kcse biology paper 2 essays

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Biology KCSE Essay Questions and Answers Paper 2; Over 1,000

KCSE BIOLOGY PAPPER TWO 231/2 -ESSAYS FROM 1995 -2023

a). Describe how insect pollinated flowers are adapted to pollination ( KCSE1995)

Progesterone
Luteinizinghormone
Describe how excretion takes place in: ( KCSE1995)
MammalianKidneys
Greenplants
a).Explainhowthemammalianskinisadaptedtoperformitsfunctions (20marks; KCSE 1996)

b). Describe how new plants arise by asexual reproduction (20 marks; KCSE 1996)

a). What is parasitism? (KCSE1997)

b). Describe how the tapeworm is adapted to a parasitic mode of life (KCSE 1997)

a). What is meant by the term digestion? (KCSE1997 )

b). Describe how the mammalian small intestine is adapted to its function (KCSE 1997)

Discuss the various evidences, which show that evolution has taken place (20 marks; KCSE 1998)
Explain how the mammalian intestines are adapted to perform their function (20 marks; KCSE 1998)
a). Describethe:
Process of inhalation in mammals ( KCSE 1999)
Mechanisms of opening and closing of stomata in plants (KCSE1999)

b). Explain how the various activities of man have caused pollution of air (20 marks; KCSE 1999)

a). Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual cycle (20 marks; KCSE2000)

b). How are leaves of mesophytes suited to their functions (20 marks; KCSE 2000)

a). State the functions of the following parts of the mammalian ear; (KCSE2001)
Tympanicmembrane
Eustachiantube
Earossicles

b). Describe how semicircular canals perform their functions (KCSE 2001 )

a). Describe the process of fertilization in a flowering plant ( KCSE2001)

b). State the change that take place in a flower after fertilization ( KCSE 2001)

a). Describe the role of hormones in the growth and development of plants (20 marks; KCSE 2002)
a). Name three types of skeletons found in multicellular animals ( KCSE2002)

b). Describe how the cervical, lumbar and sacral vertebrae are suited to their functions

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(KCSE 2002)

a). Describe the functions of the various parts of the human eye (20 marks; KCSE2003)

1 | P a ge

(b). Describe how fruits and seeds are suited to their modes of dispersal (20 marks; KCSE 2003)

a). How is the mammalian skin adapted to its functions? (20 marks; KCSE2004)

b). Explain how a biotic factors affect plants (20 marks; KCSE 2004)

a). Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants (20 marks; KCSE2005)

b). How is the human eye adapted to its function? (20 marks; KCSE 2005)

a). Describe how human kidney functions (20 marks; KCSE2006)

b).Describehowwatermovesfromthesoiltotheleavesinatree (20marks; KCSE2006)

a). Describe the structure and functions of the various parts of the human ear (20 marks; KCSE 2007 )

b). Describe causes and methods of controlling water pollution (20 marks; KCSE 2007 )

Describe the nitrogen cycle (20 marks; KCSE2008)
a). State four characteristics of gaseous exchangesurfaces

b). Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal (16 marks; KCSE 2008)

a). How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination? (20 marks; KCSE2009 )

b). Describe the role of the liver in homeostasis in the human body (20 marks; KCSE2009)

a). Describe the process of fertilization in flowering plants (20 marks; KCSE2010)

b). Describe how a finned fish such as tilapia moves in water (20 marks; KCSE 2010)

a). Describe the exoskeleton and its function in insects (13 marks; KCSE2011)

b). Describe how accommodation in the human eye is brought about when focusing on a near object (7 marks; KCSE 2011)

Using a relevant example in each case, describe simple and conditional reflex action (20 marks; KCSE2012)
a).Usingarelevantexample,describehowanallergicreactionoccursinahumanbeing

(10 marks; KCSE 2012)

b).Describehowenvironmentalfactorsincreasetherateoftranspirationinterrestrialplants

a). Describe the process of blood clotting in human beings (10 marks; KCSE2013 )

b).Howarerespiratorysurfacesinmammalsadaptedtotheirfunctions? (10marks; KCSE 2013)

Describe the role of the following organs in excretion andhomeostasis
The liver (10 marks; KCSE2013)
The skin during hot environmental conditions (10 marks; KCSE2013 )
a). Explain how each of the following factors affect the rate ofphotosynthesis:
Temperature (2 marks; KCSE2014)
Chlorophyll concentration (2 marks; KCSE2014 )

b). Describe the process of carbohydrate digestion in human beings (16 marks; KCSE2014)

a). How does excretion take place in plants (4 marks; KCSE2014)

b). Describe the role of the human skin in homeostasis (16 marks; KCSE 2014)

a).Explainthevariouswaysinwhichseedsandfruitsareadaptedtodispersal (20marks; KCSE 2015)

b). How is a mammalian heart structurally adapted to its function? (20 marks; KCSE2015)

2 | P a ge

(a).Usingarelevantexampleineachcase,describesimpleandconditionalreflexaction

(20 marks; KCSE 2016)

b). Describe how the mammalian heart is structurally adapted to its function (20 marks; KCSE 2016)

a ) Explain the importance of protecting the forest ecosystem with reference to the following (20 marks; KCSE 2017 )
a) Climate change
b) Biodiversity

c)Biotechnology

d)Water conservation

e) Pollution
b) Describe how a mammalian eye is structurally adapted to its functions (20 marks)
a) Describe the mode reproduction in a named fungus (5 marks)
b) Describe the roles of hormones in the menstrual cycle (15 marks; KCSE 2018 )
a) Giving examples, describe the following among organisms (20marks; KCSE 2019 )
Predator-prey relationship
b) Explain the effect of increased physical activity on the following organ system (20 marks)
a)(i)Explain the role of the liver in blood regulation (3 marks ; KCSE 2020)
Describe how a mammalian heart is adapted to its functions (17 marks)
b) (i) Explain how the presence of chloroplast in guard cell affect the opening of the stomata (5marks)

(ii) Describe how various environmental factors affect the rate of photosynthesis (15marks)

a) (i) Explain the role of placenta during pregnancy(10 marks) ( KCSE 2021)
ii) Explain features and mechanisms that hinder self pollination and self fertilization(10 marks)

b)( i) Describe how xylem is structurally adapted to its functions (5marks)

(ii) Describe the functions of mammalian blood in the human body(15 marks)

a i) Describe how plants eliminate waste products(8 marks; KCSE2022 )

ii)Describe the structure and function of mammalian nephron (12marks)

b) i. Describe five tropic responses and their survival values (15marks)

ii)Describe how mammalian heartbeat is controlled (5mks)

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February 14, 2020

Study Notes

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Biology Paper 2 Question Paper Sort by: Number Topics

Section a (40 marks).

The diagram below illustrates blood circulation in certain organs in humans.

a) Name the part labeled A. _________________________________________________________________

b) Name the blood vessels labeled B and F

__________________________

B________________________________________________________________ F_________________________________________________________________

c) State how the composition of blood in vessel E differs from that in vessel D.

d) Explain the role of bile in the process of digestion

The diagram below represents a section through a leaf of a terrestrial plant

a) Name the structures labeled S, X, Y and V ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

b) State the roles of each of the parts labeled V and W V__________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ W__________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

c) State two ways in which structures labeled X and Y are adapted to their functions. X__________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ Y__________________________________________________________________________

A common species of rats has individuals with white, black or grey coats. During a study of a rat with white coat was crossed with a rat with black coat. Both parents were pure lines. All the offspring in F1 generation had grey coats. Using letter B to represent the gene type for black coat and W for white coat, answer the questions that follow.

a) Suggest a reason to explain why there were no white or black rats in the F1 generation. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

b) The F1 offspring were selfed to get F2 generation. Work out the phenotypic ratio of F2. Show your working. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

c) Name one trait in human beings that is determined by multiple allele. ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

d) Name one genetic disorder affecting the human eye. ________________________________________________________________________

During an ecological field work, a group of students caught 240 grasshoppers, marked them and then released them back to the study area. After one day they caught 160 grasshoppers and found that 40 were marked. Using the formula; P =F.C.M X S.C S.C.M Where P =Total population F.C.M = First capture marked S.C = Second capture S.C.M = Second capture marked

) Work out the total population of the grasshoppers in the study area. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

b) Identify the method used to capture the grasshoppers (___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

c) Name the instrument and chemical the students used to collect and mark the grasshoppers

i) Instrument for collection ____________________________________________________

ii)Chemical for marking _______________________________________________________ d) State any one assumption the students made during the field work ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________

e) The students observed the organisms and placed them into their correct phylum and class. Name the phylum and class. i) Phylum___________________________________________________________

ii) Class _____________________________________________________________

The diagram below shows a transverse section of the spinal cord.

a) Name the parts labeled K and N.

K _______________________________________________________________________

N ______________________________________________________________________

b) Describe briefly how the impulse transmission occurs through the structures in the diagram ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________

SECTION B (40 Marks)

Rice seeds were soaked overnight. Fresh mass and dry mass of a sample of 20 seeds was obtained and recorded in the table. The rest of the seeds were planted in a tray that had soil and well watered daily. Twenty of the seeds/seedlings were removed from the soil every two days for two weeks. Their fresh and dry mass were taken and recorded in the table as shown below.

a) Using the same axes, plot two graphs to represent changes in fresh and dry mass over the two â€“week period b) What would be the fresh and dry mass of the seedlings at day 9. i) Fresh mass _____________________________________________________

ii) Dry mass ______________________________________________________

c) Account for the change in fresh mass and dry mass between day 0 and day 6

i) Fresh mass

_____________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

ii) Dry mass ______________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

d) Explain the change in dry mass from day 8

_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

e) Explain why a sample of 20 seeds was used instead of one seed (2mrks) _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

f) State one factor within and one factor outside the seed that cause dormancy

i) Within the seed

_________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________

ii) Outside the seed

g) Give one characteristic of a meristematic cell

Explain the evidences of organic evolution in life forms

Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants

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Biology KCSE Essay Questions and Answers Paper 2; Over 1,000

KCSE BIOLOGY PAPPER TWO 231/2 -ESSAYS FROM 1995 -2022

Progesterone
Luteinizinghormone
Describe how excretion takes place in: ( KCSE1995)
MammalianKidneys
Greenplants
a).Explainhowthemammalianskinisadaptedtoperformitsfunctions (20marks; KCSE 1996)

b). Describe how new plants arise by asexual reproduction (20 marks; KCSE 1996)

a). What is parasitism? (KCSE1997)

b). Describe how the tapeworm is adapted to a parasitic mode of life (KCSE 1997)

a). What is meant by the term digestion? (KCSE1997 )

b). Describe how the mammalian small intestine is adapted to its function (KCSE 1997)

Discuss the various evidences, which show that evolution has taken place (20 marks; KCSE 1998)
Explain how the mammalian intestines are adapted to perform their function (20 marks; KCSE 1998)
a). Describethe:
Process of inhalation in mammals ( KCSE 1999)
Mechanisms of opening and closing of stomata in plants (KCSE1999)

b). Explain how the various activities of man have caused pollution of air (20 marks; KCSE 1999)

a). Describe the role of hormones in the human menstrual cycle (20 marks; KCSE2000)

b). How are leaves of mesophytes suited to their functions (20 marks; KCSE 2000)

a). State the functions of the following parts of the mammalian ear; (KCSE2001)
Tympanicmembrane
Eustachiantube
Earossicles

b). Describe how semicircular canals perform their functions (KCSE 2001 )

a). Describe the process of fertilization in a flowering plant ( KCSE2001)

b). State the change that take place in a flower after fertilization ( KCSE 2001)

a). Describe the role of hormones in the growth and development of plants (20 marks; KCSE 2002)
a). Name three types of skeletons found in multicellular animals ( KCSE2002)

b). Describe how the cervical, lumbar and sacral vertebrae are suited to their functions

(KCSE 2002)

a). Describe the functions of the various parts of the human eye (20 marks; KCSE2003)

1 | P a ge

(b). Describe how fruits and seeds are suited to their modes of dispersal (20 marks; KCSE 2003)

a). How is the mammalian skin adapted to its functions? (20 marks; KCSE2004)

b). Explain how a biotic factors affect plants (20 marks; KCSE 2004)

a). Describe how gaseous exchange takes place in terrestrial plants (20 marks; KCSE2005)

b). How is the human eye adapted to its function? (20 marks; KCSE 2005)

a). Describe how human kidney functions (20 marks; KCSE2006)

b).Describehowwatermovesfromthesoiltotheleavesinatree (20marks; KCSE2006)

a). Describe the structure and functions of the various parts of the human ear (20 marks; KCSE 2007 )

b). Describe causes and methods of controlling water pollution (20 marks; KCSE 2007 )

Describe the nitrogen cycle (20 marks; KCSE2008)
a). State four characteristics of gaseous exchangesurfaces

b). Describe the mechanism of gaseous exchange in a mammal (16 marks; KCSE 2008)

a). How are flowers adapted to wind and insect pollination? (20 marks; KCSE2009 )

b). Describe the role of the liver in homeostasis in the human body (20 marks; KCSE2009)

a). Describe the process of fertilization in flowering plants (20 marks; KCSE2010)

b). Describe how a finned fish such as tilapia moves in water (20 marks; KCSE 2010)

a). Describe the exoskeleton and its function in insects (13 marks; KCSE2011)

b). Describe how accommodation in the human eye is brought about when focusing on a near object (7 marks; KCSE 2011)

Using a relevant example in each case, describe simple and conditional reflex action (20 marks; KCSE2012)
a).Usingarelevantexample,describehowanallergicreactionoccursinahumanbeing

(10 marks; KCSE 2012)

b).Describehowenvironmentalfactorsincreasetherateoftranspirationinterrestrialplants

a). Describe the process of blood clotting in human beings (10 marks; KCSE2013 )

b).Howarerespiratorysurfacesinmammalsadaptedtotheirfunctions? (10marks; KCSE 2013)

Describe the role of the following organs in excretion andhomeostasis
The liver (10 marks; KCSE2013)
The skin during hot environmental conditions (10 marks; KCSE2013 )
a). Explain how each of the following factors affect the rate ofphotosynthesis:
Temperature (2 marks; KCSE2014)
Chlorophyll concentration (2 marks; KCSE2014 )

b). Describe the process of carbohydrate digestion in human beings (16 marks; KCSE2014)

a). How does excretion take place in plants (4 marks; KCSE2014)

b). Describe the role of the human skin in homeostasis (16 marks; KCSE 2014)

a).Explainthevariouswaysinwhichseedsandfruitsareadaptedtodispersal (20marks; KCSE 2015)

b). How is a mammalian heart structurally adapted to its function? (20 marks; KCSE2015)

2 | P a ge

(a).Usingarelevantexampleineachcase,describesimpleandconditionalreflexaction

(20 marks; KCSE 2016)

b). Describe how the mammalian heart is structurally adapted to its function (20 marks; KCSE 2016)

a ) Explain the importance of protecting the forest ecosystem with reference to the following (20 marks; KCSE 2017 )
a) Climate change
b) Biodiversity

c)Biotechnology

d)Water conservation

e) Pollution
b) Describe how a mammalian eye is structurally adapted to its functions (20 marks)
a) Describe the mode reproduction in a named fungus (5 marks)
b) Describe the roles of hormones in the menstrual cycle (15 marks; KCSE 2018 )
a) Giving examples, describe the following among organisms (20marks; KCSE 2019 )
Predator-prey relationship
b) Explain the effect of increased physical activity on the following organ system (20 marks)
a)(i)Explain the role of the liver in blood regulation (3 marks ; KCSE 2020)
Describe how a mammalian heart is adapted to its functions (17 marks)
b) (i) Explain how the presence of chloroplast in guard cell affect the opening of the stomata (5marks)

(ii) Describe how various environmental factors affect the rate of photosynthesis (15marks)

a) (i) Explain the role of placenta during pregnancy(10 marks) ( KCSE 2021)
ii) Explain features and mechanisms that hinder self pollination and self fertilization(10 marks)

b)( i) Describe how xylem is structurally adapted to its functions (5marks)

(ii) Describe the functions of mammalian blood in the human body(15 marks)

a i) Describe how plants eliminate waste products(8 marks; KCSE2022 )

ii)Describe the structure and function of mammalian nephron (12marks)

b) i. Describe five tropic responses and their survival values (15marks)

ii)Describe how mammalian heartbeat is controlled (5mks)

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2021 KCSE Past Papers with Marking Schemes

DOWNLOAD 2021 KCSE PAST PAPERS AND MARKING SCHEMES

On this page, you can download all the 2021 K.C.S.E Past Papers by KNEC, the Kenya National Examination Council.

The past papers list includes all the 2021 KCSE Question Papers with their Marking Schemes.

The 2021 KCSE Examination was conducted in March 2022 as a result of interference of the normal Kenyan school calendar due to the Covid-19 pandemic.

Below, download free Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education 2021 KCSE Examinations Past Papers with Questions and Answers for all subjects.

The list containing the preview of the 2021 kcse examinations papers, includes the following subjects; English, Kiswahili, Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, History, Christian Religious Education CRE, Geography, IRE, Agriculture, Business Studies, Computer Studies, Home Science, Woodwork, Art and Design, music, etc.

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KCSE 2021 Agriculture Paper 1

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Bahati Girls 2023 KCSE Results

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Download additional kcse past examinations papers with marking schemes, 2020 k.c.s.e knec past papers and marking schemes, 2019 kcse past papers and marking schemes, 2018 kcse past papers and marking schemes, 2017 kcse past papers and marking schemes, 2016 kcse past papers and marking schemes.

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2015 KCSE Past Papers and Marking Schemes

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2019 KCSE BIOLOGY (231) KNEC REPORT
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2019 KCSE BUSINESS STUDIES (565) KNEC REPORT
2019 KCSE CHEMISTRY (233) KNEC REPORT
2019 KCSE CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION CRE (313) KNEC REPORT
2019 KCSE ENGLISH (101) KNEC REPORT
2019 KCSE HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT (311) KNEC REPORT
2019 KCSE KISWAHILI (102) KNEC REPORT

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KCSE 2019 Biology Paper 2 Questions With Marking Scheme

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SECTION A (40 marks)

Answer all the questions in this section in the spaces provided.

From the results in the table above, explain the effect of increasing the concentration of sodium chloride. (3 marks)
Apart from a ruler, state two other equipment one would need to determine the rate of growth in the roots. (2 marks)
With a reason, state one other part of the seedling the students would focus on to determine the effect of sodium chloride on growth. (2 marks)
State the likely effect on the seedling of increasing the concentration of sodium chloride to 2.20 mol/1. (1 mark)
red blood cells count and the altitude; (3 marks)
white blood cells count and the altitude. (3 marks)
Explain why chances of nose-bleeding increase with altitude in humans. (2 marks)
State one importance of irritability to living organisms. (1 mark)

Account for the observations made in seedling I. (3 marks)
Explain the similarity in the end results made in seedlings II and III. (2 marks)
State the likely treatment that would make seedlings II and III respond like seedling I. (2 marks)
With reference to the information given above, what is meant by the term codominance? (1 mark)
Explain why male cats with a tortoise-shell phenotype do not usually occur. (2 marks)
A tortoise-shell female was crossed with a black male. Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring. (5 marks)

Explain how the response illustrated above occurs. (6 marks)
Explain how auxins are utilised as selective weed killers in agriculture. (2 marks)

SECTION B (40 marks)

Answer question 6 (compulsory) and either question 7 or 8 in the spaces provided after question 8.

pH 1.0 and 3.0 (3 marks)
pH 3.0 and 7.0. (3 marks)
the pH value at which the rate of product formation of the two enzymes was the same (1 mark)
the value of the rate of product formation for enzymes H and J at the pH value stated in (c)(i) above (1 mark)
the optimum pH value for enzyme J (1 mark)
State one variable that may lead to the change in the optimum rate of product-formation of the two enzymes. (1 mark)
Suggest with a reason, the likely part of the human alimentary canal where enzyme H would be found. (2 marks)
predator-prey
parasitism.

Marking Scheme

Increased NaCl conc./having more NaCl ions decreases water potential/osmotic potential/increase osmotic pressure/makes water potential more negative outside the seed/seedling in the surrounding solution to be hypotonic to the cell sap in the seedling;seed cells take in water by osmosis/are dehydrated/lose water molecules to the surrounding solution;reducing the growth enzyme activity; hence reduced growth rate
Thread;(wire/string)
Pen;marker (pen) acc. dye/water proof ink/bloating paper/tissue paper
Rate of growth/increase in length of shoot tip/apex
It is a region of (active) cell division /growth
The seedling will be ( dehydrated) /lose water(hence) wither/die/dry
No. of red blood cells increase with altitude ; to increase oxygen carrying capacity (by haemoglobin molecules in blood); since oxygen concentration is lower at higher altitude. OWTTE
White blood cells serve to protect the body against harmful microorganisms/ pathogens ; the quantities of pathogens/vulnerability of the body to microbial attack is not dependent on the altitude (to be countered by white blood cells); hence the number of white blood cells count is constant at whatever altitude . OWTTE
Atmospheric pressure decreases with increase in altitude; the imbalance between the outer atmospheric pressure at high altitude and the internal blood pressure (generated by the heart) results in (one) nose bleeding at high altitudes/internal blood pressure is higher than the(outer) atmospheric pressure OWTTE
Enable living organisms to avoid dangerous/harmful/harsh climatic/environmental conditions
Enable living organisms obtain/access favourable environmental conditions(light,water,oxygen) any one
Positive photoropism/tip bends towards light; light cause the migration of auxins(produced at the tip) to the darker side(of the shoot) Reulting in faster division of cells/elongation/growth on the darker/opposite side of the shoot hence bending towards the light
Both seedlings remain upright( acc. straight/erect
Seedling II does not have tip while III the tip has been covered by an opaque material preventing light causing unequal distribution of auxins; acc. uniform distribution of auxins
Fitting an agar block treated with IAA auxins at the decapitated end of seedling II
Removing the opaque material covering the tip of seedling III/replacing the opaque cap with a transparent one.
Both alleles are expressed/shown equally in the phenotype(of the offspring)/none supresses the other gene for ginger and black fur colour from expressing itself in the phenotype(tortoise shell)
The gene for coat colour contained on the X-chromosomes
Males only inherit one X-chromosome form females/mothers/Y-chromosome does not carry the gene for the color coat

The stimuli/heat/pain is detected by temperature/pain receptor (acc tehrmoreceptors) (in the skin/dermis); an impulse if generated; impulse is transmitted along a sensor neurone to the CNS/spinal cord;(chemical) transmission across the synapse to realy neurone; across a synpase to motor neurone; across a synapse to Biceps muscles/effective via motor neurone; muscles/effectors,contract (hand moves away). This is known as simple reflex action
Selective weed killers contain auxins which are absorbed by the weeds(than desired/beneficial/ plants); making the weeds grow abnormally/die out; ahead of the beneficial plants

Answer question 6 (compulsory) and either question 7 or 8 in the spaces provided after question 8.

Rate of product formation increases with increase in pH to the optimum then decreases
pH 2 is the optimum pH value for the activity of enzyme H
Btn pH 1 and 2 enzyme H/enzyme molecules are activated
Btn pH 2 and 3 enzyme H/enzyme molecules are denatured/destroyed (acc. enzyme is inactivated/less active for denatured)
Rate of product formation(sharply) decreases with increase in pH; Enzyme H (is not favoured by increase in pH hence) is denatured; No product forms above pH 4.0 to 7.0 because all enzymess(enzyme molecules) are denatured
Temperature
Substrate concentration
Enzyme concentration
(enzyme) inhibitors
acidic medium/low pH
A predator is an animal that hunts/kills another/other animals(prey) for food
e.g. A dog and ahre (acc. any other correct example)
Preys device survival mechanisms in their habitats not to be eaten/killed; to survive and reproduce/propagate their lineage; to this end Preys(adaptations)
They run faster(strong hind muscles)
Comouflage with the environment
Mimic the predator( acc.some have a wider field of view/vision)
Some emit some chemicals/smell that turn off the predator
Others like porcupine use quills/spikes/spines to fight off predators
Some have good sense of smell to detect predators On the other hand, predators also evolve/devise means to be able to survive in such an ecosystem for instance Predators(Adaptations)
Running faster;strong jaws/long/sharp canines/talons
camouflaging with the environment
mimicking the prey
Sharp eyesight
Strong sense of smell
Produce venom/poison that paralyse/kill prey
A close long term association between two organisms of different species where the two mutually benefit from each other Example 1: The bacteria in the rumen/gut of herbivores which help herbivores digest cellulose as they are sheltered by the herbivores Example 2: The bacteria found in the human digestive system/gut/colon. The bacteria are sheltered by humans; the bacteria help humans in the synthesis of vitamin K/B 12 /ensure microbial balance Example 3: The nitrogen fixing bacteria on the root nodules of legumes; the bacteria benefit from sheltering by the plant while it facilitates the conversion of free atmospheric nitrogen into a form that can be readily absorbed by the plants
A kind of (inter-specific) relationship/association where one member/organism, the parasite benefits while the host is harmed/loses; also called antagonistic/antipathetic symbiosis Example 1: A tick sucking blood/nutrients from a cow(host); making the cow to be anaemic/skin destroyed/malnourished/transmission of diseases
parasite can be external/Ecto-parasite or internal/Endo-parasite; e.g. liverfluke Example 2: A liverfluke sucks blood/nutrients from host and can cause death/bodily harm on the internal organs of the host including blocking blood vessels
Increased heartbeat/rate/cardiac frequency;
increase blood pressure; pumping more blood to the muscles/peripheral blood vessels; at a faster rate; supplying oxyegn;nutrients for continued oxidation/respiration; to yield energy needed to sustain the (vigorous) contraction/relaxation of muscles during the physical activity; carbon(IV) oxide/lactic acid/other nitrogenous wastes/metabolic wastes produced during the process are also eliminated/transported to the relevant excreyory organs for elimination; the waste if left to accumulate can also intoxicate/poison cells/cause muscle cramps/pain/fatigue
panting/increased breathing rate; cause the lungs to expand/increase in volume to take in more air/oxygen; and deflate to expel more carbon(IV) oxide; more oxygen is taken in (during exercise) to sustain the process of muscle respiration/to produce the required energy (for constant muscle contraction and relaxation)
Kidneys also maintain the blood plasma pH and osmotic balance; by eliminating excess hyrogen ions (H + ) that accumulate due to production of lactic acid/CO 2 during the exercise
To maintain the osmotic balance, kidneys conserve sodium ion (Na + ); and reabsorb water (in the kidney tubule); leading to reduction in the volume of urine produced; during exercise the kidneys tend to filter out more urea releasing more in the urine
Due to increased muscle activity during physical activity, one sweats (more); elimianting nitrogenous wastes/excess water; through the skin/sweat pores) cooling the body; After (water in) sweat evaporates, the increased interna body temperature also leads to dilation of superficial blood vessels (vasodilation)/blood flowing near the skin; leading to loss of excess heat (to the atmosphere) by radiation/convection; the hair on the skin surface also lie flat to allow for the loss of heat (to the environment) by radiation/convection

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BIOLOGY PAPER 2 -Questions and Answers

GET THE KCSE PREDICTION BIOLOGY P2 MARKING SCHEMES HERE

SECTION A (40MKS) Bunyore

1. Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow

Identify the structure (1mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

State the role of the part labeled R (1mk)

………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) A student took a meal of lean meat. Briefly describe the digestion of the food substance where this structure is found (3mks) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

(d)What is the role of the following: enterokinase and cholecystokinin in digestion? (2mk)

Enterokinase. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Cholecystokinin…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e) State the deficiency disease associated with lack of vitamin B 2 (1mk) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. The diagram below shows how gaseous exchange occurs across the gills in fish.

i Name the type of flow shown above (1mk)

ii Explain the advantage of the above flow named in a(i) above. (1mk) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) If the fish is removed from water it dies immediately. Explain why (2mks) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Explain mechanism of gaseous exchange in frog through the skin (4mks) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3. A freshly obtained stem from herbaceous measuring 4cm long was split lengthwise to obtain two similar pieces. The pieces were placed in two different solutions of different concentrations in petri dishes (l1 and L2) for 30 minutes. The appearance after 30 minutes is as shown

State the type of solutions in which L 1 and L 2 was placed (2mks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Account for the appearance of the pieces in solutions L 1 and L 2 (4mks) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
State two significance of the biological process involved in the experiment.(2mks)

4 .The diagram below shows structures of the bat wing and human arm.

a) These structures are thought to have same ancestral origin. State one structural similarity and one adaptation difference between the two.

i) Structural similarity. (1mk)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii) Adaptation difference. (2mks)

(b)Give two other examples of structures in nature that show the type of evolution as in (a) above. (2mks)

(c)Distinguish between the terms ‘chemical evolution’ and ‘organic evolution’. (2mks)

(d) What is the study of fossils called? (1mk)

…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

5. Pure breed of red cows and pure breed of white bulls were crossed to give F 1 calves which had a mixture of red and white coat known as roan. The F 1 were selfed.

(a) Using letter R to represent gene for red colour and W to represent gene for white colour work out the phenotypic ratio of F 2 . (4mks)

(b) Work out the genotypic ratio of a cross between F 1 offspring and white bull. (3mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

SECTION B (40MKS) GET THE KCSE PREDICTION BIOLOGY P2 MARKING SCHEMES HERE

Answer question 6 (compulsory) and either question 7 or 8 in the spaces provided after question 8.

6. An experiment was carried out to investigate the effects of hormones on growth of lateral buds of three pea plants. The shoots were treated as follows; Shoot A – Apical bud was removed Shoot B – Apical bud was removed and gibberellic acid placed on the cut shoot.

Shoot C – Apical bud was left intact.

The length of branches developed from lateral buds was determined at regular intervals. The results obtained are as shown in the table below:

Using the same axes, draw graphs to show length of branches against time. (8mks)

(i) What was the length of the branch in Shoot B on the 7th day? (1mk) …………………………………………………………………………………………

(ii)What would be the expected length of the branch developing from Shoot A on the 9th day? (1mk) …………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) Account for the result obtained in the experiment. (6mks) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(d) Why was Shoot C included in the experiment? (1mk) …………………………………………………………………………………………

(e) What is the importance of gibberellic acid in Agriculture? (1mk) …………………………………………………………………………………………

(f) State two physiological processes that are brought about by the application of gibberellic acid on plants. (2mks)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7(a) Describe the process of fertilization in a flowering plant. (14mks)

(b) State the changes that take place in a flower after fertilization. (6mks)

8 Describe the structural adaptation of the mammalian heart to its functions (20mks)

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KCSE 2023 Biology Essay Questions and Answers (KCSE 2023 Prediction Questions)

Here are KCSES 2022/2023 Biology Essay Questions and Answers (KCSE 2022 Prediction Questions). Content: 31 pages with 60 questions and answers.

BIOLOGY (231/2) Revision Questions (Essays): Expected Responses

Q1. Explain the various ways in which a typical cell is adapted to its functions

Has a cell membrane; with pores; that regulates substances entering and leaving the cell; cytoplasm; contain sugars and salts; for maintaining its osmotic pressure; also has a liquid medium; for all biochemical reactions; nucleus; contain chromosomes having hereditary material; and controls all the activities of the cell; ribosomes; are sites for protein synthesis; golgi bodies/apparatus; for secretion of hormones and enzymes; formation of lysosomes; lysosomes; contain lytic enzymes for breaking down worn-out organelles; secretory vesicles; formed from golgi apparatus for secreting substances; smooth endoplasmic reticulum; synthesizes and transports lipids; rough endoplasmic reticulum; transport proteins; nucleolus; controls the activities of the nucleus; produces ribosomes; mitochondria; form sites for energy production; centrioles; formation of cilia and flagella; forms spindle fibres used in cell division; plant sap vacuoles; store salts and other dissolved substances; controls osmotic pressure and turgidity of cells; food vacuoles involved in digestion of engulfed food; chloroplasts; form sites for photosynthesis in plant cells; Max. 20 mks

Q2. Explain how the various specialized cells are modified to carry out their functions in plants and animals

Animal cells: Sperm cell; has acrosome containing lytic enzymes; that digest the egg membranes for penetration during fertilization; has a long tail; containing numerous mitochondria; to generate maximum energy for propulsion/swimming in the vaginal fluid after ejaculation; Red blood cells; are flattened, circular/spherical biconcave in shape; to increase the surface area for packaging of haemoglobin; has haemoglobin; that combines with respiratory gases; for transport to and from body tissues; White blood cells; are amoeboid in shape hence able to change shape; to engulf pathogens through phagocytosis; lymphocytes produce antibodies to fight pathogens; Nerve cell; has extensions/dentrites; to receive and send information for sensation; Ciliated epithelial cells; have cilia for propulsion of mucus that traps dust and micro-organisms in the respiratory tract; Muscle cells; elongated, striated and contractile; to bring about movement; Plant cells: Guard cells; bean-shaped; to regulate the size of the stomata allowing gaseous exchange; and control water loss; has chloroplasts with chlorophyll; for photosynthesis; Root hair cell; elongated; thin-walled; with dense cytoplasm for absorption of water and mineral salts; Epidermal cell; thin; for protection of inner tissues from mechanical and micro-organism attack; Palisade cell; contains numerous chloroplasts with chlorophyll; for photosynthesis; elongated; to increase surface area for trapping maximum amounts of light energy; Meristematic cell; thin-walled; with dense cytoplasm; for primary and secondary growth; Max. 20 mks

Q3. Describe how the mammalian body protects itself against infections

Pathogenic microbes are found on the skin, respiratory tract, mouth, vagina and the intestinal tract; the skin; has a keratinised and waterproof cornified outer layer; that provides a mechanical barrier to microbes/prevents entry of microbes; sebaceous gland; produces sebum; which has antiseptic properties; the respiratory tract; produce mucus secretions that trap dust; cilia sweep/waft/propel the microbes to the pharynx for swallowing or to be coughed out; reflex actions of coughing/sneezing/vomiting help remove foreign materials from the respiratory tract/digestive tract; lysozymes/enzymes in saliva/nasal secretions/tears; digest walls of bacteria destroying them; gastric secretions such as hydrochloric acid lowers the pH in the stomach killing micro-organisms; clotting of blood; prevents entry of microbes after damage of blood vessels; phagocytosis; by phagocytes engulf and destroy microbes and other foreign bodies; lymphocytes are stimulated to produce antibodies; by proteins present in microbes protecting the body; antibodies destroy/kill micro-organisms through various ways: agglutinins; bind to pathogens making them clump together; killing them; Lysins; bind to pathogens and make them burst or disintegrate; opsonins; bind to pathogens making them easily recognized hence be engulfed/destroyed by other lymphocytes; anti-toxins; bind and neutralize toxins produced by micro-organisms; vagina is acidic; hence making it not conducive for growth and reproduction of micro-organisms; Max: 20 mks

Q4. How are the leaves of higher plants adapted to their functions?

Broad and flattened lamina; to increase surface area; for absorption of light; thin blade; to reduce distance for diffusion of gases and penetration of light waves; transparent epidermis and cuticle; to allow light to penetrate to tissues; cuticle layer absent on stomata; to allow for gaseous exchange; one-cell thick epidermal layer; to reduce the distance over which sunlight penetrates; palisade cells have numerous chloroplasts containing chlorophyll; to trap maximum amounts of light energy; have stomata on the epidermis; to allow for gaseous exchange; and control of water loss through transpiration; palisade layer have elongated cells located at right angles to the leaf surface; for maximum absorption of light energy; spongy mesophyll; consists of spherical and loosely-packed cells; to create air spaces; which communicate with the atmosphere through stomata; for purposes of gaseous exchange and control of water loss; veins have conducting tissues: xylem; for movement of water and dissolved mineral salts; phloem; for translocation of manufactured food; Max. 20 mks

Q5. Explain how the various teeth adapt mammals for nutrition

Incisor; sharp; chisel-shaped; for biting; and cutting food; one root for support in the jaw bone; Canines; long; sharp; pointed; for holding prey; piercing; and tearing flesh from prey; single root; for support in the jaw bone; Premolars; large/wide; to increase surface area for grinding food; highly cusped; to increase surface area for grinding food; two roots; for firm support/anchorage in the jaw bone; molars; large/wide; to increase surface area for grinding food; highly cusped; to increase surface area for grinding food; Max. 20 mks

Q6. Describe what happens to a meal of oily beans and maize from the time of ingestion up to the time of absorption

In the mouth; starch in maize; is digested by salivary amylase/ptyalin/diastase into maltose; food is chewed and mixed by teeth and the tongue; rolled into boluses by peristalsis; it enters into the stomach via the cardiac sphincter; in the stomach, gastric juice containing pepsinogen that is activated to pepsin; digests proteins in the beans; into shorter peptides; food is churned and allowed into the duodenum; via the pyloric sphincter muscle; in the duodenum; bile juice secreted by the gall bladder; emulsifies the oils in the beans into tiny oil droplets; pancreatic juice; secreted by the pancrease; contains pancreatic amylase; that digests starch to maltose; pancreatic lipase; that digests the oil in the beans to fatty acids and glycerol; trypsin; digests proteins into shorter peptides; food enters into the ileum; where succus entericus is secreted; it contains maltase enzyme; that digests the maltose into glucose; that is absorbed; peptidase; digests peptides into amino acids; lipase digests the remaining lipids (oil) into fatty acids and glycerol; which is absorbed through the lacteals of the villi; Max. 20 mks

Q7. How are the small intestines in mammals adapted to their functions?

Small intestines consists of the duodenum and the ileum; most digestion of food occurs in the duodenum; bile from the gall bladder of the liver is secreted through the bile ducts; and it is used to emulsify fats/break fat particles into tiny droplets; to increase the surface area for enzyme action; the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice to the duodenum; the juice contains pancreatic amylase; that helps to breakdown the remaining starch into maltose; trypsin; (that is secreted in its inactive form, trypsinogen , and activated by enterokinase enzyme); hydrolyses proteins into shorter peptides; pancreatic lipase; converts lipids into fatty acids and glycerol; sodium hydrogen carbonate is also produced; to neutralize the acidic chyme from the stomach; and provide a suitable alkaline medium for pancreatic and other intestinal enzymes; the ileum is long; and narrow; to increase the surface area for complete digestion of food; and maximum absorption of digested food; highly-coiled; to reduce speed of food flow; for maximum digestion; and absorption; presence of villi; and microvilli; to increase surface area; for maximum absorption; dense network of capillaries; to transport blood; for efficient transport of absorbed food; presence of lacteals in the villi; for absorption of fatty acids and glycerol molecules; presence of enzymes: Lipase; for digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol; maltase; for digestion of maltose to glucose molecules; peptidase; for breakdown of peptides into amino acids; sucrase; for digestion of sucrose into glucose and fructose; lactase; for digestion of lactose into glucose and galactose; goblet cells; produce mucus; to lubricate the walls of the ileum; for smooth flow of food; coats the walls of ileum to prevent digestion by peptidase enzyme; Max. 20 mks

Q8. Outline and explain the various homeostatic functions of the liver in mammals

Deamination; process of removal of an amino group from an amino acid molecule; the process gets rid of excess amino acids in the body; as the body is not able to store them; the amino group enters the ornithine cycle; where it is combined with carbon (IV) oxideto form urea; which is excreted in urine through the kidney; Heat production; many metabolic activities take place in the liver; releasing heat energy; that is distributed by the blood to other parts of the body; this helps in thermoregulation; Storage of vitamins and mineral salts; Vitamins A, B, D, E and K; are stored in the liver; worn-out red blood cells, are broken down to yield iron; which is stored in the liver in form of ferritin; this is used later in case of shortage; Formation of red blood cells; occurs in the liver of the foetus; the liver also breaks down old/exhausted red blood cells; leading to formation of more in the bone marrow to replace the worn-out cells; to enhance oxygen and carbon (IV) oxide distribution; Regulation of blood sugar level; liver cells convert excess glucose into glycogen and fats under the influence of insulin hormone; the stored glycogen is however converted back to glucose; when glucose levels are low; by the liver cells; under the influence of glucagon hormone; Regulation of plasma proteins; plasma proteins such as prothrombin and fibrinogen are manufactured in the liver using the amino acids found in the liver; they play a major role in blood clotting; that prevents excessive blood loss and infection at the injured area; other plasma proteins produced by the liver such as serum and albumen; contribute to the maintenance of osmotic pressure in the body; non-essential amino acids are also synthesized by the liver; for use by the body; Storage of blood; the liver is highly vascularised; hence it is capable of holding a large volume of blood when the blood vessels dilate during hot conditions; when the temperatures are low, the blood vessels constrict under the influence of the endocrine and nervous systems; hence less blood is stored in the liver; this contributes to thermoregulation; Detoxification; this is the process where harmful compounds such as drugs and poisons; are converted to less toxic compounds in the liver; toxicity is caused by medication, drugs and microorganisms; the toxic compounds are later excreted in urine; detoxification prevents the accumulation of toxins in body cells; which could lead to death or malfunctioning of the body cells; Max. 20 mks

Q9. Explain why the following conditions are necessary for photosynthesis

Carbon (IV) Oxide

Required in the dark stage of photosynthesis; it combines with the hydrogen ion from the light stage; to form glucose, proteins and lipids; low concentrations reduces the rate of production of energy and food; while high concentrations leads to an increase in the amount of energy and food formed;

It is used to break down water molecules (through photolysis); into hydrogen ions, oxygen and energy; the energy and hydrogen ions formed are used in the dark stage;

Chlorophyll

Green pigment that traps light energy from the sun; that is used in photolysis of water molecules;

Suitable temperature and pH

Temperature affects the enzymes involved in photosynthesis; suitable/optimum temperatures activate enzymes; for maximum production of food; while extremely low temperatures inactivate enzymes; leading to less or no production of food; high temperatures denature enzymes; stopping the process of photosynthesis; photosynthetic enzymes work well in low pH; so the rate is high; while higher pH reduces enzyme activity; lowering the rate of photosynthesis;

Forms a medium for the chemical reactions; it is split to yield hydrogen ions, oxygen and energy for use in the dark stage; solvent for the materials used in photosynthesis; Max. 20 mks

Q10. How is the ileum adapted to its functions?

Long; and narrow; to increase the surface area for complete digestion of food; and maximum absorption of digested food; highly-coiled; to reduce speed of food flow; for maximum digestion; and absorption; presence of villi; and microvilli; to increase surface area; for maximum absorption; dense network of capillaries; to transport blood; for efficient transport of absorbed food; presence of lacteals; for absorption of fatty acids and glycerol molecules; presence of enzymes: Lipase; for digestion of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol; maltase; for digestion of maltose to glucose molecules; peptidase; for breakdown of peptides into amino acids; sucrase; for digestion of sucrose into glucose and fructose; lactase; for digestion of lactose into glucose and galactose; goblet cells; produce mucus; to lubricate the walls of the ileum; for smooth flow of food; coats the walls of ileum to prevent digestion by peptidase enzyme; Max. 20 mks

Q11. a) What is homeostasis?

(Mechanisms of) control and maintenance of a constant internal environment regardless of the external conditions; 2 mks

b) Name any three factors that must be maintained constant in mammalian bodies

Temperature; Water; Salt or ion content; Carbon (IV) oxide; Glucose; amino acids; Max. 3 mks

c) Explain how endotherms respond to heat and cold conditions in their environment

Heat/hot conditions: Increased sweating; to lose heat through latent heat of vaporization; dilation of arterioles under the skin; to bring more blood to the skin surface to lose heat to the atmosphere; decreased body metabolism; to reduce heat generation; erector pili muscles relax; making hair follicles to relax hence hair lies flat on skin, no air is trapped; to lose heat; slow/reduced muscular activity due to slow metabolism; to reduce heat production; panting to expose tongue and mouth; to release heat; moving to shades to avoid direct heat; aestivation; to escape the extreme heat; flapping of ears to create currents to carry away heat; Cold conditions: stamping of feet; to generate heat; basking in the sun to gain heat directly; less production of sweat; to reduce water loss through latent heat of vaporization; vasoconstriction of arterioles; hence less blood flow to the skin surface to reduce heat loss; increased metabolism through release of more thyroxine hormone; to generate heat; erector pili muscles contract; pulling hair follicles hence hair is raised; to trap a layer of moist air; to prevent heat loss; shivering/rapid contraction of muscles; to yield heat to warm body; Max. 15 mks

Q12. Describe the route taken by water from the soil up to the evaporating surface of a plant

Water is drawn into the root hair cells by osmosis; due to the presence of dissolved substances in the cell sap of root hairs, the concentration of cell sap is greater than that of the surrounding solution in the soil/concentration gradient; this exerts a higher osmotic pressure, thus drawing the water molecules across the cell wall and cell membrane into the root hair cells; more water drawn into the root hair cells dilutes the cell sap; making it less concentrated than that in the adjacent cortex cell of the root; due to osmotic gradient, water moves from the adjacent cells to the next by osmosis; until it enters the xylem vessels located in the center of the root; the xylem vessels of the root then conduct the water up into the xylem vessels in the stem into the leaves; there is a force in the roots which pushes water up the stem; this force is known as root pressure; and can be considerably high in some plants; energy from the endodermal cells of the root is responsible for driving this force; in the xylem vessels, water would rise up by capillarity; to some extent because the vessels are narrower and there is a high attractive force between the water molecules and the cell walls; the cohesive; and adhesive forces are important in the maintenance of a continuous and uninterrupted water column in the xylem vessels up the tree to the leaves; water vaporizes from the spongy mesophyll cells; their cell sap becomes concentrated than the adjacent cells. This increases the osmotic pressure of the spongy mesophyll cells; as a result of this, water flows into the cell from other surrounding cell, which in turn takes in water from xylem vessels within the leaf veins; this creates a pull/suction force that pulls a stream of water from xylem vessels in the stem and roots. This force, known as transpiration pull; helps in maintaining a continuous column of water from the roots to the leaves; water flows from the midrib into leaf veins from where it enters leaf cells; from the mesophyll cells, it enters the airspaces; then the substomatal air chambers; from where it evaporates through the stomata; to the atmosphere; Max. 20 mks

Q13. How is the mammalian heart adapted to its functions?

Heart is enclosed in a pericardial membrane/pericardium; that produces a fluid; to lubricate it; the membrane also keeps the heart in position; It is covered in a fatty layer; that acts as a shock absorber; made up of cardiac muscles; which are interconnected/interacted hence contract and relax without fatigue or nervous stimulation/myogenic; for continuous pumping of blood throughout the lifespan of the animal; the muscles are supplied by nutrients and oxygen; by the coronary arteries; and the coronary veins take away wastes and carbon (IV) oxide; heart is divided into 4 chambers; for efficient double circulation/ avoid mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood/carry large volume of blood; has interventricular septum; to separate oxygenated and deoxygenated blood; ventricles are thick/muscular; to generate high pressure to pump blood out of the heart; left ventricle has thick muscles/more muscular; to pump blood to all body tissues; heart has bicuspid; and tricuspid valves; to prevent back flow of blood to left auricle; and right auricle respectively; valves have tendinous cords/valve tendons; to prevent them from turning inside out; semi lunar valves located at the beginning of major arteries; prevent backflow of blood into the ventricles; has sino-artrio node located in the muscles of the right auricle; to initiate heart beat/contractions of heart muscles/cardiac muscles, rate of heart beat is controlled by nerves; vagus nerve; slows down heartbeat; while sympathetic nerve; speeds up the heartbeat; has aorta; to transport oxygenated blood to all body parts; has pulmonary artery; that transports deoxygenated blood from right ventricles to lungs for oxygenation; has pulmonary vein; that transports oxygenated blood from lungs to the left ventricles; for distribution to all body parts; has the venacava; that receives deoxygenated blood from all body parts to right ventricles; Max. 20 mks

Q14. Describe double circulation in mammals

Deoxygenated blood from body tissues (except lungs); enters the heart via the right auricle; through the venacava; it flows to the right ventricle; via the tricuspid valve; the right ventricle contracts; pumping blood; via the semi lunar valves; through the pulmonary artery; to the lungs for oxygenation; the oxygenated blood from the lungs; flow through the pulmonary vein; to the left auricle; via the bicuspid valve; to the left ventricle; the left ventricle contracts; pumping blood via the semi lunar valves; through the aorta; to the rest of the body tissues; Max. 20 mks

Q15. Describe the process of urine formation in the mammalian kidneys

The afferent arteriole which is a branch of the renal artery supplies blood to the glomerulus; the afferent arteriole has a wider lumen/diameter than the efferent arteriole; which takes away blood from the glomerulus; the differences in the diameter of the afferent and the afferent vessels causes high pressure; leading to ultrafiltration of blood; the walls of the blood capillaries are one-cell thick; hence glucose, amino acids, vitamins, hormones, salts, creatine, urea and water filter into the Bowmans capsule; to form glomerular filtrate; white blood cells, red blood cells, plasma proteins such as globulin and platelets are too large to pass through the capillary wall; hence remain in the blood capillaries; useful substances in the human body are selectively reabsorbed; back into the blood stream at the proximal convoluted tubule; the tubule is highly coiled; to increase the surface area for reabsorption of the substances; the useful substances include amino acids, glucose, vitamins, hormones, sodium chloride and water; many mitochondria found at the proximal convoluted tubule; provide energy for reabsorption of these substances against a concentration gradient; the glomerular filtrate flows into the descending and the ascending limb of the loop of Henle; blood in the capillaries and the glomerular filtrate in the loop of Henle move in opposite directions/counter-current flow; this provides a steep concentration gradient that leads to maximum absorption of water through osmosis; sodium chloride is actively absorbed from the ascending limb into the blood capillaries; under the influence of aldosterone hormone; the glomerular filtrate flows into the collecting tubule from where, more water is reabsorbed into the blood stream; antidiuretic hormone influences the amount of water to be reabsorbed depending on the osmotic pressure of the blood; the glomerular filtrate from several collecting tubules now referred to as urine; is emptied into the collecting duct; the urine passes through pyramid, pelvis and ureter into the bladder; where it is stored for some time. The sphincter on the urethra relaxes to allow urine to be released from the body; Max. 20 mks

Q16. Explain the role of the following hormones during homeostasis

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Secreted by the (posterior lobe/end) pituitary gland; in response to an increase in the osmotic pressure of blood; the hormone stimulates the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts; to increase their permeability to water; this increases the reabsorption of water into the bloodstream; concentrated and less urine is excreted; when the osmotic pressure decreases, less or no hormone is produced; hence the tubules become impermeable to water; less water is reabsorbed into the bloodstream; hence more dilute urine is excreted; fluctuations in the osmotic pressure is detected by the hypothalamus;

Secreted by the pancrease; in response to a rise in blood sugar level; it stimulates liver cells to convert the excess glucose into glycogen and fats for storage in the liver and muscle cells; increases the oxidation of glucose in respiration to yield water energy and carbon (IV) oxide/increases metabolism in the body; this leads to a fall in blood glucose to normal level;

Secreted by the pancrease; in response to a decline in blood glucose level; it stimulates liver cells to convert the stored glycogen and fats back to glucose; stimulates the conversion of amino acids to glucose; and stops the oxidation of glucose in the body cells; the glucose formed is released to the bloodsteream causing a rise of blood glucose level to normal; Max. 20 mks

Q17. a) Distinguish between Diabetes mellitus and Diabetes insipidus

Diabetes mellitus is a condition/disease caused by failure of the pancrease to produce adequate insulin hormone; leading to excess glucose levels in the body some of which is released in urine while diabetes insipidus is a condition caused by failure/inability of the kidney tubules to control the amount of water in urine as a result of a defect in production of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) leading to production of more dilute urine; Max. 2 mks

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