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‘ibid.’ and ‘id.’ Abbreviations for References In Academic Writing

Posted by Rene Tetzner | Aug 28, 2021 | Abbreviation in Academic Writing | 0 |

A Few Latin Abbreviations for References: ‘Ibid.’ and the ‘Id.’ Group Latin abbreviations used to be much more common in scholarly references than they are today, but some still appear in citations and notes. Those which continue to be used relatively frequently in modern scholarship (‘et al.’ is a good example) tend to be clear to readers familiar with academic or scientific writing, but a few Latin abbreviations once common in references are now used so rarely and by so few scholarly publishers that correct patterns of usage and even their meanings have become clouded. Yet academics and scientists working in certain fields are nonetheless required to employ such abbreviations on occasion, and researchers and students still encounter them while consulting earlier sources. ‘Ibid.’ and the ‘id.’ group are abbreviations of this kind, and their meanings are very specific, so a little advice on using them correctly may prove helpful.

The abbreviation ‘ibid.’ is short for the Latin word ‘ibidem,’ which means ‘in the same place’ or ‘in that very place.’ It usually appears in roman font, but italic font is sometimes used or required, and it is occasionally shortened even further to ‘ib.’ The use of this abbreviation now tends to be restricted to footnote and endnote references, particularly in the humanities and almost exclusively when guidelines call for it rather than as an author choice. It is used instead of repeating bibliographical information when a source is cited again immediately (without any intervening references) after it has been cited in the preceding note or in the preceding sentence within a note. Because the abbreviation means ‘in that very place,’ it must be used with great care: only if everything about the second citation is exactly the same as the first can it be used alone, and any information that differs must be provided along with ‘ibid.’ (e.g., ‘ibid., p.8’ for referring to the same author and title but a different page). ‘Ibid.’ should only be used if the reference and other information intended are absolutely clear; if there is any potential for confusing the reader, it should be avoided. A comma sometimes (but not always) appears between ‘ibid.’ and a following page number or other indicator of location, so the relevant guidelines should always be consulted.

The abbreviation ‘id.’ is the shortened form of the Latin word ‘idem,’ which means ‘the same person.’ That is only the masculine form, however, so if the person referred to is feminine, the abbreviation should be ‘ead.’ for the Latin word ‘eadem.’ The plural forms are ‘eid.’ for the masculine ‘eidem’ and ‘eaed.’ for the feminine ‘eaedem,’ with the plural meaning being ‘the same people.’ The full versions of these words are often used instead of the abbreviations, but if space is limited or publisher guidelines specify abbreviated forms, the abbreviations are used in either roman or italic font. Whether the full words or the abbreviations are used, they serve as substitutes for author names when works by the same author(s) are cited consecutively. A comma should normally follow the abbreviation or Latin word, just as it would an author’s name. Keep in mind that either form (abbreviated or full) must be used appropriately in terms of gender and number, so the name of a single male author should be replaced with ‘id.’ or ‘idem,’ the name of a single female author with ‘ead.’ or ‘eadem,’ the names of joint male authors or a mixture of male and female authors with ‘eid.’ or ‘eidem,’ and the names of joint female authors with ‘eaed.’ or ‘eaedem.’ If there is any doubt about the author(s) intended or the gender of the author(s), the use of author names should be preferred.

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‘ibid.’ and ‘id.’ Abbreviations for References In Academic Writing The meanings & correct forms of the Latin abbreviations ‘ibid.’ and ‘id.’

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Unique Identifiers for Researchers

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• First Online: 17 December 2013

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• Martin Fenner 3 &
• Laure Haak 4  

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Two large challenges that researchers face today are discovery and evaluation. We are overwhelmed by the volume of new research works, and traditional discovery tools are no longer sufficient. We are spending considerable amounts of time optimizing the impact—and discoverability—of our research work so as to support grant applications and promotions, and the traditional measures for this are not enough.

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The Mysterious User of Research Data: Knitting Together Science and Technology Studies with Information and Computer Science

Scientific Relevance

Encouraging data citation and discovery with the data citation index.

• Unique Identifier
• Research Workflow
• Interesting Speakers
• Institutional Repositories
• Identifier Scheme

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

The Problem

Research is increasingly global and many interactions do not happen at a personal level anymore, but rather through online tools, from email to videoconferencing and online databases. Researchers have traditionally been identified by their names, but this has never worked reliably because of confusions between popular names (John Smith or Kim Lee), errors in transliteration (e.g. Müller becomes Mueller or Muller), and name changes through marriage. These name issues present an even greater challenge when we try to find out more about researchers who we do not know personally, for example an author of a paper we find interesting or an interesting speaker at a conference, or about the research going on in an institution where we have applied for a job.

Unique Identifiers as a Solution

The only way to uniquely identify a researcher is through an identifier rather than a name. We, of course, use unique identifiers already with usernames for email, social media accounts, institutional accounts, and more. What is missing is a standard unique researcher identifier that is widely used by academic institutions, funders, publishers, and online tools and services for researchers that is embedded in research workflows and that automates the process of connecting researchers and their research. The existing researcher identifier services and social networks for scientists do not fill that gap. Many of the existing solutions are limited to a geographic region or discipline, many researchers and institutions are reluctant to use a commercial service, and some of the open solutions do not have the wide support from the community needed to reach critical mass.

Open Researcher & Contributor ID (ORCID) Footnote 1 is an international, interdisciplinary, open and not-for-profit organization created to solve the researcher name ambiguity problem for the benefit of all stakeholders. ORCID was built with the goal of becoming the universally accepted unique identifier for researchers:

ORCID is a community-driven organization

ORCID is not limited by discipline, institution, or geography

ORCID is an inclusive and transparently governed not-for profit organization

ORCID data and source code are available under recognized open licenses

the ORCID iD is part of institutional, publisher, and funding agency infrastructures.

Furthermore, ORCID recognizes that existing researcher and identifier schemes serve specific communities, and is working to link with, rather than replace, existing infrastructures.

ORCID Registry

The ORCID Registry launched in October 2012, and as of July 2013 more than 200,000 researchers have registered. Use of the Registry is free: individuals may create, edit, and share their ORCID record. ORCID staff, infrastructure, and software development is supported by member fees for organizations embedding the iD into systems.

Many organizations have started to integrate ORCID identifiers into their infrastructure. In early 2013, this includes manuscript submission systems from several publishers (Nature Publishing Group, Copernicus, Hindawi, and others), linkage with other identifier schemes (Scopus, ResearcherID, Faculty of 1,000), and integration with research works databases such as CrossRef and Figshare. The first services building on top of the Registry have also emerged, including altmetrics (see chapter Altmetrics and Other Novel Measures for Scientific Impact ) tools to track the impact of all research outputs linked to a particular ORCID identifier.

One of the stated goals of the ORCID initiative is to facilitate linkage with all research outputs: papers, monographs, books, datasets, software, peer review, clinical trials, patents, grants, etc. By providing a switchboard for this information, ORCID can help raise awareness of—and credit for—important research and scholarly activities and help the research community develop tools and metrics to better understand and evaluate impact. By embedding the ORCID iD in research workflows, ORCID can also help to reduce the time researchers spend on administrative and reporting activities, including publication lists for institutions and funders, submissions to the institutional repository, and more. Unique identifiers for researchers and research outputs can automate much of this reporting, giving researchers more time to do actual research. Widespread adoption of unique researcher identifiers will foster the development of exciting new tools and services for researchers which will make science more collaborative, productive, and interesting.

ORCID: http://orcid.org/ .

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Martin Fenner

ORCID, Bethesda, MD, USA

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Sönke Bartling

Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Internet and Society, Berlin, Germany

Sascha Friesike

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Fenner, M., Haak, L. (2014). Unique Identifiers for Researchers. In: Bartling, S., Friesike, S. (eds) Opening Science. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00026-8_21

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Web of Science ResearcherID

A Web of Science ResearcherID is a unique identifier that connects you to your publications across the Web of Science ecosystem (e.g., Web of Science , Publons , and InCites ) and provides the global research community with an invaluable index to author information. Web of Science Group products ( Web of Science , Publons , InCites , EndNote ) use a Web of Science ResearcherID to match and disambiguate researchers across products.

Having a Web of Science ResearcherID helps:

• solve author identity issues
• ensure correct attribution between you and your publications on the Web of Science
• add dynamic citation metrics from the Web of Science Core Collection and other missing metadata to publication records on your Publons profile, Web of Science , InCites, etc.
• effortlessly keep your ORCID up to date by linking it to your Web of Science ResearcherID on Publons

We fully integrated ResearcherID across Web of Science collections, Publons profiles, and InCites . It can also link to your ORCID to ensure you’re properly credited for your work across the web.

Author Identifiers Table

Expand the Authors Identifiers table to view a list of researchers who have claimed a publication using their Web of Science ResearcherID or ORCID identifiers.

The table includes:

• If available, the Web of Science ResearcherID of all authors who have claimed the publication. The hyperlink takes you to the author's Web of Science ResearcherID, hosted on publons.com where you can view all the records in the author's publication list.
• If available, the ORCID of all authors currently associated with the publication.

ISBN, DOI, ISSN: A Quick Guide to Publication Identifiers

Publication identifiers help in finding information on an article or publication using a set of codes. All of us have names and other identifying characteristics and titles; however, these could be common to several thousands of people. In the United States, a person’s unique identifying tag is his or her Social Security number. The same is true of titles of articles, subject matter, and a host of other characteristics of the written word. A publication identifier is unique to that journal, article, or book.

There are several types of publication identifiers. Some of these are discussed here.

International Standard Book Number

• The International Standard Book Number ( ISBN ) is for books. ISBNs identify printed or digital books and are used as inventory-tracking devices.
• The code is usually found on the back cover of a book and includes a barcode. One shortcoming of the ISBN is that it does not provide information on all versions of a particular book because each has its own unique code, which might not be an issue since it is recognizable.
• The ISBN has 13 digits and contains five types of identifying information or “elements” such as: a prefix, registration group (e.g., individual country or territory), registrant, publication, and “checksum” (i.e., a figure that is used to detect errors).
• If you are a self-publishing author in the United States, you can easily retrieve your own ISBN through Bowker , the country’s official ISBN source.
• If not, you can find this information on ISBNs in your country from the International ISBN Agency . By purchasing an ISBN for your publication, you ensure a better chance of it being found in a search.

Related: Need instant updates on academic writing on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now.

Digital Object Identifier

• A Digital Object Identifier ( DOI ) is used mainly in scientific journals.
• Each article in each of the thousands of journals has its own unique DOI. Understanding a DOI is important when doing specific research.
• The DOI format is usually numerals and letters, including some punctuation. For example, a DOI created by Wiley might look like “10.1111/j.1365-2575.2012.00413.x.”
• The first number identifies Wiley, the “j” indicates a journal article, and the number range indicates the ISSN. These are followed by the year the article was received by the publisher and the tracking number.

International Standard Serial Number

• The International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) comprises of seven digits followed by a “check digit” to identify any errors in citations.
• ISSNs help to identify serial publications, which are those that are published regularly in sequence, such as magazines, journals, newspapers, and databases. They don’t identify content or certify its validity .
• Although ISSNs do not identify the journal owner, if a journal name changes, a new ISSN is necessary. This is important when considering a title change because the change will affect cataloging and indexing.
• ISSNs also have some limitations. There might be an ISSN for printed text and a different one for electronic versions.
• “E-journals” are becoming quite popular given the Internet capabilities. Publishers are finding it much less costly to publish their serials online, and many do so exclusively. In addition, many of these journals are open access publications, which allow researchers to more easily gather needed information.
• The ISSN format is “ISSN 0000-0000,” which is printed on the journal cover. For electronic versions, “e-ISSN” is posted on the home page and is included in the DOI.

PubMed Indexing and Referencing Numbers

• The PubMed Indexing Number (PMID) is used for articles in the PubMed database , which contains more than 27 million citations from several sources.
• PMIDs are unique identifiers and are assigned to each record in the PubMed system. The code is found at the end of a PubMed citation and below the article’s author list and title.
• The PubMed Central referencing number (PMCID) is required for listing in the National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant proposals and reports.
• PMCIDs are assigned to an article in PubMed Central, which differs from the PubMed database. These articles comply with NIH’s Public Access Policy . PMCIDs are listed below the abstract.

Serial Item and Contribution Identifier

• The Serial Item and Contribution Identifier (SICI) identifies specific parts of a serial, such as volume number.
• It provides more information to those involved in indexing titles and content. SICI was created by the Serials Industry Systems Advisory Committee (SISAC) to be an extension of ISSN to help identify specifics of an article. The code has become widely accepted and used by both publishers and researchers.
• Item : The ISSN.
• Contribution : Signifies the page numbers, title code.
• Control : Type of SICI, part of article referenced (e.g., abstract), how content is presented (e.g., text), and version.

For example, “0095-4403(199502/03)21:3<12:WATIIB>2.0.TX;2-J” is SICI for “Bjorner, Susanne. “Who Are These Independent Information Brokers?” Bulletin of the American Society for Information Science , Feb–Mar. 1995, Vol. 21, no. 3, page 12.”

• A CODEN is a six-character, alphanumeric code for both serial and non-serial science publications.
• CODEN was designed and published in 1953 by a researcher at the Chronic Disease Research Institute to help him remember his reference publications, but became popular with scientists of all disciplines and is used for bibliographic indexing.
• Usually, CODEN is for articles related to chemistry; however, publishers of non-chemistry articles can request a CODEN from the International CODEN Service.
• Serial publications have a six-letter CODEN. The first four letters represent the journal title, and the fifth and sixth letters refer to one of the first six letters of the alphabet and the check character, respectively.
• For non-serial publications, the first two characters of the CODEN are numbers followed by letters. The fifth character is taken from the entire alphabet, and the sixth is the check character.

In addition, as a researcher, you should recognize these various codes to make your searches less time-consuming. The links here will provide more identifying codes that you might also want to use; however, those listed here are the most common and universally used.

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DOI Help: Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs)

Introduction.

For APA 7, you need to provide the digital object identifier (DOI) number for articles and ebooks when available. If an item does not have a DOI, the citation will look like the citation for a print resource. You no longer need to locate a journal homepage as part of your citation. 

The goal of this guide is to help you find the DOI for your reference citations. Specifically, this guide will cover:

• what DOIs are
• how to find DOIs

This guide will not cover how to correctly cite articles using APA style. For help with citation questions, please contact the Writing Center or refer to the Writing Center's resources on their website:

• Writing Center: Reference List: Electronic Source References
• Writing Center: Reference List: Common Reference List Examples

What is a Digital Object Identifier (DOI)?

What is a doi.

Digital Object Identifiers, commonly shortened to DOIs, were invented to give each electronic, or digital, item a unique, persistent identifier. Any digital object can be assigned a DOI number, for example:

• academic journal articles 
• research reports 
• governmental reports
• conference proceedings
• media 

Who assigns DOIs?

The DOI creation process is governed and managed by the International DOI Foundation . DOI Registration agencies under the International DOI Foundation provide services and registration of DOI numbers. They are typically focused on specific geographic areas or types of content. For example, EIDR provides DOI numbers for movie and television content.

Crossref is one of the registration agencies for the International DOI Foundation. It assigns DOIs to scholarly research publications. These publications include journal articles, books, and conference proceedings.

What do DOIs look like?

All DOIs start with the number 10 followed by a period. This is an example:

10.1111/dome.12082

In APA 7, you format the DOIs as a URL, with "https://doi.org/" before the number. For example:

https://doi.org/ 10.1111/dome.12082

Things to know

There are a couple of important things to know about DOIs.

• Not every article or resources has a DOI .
• Both peer-reviewed and non-peer-reviewed articles can have DOIs.
• Quick Answer: What is peer review?

Look at the article

The first place to look for a DOI is the article itself. Many publishers will include the DOI somewhere on the first page of the article. Here are a few examples:

Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 71, No. 3, 2015, pp. 441-452 doi: 10.1111/josi.12122

DOI: 10.111/dome.12082 Digest of Middle East Student - Volume 25, Number 1 - Pages 36-51 © 2016 Policy Studies Organization. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.  

Look at information about the article

Library databases include information about an article. If an article has a DOI, you may find it listed in the information about the article.

Different databases call these article information sections different things. They may be called Detailed Record, Abstract, Abstract/Details, or you may need to click on the article title to see more information about the article. 

If you don't see the DOI on the article itself, look around the page in the database to see if the DOI is listed.

Search Crossref

You can look for a DOI using the Crossref website. Crossref is one of the organizations that assigns DOIs, with a focus on research articles. If Crossref doesn't have a DOI for an article, you can safely assume that the article doesn't have one. 

Follow these steps to search Crossref for an article's DOI: 

• Go to the Crossref.org website .

• Press the Enter key to run your search.

Note: The actual DOI begins with 10. For APA 7, include "https://doi.org/" in front of the number. To learn more about what form of the DOI to use in a reference citation, please see these Quick Answers from the Writing Center:

• Quick Answer: Should I include a hyperlink in a DOI?
• Quick Answer: Can I use the DOI format provided by library databases?

Searches in Crossref always bring back results, even if the article you are looking for isn't there. If you don't see your article in the first page of results, here are a few things to try.

• For example:  "Storytelling for social change" AND Winskell
• Use the  Year  limiter in the left column to limit results to only the year in which your item was published.

If you still don't find the article you are looking for in Crossref, you can safely assume that it does not have a DOI.

More information

• DOI, Other URL, or No Retrieval Information? clickable flowchart
• Quick Answer: How do I cite an article with a DOI?
• Quick Answer: How do I cite an article without a DOI?
• Quick Answer: How do I find an article by DOI using Google Scholar?
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Data Management Planning: Author IDs and profiles

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• Author IDs and profiles
• Research Data Management Primer

About Author IDs

An  Author ID  is a unique identifier used to distinguish you from other researchers who have the same or similar names. Using an author ID can help ensure that all of your publications and research are associated with your profile in databases or online. Signing up for author IDs and making sure that you use them in your C.V. and website is something all researchers should do to make their work more findable and identifiable.

There are several author ID schemes. Below we outline ORCID, Scopus ID, Researcher ID, and Google Scholar profiles, which are all used across disciplines. There are also several discipline-specific ID schemes.

What is it?

ORCID  (Open Researcher and Contributor ID)  is an open, non-profit system to provide unique identifiers to researchers working in all fields. It is rapidly becoming a cross-disciplinary standard, and it works with other ID systems as well, which means it can connect different research systems and save you time on entering data.

How to get one

Go to  http://orcid.org/  and click "register now" to obtain an ORCID. 

What it's used for

List your ORCID on your C.V., your web profile, your grants, and anywhere else you provide a list of work.

How to improve your profile and correct errors

Some publications will be automatically loaded when you sign up for ORCID. You can also manually add publications and other information; when you sign in, you will have a chance to add publication and other biographical information. You can also add your SCOPUS author ID, ResearcherID , import from Google Scholar (see below) and publications association with these IDs will be automatically loaded.

SCOPUS  is a database of literature from all fields, produced by Elsevier. The database automatically assigns unique ID numbers to authors. These IDs help SCOPUS distinguish between similarly-named authors as well as helping to group all the documents by an author together.

If you have publications indexed by SCOPUS, you have automatically been assigned a SCOPUS author ID number. You can find this by going to:  http://www.scopus.com/search/form/authorFreeLookup.url  and entering your information.

In addition to being the tool SCOPUS uses to identify authors, some grant agencies will ask you for SCOPUS ID numbers.

If there are errors in your profile, you can fill out the author feedback form: in SCOPUS, run an author search, click on the author's name, then on the link that says "request author detail corrections."

You can add your SCOPUS ID to your ORCID profile by clicking "add to ORCID" from your author page in SCOPUS;  directions are here . Once you do this, you will be asked to log into ORCID, to verify that you authorize SCOPUS to access your ORCID account, and then you will walk through adding the appropriate SCOPUS profile and publications to your ORCID profile.

Google Scholar Profiles

• 9 Simple Steps to set up a Google Scholar Profile

If you have publications indexed in  Google Scholar , you can create a profile that will show up when people search on your name. It will display your publications, any information you provide, and a set of metrics including h-index.

Go to  http://scholar.google.com/citations  and sign in with your Google account. You will then be asked for your name, affiliation, etc. Next, Google Scholar will automatically suggest publications to add to your profile. Select the ones that are yours to add to your profile. Add your research interests as keywords, which can then be used to search on by people looking for other researchers in a field.

A Google Scholar profile will show up at the top of results when people search for your publications in Google Scholar. It increases visibility of your work by providing a bibliography, indicates which publications are yours if you share a common name. It also shows a citation count to your work, provides an H-index measure.

See  Google's FAQ  for answers to how to add missing publications or correct other errors.

Researcher ID

Researcher ID  is a unique identifier scheme developed by Clarivate and used in Web of Science as well as being compatible with other ID schemes.

Go to  http://www.researcherid.com/  and click "join now", and enter your information. You will be sent an email; click on the link in the email and finish entering your information (such as your institution name) to create the ResearcherID. You will then be able to link the ID to ORCID.

ResearcherID, like ORCID and SCOPUS author ID, is used to tell authors with similar names apart and produce profiles of author work. If you use Endnote or Web of Science, ResearcherID ties into these systems seamlessly. Use your ResearcherID on your CV, grants, and other profiles.

Once you have gotten the ResearcherID, you can add to your publications list by clicking "add publications" and then searching Web of Science, adding a RIS file from Endnote or RefManager, or connecting directly to Endnote. You can also connect to ORCID, and import the publications from your ORCID profile (or vice-versa).

Attribution

Parts of this guide were borrowed and/or adapted from resources from the UC Davis Libraries. Thanks for sharing! 

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Identifiers for Research Equipment

This community of practice (i4iOz) is for people in Australia interested in or actively working on solutions in this space.

A persistent identifier (PID) is a long-lasting reference to a digital resource. There is a growing need to uniquely identify instruments in many research communities. PIDs for instruments have many potential benefits:

- To enable unambiguous reference to digital representations of instruments

- To generate metrics that quantify the use of instruments and the rationale for future funding

- To link data to the instruments that generated them (provenance) to help with published papers and data tracking and citation

- To aid equipment logistics and mission planning

- To improve the discoverability and visibility of instruments and their data, published on the web

Some of the information presented here was sourced from the  ARDC website  

Research Identifiers - Introduction

Assigning identifiers to each item of data, software or research resource is essential for the future of research. Identifiers are used in computer systems to identify, connect and retrieve research items, activities and data. They accurately attach researchers to their research activities and allow research items and products to be a citable part of the scholarly record

Identifiers for Research Outputs - Articles, Reports, Theses, Preprints etc.

Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) are used to uniquely identify digital research works, and provide a persistent link to the location of the work on the internet; they also enable citation and tracking of citation metrics.

  For published works, the publisher usually assigns a DOI to the work.

For unpublished works, or grey literature, the UC Library, via the ARDC DOI Service, can also assign DOIs to  grey literature such as theses, reports, unpublished conference papers, newsletters, creative works, preprint journal articles, technical standards and specifications for which the institutional repository is the primary publication point.

Identifiers for Software - DOI

This section refers to software, in source code or compiled form, that supports scholarly research. Software may be downloaded, compiled, executed and instantiated.

DOIs are used to uniquely identify both research data and software, and provide a persistent link to the location of the object on the internet. DOIs also enable citation and citation metrics.

The ARDC allows the UC Library to mint DOIs for research  software, provided the citable item has the required metadata. 

Identifiers for Physical Samples - IGSN

Unique identification of  geologic and environmental   physical samples collected during the course of research will facilitate sharing of samples and sample-based data.

The IGSN is a unique identifier that preserves the identity of a sample even as it is moved from lab to lab and as data appear in different publications. IGSNs can be applied to geologic and environmental samples such as rocks, drill cores and soils as well as related sampling features such as sections, dredges, wells and drill holes.

The IGSN system facilitates the location, identification, and citation of physical samples used in research.  Read more about the ARDC's  IGSN service  and best practice on how to use it.

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All research staff are encouraged to create an ORCID  account and include their ORCiD ID  in their PURE profile, and add it in all research activities where they are credited.

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Home » Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research Paradigm and Its Impact on Your Investigation

Table of contents

• 1 What Is a Research Paradigm?
• 2 Overview of Major Paradigms of Research
• 3.1 Paradigm Shifts in Research
• 4 Application of Research Models in Various Disciplines
• 5 Summing Up

A typical analysis begins with a research question to explore. How you decide to answer it depends on your research paradigm. It sets the methods for conducting research and the expected results, helping you either make a scientific breakthrough or find nothing.

In this article, we will analyze the types of paradigms. We will find out how they differ and explore the best research methods for each case. From the article, you will learn:

• research paradigm explanation;
• known types and paradigms examples;
• types of paradigms to choose for your investigation;
• disciplines suitable for different investigation models.

What Is a Research Paradigm?

The definition of a research paradigm is simple. It is a framework that guides how researchers understand things. It shapes their views on what exists and what students can know.

In this regard, ontology is about reality’s nature. Epistemology is about how scientists acquire and confirm knowledge. The methodology is about the strategies and techniques used in investigation. A paradigm in research integrates these elements into a worldview. It influences what researchers believe exists.

Paradigms are crucial in shaping research question investigation approaches and assumptions. For instance, positivist research subscribes to the belief in a fair reality. You can study this reality using quantitative methods. In contrast, a constructivist acknowledges many subjective realities. They favor qualitative research paradigms. These models inform researchers’ choice of methods.

They also influence their interpretation of data and understanding of phenomena.

Also, models are lenses. Researchers see the world through them. The models guide their inquiries and shape the questions they ask. They also set the criteria for judging the truth and reliability of findings. Researchers can criticize their assumptions and biases. This leads to better, more nuanced experiments. So, understanding and defining research paradigms are key. They are vital for doing rigorous and impactful educational investigations.

Overview of Major Paradigms of Research

• Positivism is the belief that knowledge comes from observable, quantifiable facts. It seeks to find general laws governing phenomena. It emphasizes objectivity and relies on evidence gathered using structured, often quantitative paradigms. In this model, researchers aim to stay detached from their study subjects. They focus on finding universal truths.
• Constructivism (Interpretivism) is unlike positivism. It emphasizes subjective interpretation and the complexity of human experience. Thus, investigators acknowledge that they construct reality if individuals interpret their experiences based on their unique perspectives. For this purpose, researchers use qualitative methods, including interviews, participant observation, and textual analysis, to explore subjective meanings.
• Pragmatism bridges the gap between positivism and constructivism. It values practical solutions and advocates using many methods to understand complex problems. It is a transformative paradigm. Pragmatists monitor the usefulness of investigation outcomes. They adapt their approaches based on their inquiry’s specific context and goals. They emphasize the importance of experimentation and stress flexibility in investigation design for meaningful results.
• Critical Theory investigates . It seeks to find and fix power imbalances and social injustices. It challenges dominant ideas and structures. It does this to empower marginalized voices and promote change. Researchers in this model often do participatory action experiments. They work with communities to find and fix systemic issues. Besides, critical theorists advocate for reflexivity and self-awareness. They see the biases in all investigations.

These paradigms in research provide different lenses for researchers. They can use the paradigms to approach their inquiries and discuss insights. The insights will fit particular questions and contexts. By understanding and critiquing these models, researchers can enrich their work. They can also contribute to advancing knowledge in their fields.

Also, working across disciplines becomes more valuable. This is true as we navigate complex issues and as exploration patterns change. Researchers can combine different methods to use the strengths of many models, solve complex problems, and gain complete insights.

And, of course, when you start to write a research paper , you need to choose one of these models.

Selecting a Research Paradigm

Picking a research paradigm requires careful thought. You need to ensure it fits the investigation’s question. It must fit the objectives and chosen paradigm.

• First, assess your investigation’s topic . Then, look at the core assumptions that resonate with your inquiry. Consider whether your study aims to uncover fair truths, for example, in the positivism paradigm. Alternatively, explore subjective meanings, as in constructivism. Seek practical solutions, as in pragmatism. And challenge power structures, as in critical theory.
• Second, test the appropriateness of the chosen paradigm in addressing your research objectives. Ensure the model provides a good framework for guiding your inquiry. It should generate insights into the phenomena you study. We must consider the available resources for research . Also, we must consider time limits and ethics. Consider if it is possible to do the chosen paradigm.
• Third, explain why you chose the model . Do this when justifying it in your proposal or dissertation. Explain how the chosen model fits your research question and objectives. Justify why other models were not considered.
• Describe different examples of paradigms in the research. Provide evidence to support your decision. This can be a theoretical framework, prior research, or practical considerations.

In the end, picking the research paradigms is a key decision. It shapes the whole research process. Check the factors at play. Align with your goals to lay a solid foundation. Then, you can conduct a rigorous and impactful inquiry.

Paradigm Shifts in Research

Investigations have paradigm shifts. These happen when the science community or a research project changes its core ideas. They include assumptions, beliefs, or methods. Technological advances, discoveries, or critical reflections on existing models often drive these shifts.

Research model shifts happen in science. They occur as researchers challenge established theories or techniques. This leads to new perspectives or approaches. For example, Newtonian physics changed. Einsteinian physics revolutionized how we see the universe.

The paradigm may shift in a research project. This can happen when researchers find unexpected results. Or, they hit limits with existing ideas. It can prompt them to reassess their assumptions.

They can explore other views. Also, they can try new ways to explain what they study.

Model shifts are key for advancing knowledge. They let researchers adapt to change, add new evidence, and refine their understanding.

Application of Research Models in Various Disciplines

Research paradigms guide inquiry across many fields. They shape the methodologies, theories, and interpretations used in investigation. At PapersOwl , we know these methods can be hard to tell apart.

Here is a chart of research aspects for the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities.

We added these research paradigm examples to show how types can be used in different disciplines, cover various models, and provide insights into human society, the natural world, and culture. By using paradigm research well, scholars can advance knowledge and contribute to their fields.

If you still need research writing help , contact us at any time to receive high-quality aid.

In conclusion, you need to determine research paradigms. It is crucial. They shape the direction and outcomes of inquiry across disciplines. This is true in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Paradigm choice affects how researchers work and interpret. As a result, scholars can do tough and important investigations.

These studies advance knowledge and address big societal challenges. Scholars do this by understanding the strengths and limits of different ideas. They also align the models with research goals.

Finally, valuing diverse methods leads to a fuller understanding of complex things. It also spurs cross-discipline dialogue, which enriches discussions and drives innovation in research.

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Virome Sequencing Identifies H5N1 Avian Influenza in Wastewater from Nine Cities

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Avian influenza (serotype H5N1) is a highly pathogenic virus that emerged in domestic waterfowl in 1996. Over the past decade, zoonotic transmission to mammals, including humans, has been reported. Although human to human transmission is rare, infection has been fatal in nearly half of patients who have contracted the virus in past outbreaks. The increasing presence of the virus in domesticated animals raises substantial concerns that viral adaptation to immunologically naïve humans may result in the next flu pandemic. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) to track viruses was historically used to track polio and has recently been implemented for SARS-CoV2 monitoring during the COVID-19 pandemic. Here, using an agnostic, hybrid-capture sequencing approach, we report the detection of H5N1 in wastewater in nine Texas cities, with a total catchment area population in the millions, over a two-month period from March 4 th to April 25 th , 2024. Sequencing reads uniquely aligning to H5N1 covered all eight genome segments, with best alignments to clade 2.3.4.4b. Notably, 19 of 23 monitored sites had at least one detection event, and the H5N1 serotype became dominant over seasonal influenza over time. A variant analysis suggests avian or bovine origin but other potential sources, especially humans, could not be excluded. We report the value of wastewater sequencing to track avian influenza.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by S.B. 1780, 87th Legislature, 2021 Reg. Sess. (Texas 2021) (E.B., A.W.M., and J.F.P.), NIH/NIAID (Grant number U19 AI44297) (A.W.M.), Baylor College of Medicine Melnick Seed (A.W.M) and Alkek Foundation Seed (J.F.P.), and Pandemic Threat Technology Center (P.A.P.).

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I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data produced are available online at https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.11175923 and NCBI SRA BioProject: PRJNA966185

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