studies, survivor testimonies, legislation documents.

In this part, your objective is to shed light on the complex relationship between religion and LGBTQ+ rights. Ensure that your analysis respects the diversity of views within each religion and emphasize the importance of promoting understanding and human rights.

Choosing Your Topic: A Handy Guide

Having established a broad context of the study of religion, it's now time to choose your specific research topic. The selection of a topic is critical as it sets the direction for your research and, ultimately, the success of your dissertation. Here are some guidelines that may help you:

Personal Interest : Select a topic that genuinely interests you. Your passion for the subject will help to sustain your motivation during the often arduous process of researching and writing your dissertation.

Familiarity : While it can be exciting to venture into new territory, choosing a topic you are already familiar with can often prove beneficial, especially if you're already well-versed in some of the literature or theoretical approaches related to your topic.

Originality : Although your topic should be based on established scholarship, it should also make an original contribution to the field. Avoid merely summarizing existing research; instead, seek to provide a new perspective or uncover previously unexplored aspects.

Feasibility : Keep in mind practical considerations such as the availability of resources, time constraints, and the scope of your project. You want your project to be challenging, but also achievable within your given timeframe and resources.

Relevance : Consider the relevance of your topic to the current academic discourse. Selecting a topic that relates to ongoing debates or recent developments in the field can help to ensure that your research will be of interest to others.

To guide you through the process of choosing your topic, here are a few steps you might follow:

Brainstorming : Start by brainstorming a list of potential topics. Don't worry about being too precise at this stage.

Preliminary Research : Conduct some preliminary research on each of your potential topics. Read recent journal articles, check out related books, and familiarize yourself with the current discourse surrounding each topic.

Narrowing Down : After conducting your preliminary research, narrow down your list of potential topics. Discard topics that don't seem feasible or that don't hold as much interest for you as others.

Refinement : Once you have a shortlist of potential topics, refine each one. Develop a research question for each topic and consider what kind of research would be necessary to answer it.

Final Selection : After refining each topic, make your final selection. Choose the topic that you are most interested in, that is most feasible, and that will make the most significant contribution to the field.

Seek Feedback : Once you've selected your topic, seek feedback from your dissertation advisor and other mentors. They can provide valuable insight and help to further refine your topic.

Remember, your dissertation is a significant piece of work that represents a culmination of your academic journey. Choose a topic that not only fulfills the requirements of your degree but also allows you to showcase your intellectual curiosity and scholarly skills.

Understanding Theology and Religious Studies

Theology and religious studies is a diverse and fascinating field, delving into the depths of human history, culture, philosophy, ethics, and more. It's not just about studying religious texts and rituals; it's also about understanding how these beliefs and practices shape societies, influence individual behavior, and impact global events.

Whether you're studying a mainstream religion like Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism, or exploring the philosophies of lesser-known or ancient religions, you'll find that this field is ripe with intriguing research questions. This field allows for a broad array of research approaches, encompassing historical, philosophical, anthropological, sociological perspectives, and even engaging with modern debates around politics, human rights, and scientific progress.

So, whether you're drawn to the metaphysical questions or the practical implications, theology and religious studies provide a rich field of research that can help illuminate the world in surprising and insightful ways.

Now that we have a good grasp of the field let's delve into some potential research topics that might pique your interest. The following topics are designed to be diverse, covering a wide range of areas within theology and religious studies. Each topic will come with some bullet-pointed guidelines on how you might approach your research. Ready? Let's jump in!

The study of religion is a broad and multi-faceted field that offers numerous potential topics for dissertation research. The intersection of religion with society, culture, politics, and personal identity provides a fertile ground for intriguing questions and deep scholarly exploration.

Whether examining the theological complexities of a single faith, comparing the similarities and differences between multiple religious traditions, investigating the societal impact of religious practices and beliefs, or diving into the transformative potential of interfaith dialogues, the opportunities are vast and varied. The key is to choose a topic that resonates personally, offers a chance for original research, and contributes meaningfully to the ongoing academic discourse.

In this ever-evolving world, understanding religion’s role and impact becomes increasingly significant. By choosing a topic that contributes to this understanding, you engage in a conversation that spans across cultures, continents, and centuries, gaining insights that extend well beyond the academic sphere and into the diverse realities of human existence.

Your dissertation is more than a paper; it is an intellectual endeavor that can have an impact in academia and beyond. It is a testament to your commitment, intellect, and passion in your chosen field. Choose wisely, dedicate earnestly, and let your work add a valuable brick to the edifice of knowledge that the study of religion is.

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Exploring Faith and Belief: Religious Research Paper Topics

Table of contents

1 Challenges in Religious Research Paper Topics
2.1 Christian Research Paper Topics
2.2 Islam Research Topics
2.3 Siddhartha Essay Topics
2.4 Buddhism Essay Topics
2.5 Hinduism Research Paper Topics
2.6 Judaism Religion
2.7 Theology Research Paper Topics

Exploring the realm of religion opens a multitude of avenues for scholarly inquiry. Research papers on religion delve into profound questions that have captivated humanity throughout history. These studies not only illuminate the intricacies of faith and belief systems but also examine their profound impact on culture, society, and personal identity.

Choosing a research topic about religion requires a thoughtful consideration of a wide spectrum of beliefs, practices, and philosophical interpretations. From the rituals that bind communities to the spiritual philosophies that drive individual conduct, religion research topics offer a rich tapestry of areas for academic exploration. With such diversity, the challenge lies in pinpointing a singular path that resonates with both current discourse and timeless questions of the human experience.

Challenges in Religious Research Paper Topics

Navigating religious research paper topics presents a unique set of challenges. Crafting research questions about religion demands sensitivity and a deep understanding of diverse belief systems. Scholars often grapple with the subjective nature of spirituality, striving to maintain academic rigor while exploring profoundly personal and often religious controversial topics. The multifaceted nature of religious research paper topics also requires an interdisciplinary approach, intersecting with history, sociology, psychology, and theology.

Additionally, researchers must balance insider and outsider perspectives, often working to gain the trust of faith communities while preserving critical distance. Research papers on religion must also contend with varying interpretations of sacred texts and practices, which can vary widely even within a single tradition. Moreover, the dynamic nature of religion, constantly evolving in the face of modernity and globalization, poses a challenge to researchers aiming to capture the contemporary religious landscape accurately. The task, then, is to approach these topics with a blend of scholarly curiosity, methodological precision, and cultural competence.

Need help with research paper? Get your paper written by a professional writer Get Help Reviews.io 4.9/5

List of 70 Religion Topics to Write About

Embark on an intellectual journey with this curated list of 70 religion topics, each offering a unique window into the diverse ways faith shapes and is shaped by the world we live in.

Christian Research Paper Topics

Diving into Christianity offers a rich vein of inquiry for scholars. These biblical topics for research papers present fresh perspectives on age-old discussions, inviting a deeper understanding of one of the world’s most-followed faiths.

The Evolution of Christian Thought in Postmodern Society
Analyzing the Role of Women in Early Christian Communities
The Influence of Christian Ethics on Modern Business Practices
Cross-Cultural Interpretations of Christian Symbols in Global Contexts
The Impact of Digital Media on Christian Worship and Community
Environmental Stewardship and its Theological Roots in Christianity
The Psychological Effects of Christian Practices on Mental Health
A Comparative Study of Christian Mysticism and Contemporary Spiritual Movements
The Political Expressions of Liberation Theology in Latin America
Christian Perspectives on Artificial Intelligence and Bioethics

Islam Research Topics

The study of Islam uncovers a tapestry of cultural, theological, and historical themes. These research topics on religion provide a platform for a nuanced exploration of Islam’s multifaceted impact on the world.

Modern Interpretations of Sharia Law in Various Islamic Societies
The Role of Sufism in Contemporary Islamic Practice
Islamic Economic Principles and Their Application in the 21st Century
Gender Dynamics within Islamic Theology and Practice
Islamic Artistic Expression in the Digital Age
The Influence of Islam on Classical Scientific Discovery and Philosophy
The Political Significance of Islam in Non-Majority Muslim Countries
Interfaith Dialogues between Islamic and Western Philosophical Traditions
The Evolution of Islamic Educational Institutions from Classical to Modern Times
The Representation of Islam in Western Media and its Societal Impact

Siddhartha Essay Topics

Hermann Hesse’s “Siddhartha” is a rich narrative ripe for exploration, intertwining themes of self-discovery and spirituality. These religion topics to write about offer a pathway to understanding the profound messages embedded in this classic tale.

The Concept of Enlightenment in Siddhartha Versus Traditional Buddhist Teachings
River Imagery as a Symbol of Life’s Journey in Siddhartha
Siddhartha’s Relationship with Nature as a Reflection of His Spiritual Quest
The Influence of Hermann Hesse’s Personal Beliefs on the Portrayal of Religion in Siddhartha
Comparing Siddhartha’s Ascetic Life with Modern Minimalist Movements
The Role of Mentorship and its Impact on Siddhartha’s Spiritual Evolution
The Dichotomy of Material Wealth and Spiritual Fulfillment in Siddhartha
Siddhartha’s Search for Authenticity Amidst Societal Expectations
The Function of Love in Siddhartha’s Journey Towards Self-Actualization
Relevance of Siddhartha’s Lessons in the Context of Contemporary Religious Practice

Buddhism Essay Topics

Buddhism, with its profound philosophical foundations and global influence, provides a fertile ground for scholarly exploration. These religious research topics and world religion paper topics delve into the heart of Buddhist doctrine and its practical implications in today’s world.

The Intersection of Buddhist Philosophy and Contemporary Psychotherapy
Ethical Consumption and Environmentalism through the Lens of Buddhist Teachings
The Role of Meditation in Modern Healthcare as Influenced by Buddhism
Analysis of Buddhist Responses to the Challenges of Globalization
The Adaptation of Zen Aesthetics in Western Art and Architecture
Buddhist Principles in Conflict Resolution and Peacebuilding Efforts
The Impact of Technological Advancements on Traditional Buddhist Practices
A Study of Gender Roles within Buddhist Monastic Communities
The Influence of Buddhism on Western Philosophical Thought
Exploring the Growth of Buddhist Tourism and its Cultural Impacts

Hinduism Research Paper Topics

Hinduism’s rich tapestry of mythology, philosophy, and cultural practices presents an expansive field for academic inquiry. The following religion topics for research paper encompass both the depth of Hindu traditions and contemporary issues, offering a platform for insightful discourse.

Analyzing the Impact of Hinduism on India’s Environmental Policies
Feminine Divinity in Hinduism and its Influence on Gender Roles
The Evolution of Hindu Temple Architecture Over Centuries
Caste System Interpretations in Modern Hindu Society
Yoga as a Global Phenomenon: Origins and Transformations from Hindu Traditions
The Role of Hinduism in Forming India’s National Identity
The Philosophy of Karma and its Relevance to Modern Ethics
Ayurveda: Ancient Hindu Science of Health in the Modern Wellness Industry
The Dynamics of Hindu Pilgrimage: Economy, Ecology, and Tradition
Hindu Rituals and their Psychological Implications in Contemporary Practice

Judaism Religion

The exploration of Judaism offers insights into one of the world’s oldest monotheistic religions, rich with history and tradition. While the following topics are not centered on religion research paper topics, they reflect the depth and diversity inherent in Jewish studies.

The Influence of Jewish Mysticism on Contemporary Religious Thought
The Preservation of Jewish Traditions in Diaspora Communities
Jewish Perspectives on Bioethics and Modern Medical Dilemmas
The Role of the Synagogue in Jewish Cultural and Religious Life
The Impact of the Holocaust on Theological Understandings in Judaism
Jewish Contributions to Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding
The Evolution of Kosher Laws and Their Application in the Food Industry
The Intersection of Jewish Law and Modern State Legislation
The Role of Hebrew Language Revival in Jewish Identity Formation
Jewish Feminist Theology and its Quest for Gender Equality in Religious Practice

Theology Research Paper Topics

Theology, the systematic study of the divine, invites scholars to probe the depths of religious belief and practice. These theology research paper topics are designed to inspire critical thought and original analysis on various aspects of spiritual inquiry.

The Role of Prophecy in Abrahamic Religions Comparative Study
Liberation Theology’s Influence on Social Justice Movements
Theological Responses to the Problem of Evil in Different Faiths
The Impact of Feminist Theology on Traditional Religious Practices
The Integration of Theology and Science in the Modern World
The Concept of the Afterlife in Theological and Philosophical Perspectives
Ecumenism and the Pursuit of Christian Unity in Theology
Theological Underpinnings of Contemporary Environmental Ethics
The Influence of Digital Media on Theological Education
The Role of Ritual in Expressing and Shaping Theological Beliefs

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A Research Guide
Research Paper Topics

40 Religion Research Paper Topics Ideas

The primal religions
Animalism and totemism, their manifestations in the modern world
Polytheistic religions and mythology. Similarities in myths and images of the gods
Greek myths and religion, their impact on the European culture
The phenomenon of trickster gods
The female goddesses triad: the maiden, the mother and the hag
World religions and science
Monotheistic religions: similarities and differences
Religions and laws in modern world
Theocratic states and the influence of religion there
Religion and daily life. How do people implement religion practices in the modern world?
Is Atheism a religion too?
World religions that have no gods
The concept of soul in different religions
The history of Christianity
The history of Islam
The history of Judaism
Nordic mythology and religion in modern world
Religion and wars. Chaplainship
Religion in modern Japan
Religious counseling versus classical psychology
Attitude to sex of different religions
Religions and gender
Children and religions. Are children considered innocent in all the religions?
Teenagers and religion. Can faith help overcome the harshness of puberty?
Female clergy in different religions
Women and Islam
Religions and economics
Religions and LGBTQ+ people
Hinduism and Islam in India
The history of Hinduism and its impact on modern Indian culture
Confucianism
Crisis of faith, what is it?
The concept of reincarnation in world religions
The afterlife: similarities and differences in different religions
Black churches
Yoga: a health or religious practice?
Zoroastrinism
What causes a new religion to emerge?
Shamanism from the dawn of the history to modern days

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13.7 Cosmos & Culture

15 questions about science and religion, answered.

Tania Lombrozo

Last April, I joined more than a dozen cognitive scientists at a workshop called "Breaking New Ground in the Science-Religion Dialogue." The workshop, organized by Cristine Legare at the University of Texas at Austin, aimed to encourage a sophisticated, evidence-based look at the psychology behind science and religion, as well as psychological factors that affect people's perception of believers, atheists and the relationship between science and religion.

In addition to longer presentations, participants were asked to provide brief responses to fundamental questions about science, religion, atheism and belief in God. For instance, I was asked whether scientific and religious explanations are philosophically incompatible — a question I also took up in a blog post following the workshop.

Videos of these responses were just made available on YouTube, and I'm happy to share them here with 13.7 's readers. You'll find plenty of food for thought! And if you have your own answers to these questions, please share them in the comments.

Take a look:

Watch : How can evolutionary psychology inform the science and religion dialogue? (Prof. David Buss)

Watch : Why is there so much antagonism in media dialogues between believers and atheists? (Prof. Kelly James Clark)

Watch : Why do people distrust atheists? (Prof. Will Gervais)

Watch : How is the process of acquiring religious and scientific explanations similar? (Prof. Paul Harris)

Watch : Can science ever replace religion? (Prof. Bruce Hood)

Watch : Why haven't more social scientists participated in the popular science discourse about science and religion? (Prof. Tom Lawson)

Watch : How do people reconcile religious and scientific explanations? (Prof. Cristine Legare)

Watch : Are scientific and religious explanations philosophically incompatible? (Prof. Tania Lombrozo)

Watch : How can cognitive science inform the science and religion dialogue? (Prof. Art Markman)

Watch : Why should scientists care about religion? (Prof. Robert McCauley)

Watch : What kind of biases do people have about scientists? (Prof. Bastiaan Rutjens)

Watch : How can evolutionary perspectives on religion inform the science and religion dialogue? (Prof. Azim Shariff)

Watch : What would be the best way to create a more scientifically informed public? (Prof. Andrew Shtulman)

Watch : How can philosophy inform the science and religion dialogue? (Prof. Konrad Talmont-Kaminski)

Watch : Do people become more or less religious with age? (Prof. Jacqueline Woolley)

Tania Lombrozo is a psychology professor at the University of California, Berkeley. She writes about psychology, cognitive science and philosophy, with occasional forays into parenting and veganism. You can keep up with more of what she is thinking on Twitter: @TaniaLombrozo

science and religion
Cristine Legare
cognitive science of religion

Philosophy of Religion Research Paper Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of philosophy of religion research paper topics , delving into the nuanced relationship between philosophical inquiry and religious beliefs. Students and researchers will find insights into the profound connections and debates that have shaped both religious and philosophical traditions throughout history. Additionally, with the guidance and expertise of iResearchNet, learners can embark on a detailed exploration of these themes, promoting a deeper understanding and appreciation of the myriad ways in which philosophy and religion intersect and influence each other.

100 Philosophy of Religion Research Paper Topics

In the vast panorama of human inquiry, the philosophy of religion holds a unique and seminal place. It sits at the crossroads of existential questioning and spiritual exploration, offering a deep reservoir of topics for those seeking to delve into the nature of divinity, humanity, and the universe. Choosing the right philosophy of religion research paper topics is essential, not only for academic achievements but also for personal growth, critical understanding, and fostering inter-religious dialogue in a globalized world.

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Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and their philosophical underpinnings.
Greek philosophy: From polytheism to monotheism.
The merging of Roman political ideology with Christianity.
Medieval scholasticism and the fusion of reason with faith.
The Enlightenment and the challenge to religious orthodoxy.
Romanticism’s spiritual revival against materialism.
Eastern philosophy: From Vedanta to Zen Buddhism.
Abrahamic faiths: Philosophical interpretations of monotheism.
Indigenous religious beliefs and their philosophical depth.
The modern-day revival of ancient pagan philosophies.
The monotheistic traditions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Dharmic paths: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.
Philosophical Taoism versus religious Taoism.
Confucianism’s moral ethics and its societal impact.
Shamanism and animism: Connecting with the natural world.
Zoroastrianism and its influence on Western monotheism.
The Baha’i faith and its universalist approach.
The indigenous spiritual traditions of Africa.
Australian Aboriginal Dreamtime philosophy.
The Raelian movement and other modern religious philosophies.
Cosmology: Creation myths versus the Big Bang theory.
Evolutionary theory and religious interpretations of human origin.
Quantum mechanics: Where science meets mysticism.
Neuroscience, consciousness, and the soul.
Artificial intelligence, robotics, and theological implications.
Environmentalism as a religious and scientific imperative.
The moral considerations of genetic engineering.
Medical ethics: Euthanasia, abortion, and religious perspectives.
Extraterrestrial life: Religious implications of discovering “others”.
The fine-tuning argument and the existence of a Creator.
Kierkegaard’s leap of faith and existential Christianity.
Nietzsche’s proclamation: “God is dead.”
Camus, the Absurd, and the quest for meaning without divinity.
Sartre’s atheistic existentialism and the essence of humanity.
Heidegger’s “Being” and religious interpretations.
Dostoevsky’s exploration of faith in The Brothers Karamazov .
Kafka and the religious undertones of alienation.
Religious overtones in Beckett’s Waiting for Godot .
The existential search for authenticity and religious identity.
Tillich’s concept of the “God above God.”
The religious roots of morality: Is God necessary for ethics?
Comparing the moral codes of world religions.
Just war theory in Christianity and Islam.
Buddhist ethics: The Middle Path and compassion.
The challenge of religious extremism and its ethical ramifications.
Religious perspectives on capital punishment.
Vegetarianism and non-violence in Jainism and Hinduism.
Charity, almsgiving, and social justice in religious traditions.
The problem of evil: Theodicy across religions.
Asceticism and its ethical implications in different religious paths.
Revisiting Eve: Feminist readings of religious origin stories.
Goddess worship and matriarchal traditions.
The role of women in organized religious hierarchies.
Mary Daly and the concept of a post-Christian feminism.
Islamic feminism: Reinterpreting the Quran.
Feminist critiques of Buddhist monasticism.
Ecofeminism and the sacred feminine.
Women mystics in the Christian tradition.
Feminine symbolism in Kabbalistic teachings.
Liberation theology’s focus on women’s rights.
Theocracy versus secularism: Philosophical implications.
Render unto Caesar: Christianity’s evolving stance on state power.
Islamic governance: From Caliphates to modern nation-states.
Confucianism and its influence on Chinese statecraft.
Religion’s role in the American political landscape.
Hindu nationalism in contemporary India.
The Dalai Lama and Tibetan theocratic governance.
Secularism, laïcité, and European politics.
Liberation theology and Marxist movements in Latin America.
The rise and impact of political Zionism.
The nature and experience of mystical states across religions.
Sufism: The mystical heart of Islam.
Christian mystics: From St. John of the Cross to Meister Eckhart.
Kabbalah: Jewish esoteric traditions and their universal messages.
Advaita Vedanta and the non-dual reality.
Zen Buddhism: Satori and sudden enlightenment.
Gnostic traditions and the search for hidden knowledge.
Native American vision quests and transcendental experiences.
The role of psychedelics in religious and mystical experiences.
Modern scientific interpretations of mystical experiences.
The cross in Christianity: Interpretations and symbolism.
The significance of the Kaaba in Islam.
Sacred geometry and religious symbolism.
Myths of creation and apocalypse across traditions.
Rituals of passage: Birth, adulthood, marriage, and death.
The ritual use of music and dance in spiritual practices.
Sacred texts: Their role and interpretation in religious traditions.
Pilgrimage: Seeking the divine in sacred spaces.
Religious festivals and their philosophical meanings.
Carl Jung’s interpretation of religious symbols.
The Future of Religion: Postmodern and Contemporary Views
The rise of secularism and the “nones.”
Interfaith dialogue in a globalized world.
Postmodern critiques of organized religion.
Spirituality versus organized religion in the modern age.
Neo-paganism and the revival of ancient religious practices.
The intersection of technology and spirituality.
Transhumanism and its challenge to traditional religious beliefs.
New religious movements in the digital age.
The role of meditation and mindfulness in contemporary spirituality.
The prospects of universalist religious philosophies.

The tapestry of philosophy of religion research paper topics is both diverse and profound, offering myriad avenues for exploration. It represents an ever-evolving dialogue between human beings and the mysteries of existence, pushing us to question, reflect, and understand more deeply. We encourage scholars, students, and curious minds to immerse themselves in these topics, fostering both academic excellence and a richer understanding of the multifaceted nature of human belief.

The Range of Philosophy of Religion Research Paper Topics

Introduction

Religion has always played a pivotal role in the lives of humans, influencing cultures, politics, and personal choices. However, it is the philosophy of religion that critically assesses and shapes religious thought and practices. Like a mirror, it allows adherents and scholars to reflect upon the core tenets, beliefs, and implications of religious traditions.

Expansive Nature of Topics in Philosophy of Religion

The philosophy of religion offers a vast expanse of topics, each probing deep into the questions of existence, deity, morality, and human purpose. From the age-old debate on the existence of God and the problem of evil to the ethical implications of religious doctrines and the feminist interpretations in religious philosophies, the terrain is broad and deep. It’s not just about understanding individual religions, but about grappling with questions that transcend individual beliefs: How does religion intersect with science or politics? What is the nature of the divine? How do symbols, myths, and rituals anchor the human understanding of the cosmos?

Evolution of Religious Philosophies Through Time

Historically, religious philosophies have evolved in tandem with the socio-cultural and scientific developments of their times. Ancient Greek philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the groundwork for many discussions about the divine, ethics, and the nature of the good life. Their dialogues and debates shaped much of early Christian philosophy and continue to be pivotal in theological seminaries and philosophy departments.

Centuries later, during the medieval period, scholars like Thomas Aquinas and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) would further refine and challenge classical views, synthesizing them with the revelations of the Abrahamic faiths. The Renaissance and Enlightenment periods ushered in a new wave of skepticism and humanism, leading to modern and postmodern critiques and defenses of religious beliefs.

Each era has brought with it fresh perspectives, challenges, and revisions to religious philosophies, demonstrating the dynamic nature of this field.

How Global Religious Systems Have Been Shaped by Philosophical Ideas

The global religious landscape has been immensely influenced by philosophical postulations. Take, for instance, the Buddhist doctrine of anatta or non-self, a profound philosophical stance that challenges the very notion of persistent identity. This idea shapes not just individual meditation practices but also how societies understand the self and its relationship to the world.

Similarly, the Islamic concept of Tawhid, the oneness of God, is not just a theological assertion but a philosophical stance on the nature of reality, affecting everything from art (like the avoidance of depicting living beings in many Islamic art forms) to ethics and law.

In the West, Christian notions of love, redemption, and Trinity have been the subject of philosophical scrutiny and interpretation, influencing everything from art and literature to politics and social structures.

Even secularism, often seen in opposition to religious belief, has its roots in philosophical discussions about the nature of belief, the state, and individual rights.

Importance of Philosophy of Religion Research Paper Topics

Diving into philosophy of religion research paper topics is more than just an academic exercise; it’s a journey into the deepest questions of human existence. For students and scholars, these topics offer a chance to engage with these questions in a structured, critical manner.

Such research fosters critical thinking, a deeper appreciation for the diversity and richness of global religious traditions, and an understanding of the profound ways in which religious beliefs shape, and are shaped by, the broader cultural and philosophical milieu. Furthermore, by engaging deeply with these topics, students can also explore their beliefs, confront doubts, and refine their understanding of their religious traditions or the traditions of others.

The philosophy of religion research paper topics remains as relevant today as they were in the times of ancient philosophers. In an increasingly globalized world, where religious beliefs often intersect, clash, and coalesce, understanding the philosophy of religion becomes paramount. Whether one is a believer, agnostic, or atheist, delving into these topics offers a richer understanding of the human quest for meaning, purpose, and connection. Through these explorations, we not only understand religions better but also the very essence of humanity’s perennial questions about existence, morality, and the divine.

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ISRN Psychiatry
v.2012; 2012

Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications

Harold g. koenig.

1 Departments of Medicine and Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, P.O. Box 3400, Durham, NC 27705, USA

2 Department of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21413, Saudi Arabia

This paper provides a concise but comprehensive review of research on religion/spirituality (R/S) and both mental health and physical health. It is based on a systematic review of original data-based quantitative research published in peer-reviewed journals between 1872 and 2010, including a few seminal articles published since 2010. First, I provide a brief historical background to set the stage. Then I review research on R/S and mental health, examining relationships with both positive and negative mental health outcomes, where positive outcomes include well-being, happiness, hope, optimism, and gratefulness, and negative outcomes involve depression, suicide, anxiety, psychosis, substance abuse, delinquency/crime, marital instability, and personality traits (positive and negative). I then explain how and why R/S might influence mental health. Next, I review research on R/S and health behaviors such as physical activity, cigarette smoking, diet, and sexual practices, followed by a review of relationships between R/S and heart disease, hypertension, cerebrovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease and dementia, immune functions, endocrine functions, cancer, overall mortality, physical disability, pain, and somatic symptoms. I then present a theoretical model explaining how R/S might influence physical health. Finally, I discuss what health professionals should do in light of these research findings and make recommendations in this regard.

1. Historical Background and Introduction

Religion, medicine, and healthcare have been related in one way or another in all population groups since the beginning of recorded history [ 1 ]. Only in recent times have these systems of healing been separated, and this separation has occurred largely in highly developed nations; in many developing countries, there is little or no such separation. The history of religion, medicine, and healthcare in developed countries of the West, though, is a fascinating one. The first hospitals in the West for the care of the sick in the general population were built by religious organizations and staffed by religious orders. Throughout the Middle Ages and up through the French Revolution, physicians were often clergy. For hundreds of years, in fact, religious institutions were responsible for licensing physicians to practice medicine. In the American colonies, in particular, many of the clergy were also physicians—often as a second job that helped to supplement their meager income from church work.

Care for those with mental health problems in the West also had its roots within monasteries and religious communities [ 2 ]. In 1247, the Priory of St. Mary of Bethlehem was built in London on the Thames River [ 3 ]. Originally designed to house “distracted people,” this was Europe's (and perhaps the world's) first mental hospital. In 1547, however, St. Mary's was torn down and replaced by Bethlehem or Bethlem Hospital [ 4 ]. Over the years, as secular authorities took control over the institution, the hospital became famous for its inhumane treatment of the mentally ill, who were often chained [ 5 ], dunked in water, or beaten as necessary to control them. In later years, an admission fee (2 pence) was charged to the general public to observe the patients abusing themselves or other patients [ 4 ]. The hospital eventually became known as “bedlam” (from which comes the word used today to indicate a state of confusion and disarray).

In response to the abuses in mental hospitals, and precipitated by the death of a Quaker patient in New York asylum in England, an English merchant and devout Quaker named William Tuke began to promote a new form of treatment of the mentally ill called “moral treatment.” In 1796, he and the Quaker community in England established their own asylum known as the York Retreat [ 6 ]. Not long after this, the Quakers brought moral treatment to America, where it became the dominant form of psychiatric care in that country [ 6 ]. Established in Philadelphia by the Quakers in 1813, “Friends Hospital” (or Friends Asylum) became the first private institution in the United States dedicated solely to the care of those with mental illness [ 7 ]. Psychiatric hospitals that followed in the footsteps of Friends Asylum were the McLean Hospital (established in 1818 in Boston, and now associated with Harvard), the Bloomingdale Asylum (established in 1821 in New York), and the Hartford Retreat (established in 1824 in Connecticut)—all modeled after the York Retreat and implementing moral treatment as the dominant therapy.

It was not until modern times that religion and psychiatry began to part paths. This separation was encouraged by the psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. After being “introduced” to the neurotic and hysterical aspects of religion by the famous French neurologist Jean Charcot in the mid-1880s, Freud began to emphasize this in a widely read series of publications from 1907 through his death in 1939. Included among these were Religious Acts and Obsessive Practices [ 8 ], Psychoanalysis and Religion [ 9 ], Future of an Illusion [ 10 ], and Moses and Monotheism [ 11 ]. These writings left a legacy that would influence the practice of psychiatry—especially psychotherapy—for the rest of the century and lead to a true schism between religion and mental health care. That schism was illustrated in 1993 by a systematic review of the religious content of DSM-III-R, which found nearly one-quarter of all cases of mental illness being described using religious illustrations [ 12 ]. The conflict has continued to the present day. Consider recent e-letters in response to two articles published in The Psychiatrist about this topic [ 13 , 14 ] and an even more recent debate about the role of prayer in psychiatric practice [ 15 ]. This conflict has manifested in the clinical work of many mental health professionals, who have generally ignored the religious resources of patients or viewed them as pathological. Consider that a recent national survey of US psychiatrists found that 56% said they never, rarely, or only sometimes inquire about religious/spiritual issues in patients with depression or anxiety [ 16 ]. Even more concerning, however, is that the conflict has caused psychiatrists to avoid conducting research on religion and mental health. This explains why so little is known about the relationship between religious involvement and severe mental disorders (see Handbook of Religion and Health ) [ 17 ].

Despite the negative views and opinions held by many mental health professionals, research examining religion, spirituality, and health has been rapidly expanding—and most of it is occurring outside the field of psychiatry. This research is being published in journals from a wide range of disciplines, including those in medicine, nursing, physical and occupational therapy, social work, public health, sociology, psychology, religion, spirituality, pastoral care, chaplain, population studies, and even in economics and law journals. Most of these disciplines do not readily communicate with each another, and their journal audiences seldom overlap. The result is a massive research literature that is scattered throughout the medical, social, and behavioral sciences.

To get a sense of how rapidly the research base is growing see Figure 1 . The graphs plot the number of studies published in peer-reviewed journals during every noncumulative 3-year period from 1971 to 2012. Note that about 50% of these articles are reports of original research with quantitative data, whereas the other 50% are qualitative reports, opinion pieces, reviews, or commentaries. Google Scholar presents a more comprehensive picture since it includes studies published in both Medline and non-Medline journals. These graphs suggest that the volume of research on R/S and health has literally exploded since the mid-1990s.

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Object name is ISRN.PSYCHIATRY2012-278730.001.jpg

Religion spirituality and health articles published per 3-year period (noncumulative) Search terms: religion, religious, religiosity, religiousness, and spirituality (conducted on 8/11/12; projected to end of 2012).

2. Definitions

Before summarizing the research findings, it is first necessary to provide definitions of the words religion and spirituality that I am using. There is much controversy and disagreement concerning definitions in this field, particularly over the term “spirituality,” and space here does not allow a full discussion of these complex issues. For an in depth discussion, including an exploration of contamination and confounding in the measurement of spirituality, I refer the reader to other sources [ 18 – 20 ]. Here are the definitions we provided in the Handbook .

“[Religion] Involves beliefs, practices, and rituals related to the transcendent , where the transcendent is God, Allah, HaShem, or a Higher Power in Western religious traditions, or to Brahman, manifestations of Brahman, Buddha, Dao, or ultimate truth/reality in Eastern traditions. This often involves the mystical or supernatural. Religions usually have specific beliefs about life after death and rules about conduct within a social group. Religion is a multidimensional construct that includes beliefs, behaviors, rituals, and ceremonies that may be held or practiced in private or public settings, but are in some way derived from established traditions that developed over time within a community. Religion is also an organized system of beliefs, practices, and symbols designed (a) to facilitate closeness to the transcendent, and (b) to foster an understanding of one's relationship and responsibility to others in living together in a community.” [ 21 ].

“Spirituality is distinguished from all other things—humanism, values, morals, and mental health—by its connection to that which is sacred, the transcendent . The transcendent is that which is outside of the self, and yet also within the self—and in Western traditions is called God, Allah, HaShem, or a Higher Power, and in Eastern traditions may be called Brahman, manifestations of Brahman, Buddha, Dao, or ultimate truth/reality. Spirituality is intimately connected to the supernatural, the mystical, and to organized religion, although also extends beyond organized religion (and begins before it). Spirituality includes both a search for the transcendent and the discovery of the transcendent and so involves traveling along the path that leads from nonconsideration to questioning to either staunch nonbelief or belief, and if belief, then ultimately to devotion and finally, surrender. Thus, our definition of spirituality is very similar to religion and there is clearly overlap.” [ 22 ].

For the research review presented here, given the similarity in my definition of these terms and the fact that spirituality in the research has either been measured using questions assessing religion or by items assessing mental health (thereby contaminating the construct and causing tautological results), I will be using religion and spirituality interchangeably (i.e., R/S).

3. Method of the Review

I summarize the research findings between R/S and health first in the area of mental health outcomes, then for health behaviors, and finally for physical health outcomes. The information presented here is based on a systematic review of peer-reviewed original data-based reports published though mid-2010 and summarized in two editions of the Handbook of Religion and Health [ 23 , 24 ]. How these systematic reviews were conducted, however, needs brief explanation. This is particularly true for ratings of study methodology that are used to summarize the findings below.

The systematic review to identify the studies presented in the Handbooks and summarized in this paper was conducted as follows. We utilized a combination of strategies to identify the studies (excluding most reviews or qualitative research). First, we systematically searched online databases (PsycINFO, MEDLINE, etc.) using the search words “religion,” “religiosity,” “religiousness,” and “spirituality” to identify studies on the R/S-health relationship. Second, we asked prominent researchers in the field to alert us to published research they knew about and to send us research that they themselves had conducted. Third, if there were studies cited in the reference lists of the studies located, we tracked down those as well. Using this method, we identified over 1,200 quantitative original data-based publications during the period 1872 to 2000 and 2,100 studies examining the R/S-health relationship from 2000 to 2010. All of these studies are described in the appendices of the two editions of the Handbook. Based on other reviews of the research conducted around this same time period (but more limited), we estimate that our review captured about 75% of the published research. Bear in mind that many, many more qualitative studies have been published on the topic that were not included in this review.

In order to assess the methodological quality of the studies, quality ratings were assigned as follows. Ratings of each of the more than 3,300 studies were made on a scale from 0 (low) to 10 (high) and were performed by a single examiner (HGK) to ensure rating consistency. Scores were determined according to the following eight criteria: study design (clinical trial, prospective cohort, cross-sectional, etc.), sampling method (random, systematic, or convenience), number of R/S measures, quality of measures, quality of mental health outcome measure, contamination between R/S measures and mental health outcomes, inclusion of control variables, and statistical method, based on a scheme adapted from Cooper [ 25 ]. Cooper emphasized the definition of variables, validity and reliability of measures, representativeness of the sample (sample size, sampling method, and response rates), research methods (quality of experimental manipulation and adequacy of control group for clinical trials), how well the execution of the study conformed to the design, appropriateness of statistical tests (power, control variables), and the interpretation of results.

To assess the reliability of the ratings, we compared HGK's ratings on 75 studies with the ratings made by an independent outside reviewer (Andrew Futterman, Ph.D., professor of psychology, College of the Holy Cross, a scientist familiar with the scoring criteria and active in the field of R/S-health research). When we examined correlations between HGK and Futterman's ratings, we found them moderately correlated (Pearson r = 0.57). Since scores of 7 or higher indicated higher quality studies, we also compared the scores between the two raters in terms of lower (0–6) versus higher (7–10) quality. This was done by dichotomizing scores into two categories (0–6 versus 7–10) and comparing the categories between the two examiners. The kappa of agreement ( κ ) between the two raters was 0.49 (where kappas of 0.40 to 0.75 indicate good agreement [ 26 ]). Overall, the raters agreed on whether quality was low or high in 56 of the 75 studies or 75%. I now summarize the results of the systematic review described above.

4. Religion, Spirituality, and Mental Health

Approximately 80% of research on R/S and health involves studies on mental health. One would expect stronger relationships between R/S and mental health since R/S involvement consists of psychological, social, and behavioral aspects that are more “proximally” related to mental health than to physical health. In fact, we would not expect any direct or immediate effects of R/S on physical health, other than indirectly through intermediary psychosocial and behavioral pathways. With regard to mental health, we would expect R/S to boost positive emotions and help neutralize negative emotions, hypothesizing that it serves as both a life-enhancing factor and as a coping resource. With regard to the latter, there is both qualitative and quantitative research suggesting that R/S helps people to deal better with adversity, either external adversity (difficult environmental circumstances) or internal adversity (genetic predisposition or vulnerability to mental disorders).

In the present paper, I have chosen to cite original reports as examples of the most rigorous studies in each area based on ratings in the Handbooks (i.e., 7 or higher on 0–10 scale). Cited here are both positive and negative studies reporting significant relationships. For some topics, such as well-being and depression, there are too many high-quality studies to cite, so only a few examples of the best studies are provided.

4.1. Coping with Adversity

In the first edition of the Handbook [ 27 ], we identified 110 studies published prior to the year 2000 and 344 studies published between 2000 and 2010 for a total of 454 studies. Among these reports are descriptions of how R/S helped people to cope with a wide range of illnesses or in a variety of stressful situations. These include people dealing with general medical illness [ 28 , 29 ], chronic pain [ 30 ], kidney disease [ 31 ], diabetes [ 32 , 33 ], pulmonary disease [ 34 ], cancer [ 35 , 36 ], blood disorders [ 37 ], heart/cardiovascular diseases [ 38 , 39 ], dental [ 40 ] or vision [ 41 ] problems, neurological disorders [ 42 ], HIV/AIDS [ 43 ], systemic lupus erythematosus [ 44 ], irritable bowel syndrome [ 45 ], musculoskeletal disease [ 46 ], caregiver burden [ 47 – 49 ], psychiatric illness [ 50 , 51 ], bereavement [ 52 , 53 ], end-of-life issues [ 54 , 55 ], overall stress [ 56 – 58 ], natural disasters [ 59 , 60 ], war [ 61 , 62 ] or acts of terrorism [ 63 ], and miscellaneous adverse life situations [ 64 – 66 ]. In the overwhelming majority of studies, people reported that R/S was helpful.

4.2. Positive Emotions

Positive emotions include well-being, happiness, hope, optimism, meaning and purpose, high self-esteem, and a sense of control over life. Related to positive emotions are positive psychological traits such as altruism, being kind or compassionate, forgiving, and grateful.

4.2.1. Well-Being/Happiness

By mid-2010, at least 326 quantitative, peer-reviewed studies had examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 256 (79%) found only significant positive associations between R/S and well-being (including eight studies at a statistical trend level, that is, 0.05 < P < 0.10). Only three studies (<1%) reported a significant inverse relationship between R/S and well-being. Of the 120 studies with the highest methodological rigor (7 or higher in quality on the 0–10 scale), 98 (82%) reported positive relationships (including two at a trend level) [ 67 – 77 ] and one study reported a negative relationship (but only at a trend level) [ 78 ].

4.2.2. Hope

At least 40 studies have examined relationships with R/S, and of those, 29 (73%) reported only significant positive relationships with degree of hope; no studies found an inverse relationship. Of the six highest quality studies, half found a positive relationship [ 79 – 81 ].

4.2.3. Optimism

We located 32 studies examining relationships with R/S, and of those, 26 (81%) reported significant positive relationships. Of the 11 best studies, eight (73%) reported significant positive relationships [ 82 – 85 ]. Again, as with hope, no studies reported inverse relationships.

4.2.4. Meaning and Purpose

At least 45 studies have examined relationships with R/S, and 42 (93%) reported significant positive relationships. These studies were often in populations where there was a challenge to having meaning and purpose, such as in people with chronic disabling illness. Of the 10 studies with quality ratings of 7 or higher, all 10 reported significant positive associations [ 86 – 89 ].

4.2.5. Self-Esteem

Critics have claimed that R/S adversely affects self-esteem because it emphasizes humility rather than pride in the self [ 90 ]. Furthermore, R/S could exacerbate guilt in some for not living up to the high standards of conduct prescribed by religious traditions, resulting in low self-esteem. We found 69 studies that examined associations with R/S, and of those, 42 (61%) found greater self-esteem among those who were more R/S and two (3%) reported lower self-esteem. Of the 25 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 17 (68%) reported greater self-esteem [ 91 – 98 ] and two (8%) found worse self-esteem [ 99 , 100 ]. Not surprisingly, these findings are parallel to those of depression below (in the opposite direction, of course).

4.2.6. Sense of Control

Although one might expect R/S to correlate positively with an external locus of control (i.e., the Transcendent controlling events), and some studies confirm this, the majority of research finds a positive correlation with an internal not an external sense of control. Of 21 studies that have examined these relationships, 13 (61%) found that R/S was related to a greater sense of personal control in challenging life circumstances. Of the nine best studies, four reported significant positive relationships (44%) [ 101 – 104 ] and three report significant negative relationships (33%) [ 105 – 107 ], whereas the two remaining studies reported complex or mixed results (significant positive and negative associations, depending on R/S characteristic). R/S beliefs may provide an indirect sense of control over stressful situations; by believing that God is in control and that prayer to God can change things, the person feels a greater sense of internal control (rather than having to depend on external agents of control, such as powerful other people).

4.2.7. Positive Character Traits

With regard to character traits, the findings are similar to those with positive emotions. With regard to altruism or frequency of volunteering, 47 studies have examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 33 (70%) reported significant associations, whereas five (11%) found less altruism among the more R/S; of the 20 best studies, 15 (75%) reported positive relationships [ 108 – 113 ] and two (10%) found negative associations [ 114 , 115 ] (both concerning organ donations, which some religions prohibit). With regard to forgiveness, 40 studies have examined correlations with R/S, and 34 (85%) reported significant positive relationships and no studies found negative associations. Among the 10 highest quality studies, seven (70%) reported greater forgiveness among the more R/S [ 116 – 119 ], a finding that recent research has supported [ 120 ]. Regarding gratefulness, five of five studies found positive associations with R/S [ 121 , 122 ], and with regard to kindness/compassion, three of three studies reported significant positive relationship with R/S [ 123 ]. Admittedly, all of the studies measuring character traits above depend on self-report.

4.3. Depression

As with self-esteem, mental health professionals have argued that R/S might increase guilt by focusing on sin and could thus lead to depression. Again, however, this has not been found in the majority of studies. Given the importance of depression, its wide prevalence in the population, and the dysfunction that it causes (both mental and physical), I describe the research findings in a bit more detail. Overall, at least 444 studies have now examined relationships between R/S and depression, dating back to the early 1960s. Of those, 272 (61%) reported significant inverse relationships with depression (including nine studies at a trend level), and 28 (6%) found relationships between R/S and greater depression (including two studies at a trend level). Of the 178 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 119 (67%) reported inverse relationships [ 124 – 135 ] and 13 (7%) found positive relationships with depression [ 136 – 148 ].

Of 70 prospective cohort studies, 39 (56%) reported that greater R/S predicted lower levels of depression or faster remission of depression, whereas seven (10%) predicted worse future depression and seven (10%) reported mixed results (both significant positive and negative associations depending on R/S characteristic). Of 30 clinical trials, 19 (63%) found that R/S interventions produced better outcomes than either standard treatment or control groups. Two studies (7%) found standard treatments were superior to R/S interventions [ 149 , 150 ] and one study reported mixed results.

Note that an independent review of this literature published in 2003 found that of 147 studies involving 98,975 subjects, the average correlation between R/S and depression was −0.10. Although this is a small correlation, it translates into the same effect size that gender has on depressive symptoms (with the rate of depression being nearly twice as common in women compared to men). Also, the average correlation reported in the 2003 review was 50% stronger in stressed versus nonstressed populations [ 151 ].

A widely renowned psychiatric epidemiology group at Columbia University, led by Lisa Miller and Myrna Weissman, has come out with a series of recent reports on R/S and depression studying a cohort of low- and high-risk children born to parents with and without depressive disorder. The findings from this cohort support an inverse link between R/S and depression, particularly in high-risk individuals [ 152 – 154 ].

4.4. Suicide

Correlations between R/S and suicide attempt, completed suicide, and attitudes toward suicide are consistent with those found for depression, self-esteem, and hope. Those who are depressed, without hope, and with low self-esteem are at greater risk for committing suicide. At least 141 studies have now examined relationships between R/S and the suicide variables above. Of those, 106 (75%) reported inverse relationships and four (3%) found positive relationships. With regard to the 49 studies with the highest methodological rigor, 39 (80%) reported less suicide, fewer suicide attempts, or more negative attitudes toward suicide among the more R/S [ 155 – 170 ] and two (4%) found positive relationships (one study in Delhi, India [ 171 ], and one in college students distressed over R/S concerns [ 172 ]).

4.5. Anxiety

Anxiety and fear often drive people toward religion as a way to cope with the anxiety. Alternatively, R/S may increase anxiety/fear by its threats of punishment for evil deeds and damnation in the next life. There is an old saying that emphasizes this dual role: religion comforts the afflicted and afflicts the comforted. Sorting out cause and effect here is particularly difficult given the few prospective cohort studies that have examined this relationship over time. However, a number of clinical trials have also examined the effects of R/S interventions on anxiety levels. Overall, at least 299 studies have examined this relationship, and of those, 147 (49%) reported inverse association with R/S (three at a trend level), whereas 33 (11%) reported greater anxiety in those who were more R/S. Of the latter, however, only one was a prospective study, one was a randomized clinical trial, and 31 (94%) were cross-sectional studies (where it was not clear whether R/S caused anxiety or whether anxiety increased R/S as a coping response to the anxiety). Of the 67 studies with quality ratings of seven or higher, 38 (55%) reported inverse relationships [ 173 – 182 ] and seven (10%) found positive relationships (greater anxiety among the more R/S) [ 183 – 189 ].

Among these 299 studies were 239 cross-sectional studies, 19 prospective cohort studies, 9 single-group experimental studies, and 32 randomized clinical trials. Of the 19 longitudinal studies, 9 (47%) reported that R/S predicted a lower level of anxiety over time; one study (5%) found an increase in anxiety (among women undergoing abortion for fetal anomaly) [ 189 ], seven reported no association, and two reported mixed or complex results. Of the nine experimental studies, seven (78%) found a reduction in anxiety following an R/S intervention (before versus after comparison). Of the 32 randomized clinical trials, 22 (69%) reported that an R/S intervention reduced anxiety more than a standard intervention or control condition, whereas one study (3%) found an increase in anxiety following an R/S intervention in persons with severe alcohol dependence [ 190 ].

4.6. Psychotic Disorder/Schizophrenia

We identified 43 studies that have examined relationships between R/S and chronic psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. Of the 43 studies examining psychosis, 14 (33%) reported inverse relationships between R/S and psychotic symptoms (one at a trend level), 10 (23%) found a positive relationship between R/S and psychotic symptoms (one at a trend level), eight reported mixed results (significant negative and positive associations, depending on the R/S characteristic measured), and one study reported complex results. Of these studies, seven had quality ratings of seven or higher; of those, two found inverse relationships, two found positive relationship, two reported mixed results (negative and positive), and one found no association. Note that the two studies finding inverse relationships between R/S and psychosis were both prospective studies [ 191 – 193 ], finding that R/S predicted better outcomes in subjects with psychotic disorders or symptoms. Of the two studies reporting positive relationships (both cross-sectional), one study found that importance of religion was significantly and positively associated with religious delusions [ 194 ] (not surprising), and the other study found that importance of religion was associated with “psychotic-like” symptoms in a national sample of Mexican Americans [ 195 ]; since the latter study involved participants who were not mentally ill, religion-related cultural factors may have influenced this finding. For a recent and more comprehensive discussion of R/S, schizophrenia, other chronic psychotic disorders, and the challenges distinguishing psychotic symptoms from religious beliefs, the reader is referred elsewhere [ 196 ].

4.7. Bipolar Disorder

Despite it's importance and wide prevalence, we could locate only four studies examining the relationship between R/S and bipolar (BP) disorder. Two found a positive association between R/S and bipolar disorder, and the remaining two reported mixed findings (both positive and negative correlations, depending on R/S characteristic). Of the two studies with high-quality ratings, one found a positive association and the other reported mixed findings. The first study of 334 US veterans with BP disorder found that a higher frequency of prayer or meditation was associated with mixed states and a lower likelihood of euthymia, although no association was found between any religious variable and depression or mania [ 197 ]. A second study examined a random national sample of 37,000 Canadians and found that those who attributed greater importance to higher spiritual values were more likely to have BP disorder, whereas higher frequency of religious attendance was associated with a lower risk of disorder [ 198 ]. In a qualitative study of 35 adults with bipolar disorder (not included in the review above), one of the six themes that participants emphasized when discussing their quality of life was the spiritual dimension. Over one-third of participants in that study talked about the relationship between BP disorder and R/S, emphasizing struggles to disentangle genuine spiritual experiences from the hyperreligiosity of the disorder. In another report, a case of mania precipitated by Eastern meditation was discussed; also included in this article was a review of nine other published cases of psychosis occurring in the setting of meditation [ 199 ].

4.8. Personality Traits

Personality traits most commonly measured today in psychology are the Big Five: extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. These are assessed by the NEO Personality Inventory [ 200 ]. Another personality inventory commonly used in the United Kingdom is the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, which assesses extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism [ 201 ]. Relationships between personality traits and R/S using these measures have been examined in many studies [ 202 ]. With regard to psychoticism (a trait that assesses risk taking or lack of responsibility, rather than psychotic symptoms), 19 studies have examined its relationship to R/S, with 84% of those reporting significant inverse relationships (and no studies reporting a positive relationship). There have been at least 54 quantitative studies examined relationships between R/S and neuroticism, of which 24% found an inverse relationship and 9% reported a positive relationship (most of the remaining found no association). Concerning extraversion, there have been 50 studies, with 38% reporting a positive relationship with R/S and 6% reporting an inverse or negative relationship. With regard to conscientiousness, there have been 30 studies, of which the majority (63%) reported significant positive relationships with R/S and only 3% found significant inverse relationships. For agreeableness, 30 studies have examined relationships with R/S, and 87% of these studies reported positive relationships (no studies report inverse relationships). Finally, there have been 26 studies examining openness to experience, and of those, 42% found positive relationships with R/S and 12% reported negative relationships. Thus, R/S persons tend to score lower on psychoticism and neuroticism, and higher on extraversion, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness to experience. They score especially low on psychoticism and especially high on agreeableness and conscientiousness. These personality traits have physical health consequences that we are only beginning to recognize [ 203 – 205 ].

4.9. Substance Abuse

If R/S influences one domain of mental health, it is in the area of substance abuse. With regard to alcohol use, abuse, and dependence, at least 278 studies have now examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 240 (86%) reported inverse relationships and only 4 studies (1%) indicated a positive relationship. Of the 145 studies with the best methodology, 131 (90%) reported inverse relationships [ 206 – 221 ] and only one study found a positive relationship [ 222 ]. Findings are similar with regard to drug use or abuse. We located 185 studies, of which 84% reported inverse relationship with R/S and only two studies (1%) found positive relationships. Of the 112 best studies, 96 (86%) reported inverse relationships [ 223 – 238 ] and only one study found a positive relationship [ 239 ]. The vast majority of these studies are in young persons attending high school or college, a time when they are just starting to establish substance use habits (which for some will interfere with their education, future jobs, family life, and health). Thus, the protective effects of R/S on substance abuse may have influences on health across the lifespan.

4.10. Social Problems

Here I examine research in two areas of social instability (delinquency/crime and marital instability) and two areas of social stability (social support and social capital). Given the emphasis that most major world religions place on human relationships, love, and compassion, one might expect that some of the strongest relationships with R/S would be found here, and they are indeed.

4.10.1. Delinquency/Crime

At least 104 studies have examined relationships with R/S. Of those, 82 (79%) reported significant inverse relationships (five at a trend level), whereas three (3%) found positive relationships with more delinquency/crime. Of the 60 studies with quality ratings of 7 or higher, 49 (82%) reported inverse relationships [ 240 – 252 ] and only one study found a positive relationship [ 253 ]. Of particular interest are the 10 studies examining relationships between R/S and school grades/performance in adolescents and college students between 2000 and 2009, of which all 10 (100%) found that more R/S youth did better than less religious youth [ 254 ].

4.10.2. Marital Instability

We identified 79 studies that examined relationships with marital instability. Of those, 68 (86%) found R/S related to greater marital stability and no studies reported an association with greater marital instability. Of the 38 methodologically most rigorous studies, 35 (92%) reported significant relationships between R/S and greater marital stability [ 255 – 265 ]. An independent meta-analysis reviewing research conducted before the year 2000 likewise concluded that greater religiousness decreased the risk of divorce and facilitated marital functioning and parenting [ 266 ].

4.10.3. Social Support

There is substantial evidence indicating a relationship between R/S and social support. Of 74 quantitative peer-reviewed studies of R/S and social support, 61 (82%) found significant positive relationships, and none found inverse relationships. Of the 29 best studies, 27 (93%) reported significant positive relationships [ 82 , 267 – 274 ]. For older adults in particular, the most common source of social support outside of family members comes from members of religious organizations [ 275 , 276 ].

4.10.4. Social Capital

Social capital, an indirect measure of community health, is usually assessed by level of community participation, volunteerism, trust, reciprocity between people in the community, and membership in community-based, civic, political, or social justice organizations. Research has examined relationships between R/S and social capital. We located a total of 14 studies, with 11 (79%) finding significant positive relationships between R/S and level of social capital, and none reporting only inverse relationships. Almost all of these studies were of high quality, and of the 13 studies with ratings of seven or higher, 10 (77%) found that R/S was related to greater social capital [ 277 – 280 ].

5. Explaining the Relationship: R/S and Mental Health

R/S influences mental health through many different mechanisms, although the following are probably the predominant ones (see Figure 2 ). First, religion provides resources for coping with stress that may increase the frequency of positive emotions and reduce the likelihood that stress will result in emotional disorders such as depression, anxiety disorder, suicide, and substance abuse. Religious coping resources include powerful cognitions (strongly held beliefs) that give meaning to difficult life circumstances and provide a sense of purpose. Religions provide an optimistic worldview that may involve the existence of a personal transcendental force (God, Allah, Jehovah, etc.) that loves and cares about humans and is responsive to their needs. These cognitions also give a subjective sense of control over events (i.e., if God is in control, can influence circumstances, and be influenced by prayer, then prayer by the individual may positively influence the situation). Religious beliefs provide satisfying answers to existential questions, such as “where did we come from,” “why are we here,” and “where are we going,” and the answers apply to both this life and the next life, thus reducing existential angst. These beliefs also help to normalize loss and change and provide role models of persons suffering with the same or similar problems (often illustrated in religious scriptures). Thus, religious beliefs have the potential to influence the cognitive appraisal of negative life events in a way that makes them less distressing. For people with medical illness, these beliefs are particularly useful because they are not lost or impaired with physical disability—unlike many other coping resources that are dependent on health (hobbies, relationships, and jobs/finances).

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Theoretical model of causal pathways for mental health (MH), based on Western monotheistic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam). (Permission to reprint obtained. Original source: Koenig et al. [ 17 ]). For models based on Eastern religious traditions and the Secular Humanist tradition, see elsewhere. (Koenig et al. [ 24 ]).

Second, most religions have rules and regulations (doctrines) about how to live life and how to treat others within a social group. When individuals abide by those rules and regulations, this reduces the likelihood of stressful life events that reduce positive emotions and increased negative ones. Examples of stressful life events that religion may help people avoid are divorce or separation, difficulties with children, financial stress resulting from unfair practices in the marketplace, incarceration for lawbreaking (cheating or crime), and venereal diseases from risky sexual practices. Religions also usually discourage the use of drugs and excessive amounts of alcohol that increases the risk of engaging in the behaviors above (crime, risky sex) that are associated with negative mental health consequences.

Third, most religions emphasize love of others, compassion, and altruistic acts as well as encourage meeting together during religious social events. These prosocial behaviors have many consequences that buffer stress and lead to human support when support is needed during difficult times. Because religion encourages the helping of others and emphasizes a focus outside of the self, engagement in other-helping activities may increase positive emotions and serve to distract from one's own problems. Religion also promotes human virtues such as honesty, forgiveness, gratefulness, patience, and dependability, which help to maintain and enhance social relationships. The practice of these human virtues may also directly increase positive emotions and neutralize negative ones.

Thus, there are many possible mechanisms by which R/S may enhance mental and social health. This is not to say that R/S always does so. Religion may also be used to justify hatred, aggression, prejudice, and the exclusion of others; gain power and control over vulnerable individuals (as seen in cults); foster rigid thinking and obsessive practices; lead to anxiety, fear, and excessive guilt over minor infractions (and even self-mutilation in some cases); produce psychosocial strains due to failure to live up to high religious standards; lead to escape from dealing with family problems (through excessive involvement in religious or spiritual activities); and delay diagnosis and effective mental health care (due to antagonistic relationships with mental health professionals). While R/S is not a panacea, on the balance, it is generally associated with greater well-being, improved coping with stress, and better mental health. This relationship with mental health has physical health consequences (see Section 7 below).

6. Religion, Spirituality, and Health Behaviors

Religious doctrines influence decisions about health and health behaviors. In the Judeo-Christian scriptures, for example, there is an emphasis on caring for the physical body as a “Temple of the Holy Spirit” (see 1 Corinthian 6:19-20) [ 281 ]. Religious scriptures in other faith traditions also emphasize the person's responsibility to care for and nourish their physical body [ 282 – 284 ]. Behaviors that have the potential to harm the body are usually discouraged. This is reflected in teachings from the pulpit and influences what is considered appropriate within religious social groups. In summarizing the research on R/S and health behaviors, I cite only a few of the studies with high-quality ratings since there are so many.

6.1. Cigarette Smoking

The influence of R/S is most evident in it's “effects” on cigarette smoking. At least 137 studies have examined relationship between R/S and smoking, and of those, 123 (90%) reported statistically significant inverse relationships (including three at a trend level) and no studies found either a significant or even a trend association in the other direction. Of the 83 methodologically most rigorous studies, 75 (90%) reported inverse relationships with R/S involvement [ 213 , 285 – 294 ]. Not surprisingly, the physical health consequences of not smoking are enormous. Decreased cigarette smoking will mean a reduction in chronic lung disease, lung cancer, all cancers (30% being related to smoking), coronary artery disease, hypertension, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases.

6.2. Exercise

Level of exercise and physical activity also appears linked to R/S. We located 37 studies that examined this relationship. Of those, 25 (68%) reported significant positive relationships (two at a trend level) between R/S involvement and greater exercise or physical activity, whereas six (16%) found significant inverse relationships. Of 21 studies with the highest quality ratings, 16 (76%) reported positive associations [ 82 , 295 – 300 ] and two (10%) found negative associations [ 296 , 301 ].

Writers in the popular press have encouraged the combining of R/S activity and exercise through “prayer walking” [ 302 , 303 ] and “walking meditation.” [ 304 ].

At least 21 studies have examined relationships between R/S and a healthy diet. A healthy diet here involves increased intake of fiber, green vegetables, fruit, and fish; low intake of snacks, processed foods, and fat; regular vitamin intake; frequent eating of breakfast; overall better nutrition (following recommended nutritional guidelines). Of those studies, 13 (62%) found a significant positive association between R/S and a healthier diet (one at a trend level) and one found a worse diet [ 305 ]. Among the 10 studies with the highest quality ratings, seven (70%) reported a better diet among those who were more R/S [ 213 , 306 – 310 ]. In addition, we identified 23 studies that examined relationships between R/S and blood cholesterol levels. Of those, more than half (12 studies) found significantly lower cholesterol among those who were more R/S, whereas three studies (13%) reported significantly higher cholesterol levels. Of the nine best studies, five (56%) reported lower cholesterol [ 311 – 313 ] or a lowering of cholesterol in response to a R/S intervention [ 314 , 315 ], whereas one found higher cholesterol (but only in Mexican American men) [ 316 ].

6.4. Weight

Although R/S people tend to eat a healthier diet, they also eat more of it. This, then, is the one health behavior that places R/S individuals at greater risk for medical illness. At least 36 studies have examined the associations between weight (or body mass index) and R/S involvement. Of those, 14 (39%) found a positive relationship (R/S associated with greater weight), whereas only seven (19%) reported an inverse relationship. The situation does not improve when results from the most rigorously designed studies are examined. Among the 25 studies with the highest quality ratings, 11 (44%) reported greater weight among the more R/S [ 82 , 317 – 322 ] and five (20%) found lower weight (or less underweight [ 323 ]). Lower weight among the more R/S appears only in a few religious groups (Amish [ 324 ], Jews [ 325 ], and Buddhists [ 326 ]), in those with certain demographic characteristics (white, older, and high education) [ 327 ], and in response to a specific R/S intervention [ 328 ] or practice [ 314 , 329 ]. Faith-based weight-reduction programs in religious communities have been shown to be effective [ 328 , 330 , 331 ].

6.5. Sexual Behavior

We identified 95 studies that examined relationships between R/S and risky sexual activity (sex outside of marriage, multiple partners, etc.). Of those, 82 studies (86%) found significant inverse relationships with R/S (one at a trend level) and only one study (1%) found a significant relationship with more risky sexual activity [ 332 ]. Of the 50 highest quality studies, 42 (84%) reported inverse relationships [ 333 – 343 ] and none found a positive one. If those who are more R/S engage in less risky sexual behavior, this means they should have fewer venereal diseases, that is, less syphilis, gonorrhea, herpes, chancroid, chlamydia, viral hepatitis, and human papillomavirus and human immunodeficiency virus, many of which have serious physical health consequences.

7. Religion, Spirituality, and Physical Health

There is rapidly growing evidence that stress and negative emotions (depression, anxiety) have (1) adverse effects on physiological systems vital for maintenance of physical health and healing [ 344 – 346 ], (2) increase susceptibility to or worse outcomes from a wide range of physical illnesses [ 347 – 351 ], and (3) may shorten the lifespan prematurely [ 352 , 353 ]. Social support, in turn, has long been known to protect against disease and increase longevity [ 354 – 356 ]. By reducing stress and negative emotions, increasing social support, and positively affecting health behaviors, R/S involvement should have a favorable impact on a host of physical diseases and the response of those diseases to treatment. As in the earlier sections, I cite high-quality studies as examples. Since there are fewer high-quality studies for physical health than for mental health or for health behaviors, I cite all of the studies with ratings of seven or higher.

7.1. Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

Given the strong connections between psychosocial stressors, health behaviors, and CHD, it is not surprising that there is a link with R/S. Our review uncovered 19 studies that examined associations between R/S and CHD. Of those, 12 (63%) reported a significant inverse relationship, and one study reported a positive relationship. Of the 13 studies with the most rigorous methodology, nine (69%) found inverse relationships with CHD [ 357 – 365 ] and one found a positive one [ 366 ]. In addition, there have been at least 16 studies examining relationships between R/S and cardiovascular reactivity, heart rate variability, outcomes following cardiac surgery, and other cardiovascular functions. Of those, 11 studies (69%) reported that R/S was significantly related to positive cardiovascular functions or outcomes [ 367 – 374 ] or to lower levels of inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein [ 375 – 377 ] and fibrinogen [ 378 ] that place individuals at high risk for cardiovascular disease.

7.2. Hypertension

The word “hypertension” itself suggests a relationship with stress or tension, and high blood pressure has been linked to greater psychosocial stress [ 379 – 381 ]. At least 63 studies have examined the relationship between R/S and blood pressure (BP), of which 36 (57%) reported significantly lower BP in those who are more R/S (five at a trend level) and seven (11%) reported significantly higher BP (one at a trend level). Of the 39 highest quality studies, 24 (62%) report lower BP (including one at a trend level) among those who are more R/S [ 382 – 394 ] or in response to an R/S intervention [ 328 , 395 – 404 ] (including a study whose results were reported twice, once for the overall sample and once for the sample stratified by race).

Two lower quality studies [ 405 , 406 ] and five well-done studies [ 407 – 411 ] (13%, including one at a trend level), however, reported higher BP in the more R/S or with religious fasting. The reason for an association between R/S and higher BP is not entirely clear. Perhaps, in certain population subgroups, intrapsychic religious conflict between psychosexual drives and religious standards creates unconscious stress that elevates BP. However, there is another possibility. This may be related to confounding by ethnicity. Three of the five studies reporting increased BP with increased R/S included in their samples a large proportion of ethnic minorities (samples from large urban settings such as Detroit and Chicago, made up of 36% to 100% African Americans). Since African Americans are more likely to have high BP (40% with hypertension) [ 412 ] and because African Americans are also the most religious ethnic group in society [ 413 ], it may be that controlling for race in these analyses is simply not sufficient to overcome this powerful confound.

7.3. Cerebrovascular Disease

Relationships between R/S, hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases or disease risk factors ought to translate into a lower risk of stroke. We located nine studies that examined this relationship, of which four reported a lower risk of stroke, all having quality ratings of seven or higher [ 414 – 417 ].

One study, however, reported significantly more carotid artery thickening, placing R/S individuals at higher risk for stroke [ 418 ]. Again, however, 30% of that sample was African American an ethnic group, known to be both highly religious and at high risk for stroke.

7.4. Alzheimer's Disease and Dementia

Physiological changes that occur with stress and depression (elevated blood cortisol, in particular) are known to adversely affect the parts of the brain responsible for memory [ 419 – 421 ]. The experience of negative emotions may be like pouring hydrochloric acid on the brain's memory cells [ 422 ]. By reducing stress and depression through more effective coping, R/S may produce a physiological environment that has favorable effects on cognitive functioning. Furthermore, R/S involvement may also engage higher cortical functions involved in abstract thinking (concerning moral values or ideas about the transcendent) that serve to “exercise” brain areas necessary for retention of memories. Regardless of the mechanism, at least 21 studies have examined relationships between R/S involvement and cognitive function in both healthy persons and individuals with dementia. Of those, 10 (48%) reported significant positive relationships between R/S and better cognitive functioning and three (14%) found significant negative relationships. Of the 14 studies with the highest quality ratings, eight (57%) reported positive relationships [ 423 – 430 ] and three (21%) reported negative relationships with cognitive function [ 431 – 433 ]. Studies finding negative relationships between R/S and cognitive function may be due to the fact that R/S persons have longer lifespans (see below), increasing the likelihood that they will live to older ages when cognition tends to decline. More recent research supports a positive link between R/S and better cognitive function in both dementia and in old age [ 434 , 435 ].

7.5. Immune Function

Intact immune function is critical for health maintenance and disease prevention and is assessed by indicators of cellular immunity, humoral immunity, and levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. We identified 27 studies on relationships between R/S and immune functions, of which 15 (56%) found positive relationships or positive effects in response to a R/S intervention, and one (4%) found a negative effect [ 436 ]. Of the 14 studies with the highest quality ratings, 10 (71%) reported significant positive associations [ 437 – 443 ] or increased immune functions in response to a R/S intervention [ 444 – 447 ]. No high-quality study found only an inverse association or negative effect, although one study reported mixed findings [ 448 ]. In that study, religious attendance was related to significantly poorer cutaneous response to antigens; however, it was also related (at a trend level) to higher total lymphocyte count, total T-cell count, and helper T-cell count. In addition, importance of religious or spiritual expression was related to significantly higher white blood cell count, total lymphocyte count, total T cells, and cytotoxic T cell activity.

There have also been a number of studies examining R/S and susceptibility to infection (or viral load in those with HIV), which could be considered an indirect measure of immune function. We identified 12 such studies, of which eight (67%) reported significantly lower infection rates or lower viral loads in those who were more R/S (including one at a trend level); none found greater susceptibility to infection or greater viral load. Ten of the 12 studies had quality ratings of 7 or higher; of those, seven (70%) reported significant inverse associations with infection/viral load [ 440 , 441 , 449 – 454 ].

7.6. Endocrine Function

Because stress hormones (cortisol, epinephrine, and norepinephrine) have a known influence on immune (and cardiovascular) functions, they are important factors on the pathway between R/S involvement and health [ 455 , 456 ]. We identified 31 studies that examined R/S and associations with or effects on endocrine functions. Of those, 23 (74%) reported positive relationships or positive effects and no studies reported negative associations or negative effects. Of the 13 methodologically most rigorous studies, nine (69%) reported positive associations with R/S [ 457 – 461 ] or positive effects of an R/S intervention (all involving Eastern meditation) [ 462 – 465 ]. We (at Duke) are currently examining the effects of religious cognitive-behavioral therapy on a host of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, cortisol, and catecholamines in patients with major depressive disorder, although results will not be available until 2014 [ 466 ].

7.7. Cancer

At least 29 studies have examined relationships between R/S and either the onset or the outcome of cancer (including cancer mortality). Of those, 16 (55%) found that those who are more R/S had a lower risk of developing cancer or a better prognosis, although two (7%) reported a significantly worse prognosis [ 467 , 468 ]. Of the 20 methodologically most rigorous studies, 12 (60%) found an association between R/S and lower risk or better outcomes [ 469 – 480 ], and none reported worse risk or outcomes. The results from some of these studies can be partially explained by better health behaviors (less cigarette smoking, alcohol abuse, etc.), but not all. Effects not explained by better health behaviors could be explained by lower stress levels and higher social support in those who are more R/S. Although cancer is not thought to be as sensitive as cardiovascular disorders to psychosocial stressors, psychosocial influences on cancer incidence and outcome are present (discussions over this are ongoing [ 481 , 482 ]).

7.8. Physical Functioning

Ability to function physically, that is, performing basic and instrumental activities of daily living such as toileting, bathing, shopping, and using a telephone, is a necessary factor for independent living. Persons who are depressed, unmotivated, or without hope are less likely to make attempts to maintain their physical functioning, particularly after experiencing a stroke or a fall that forces them into a rehabilitation program to regain or compensate for their losses. Several studies have examined the role that R/S plays in helping people to maintain physical functioning as they grow older or regain functioning after an illness. We identified 61 quantitative studies that examined relationships between R/S and disability level or level of functioning. Of those, 22 (36%) reported better physical functioning among those who were more R/S, 14 (23%) found worse physical functioning, and six studies reported mixed findings. Considering the 33 highest quality studies, 13 (39%) reported significantly better physical functioning among those who were more R/S (including one study at a trend level) [ 483 – 495 ], six (18%) found worse functioning [ 496 – 501 ], and five studies (15%) reported mixed results [ 82 , 124 , 502 – 504 ] (significant positive and negative associations, depending on R/S characteristic). Almost all of these studies involve self-reported disability and many were cross-sectional, making it impossible to determine order of causation—that is, (1) does R/S prevent the development of disability, (2) does disability prevent R/S activity, (3) does R/S promote disability, or (4) does disability cause people to turn to religion to cope with disability.

7.9. Self-Rated Health

There is more agreement across studies regarding the relationship between R/S and self-rated health (SRH) than between R/S and physical functioning. While based on participants' subjective impression, self-rated health is strongly related to objective health, that is, future health, health services use, and mortality [ 505 – 507 ]. Might R/S, perhaps because it is related to greater optimism and hope, influence one's self-perceptions of health in a positive way? At least 50 studies have now examined the relationship between R/S and self-rated health. Of those, 29 (58%) reported that R/S was related to better SRH, while five (10%) found that it was related to worse SRH. Of the 37 methodologically most rigorous studies, 21 (57%) reported significant positive relationships between R/S and SRH [ 503 , 508 – 527 ], whereas three (8%) found the opposite [ 528 – 530 ].

7.10. Pain and Somatic Symptoms

On the one hand, pain and other distressing somatic symptoms can motivate people to seek solace in religion through activities such as prayer or Scripture study. Thus, R/S is often turned to in order to cope with such symptoms. For example, in an early study of 382 adults with musculoskeletal complains, R/S coping was the most common strategy for dealing with pain and was considered the second most helpful in a long list of coping behaviors [ 531 ]. More recent research supports this earlier report [ 532 ]. On the other hand, R/S may somehow cause an increase in pain and somatic symptoms, perhaps by increasing concentration on negative symptoms or through the physical manifestations of hysteria, as claimed by Charcot in his copious writings around the turn of the 20th century [ 533 ].

We identified 56 studies that examined relationships between R/S and pain. Of those, 22 (39%) reported inverse relationships between R/S and pain or found benefits from an R/S intervention, whereas 14 (25%) indicated a positive relationship between R/S and greater pain levels (13 of 14 being cross-sectional). Of the 18 best studies, nine (50%) reported inverse relationships (less pain among the more R/S [ 534 ] or reduced pain in response to a R/S intervention [ 535 – 542 ]), while three (20%) reported positive relationships (worse pain in the more R/S) [ 543 – 545 ]. Research suggests that meditation is particularly effective in reducing pain, although the effects are magnified when a religious word is used to focus attention [ 546 , 547 ]. No clinical trials, to my knowledge, have shown that meditation or other R/S interventions increase pain or somatic symptoms.

7.11. Mortality

The most impressive research on the relationship between R/S and physical health is in the area of mortality. The cumulative effect of R/S, if it has any benefits to physical health, ought to reveal itself in an effect on mortality. The research suggests it does. At least 121 studies have examined relationships between R/S and mortality. Most of these are prospective cohort studies, where baseline R/S is assessed as a predictor of mortality during the observation period, controlling for confounders. Of those studies, 82 (68%) found that greater R/S predicted significantly greater longevity (three at a trend level), whereas six studies (5%) reported shorter longevity. Considering the 63 methodologically most rigorous studies (quality ratings of 8 or higher), 47 (75%) found R/S predicting greater longevity (two at trend level) [ 548 – 566 ], whereas three (5%) reported shorter longevity [ 567 – 569 ]. Another systematic review [ 570 ] and two meta-analyses [ 571 , 572 ] have confirmed this relationship between R/S and longer survival. The effects have been particularly strong for frequency of attendance at religious services in these three reviews. Survival among frequent attendees was increased on average by 37%, 43%, and 30% (mean effect being 37% across these reviews). An increased survival of 37% is highly significant and equivalent to the effects of cholesterol lowering drugs or exercise-based cardiac rehabilitation after myocardial infarction on survival [ 573 ].

8. Explaining the Relationship: R/S and Physical Health

How might R/S involvement influence physical health and longevity? There are at least three basic pathways: psychological, social, and behavioral (see Figure 3 ).

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Theoretical model of causal pathways to physical health for Western monotheistic religions (Christianity, Islam, and Judaism). (Permission to reprint obtained. Original source: Koenig et al. [ 17 ]). For models based on Eastern religious traditions and the Secular Humanist tradition, see elsewhere (Koenig et al. [ 24 ]).

8.1. Psychological

As noted above, there is ample evidence that R/S—because it facilitates coping and imbues negative events with meaning and purpose—is related to better mental health (less depression, lower stress, less anxiety, greater well-being, and more positive emotions). Furthermore, several randomized clinical trials have shown that R/S interventions improve mental health (at least in those who are R/S). There is also much evidence that poor mental health has adverse physiological consequences that worsen physical health and shorten the lifespan (see earlier references). Thus, it stands to reason that R/S might influence physical health through psychological pathways.

8.2. Social

R/S involvement is associated with greater social support, greater marital stability, less crime/delinquency, and greater social capital. R/S beliefs and doctrines encourage the development of human virtues such as honesty, courage, dependability, altruism, generosity, forgiveness, self-discipline, patience, humility, and other characteristics that promote social relationships. Participation in a R/S community not only provides supportive social connections and opportunities for altruism (through volunteering or other faith-based altruistic activities), but also increases the flow of health information that may increase disease screening and promote health maintenance. Social factors, in turn, are known to influence both mental health and physical health and predict greater longevity [ 574 – 576 ]. Again, if R/S boosts supportive social interactions and increases community trust and involvement, then it should ultimately influence physical health as well.

8.3. Health Behaviors

Finally, R/S promotes better health behaviors, and is associated with less alcohol and drug use, less cigarette smoking, more physical activity and exercise, better diet, and safer sexual practices in the overwhelming majority of studies that have examined these relationships. Living a healthier lifestyle will result in better physical health and greater longevity. Consider the following report that appeared on CNN (Cable Network News). On January 3, 2009, after the death of the Guinness Book of World Records' oldest person, Maria de Jesus age 115, next in line was Gertrude Baines from Los Angeles. Born to slaves near Atlanta in 1894, she was described at 114 years old as “spry,” “cheerful,” and “talkative.” When she was 112 years old, Ms. Baines was asked by a CNN correspondent to explain why she thought she had lived so long. Her reply: “God. Ask Him. I took good care of myself, the way he wanted me to.” Brief and to the point.

8.4. Other Pathways

There are many ways by which R/S could have a positive influence on physical health, although the pathways above are probably the major ones. Genetic and developmental factors could also play a role in explaining these associations. There is some evidence that personality or temperament (which has genetic roots) influences whether or not a person becomes R/S. To what extent R/S persons are simply born healthier, however, is quite controversial. Note that more R/S persons are typically those with the least resources (minority groups, the poor, and the uneducated), both in terms of finances and access to healthcare resources. Karl Marx said that religion is the “opiate of the masses.” Rather than being born healthier, then, the opposite is more likely to be true for R/S persons. R/S could actually be viewed as acting counter to an evolutionary force that is trying to weed genetically vulnerable people from the population. R/S involvement is providing the weak with a powerful belief system and a supportive community that enables them to survive. For a more complete discussion of the role of genetic factors in the R/S-physical health relationship, see the Handbook [ 577 ].

Another important point needs to be made. Nowhere do I claim that supernatural mechanisms are responsible for the relationship between R/S and health. The pathways by which R/S influences physical health that researchers can study using the natural methods of science must be those that exist within nature—that is, psychological, social, behavioral, and genetic influences. Thus, this research says nothing about the existence of supernatural or transcendent forces (which is a matter of faith), but rather asks whether belief in such forces (and the behaviors that result from such beliefs) has an effect on health. There is every reason to think it does.

9. Clinical Implications

There are clinical implications from the research reviewed above that could influence the way health professionals treat patients in the hospital and clinic.

9.1. Rationale for Integrating Spirituality

There are many practical reasons why addressing spiritual issues in clinical practice is important. Here are eight reasons [ 578 ] (and these are not exhaustive).

First, many patients are R/S and have spiritual needs related to medical or psychiatric illness. Studies of medical and psychiatric patients and those with terminal illnesses report that the vast majority have such needs, and most of those needs currently go unmet [ 579 , 580 ]. Unmet spiritual needs, especially if they involve R/S struggles, can adversely affect health and may increase mortality independent of mental, physical, or social health [ 581 ].

Second, R/S influences the patient's ability to cope with illness. In some areas of the country, 90% of hospitalized patients use religion to enable them to cope with their illnesses and over 40% indicate it is their primary coping behavior [ 582 ]. Poor coping has adverse effects on medical outcomes, both in terms of lengthening hospital stay and increasing mortality [ 583 ].

Third, R/S beliefs affect patients' medical decisions, may conflict with medical treatments, and can influence compliance with those treatments. Studies have shown that R/S beliefs influence medical decisions among those with serious medical illness [ 584 , 585 ] and especially among those with advanced cancer [ 586 ] or HIV/AIDs [ 587 ].

Fourth, physicians' own R/S beliefs often influence medical decisions they make and affect the type of care they offer to patients, including decisions about use of pain medications [ 588 ], abortion [ 589 ], vaccinations [ 590 ], and contraception [ 591 ]. Physician views about such matters and how they influence the physician's decisions, however, are usually not discussed with a patient.

Fifth, as noted earlier, R/S is associated with both mental and physical health and likely affects medical outcomes. If so, then health professionals need to know about such influences, just as they need to know if a person smokes cigarettes or uses alcohol or drugs. Those who provide health care to the patient need to be aware of all factors that influence health and health care.

Sixth, R/S influences the kind of support and care that patients receive once they return home. A supportive faith community may ensure that patients receive medical followup (by providing rides to doctors' offices) and comply with their medications. It is important to know whether this is the case or whether the patient will return to an apartment to live alone with little social interaction or support.

Seventh, research shows that failure to address patients' spiritual needs increases health care costs, especially toward the end of life [ 592 ]. This is a time when patients and families may demand medical care (often very expensive medical care) even when continued treatment is futile. For example, patients or families may be praying for a miracle. “Giving up” by withdrawing life support or agreeing to hospice care may be viewed as a lack of faith or lack of belief in the healing power of God. If health professionals do not take a spiritual history so that patients/families feel comfortable discussing such issues openly, then situations may go on indefinitely and consume huge amounts of medical resources.

Finally, standards set by the Joint Commission for the Accreditation of Hospital Organizations (JCAHO) and by Medicare (in the US) require that providers of health care show respect for patients' cultural and personal values, beliefs, and preferences (including religious or spiritual beliefs) [ 593 ]. This point was reinforced by a personal communication with Doreen Finn ( [email protected] ), Senior Associate Director, who works under Mark Pelletier ( [email protected] ), Executive Director, JCAHO, Hospital Accreditation (January 6–12, 2012). If health professionals are unaware of those beliefs, they cannot show respect for them and adjust care accordingly.

9.2. How to Integrate Spirituality into Patient Care

What would I recommend in terms of addressing spiritual issues in clinical care?

First and foremost, health professionals should take a brief spiritual history. This should be done for all new patients on their first evaluation, especially if they have serious or chronic illnesses, and when a patient is admitted to a hospital, nursing home, home health agency, or other health care setting. The purpose is to learn about (1) the patient's religious background, (2) the role that R/S beliefs or practices play in coping with illness (or causing distress), (3) beliefs that may influence or conflict with decisions about medical care, (4) the patient's level of participation in a spiritual community and whether the community is supportive, and (5) any spiritual needs that might be present [ 594 ]. It is the health professional , not the chaplain, who is responsible for doing this two-minute “screening” evaluation. If spiritual needs are discovered, then the health professional would make a referral to pastoral care services so that the needs can be addressed. The spiritual history (and any spiritual needs addressed by pastoral services) should be documented in the medical record so that other health professionals will know that this has been done. Although notes need not be detailed, enough information should be recorded to communicate essential issues to other hospital staff.

Ideally, the physician, as head of the medical care team, should take the spiritual history. However, since only about 10% of physicians in the US “often or always” do so [ 595 ], the task often falls to the nurse or to the social worker. Although systematic research is lacking in this area, most nurses and social workers do not take a spiritual history either. Simply recording the patient's religious denomination and whether they want to see a chaplain, the procedure in most hospitals today, is NOT taking a spiritual history.

Second, R/S beliefs of patients uncovered during the spiritual history should always be respected. Even if beliefs conflict with the medical treatment plan or seem bizarre or pathological, the health professional should not challenge those beliefs (at least not initially), but rather take a neutral posture and ask the patient questions to obtain a better understanding of the beliefs. Challenging patients' R/S beliefs is almost always followed by resistance from the patient, or quiet noncompliance with the medical plan. Instead, the health professional should consult a chaplain and either follow their advice or refer the patient to the chaplain to address the situation. If the health professional is knowledgeable about the patient's R/S beliefs and the beliefs appear generally healthy, however, it would be appropriate to actively support those beliefs and conform the healthcare being provided to accommodate the beliefs.

Third, most health professionals without clinical pastoral education do not have the skills or training to competently address patients' spiritual needs or provide advice about spiritual matters. Chaplains have extensive training on how to do this, which often involves years of education and experience addressing spiritual issues. They are the true experts in this area. For any but the most simple spiritual needs, then, patients should be referred to chaplains to address the problem.

Fourth, conducting a spiritual history or contemplating a spiritual intervention (supporting R/S beliefs, praying with patients) should always be patient centered and patient desired. The health professional should never do anything related to R/S that involves coercion. The patient must feel in control and free to reveal or not reveal information about their spiritual lives or to engage or not engage in spiritual practices (i.e., prayer, etc.). In most cases, health professionals should not ask patients if they would like to pray with them, but rather leave the initiative to the patient to request prayer. The health professional, however, may inform R/S patients (based on the spiritual history) that they are open to praying with patients if that is what the patient wants. The patient is then free to initiate a request for prayer at a later time or future visit, should they desire prayer with the health professional. If the patient requests, then a short supportive prayer may be said aloud, but quietly, with the patient in a private setting. Before praying, however, the health professional should ask the patient what he or she wishes prayer for, recognizing that every patient will be different in this regard. Alternatively, the clinician may simply ask the patient to say the prayer and then quietly confirm it with an “amen” at the end.

Fifth, R/S beliefs of health professionals (or lack of belief) should not influence the decision to take a spiritual history, respect and support the R/S beliefs of patients, or make a referral to pastoral services. These activities should always be patient centered, not centered on the health professional. One of the most common barriers to addressing spiritual issues is health professionals' discomfort over discussing such issues. This often results from lack of personal R/S involvement and therefore lack of appreciation for the importance and value of doing so. Lack of comfort and understanding should be overcome by training and practice. Today, nearly 90% of medical schools (and many nursing schools) in the US include something about R/S in their curricula [ 596 ] and this is also true to a lesser extent in the United Kingdom [ 597 ] and Brazil [ 598 ]. Thus, spirituality and health is increasingly being addressed in medical and nursing training programs.

Sixth, health professionals should learn about the R/S beliefs and practices of different religious traditions that relate to healthcare, especially the faith traditions of patients they are likely to encounter in their particular country or region of the country. There are many such beliefs and practices that will have a direct impact on the type of care being provided, especially when patients are hospitalized, seriously ill or near death. A brief description of beliefs and practices for health professionals related to birth, contraception, diet, death, and organ donation is provided elsewhere [ 599 ].

Finally, if spiritual needs are identified and a chaplain referral is initiated, then the health professional making the referral is responsible for following up to ensure that the spiritual needs were adequately addressed by the chaplain. This is especially true given the impact that unmet spiritual needs are likely to have on both medical outcomes and healthcare costs. Given the short lengths of stay in today's modern hospital (often only 2–4 days), spiritual needs identified on admission are unlikely to be resolved by discharge. Therefore, a spiritual care discharge plan will need to be developed by the hospital social worker in consultation with the chaplain, which may involve (with the patient's written consent) contact with the patient's faith community to ensure that spiritual needs are addressed when the patient returns home. In this way, continuity of pastoral care will be ensured between hospital and community.

10. Conclusions

Religious/spiritual beliefs and practices are commonly used by both medical and psychiatric patients to cope with illness and other stressful life changes. A large volume of research shows that people who are more R/S have better mental health and adapt more quickly to health problems compared to those who are less R/S. These possible benefits to mental health and well-being have physiological consequences that impact physical health, affect the risk of disease, and influence response to treatment. In this paper I have reviewed and summarized hundreds of quantitative original data-based research reports examining relationships between R/S and health. These reports have been published in peer-reviewed journals in medicine, nursing, social work, rehabilitation, social sciences, counseling, psychology, psychiatry, public health, demography, economics, and religion. The majority of studies report significant relationships between R/S and better health. For details on these and many other studies in this area, and for suggestions on future research that is needed, I again refer the reader to the Handbook of Religion and Health [ 600 ].

The research findings, a desire to provide high-quality care, and simply common sense, all underscore the need to integrate spirituality into patient care. I have briefly reviewed reasons for inquiring about and addressing spiritual needs in clinical practice, described how to do so, and indicated boundaries across which health professionals should not cross. For more information on how to integrate spirituality into patient care, the reader is referred to the book, Spirituality in Patient Care [ 601 ]. The field of religion, spirituality, and health is growing rapidly, and I dare to say, is moving from the periphery into the mainstream of healthcare. All health professionals should be familiar with the research base described in this paper, know the reasons for integrating spirituality into patient care, and be able to do so in a sensible and sensitive way. At stake is the health and well-being of our patients and satisfaction that we as health care providers experience in delivering care that addresses the whole person—body, mind, and spirit.

Conflict of Interests

The author declares that he has no conflict of interests.

Acknowledgment

The support to write this paper was provided in part by the John Templeton Foundation.

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Poll finds most Americans believe pandemic policies were good idea

Most americans believe pandemic policies were good idea: poll

Despite all the grumbling at the time, most Americans now look back upon pandemic-era policies as a good idea, a new poll shows.

A majority of Americans see four key pandemic policies as "generally a good idea" in retrospect:

Mask requirements in stores and businesses (70%)
Health care worker vaccination requirements (65%)
Indoor dining closures (63%)
Closing public schools (56%)

However, views varied across policies, the poll found.

Only 42% of Americans say all four policies a good idea, and another 37% say only some were a good idea.

But only 20% say all those policies were "generally a bad idea," results show.

"Public health professionals need to know that these vital protections are still available in their toolboxes," said Brian Castrucci, president and CEO of the de Beaumont Foundation, which co-sponsored the survey with the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health.

"Understanding what drives resistance for some people can help inform the best ways to use and communicate about these policies should we need to call on them in the future," Castrucci added.

As might be expected, politics is a powerful factor when it comes to reflecting on pandemic-era politics.

About 71% of Democrats say all four policies were a good idea, compared with 44% of Independents and 18% of Republicans, poll results show.

Likewise, 55% of people living in urban areas approved all four policies, compared with 39% of suburbanites and 29% of rural dwellers.

However, within these groups some policies were popular.

For example, 62% of Republicans said at least one of the four was a good idea, as did 70% of people in rural areas.

People who said key policies were generally a bad idea gave as reasons:

The policies went on too long (84%–87% across policies).
There were political motivations behind the policies (60%–81%).
The policies affected the economy (68%–91%).
People's personal choice was impeded by the policies (75%–94%).

Among those who said school closures were a bad idea, nearly all said that the policies had a negative effect on children's learning (97%) and mental health (91%).

"In order for all Americans to benefit from public health protections during outbreaks, leaders need to see there are opportunities to build on public receptivity, even where it is limited, and understand where people's concerns come from," said survey director Gillian SteelFisher, director of global polling in the Harvard Opinion Research Program.

"These data suggest that keeping outbreak response policies focused on the most at-risk populations, communicating clear, limited timeframes, and considering the broader economic and societal impacts of policies could go a long way to maintaining public support in the next outbreak and beyond," SteelFisher added in a Harvard news release.

The poll found few total COVID deniers, with only 3% saying the virus was not a health threat to anyone early in the pandemic.

However, many said COVID was not a serious health threat to everyone.

About 14% said it was a serious threat only to the elderly and frail, and another 45% said it was a threat only to those with underlying medical conditions as well as the old and frail.

Only 37% said it was a serious health threat to everyone early on. Those who said this are more likely to support key pandemic policies, results show.

The survey involved 1,017 adults contacted online and by phone between March 21 and April 2.

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Globally, Biden Receives Higher Ratings Than Trump

Still, most disapprove of how biden has dealt with the israel-hamas war, table of contents.

Views of the U.S.
Confidence in Biden, Trump and other world leaders
Differences by ideology, age and gender
1. Views of the U.S.
2. Confidence in Joe Biden
3. Confidence in Donald Trump
4. Comparing confidence in Macron, Putin and Xi to ratings of Biden and Trump
Biden’s handling of global economic problems
Biden’s handling of climate change
Biden’s handling of China
Biden’s handling of the Russia-Ukraine war
Biden’s handling of the Israel-Hamas war
6. Is U.S. democracy a good example to follow?
Appendix A: Favorability of the United States since 2000
Appendix B: Confidence in the U.S. president since 2001
Acknowledgments
About Pew Research Center’s Spring 2024 Global Attitudes Survey

This Pew Research Center analysis focuses on public opinion of the United States, President Joe Biden and other world leaders. It also explores what people think about Biden’s handling of international issues and their perceptions of American democracy. The study includes publics in 34 countries across the Asia-Pacific region, Europe, Latin America, the Middle East, North America and sub-Saharan Africa.

This analysis draws on nationally representative surveys of 40,566 adults conducted from Jan. 5 to May 21, 2024. All surveys were conducted over the phone with adults in Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Malaysia, the Netherlands, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom. Surveys were conducted face to face in Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ghana, Hungary, India, Israel, Kenya, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Tunisia and Turkey. In Australia, we used a mixed-mode probability-based online panel.

A map showing Countries included in this report

Throughout the report, we analyze respondents’ attitudes based on where they place themselves on an ideological scale. We asked about political ideology using several slightly different scales and categorized people as being on the ideological left, center or right.

In most countries, we asked people to place themselves on a scale ranging from “Extreme left” to “Extreme right.” The question was asked this way in Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Mexico, the Netherlands, Nigeria, Peru, the Philippines, Poland, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Turkey and the United Kingdom.
In Australia, the scale ranged from “Left” to “Right”.
In Japan, Singapore, South Korea and Thailand, ideology was measured on a scale from “Extremely progressive” to “Extremely conservative.”
Ideology was not asked about in Ghana, India, Kenya, Malaysia, Sri Lanka or Tunisia.

Prior to 2024, combined totals were based on rounded topline figures. For all reports beginning in 2024, totals are based on unrounded topline figures, so combined totals might be different than in previous years. Refer to the 2024 topline to see our new rounding procedures applied to past years’ data.

Here are the questions used for the report, along with responses, and the survey methodology .

A dot plot showing that In most countries polled, more have confidence in Biden than Trump

With many around the world closely following the fiercely contested rematch between U.S. President Joe Biden and former President Donald Trump, a new Pew Research Center survey finds that, internationally, Biden is viewed more positively than his rival.

Across the 34 nations polled, a median of 43% have confidence in Biden to do the right thing regarding world affairs, while just 28% have confidence in Trump. The gap between ratings is quite wide in many countries, especially in Europe. Biden’s confidence rating is at least 40 percentage points higher than Trump’s in Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden.

However, there are exceptions. There is no statistically significant difference in ratings of Biden and Trump in eight nations we surveyed. And people in Hungary and Tunisia give Trump more positive reviews than Biden, although neither leader gets especially high marks there. (The survey was conducted before Trump’s conviction in a state criminal trial in New York.)

Even though Biden gets better assessments than Trump globally, ratings for the current U.S. president are down since last year in 14 of 21 countries where trends are available, including by double digits in Australia, Israel, Japan, Poland, South Africa, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

A bar chart showing Views of Biden’s international policies

The survey included a series of questions about how Biden is handling major international issues. Overall, opinions are divided on how he is dealing with climate change and global economic problems.

Across the 34 countries polled, a median of around four-in-ten approve of how Biden is dealing with China and with the war between Russia and Ukraine (39% each).

The president gets his most negative reviews on his handling of the Israel-Hamas war: A median of just 31% approve of the way he is handling the conflict, while 57% disapprove. (The survey was conducted prior to Biden announcing a proposal to end the conflict .)

Research in the West Bank and Gaza

Pew Research Center has polled the Palestinian territories in previous years, but we were unable to conduct fieldwork in Gaza or the West Bank for our Spring 2024 survey due to security concerns. We are actively investigating possibilities for both qualitative and quantitative research on public opinion in the region and hope to be able to share data from the region in the coming months.

Six-in-ten Israelis disapprove of how Biden is handling the war, including 53% of Jewish Israelis and 86% of Arab Israelis. (For more on how Israelis rate Biden, read “Israeli Views of the Israel-Hamas War.” )

Of the predominantly Muslim nations surveyed, large majorities in Malaysia, Tunisia and Turkey also disapprove of Biden’s handling of the Israel-Hamas war. Opinion is divided on this issue in Bangladesh.

The new survey finds that overall attitudes toward the United States are generally positive: A median of 54% across the nations polled have a favorable view of the U.S., while 31% have a negative opinion.

However, criticisms of American democracy are common in many nations. We asked respondents whether U.S. democracy is a good example for other countries to follow, used to be a good example but has not been in recent years, or has never been a good example.

A bar chart showing that A median of 4 in 10 across 34 countries say the U.S. used to be a good example of democracy

The predominant view in most countries is that the U.S. used to be a good model but has not been recently. Overall, a median of 21% believe it is currently a good example, while 22% say it has never been a good model for other countries.

In eight of the 13 countries where trends are available, fewer people say American democracy is a good example than said so in spring 2021, when we last asked this question.

For this report, we surveyed 40,566 people in 34 countries – not including the U.S. – from Jan. 5 to May 21, 2024. In addition to this overview, the report includes chapters on:

Attitudes toward the United States
Ratings of Biden
Ratings of Trump
Views of Biden and Trump compared with other world leaders
Views about Biden’s handling of major foreign policy issues
Is the U.S. a good example of democracy?

Read some of the report’s key findings below.

A bar chart showing that International views of the U.S. are largely favorable

At least half of those in most countries surveyed express a favorable opinion of the U.S. Poles are the most positive, at 86% favorable. Of the European nations surveyed, ratings also lean positive in Italy, Hungary and the UK. Elsewhere in Europe, however, opinions tend to be closely divided.

Attitudes toward the U.S. are largely favorable in the Asia-Pacific nations polled, especially Japan, the Philippines, South Korea and Thailand. However, most Australians and Malaysians give the U.S. poor marks.

In the Middle East-North Africa region, a 77% majority of Israelis view the U.S. favorably, although this is down from 87% last year. Large majorities in Tunisia and Turkey offer an unfavorable opinion.

The U.S. gets mostly positive ratings in the sub-Saharan African and Latin American nations surveyed. Two-thirds or more see the U.S. favorably in Colombia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Peru.

Refer to Appendix A for long-term trends on views of the U.S.

Pew Research Center has explored attitudes toward American presidents for over two decades, finding significant shifts in opinions over the years. Data from four Western European nations that we have surveyed consistently – France, Germany, Spain and the UK – shows long-term trends in views of recent presidents.

George W. Bush received low and declining ratings during his time in the White House, while Barack Obama got mostly high marks. Attitudes toward Donald Trump were overwhelmingly negative throughout his presidency. Biden has consistently received more positive reviews than his predecessor, but his ratings have declined in these four countries during his time in office.

A line chart showing Confidence in U.S. presidents across Western Europe

There are nine nations in this year’s survey where six-in-ten adults or more express confidence in Biden. Four are in Europe (Germany, the Netherlands, Poland and Sweden), two are in the Asia-Pacific region (the Philippines and Thailand) and three are in sub-Saharan Africa (Ghana, Kenya and Nigeria).

Since last year, confidence in Biden has dropped significantly in 14 nations: Seven in Europe, plus Australia, Canada, Israel, Japan, Mexico, South Africa and South Korea. Biden gets his lowest ratings in Turkey and Tunisia, where only about one-in-ten express confidence in him.

The two countries where at least six-in-ten adults have confidence in Trump are Nigeria and the Philippines. Like Biden, Trump gets one of his lowest ratings in Turkey, where just 10% view him favorably.

Confidence in Trump has increased slightly in a few European countries since we last asked about him in 2020, although his ratings remain quite low in Europe.

In contrast, Trump’s ratings have become more negative in Poland since 2019, which was the last year we asked about him there. Israeli views toward the former president have also become more negative over the past five years.

Refer to Appendix B for long-term trends in confidence in U.S. presidents.

A bar chart showing Confidence in Macron, Biden, Trump, Xi and Putin

In addition to exploring confidence in Biden and Trump, the survey asked about trust in French President Emmanuel Macron, Russian President Vladimir Putin and Chinese President Xi Jinping.

Overall, Macron receives the most positive ratings across the countries in the study, followed closely by Biden. The French president gets higher ratings than his U.S. counterpart in many of the European nations surveyed. Both Xi and Putin receive mostly poor marks across the countries in the study.

A dot plot showing that Approval of Biden’s handling of the Israel-Hamas war is lower among those on the ideological left

In 17 of the 28 countries where political ideology is measured, people on the right are more likely to have a positive opinion of the U.S. than those on the left. For example, 65% of people on the right in Spain view the U.S. favorably, compared with 26% of people on the left.
In 18 countries, people on the right are more likely to express confidence in Trump than those on the left. The gap is especially large in Israel, where 75% of those on the right have confidence in him, compared with just 23% of Israelis on the left.
There are also some sizable ideological differences on views about Biden’s handling of the Israel-Hamas war. In several countries – including about half of the European countries surveyed – people on the right are more likely than those on the left to approve of how Biden is handling the conflict.

A table showing that In many countries, men are more confident in Trump than women are

In several countries – including Canada, all Latin American countries surveyed and several countries in the Asia-Pacific region – adults under 35 are more likely to have a positive opinion of the U.S. when compared with adults ages 50 and older. Australia, Israel and Sweden are the only countries where younger adults have a less favorable view of the U.S.
In Canada, Australia and seven of the 10 European countries surveyed, young adults are less likely than older adults to approve of how Biden is dealing with the Israel-Hamas war .
Men have more confidence in Trump than women do in many of the countries surveyed. The largest difference is in the UK, where men are about twice as likely as women to trust the former U.S. president. In many of the countries surveyed, women are less likely than men to answer this question at all.

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ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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215 Interesting Religion Research Paper Topics in 2022
As a student of the Islamic religion or a Muslim, you may be interested in research on the religion. Numerous Islam research paper topics could be critical in shaping your research paper or essay. These are easy yet profound research paper topics on religion Islam for your essays or papers: Islam in the Middle East. Trace the origin of Islam.
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Religion Systems Topics. The role of ritual in establishing and maintaining religious systems. Comparative analysis of monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The impact of colonialism on indigenous religious systems. The evolution of religious systems in response to modernity and secularism.
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Analyze the societal roles of religion in different cultures and societies, examining how different religions interact with and influence social structures, norms, and values. Potential sources: Sociological studies on religion, case studies, historical accounts. 8. Comparative Study of Religious Reform Movements.
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2 List of 70 Religion Topics to Write About. 2.1 Christian Research Paper Topics. 2.2 Islam Research Topics. 2.3 Siddhartha Essay Topics. 2.4 Buddhism Essay Topics. 2.5 Hinduism Research Paper Topics. 2.6 Judaism Religion. 2.7 Theology Research Paper Topics. Exploring the realm of religion opens a multitude of avenues for scholarly inquiry.
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40 Religion Research Paper Topics Ideas. Writing a research paper about religion in our multicultural and multireligious society might be a difficult task. Sometimes it is hard not to offend any religious feelings, especially while writing about the history of religion (where lots of wars and conflicts are usually depicted as religious).
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Review of Religious Research: Sage Journals
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Once you have the right topic nailed down, you can turn that topic into a question with ease. A research question will give you a starting point and a finish line. You will know where to start looking for information and you will know when you are done. You have finished your paper when you have answered your research question!
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Pew Research Center - Science and religion interviewer guide FINAL VERSION 1. INTERVIEWER NOTE: Throughout, please pay attention to the language used by interviewees and the terms they use to describe the science and religion issues discussed. Probe on the definitions of terms, where appropriate, and mirror the language they use.
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While there has been a decades-long decline in the Christian share of U.S. adults, 88% of the voting members in the new 118th Congress identify as Christian. That is only a few points lower than their share in the late 1970s. 1 2 3 … 53. Next Page →. Research and data on Religion & Politics from Pew Research Center.
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Religion, Spirituality, and Health: The Research and Clinical Implications

1. Historical Background and Introduction

2. Definitions

3. Method of the Review

4. Religion, Spirituality, and Mental Health

4.1. Coping with Adversity

4.2. Positive Emotions

4.2.1. Well-Being/Happiness

4.2.2. Hope

4.2.3. Optimism

4.2.4. Meaning and Purpose

4.2.5. Self-Esteem

4.2.6. Sense of Control

4.2.7. Positive Character Traits

4.3. Depression

4.4. Suicide