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167 Top Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Are you taking criminology in college, and it is time to work on your dissertation, but it appears challenging? Many university students get stuck even before starting, but there is no need to worry because we are here to hold your hand. The first, and we must emphasize, most crucial step, is picking the title of your dissertation. So, how do you select the right criminology dissertation topic?

The best title should be unique, interesting, and have ample resources to help you craft a paper that will impress your professor and the assessment committee. To make selecting the best easier, we have picked the hottest 167 criminology dissertation ideas for you. Keep reading to identify the preferred option and use it as it is or tweak a little to fit your preference.

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Terrorism

Religious ideologies: Can they be a source of terrorism?
Analyzing the relationship between media and terrorism.
Political tensions: Are they to blame for the ever-growing number of militias on the globe?
Comparing the trends of terror in the 19 th and 20 th centuries: A literature review.
What are the leading causes and motivations of terrorism?
Analyzing literature on identity theft and social media.
What motivates women to join ISIS?
Comparing male and female serial killers: What are the main differences?
How does the US respond to terror threats?
The US efforts to combat terror after the 9/11 attack: Are they effective?
Was the US justified in killing Osama Bin Laden instead of taking him to court?
Comparing two known terror networks of your choice in different countries.
Terrorism from the viewpoint of international law.
Islamic charities: Are they the main sources of finance for terrorists?
Are recent attacks by Hamas and Israel acts of terrorism?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas about Drugs

Analyzing the relationship between people of various backgrounds and police.
What are the most effective methods of preventing drug trafficking internationally?
Analyzing the effectiveness of drug courts.
Reversible and irreversible impacts of drug abuse.
People incarcerated for drug abuse: What are the impacts on their children?
Club culture: How does it enhance drug abuse in the society?
Preventing drug abuse in society: Which is more effective between voluntary learning and mandatory examination?
Reviewing the harm done to society by drugs.
Comparing the impacts of cannabis and alcohol on a person’s behavior.
The most abused drugs and their effects on societal behavior.
Cannabis and deviant behavior among youths: What is the relationship?
Cannabis legalization: Is it a good idea? What should we expect in the coming years?
Drug use and youth arrests: A case study of Paris, France.
Comparing drug court operations in the UK and USA.
War on drugs in the US: Can it solve the problem of drug abuse and crime?
Drug testing in school.
The influence of drugs on sexual assaults.
Prostitution: A study of the main risk groups in the UK.
Drug traffic tracking strategies used in the UK.
Drug abuse in prison cells: What are the causes and effects?

Criminal Law EPQ Questions

Harassment in school and workplace: What are the main strategies adopted to address the problem in the UK?
Homicides: A review of motivations that make people kill.
Are the strategies adopted by your state enough to counter juvenile delinquency?
What is the relationship between crime in Texas and people living with mental disorders?
Domestic violence: What are the rights of victims?
How can the marginalized get access to justice? A case study of the Netherlands.
A study of the main types of robberies reported in the US in the 20 th century.
Arson investigations: How do investigators determine whether the fire was deliberate or accidental?
What is the relationship between substance abuse and poor schooling?
What causes addiction among cannabis users?
What is the effectiveness of witness programs in criminal justice? A closer look at the International Criminal Court (ICC).
Robbery: What are the main risk groups, methods of prevention, and prosecution?
What is the effectiveness of the International Criminal Court in achieving its mandate?
Should employers check an all applicants’ criminal history during recruitment?
The extradition law in the United States: Is it fair?
Maximum-security prisons: Are they justified or simply cruel?
A study of incarcerated parent’s responsibilities. How do they cope?

Masters Dissertation Ideas for Criminology

Death penalty in the justice system: Is it effective in crime prevention.
The rising rates of mass shootings in the US: What are the main causes?
Studying the impact of genocidal acts on the cohesiveness of society.
Police shootings: Comparing top three cases in the US and the UK.
Sex offenses: Which are the main risk groups, prevalence, and prevention efforts?
How corruption affects the social, political and economy of a country.
Why are most crimes in the US and UK mainly committed by the youths?
US vs. China’s criminal justice system: What are the main differences?
Are the current US laws on criminology effective?
A review of the British criminology curriculum: What needs to be improved?
Analyzing the relationship between education levels and crime levels in a country of your choice.
What is the relationship between ownership of guns and law violations?
Law enforcement and criminology: What are the differences?
Does racial abuse of international students and immigrants motivate them to join criminal gangs?
Using culture to mold responsible citizens: A case study of communities in Georgia, Europe.

Forensic Psychology Dissertation Ideas

A comprehensive analysis of competence to stand trial concept and its application in the UK.
The age of criminal culpability: A review of the effectiveness of this idea in criminal justice.
The ethics of death penalty: A review of the literature.
Studying the mind of a criminal on death row: What goes in the mind of a person on a death row hours before execution?
Should the death penalty be used on juveniles?
What are the chances that a person on death row can change into a law-abiding citizen?
How does memory impact eyewitness testimony?
Analyzing the strategies used by the justice system to evaluate the reports of eyewitnesses.
Methods used in the UK to protect eyewitnesses.

Criminology Dissertation Ideas Mental Health

What role do guardians play in crime prevention in society?
A review of criminological theory in the US justice system.
A comprehensive analysis of how persons exposed to alcohol perform in different areas of their lives.
Sexual violence use as a weapon of armed conflict: A literature review.
Drug abuse and media: Should media that promote the use of hard drugs be controlled?
How effective are the methods used in rehab to counter drug addiction?
A review of delinquent cases among immigrant teenagers in the UK.
Why do college students engage in cases of arson?
Evaluating how prejudice motivates violence.
Is it possible to remain neutral in mental criminal case trials?
Is it possible to eliminate the problem of drug abuse and related crime?
Solitary confinement for drug traffickers: What are the implications?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas UK

How does the UK government respond to terror threats?
Rehabilitation centers in the UK: What roles do they play in addressing crime?
Racial stereotyping and crime in the UK: What is the relationship?
A discourse evaluation: How has coronavirus shaped crime in the UK?
Do urban settings in the UK act as breeding grounds for criminals?
A critical review of the police force and crime in the UK.
Interrogation by police officers: How does it work?
A study of the main categories of crime in the UK.
A review of the latest innovations in experimental criminology.
Identify theft in the UK: What are the main consequences for perpetrators?
Online child predators: How effective are the UK laws in protecting children?
Is it possible to have a crime-free society?
Which crime has a greater impact on society in the UK? Comparing street crimes and white-collar crimes.
A review of the main principles applied in crime prevention in the UK justice system.

Controversial Criminology Dissertation Topics

The less explored world of male rape in the society.
Abortion: Should it be categorized as a crime?
Parental separation: How does it result in future violence?
Information sharing technology: How does it help fight the problem of terrorism?
Back lives matter campaigns: Were they marred with violence instead of search for justice?
Coronavirus has accelerated crime in the society more than any other time in the past.
Do prisons help to correct bad behavior for the incarcerated?
Facebook helps to encourage more negative behavior than promoting socialization.
Domestic violence: Who suffers more between men and women?
Human trafficking has one main role of sexual exploitation.
On domestic violence, the law is subjective on males.
The government should increase the age limit for citizens to acquire national IDs.
Social media is the main source of moral panic in society.
Music is a major contributor to crime in society.

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Domestic Violence

Theoretical perspectives on domestic violence.
Applying the control balance theory in domestic violence.
Popular culture and domestic violence: Are they related?
The effects of homelessness on domestic violence: A case study of Texas.
A review of cross-cultural perspectives on domestic violence.
Comparing the rates of domestic violence in the US and India.
Trends of domestic violence in Spain.
Analyzing the main legal issues for women who are victims of domestic violence.
A review of domestic violence within the military families.
Analyzing police decision-making factors when dealing with domestic cases.
Male victims of domestic violence: Why do most of them opt to keep quiet and stick with abusive partners?
Mothers who kill: What are the motivating factors?
Postpartum depression and domestic violence: How are they related?

Interesting Criminology Dissertation Titles

Comparing the impacts of crime to those of natural disasters: A literature review.
Is the education system in the globe failing in shaping good morals?
A review of sexual aggression by women in ASIA.
Acquainting rape perpetrators on bail terms: Is it acceptable? What does the law say?
Regulating prostitution in the society: Is it enough to reduce crime?
Corruption comes from limitations.
A study of the connections between law violation and family status.
Prostitution regulation: Can it stop crime?
Use of expert testimony in domestic violence cases.
Should we ban police from carrying guns in public?
How does systemic bias impact criminal justice?
Genetics: A comprehensive review of illegal researches and associated dangers.
Assessing the effectiveness of street lighting in reducing crime.
What role do psychometric assessments play in criminal justice?
Is crime rate related to neighborhoods? A literature review.
How has counterfeiting changed with the development of new technologies?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas about Prisons

Forced labor among prisoners: Is it a good method of correction?
Why is drug violence a problem in many US jails?
A review of prison gangs in a prison of your choice.
Training correctional officers in the UK: How effective is the training in enhancing the efficiency of correctional facilities?
A review of the efforts used to address child molesters in prison.
A review of study programs offered in prisons.
Healthcare system in the UK prisons: Is it effective?
A review of police corruption in prisons: Comparing the prisons in the 19 th and 20 th centuries.
What are the main causes of high recidivism in the US?
How do women end up in prisons? A review of common causes.
Prisons through the UK history.
How well are inmates prepared for re-entry into the society after serving jail terms?
Racial profiling in the US prisons.
Aggressive behavior: How is it related to criminal tendencies?
Comparing human trafficking in the modern and classic worlds: What are the main differences?
Comparing women’s recidivism rates in the US to those of Australia.

Knife Crime Dissertation Titles

Knife crime in the US: Applying the criminology theory.
Comparing knife crimes in Europe and Asia
What are the motivating factors for knife criminals?
Knife laws in the US: Analyzing the effectiveness of the pocket knife rules & laws.
Comparing the knife rules of the United States to those of the UK.
A review of knife crimes trends in the 21 st century.

Criminology Dissertation Help by Best Writers a Click Away

Now that we have looked at the best titles, from terrorism dissertation ideas to criminology topics on drugs, have you picked the preferred option? If “yes,” you are one step in the right direction. However, the next step of writing the dissertation is longer and requires a deep understanding of criminology. You also need excellent writing skills, time, and access to all the required resources. If you do not have the combination of all the above, which happens regularly to most students, you have a way out – seeking help from the best writers online. Our custom writing service stands taller than others because we have top-notch ENL writers who stop at nothing in ensuring clients get high grades. They have a lot of experience in the discipline and can work on any topic, from criminology and psychology dissertation ideas to terrorism-related topics. Again, they are fast and can easily beat even the toughest deadline. Our service is also cheap. Do not let the criminology dissertation stress you in any way – our expert can help you complete it professionally and fast too!

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Criminology Dissertation Topics: 20+ Examples for Inspiration

by Antony W

May 9, 2023

Criminology is field that focuses on investigating crimes from a societal viewpoint, with an emphasis on offenders, their motivation, consequences, and prevention. Also, the subject examines human behavior in relation to crime.

Since criminologists investigate the societal foundations and consequences of crime, they also incorporate other subjects such as philosophy and anthropology.

When all of these fields of studies are used, a precise diagnosis of the underlying reason for criminal behavior is likely. Criminologists will then be able to develop effective and realistic strategies for averting criminal activities.

This post includes a list of the best criminology dissertation topics, which are ideas you can improve and investigate further in your assignment. Also, if you need help to work on this type of dissertation, especially if you’re already running out of time, you can get our dissertation writing help here.

Criminology Dissertation Topics Examples

The following is a list of some of the best criminology dissertation topics that you might consider exploring in your writing:

Criminology Dissertation Ideas Mental Health

The effect of harmful mental health disorders on an individual’s behavior
The role of a psychological examination in a criminal investigation
How the media affects a person’s mental health when they commit a crime
Utilizing community-based treatment centers to assist individuals with mental illnesses
Is it possible for an unlawful to fabricate a mental illness in order to avoid punishment?
Traumatic events that may serve as a catalyst for criminal activity
Mental treatments are critical for offenders accused with murder.

Also Read: The Complete Guide for Dissertation Defense

Controversial Dissertation Topics in Criminology

Was the Black Lives Matter movement tarnished by violence rather than by a desire for justice?
How parental estrangement contributes to future violence
Regulating prostitution will result in a decrease in crime.
Coronavirus has encouraged criminal activity on a scale never seen before.
When it comes to domestic abuse against people, the law is subjective.
Should the government raise the minimum age for obtaining a national identification card?
Is the media the primary catalyst for moral panics in society?
Demystifying social media as a crime scene in the technology era
Is it appropriate to inform rape perpetrators of their bail conditions?

Argumentative Dissertation Topics in Criminology

Is someone responsible for the growth of teenage gangs in a certain society?
Is it possible that political tensions are to blame for internal militia uprisings?
Are religious beliefs capable of becoming the source of terrorism?
Is gun regulation in the United States the first step toward increased crime rates?
Is racial abuse directed at international students a contributing factor to crime and violence?
Is crime more dangerous than natural catastrophes or infectious diseases?
Is parental monitoring effective in lowering teen crime?
Is education falling short in its job of instilling sound principles and character?
Is the boundary between law enforcement and criminology a fine one?
Is domestic violence directed only at women, or do males also suffer?

You May Also Like: Tips for Dissertation Reference

Masters and PhD. Criminology Dissertation Topic Ideas

Analyzing how marginalization and discrimination on the basis of religion contribute to crime
An examination of cybercrime laws and their role in preserving law and order
A critical examination of the United States government’s response to terrorism threats
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people and crime: An examination of their role or influence
Corruption’s impact on a country’s political, social, economic, and security systems
A discourse study of the coronavirus’s influence on criminal behavior
Is it true that metropolitan environments foster more crime than rural regions?

General Dissertation Topic Ideas in Criminology

Age in criminology research in the context of capital punishment
Examining the consequences of police empowerment in high-crime neighborhoods of developing countries
An assessment of the major features of police personnel deployed in crime hotspots in the United Kingdom.
A study of how the season and topography of a location effect crime.
How residential architecture and community structures aid in crime prevention and management
How significant is the sociocultural background of a residential community in terms of the volume and quality of crime in the area?
An Analysis of Research on the financial and societal costs of crime deterrence in the United Kingdom
An assessment of the ramifications of political backing for criminal activity and its influence on the community
A phenomenological examination of students’ exposure to drugs and the criminal lifestyle in the United Kingdom
A review of pertinent literature on how gender affects crime in the United Kingdom
What can quantitative data tell us about the link between crime and unemployment?

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Criminology Dissertation Topics On Prison and Society

Prisons and convicts have long been a source of contention in British society. When selecting dissertation on social criminal offenders, condense your ideas to a single social element.

Here are some topic ideas to get you started:

Should pupils be required to visit jail as part of their curriculum?
Is the imposition of jail sentences for economic or political offenses justified?
Eliminating negative stigma associated with ex-prisoners and social service.

Criminology Dissertation Topics On Crime and Justice

When someone commits a crime, people frequently consider the current criminal justice system, which has a variety of defects and benefits depending on who analyzes it.

Choosing a justice dissertation subject is not a simple effort, which is why you should explore the following topics:

The death penalty’s meaning in History video game violence and serial murderer cases
Control and reporting methods for gang activity: proof vs. official accounts
Alternative punishment methods: International System Comparisons

Criminology Dissertation Topics On Ethnicity and Race

Many of us are aware that certain crimes committed in the United Kingdom have racial or ethnic overtones. While these offenses have diminished in recent years, they continue to be widely publicized to educate people on how to prevent them and resolve any issues that arise.

Several ethnicity and race dissertation topics include the following:

How the media contribute to the emergence of racial hatred
Sports and legal ramifications of racial tensions
Laws that Could Help Reduce Crimes Against Ethnic Minorities Murders Across English Cities on the Basis of Race & Ethnic Minority
Inequality between races in the United Kingdom and South Africa

About the author

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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213 Criminology Dissertation Ideas And Thesis Titles

Finding criminology topics is not as easy as pulling out an essay idea from any website. It requires students to go the extra mile to investigate a particular problem and derive a professional topic. Does this give you chills already? Well, our expert UK writers have prepared a list that will earn you high grades. Make sure to pick one that will impress your stingy criminology professor to the core!

Criminology Topics: What Do They Entail?

Criminology focuses on examining crime from a social perspective with a close lens at the perpetrator of the crime, their motive, effects, and prevention. As you will note in the list of writing ideas below, criminology also studies human behaviour about crime.

Since criminologists go to the extent of looking at the social roots and impacts of a crime, they also s-encompass other fields of study such as philosophy and anthropology. The combination of all these methods leads to a precise determination of the root cause of criminal behaviour. They will therefore be able to determine effective and practical ways of preventing its occurrence in the future.

For you to have a top-rated criminology paper, ensure that you:

First, understand the task at hand
Collect relevant details to furnish your paper with
Outline your criminology paper
Structure your ideas into sections
Abide by the formatting requirements of your college or university
Maintain originality throughout your paper
Reference and cite your sources well

The result of this is a brilliant criminology paper that will earn you a spot on the top of your class leaderboard. Do you want to try out our sample criminology dissertation titles? Here is your unique opportunity now!

Top-Notch Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Why are the majority of crimes committed by the youths?
Reasons why men are more prone to commit crime than women
What to improve in the British criminology curriculum
Is it possible to develop a society without crime?
How does the environment motivate one towards criminal behaviour?
Evaluate the role of music in enhancing crime
Are the current laws on criminology effective enough?
Why do college and university students engage in cases of arson?
Predisposing factors behind the activities of serial killers
The role of guardians and societal leaders in preventing crime
Possible causes of rape and other indecent sexual behaviour
Discuss the relationship between crime and punishment in the past decade
Are criminology related laws implemented to the latter?
The role of specialized police units in preventing crime
Why the internet is a harbour for vigorous criminal activity
How to detect domestic violence before it occurs
Innovative ways of dealing with social disorders in a community
Why serial crimes always present a complex puzzle to solve for investigators

Criminology Dissertation Ideas Mental Health

The role of trauma in forcing one to commit a crime
Evaluate the association between mental illness and crime
Possible mental disorders that make teenagers commit crimes
Using community-based treatment centres to help people with mental cases
A global perspective on the mental health of sexual offenders
How anxiety and depression may cause one to premeditate committing murder
Impact of detrimental mental health problems on a person’s conduct
The relationship between aggressive behaviour and mental disorders
Traumatic experiences that may trigger criminal activities
How the media impacts the mental health of a person in committing a crime
Ways of promoting a healthy mental state in a society
How phobias prevent or trigger people about crime
The role of a mental check-up in a criminal investigation
Can an illegal fake a mental disorder to evade punishment?
Importance of mental therapies for criminals charged with murder

Criminology And Psychology Dissertation Ideas

How attitudes and emotions compel people to criminal behaviour
Impact of domestic violence on a child’s aggressive behaviour
A psychological examination of people who start trouble every time
How race is a critical factor in the police’s judgment of criminal activity
The role of forensic psychology in criminal investigations
A psychological view of the gender-based violence against women
Psychological disorders as a result of divorce may lead to crime
How parenting styles affect a child’s behaviour: A case of poor parenting
Discuss criminal intent based on a psychological disorder
How drug abuse contributes to crime as a result of psychological dysfunction
How attitudes towards criminal justice shape people’s behaviours
Why most employers are reluctant to employ people with past criminal records
Discuss criminal psychology with communist states
Current trends and practices in crime related to psychology
Compare and contrast situation and premeditated child abuse

Custom Criminology Dissertation Topics

Do criminals get justice after being sentenced?
How to investigate a serial crime in a society
Techniques used in monitoring people with suspecting criminal behaviour
Evaluate the role of private detectives in solving societal crimes
How the neighbourhood topography relates to illegal activities
Best approaches to combating crimes committed by gangs
The part of the police in keeping society safe and peaceful
How the mental health of women relates to aggressive behaviour at a times
Predisposing factors behind human traffickers and children abductors
Should the government enact more laws to curb domestic violence?
The role of modern technologies in complicating criminal investigations
How schools can enhance good morals among students at a tender age
Do suspensions act as a cause for violence in the future among students?
How to deal with protests and violence in a school setting
How the use of force only serves to stir up crime

First-Class Dissertation Ideas For Criminology

Policing strategies that wage war against smuggling of goods
The role of the US-Mexican border in combating criminal activities
How marginalization leads to the discrimination of various people
An analysis of the genocides in the past decade: What caused them?
What motivates young men to join gangs and other criminal groups?
How does alcohol catalyze sexual assaults?
The relationship between crime and LGBT groups
The implication of racial profiling in causing criminal activities
A critical review of how the US government responds to mass shootings
Gun ownership policies that will make America safe
The role of corruption in facilitating illegal underground activity
How the economic state of a country can lead to crime
Discuss the relationship between oil and civic disorder
Historical factors that have necessitated crime in the 21 st century
The contribution of propaganda and Yellow Journalism to crime

Criminology Dissertation Ideas On Terrorism

Evaluate the response of the US forces towards terrorist activities
Implications of the 9/11 attack on the safety of airlines
Discuss the relationship between radicalization and terrorism
Ways in which ISIS lures young men into joining them
How technology has helped advance terrorist activities in the country
Assess the impact of terrorism on religious profiling of people
Why terrorist activities are most prevalent in urban centres
How terrorists instil fear on their victims
Has the coronavirus slowed down terrorist activities?
Exploring the role of attitude in fueling terrorist activities towards certain countries
Reasons why the media can serve as a super-spreader of fear during terrorist attacks
Ways of detecting terrorist plans before they come of age
Significant strides made in the war against terrorism in Africa
The role of intelligence services in combating terrorism
A critical analysis of the bombings on the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania

Criminology Dissertation Ideas About Drugs

The role of drug rehabilitation centres in reducing criminal activities
A critical evaluation of heroin and cocaine users
The impact of legalizing marijuana on criminal behaviour
Is there a thin line between drug abuse and violence?
How to curb drug and substance abuse among college students
The role of the media in sensitizing society against the adverse effects of drugs
How the doping technology can help curb drug and substance abuse
How drug abuse is a stepping stone to high crime rates in developing nations
Explore the different types of crimes resulting from drug abuse
What are the possible ways of eradicating corruption caused by criminal behaviour?
Why it is difficult for drug addicts to go for guiding and counselling
Impacts of excessive drug abuse on one’s mental state
Why most gangs are associated with drug and substance abuse
Post-traumatic drug disorders that lead to criminal activities
Most commonly abused drugs by teens in the United Kingdom

The Best Criminology Dissertation Ideas UK

Government policies that are curtailing the spread of criminal behaviour
How the UK government is dealing with criminals of any kind
Are the court systems in the UK doing enough to curb crime?
Describe the application of the social learning theory in reducing crime
How a criminal investigator develops a perspective on a particular crime
How developed economies are handling corruption-related cases
The standards of correctional facilities in the United Kingdom and their effectiveness
An investigation of the legal policies against crime in Britain
Compare and contrast criminal activity in UK suburbs and those of America
A critical review of past illegal activity in Britain over the last five years
Perceptions and attitudes towards UK criminal investigators
How antisocial behaviour relates to illegal activities
Are introverts more prone to crime than extroverts?
A study of the UK media and its implication on crime
How criminal investigative exposes have led to the arrest of various criminals

Criminology Dissertation Ideas On Domestic Violence

Multiple forms of domestic violence in the 21 st century: A case of sexual and verbal abuse
Acts that lead to psychological intimidation in domestic violence
Economic impacts of domestic violence
Does the word ‘abuse’ downplay the severity of domestic violence acts?
Are domestic violence acts ‘terroristic’ in nature?
Social structures that reinforce the suppression of women
The growing cases of male abuse in the recent days
An analysis of the various aspects of domestic violence
The role of writers in speaking out against domestic violence
How to look out for warning signs in the case of domestic violence
Do victims of domestic violence find a safe place to talk without judgment?
Discuss the implications of the Domestic Abuse Bill in the UK
How to address the needs of survivors and their families
The role of society in holding perpetrators of domestic violence accountable
The role of grants and government funding in supporting anti-domestic violence movements

Criminology Dissertation Ideas About Prisons

Do prisons deny inmates their human rights?
Investigate reports of sexual abuse in prisons
Why murderers should not be in one prison facility with other offenders
Are prisons breeding grounds for criminal activity?
Compare and contrast crime in female and male prisons
The role of prison wardens in shaping the conduct of prisoners
Should all offenders be kept in one prison irrespective of their crimes?
Is denying prisoners visitations a catalyst for their aggressive behaviour?
The role of society in helping criminals change
How prison wardens contribute to crime in prisons
Should all correctional facilities be outside significant cities?
Should convicts of life sentences stay with those of shorter sentences?
An analysis of cases of convicts killed in prisons
What should determine the suitability of an officer as a prison warden?
How should inmates relate with the prison wardens?

Forensic Psychology Dissertation Ideas

Technological advances in forensic psychology and its impacts
The procedure of investigating a crime using forensic psychology
Compare and contrast the use of forensic psychology on men versus women
Different approaches to forensic psychology in criminology
Do we have enough forensic psychologists?
How does genetics affect forensic psychology?
Factors affecting eyewitness identification performance
A study on male victims of partner violence
Investigate the jury decision-making process based on forensic psychology
A study of knowledge and attitudes towards conduct disorder
How race affects psychotherapeutic performance
Examine the association between psychosis and being a migrant
Using a measurement scale to assess psychopathic personality traits
How personality functioning may predict a person’s engagement in cyberstalking
The collateral consequences of money bail

Latest Knife Crime Dissertation Titles

What happens when the police become criminals?
The impact of cybercrime on international peace and security
Unearthing the underworld of hardcore teenage crimes
How some police office rob banks and participate in serious crimes
Dealing with drug trafficking in the technological era
A comparative analysis of European law enforcement agencies
Using children as witnesses in a criminal case: Is it ethical?
Discuss the role of psychological intervention for criminals
Analyze the rise of militia uprisings
Impact of political tensions on criminal activities
How the media stereotypes young people as criminals
Social insecurity and brutality
Impact of forced labour on correcting detainees: Does it help?
Does the media exaggerate terrorism activities?
Cultural values that can shape the morals of a society

Additional Terrorism Dissertation Ideas

Is white supremacy terrorism?
How domestic terrorism has risen in the US over the past few months
The role of the UN Mission in keeping terrorists at bay
How to cut off funding for terrorist activities
How terrorism has become a threat to human existence
How to prevent young men from joining terrorist groups
Why terrorists take hostages and threaten to detonate bombs
Psychological implications of terrorism activities
Can someone who has been a terrorist fit into society again?
Discuss the breeding of local terrorism in countries
Counter-terrorism measures that work
The role of surveillance in countering terrorism activities
How terrorism creeps into conflict zones
How the rule of law can help eliminate terrorism
How to empower minors against terrorism
The role of community anti-terrorism awareness programs
How terrorists cause insubordination and waywardness

Criminal Law EPQ Questions

Proactive policing
Pretext stops and charter remedies
Working with virtual legal assistants
The part of the sedition law
Analyze the right to protest
Is life imprisonment a myth?
State’s role in regulating crimes against women
Appeal to the death sentence
Laws about custody and maintenance of minors
Are Promissory notes and Bills of Exchange the same?
What is the difference between fatal and non-fatal offences?
Are ideas protected under copyright?
What is a crime of passion?

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Top 121+ Most Interesting Criminology Dissertation Ideas

The realm of criminology encompasses a wide array of themes, each offering unique opportunities for investigation and analysis. From studying criminal behaviors and psychological profiles to examining the societal, economic, and cultural factors that contribute to criminal activities, criminology dissertation ideas span across various subfields.

Whether one’s interest lies in understanding the motivations of criminals, analyzing the impact of technology on crime, or advocating for social justice within the criminal justice system, the diverse array of topics presented herein aims to cater to a broad spectrum of interests and expertise.

In this blog post, we will discuss the most interesting criminology dissertation ideas and explore the key elements of the criminology dissertation ideas. These ideas will help you to get good scores in your academics.

What Is A Criminology Dissertation?

A criminology dissertation is like a big research project that people studying crime and its causes, effects, and solutions work on. It’s a long essay or a paper where they explore a specific topic related to crime.

The main aim of criminologists is to study the societal foundations and results of crime. They also incorporate other subjects, such as anthropology and philosophy. Using research from these fields will probably result in an accurate diagnosis of the basic cause of criminal behavior. At that point, criminologists can create practical and successful plans for stopping criminal activity.

Now, let’s learn the key elements of a criminology dissertation

Key Elements Of Criminology Dissertation

Key elements of a criminology dissertation typically include:

1. Research Question

The dissertation begins with a clearly defined research question or hypothesis. This serves as the foundation for the entire study and guides the research process.

2. Literature Review

A comprehensive review of existing literature related to the chosen topic is conducted. This helps the researcher understand the current state of knowledge in the field and identify gaps or areas requiring further exploration.

3. Methodology

The dissertation outlines the research methods and approaches employed to collect and analyze data. Depending on the research question, these methods can include surveys, interviews, observations, content analysis, or the examination of existing data sources.

Also Read: 149+ Best Neuroscience Research Topics For Students 2024

4. Data Collection

Researchers collect data based on the chosen methodology. This step may involve conducting surveys or interviews, gathering and analyzing documents, or applying statistical analyses to datasets.

5. Data Analysis

The collected data is analyzed to draw conclusions and make inferences based on the research question. This often involves statistical analysis, thematic coding, or qualitative interpretation

6. Discussion

The findings are discussed in detail, and their implications within the broader context of criminology are explored. Researchers consider how their findings contribute to the understanding of the chosen topic and any policy or practice implications.

7. Conclusion

A well-structured conclusion summarizes the key findings, discusses their significance, and suggests areas for future research.

8. References

A comprehensive list of cited sources is included to acknowledge the existing knowledge that informed the study.

Now let’s move to our hot topic, list of criminology dissertation idea

List Of Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Here is the list of criminology dissertation ideas from various fields within criminology.

Cybercrime and Technology

The Role of Cryptocurrencies in Cybercrime
Dark Web and Criminal Activities
Cybersecurity and Its Impact on Cybercriminal Behavior
The Ethics of Hacking and the Law
Online Harassment and the Legal Response
IoT Vulnerabilities and Criminal Exploitation
AI and Machine Learning in Crime Prediction
Ransomware Attacks and Law Enforcement
The Evolution of Online Child Exploitation
Cybersecurity Measures for Small Businesses

Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement

Use of Force Policies in Law Enforcement
Body-Worn Cameras and Accountability
Police Militarization and Community Relations
Racial Profiling and Law Enforcement Practices
Jury Decision-Making and Racial Bias
Eyewitness Testimonies and Wrongful Convictions
Police Corruption and Internal Affairs
The Role of Police Unions in Accountability
Civil Forfeiture and Its Impact on Communities
Crisis Intervention Training for Police Officers

Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Justice

The Efficacy of Rehabilitation Programs for Juvenile Offenders
School-to-Prison Pipeline: Causes and Consequences
Youth Gangs and Their Influence on Criminal Behavior
Bullying and Its Connection to Juvenile Delinquency
The Impact of Parental Incarceration on Children’s Lives
Diversion Programs for Juvenile Offenders: Success and Challenges
Restorative Justice in Juvenile Cases: A Critical Analysis
Mental Health Services for Juvenile Offenders
The Experience of Girls in the Juvenile Justice System
Trauma-Informed Care for Juvenile Offenders: Benefits and Barriers

Criminological Theories

Social Learning Theory Criminal Behavior
Strain Theory and White-Collar Crime
Routine Activities Theory and Crime Hotspots
Labeling Theory and Deviant Behavior
Rational Choice Theory in Cybercrime
Conflict Theory and Criminal Justice Policies
Biosocial Criminology and Genetic Factors
Feminist Criminology and Gender Bias in the Justice System
Life-Course Criminology and Desistance
Radical Criminology and Social Movements

Victimology

Psychological Impact of Homicide on Survivors
Hate Crime Victims and Their Experiences
Stalking as a Form of Victimization
Human Trafficking Survivors’ Stories
Elder Abuse and Victim Services
Compensation Programs for Crime Victims
Cyberbullying and Its Effects on Adolescents
Restorative Justice from the Victim’s Perspective
Victimization of Immigrants and Refugees
The Role of Support Organizations for Victims

White-Collar Crime

Corporate Fraud and Regulatory Response
Insider Trading and Securities Fraud
Money Laundering and Financial Institutions
Environmental Crimes by Corporations
Whistleblowers and Legal Protections
Ponzi Schemes and Investor Victimization
Tax Evasion and Legal Consequences
Healthcare Fraud and Public Health
Bribery and Corruption in International Business
Antitrust Violations and Consumer Harm

Also read: Top 91+ Creative Agriscience Fair Project Ideas

International and Comparative Criminology

Human Rights Violations and Accountability
Transnational Organized Crime and Law Enforcement Cooperation
War Crimes and International Tribunal
Drug Trafficking Routes and Global Security
Terrorism and Counterterrorism Measures
Refugee Criminalization and Legal Asylum
Cultural Differences in Punishment Practices
Sentencing Disparities Across Countries
Policing Models in Different Societies
Cybersecurity Cooperation in International Law

Environmental Criminology

Crime Mapping and Hotspot Analysis
CPTED (Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design)
Urban Planning and Crime Prevention
Neighborhood Watch Programs and Community Safety
Home Burglaries and Residential Security Measures
Graffiti and Vandalism in Urban Environments
Fear of Crime and Its Impact on Communities
Transportation Systems and Crime Patterns
Campus Safety and University Crime Prevention
Parks and Recreational Areas in Crime Prevention

Rehabilitation and Reentry

Inmate Education Programs and Recidivism
Drug Treatment Programs in Prisons
Vocational Training for Offenders
Mental Health Services for Inmates
Ex-Offender Reintegration and Employment
Restorative Justice in Prisons
Prison Healthcare and Medical Ethics
Elderly Offenders and Long-Term Incarceration
Gender-Responsive Programs for Female Offenders
Parole and Probation Reforms

Terrorism and National Security

Radicalization Pathways and Counterterrorism Measures
Cyberterrorism and Critical Infrastructure Protection
Lone Wolf Terrorism and Intelligence Gathering
Border Security and the Prevention of Terrorism
The Role of Intelligence Agencies in Counterterrorism
International Cooperation in Countering Terrorism
The Psychology of Suicide Bombers
Preventing Homegrown Terrorism
The Use of Drones in Counterterrorism
Online Propaganda and Its Influence on Extremism

Criminology Dissertation Ideas Serial Killers

Certainly! Here are criminology dissertation ideas related to serial killers.

Psychological Profiling of Serial Killers
The Influence of Childhood Trauma on Serial Killers
Female Serial Killers: A Comparative Study
Serial Killers in Popular Culture: Portrayals and Impact
Serial Killers and the Dark Triad Personality Traits
The Role of Technology in Serial Killer Investigations
Geographic Profiling and Serial Murder
The Motivations Behind Serial Killers: A Psychosocial Analysis
Serial Killers and Necrophilia : A Psychological Study
Serial Killers and the Role of Victimology in Investigations

Criminology Dissertation Ideas For Undergraduate

Here are some criminology dissertation ideas suitable for undergraduate research.

The Impact of Social Media on Crime Reporting and Community Policing
Youth Gangs: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Restorative Justice Programs and Their Role in Offender Rehabilitation
Racial Profiling: Analyzing Its Prevalence and Consequences
The Role of DNA Evidence in Criminal Investigations
Criminal Profiling: Myths and Realities
The Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Crime Rates
White-Collar Crime: Causes and Regulatory Responses
The Role of Witness Testimonies in Criminal Trials
Hate Crimes: Motivations and Impact on Victims

Criminology Dissertation Ideas Mental Health

Let’s find out some criminology dissertation ideas related to mental health.

Mental Health and Criminal Behavior: A Comprehensive Analysis
Crisis Intervention Teams: Policing and Mental Health Responses
Mental Health Stigma and Its Influence on Criminal Involvement
Forensic Psychiatric Evaluations: Accuracy and Ethical Considerations
Youth Mental Health and Juvenile Delinquency: Risk Factors and Interventions
Restorative Justice and Mental Health Offenders: Opportunities and Challenges
Elderly Offenders and Mental Health Challenges in Prisons
Mental Health Crisis and Police Use of Force: Evaluating Responses
Veterans and Mental Health: Addressing Criminal Involvement
Mental Health Diversion Programs and Their Effectiveness

Criminology Dissertation Ideas On Domestic Violence

Have a look at criminology dissertation ideas on domestic violence.

Intimate Partner Homicide: Risk Factors and Preventative Measures
Cultural Factors and Domestic Violence: A Cross-Cultural Comparison
Economic Abuse in Domestic Violence Cases: Recognizing and Addressing Financial Control
The Influence of Substance Abuse on Domestic Violence Perpetration and Victimhood
Protective Orders and Their Efficacy in Preventing Domestic Violence Recurrence
The Connection Between Domestic Violence and Homelessness
The Impact of Domestic Violence on Workplace Productivity and Safety
Online Forms of Domestic Violence: Cyberstalking and Digital Abuse
Domestic Violence Perpetrator Programs: Effectiveness and Accountability
The Legal Response to Domestic Violence: A Comparative Study

These dissertation ideas cover a wide range of topics within the field of domestic violence, offering ample opportunities for research and analysis.

Also read : 150+ Amazing Quantitative Statistics Project Ideas

Wrapping Up

In conclusion, the realm of criminology offers a diverse and intriguing array of dissertation ideas, providing ample opportunities for research, analysis, and contribution to the field. The topics presented in this exploration represent just a fraction of the vast landscape within criminology, encompassing various dimensions of crime, justice, and social behavior.

Choosing a criminology dissertation topic is not just a task; it’s a crucial decision that shapes the direction of academic inquiry. Each idea can potentially unravel new perspectives, challenge existing theories, and address pressing societal concerns. Whether delving into the intricacies of criminal behavior, examining the nuances of the justice system, or exploring the impact of technology on crime, these ideas serve as pathways to profound scholarly exploration.

As aspiring criminologists embark on their dissertation journeys, it is essential to consider their passions, interests, and the societal relevance of their chosen topics. By delving into these subjects with dedication and rigor, researchers can make meaningful contributions, fostering a deeper understanding of crime and its complexities.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1. do you pick your dissertation topic.

Your dissertation is a chance to show your ability to work independently and put all you have learned into practice. Although you can choose your subject, the topic must address a unique area of original thought.

Q2. Does a dissertation affect GPA?

The letter grades of “S” (Satisfactory Completion), “SP” (Satisfactory Progress), and “U” (Unsatisfactory) are given for Readings and Research, Capstone Projects, Thesis, and Dissertation. These grades do not affect the student’s GPA.

Q3. What does a good dissertation look like?

Your dissertation itself should contain only essential information that directly contributes to answering your research question. Documents you have used that do not fit into the main body of your dissertation (such as interview transcripts, survey questions, or tables with full figures) can be added as appendices.

Criminology Dissertation Ideas for Students

When students enter university, few of them consider what dissertation they will write. They’re mostly focused on everyday tasks like essays, but since the necessity to select topic and investigate is inevitable, sooner or later, this question is going to gain urgency. Criminology is a unique subject.

Whether you’re studying it at the University of Surrey or Stirling, the final year will be tough. Some are going to require online dissertation help . But before getting professional assistance, one must look through diverse criminology dissertation ideas and decide which suits better. The more you like it, the more you’ll feel engaged in writing, meaning that chances at getting an excellent grade are going to grow. Let’s take a look at newly available criminology topic prepared by our professionals in this field.

Topics on 6 Major Divisions of Criminology

We’ve divided this vast area into six main topics, each having a number of suggestions. Check them and see what criminology dissertation titles you find interesting. We’ll start with two widest general sections.

Prison & Society Topics

The perception of prisons and prisoners in society has always been a subject of hot debate. As you are choosing dissertation topics dealing with social aspects of criminal offenders, remember about narrowing your ideas down to include a single social element. See these examples to help you start writing:

Portrayal of prisons in the media.
Should schoolchildren have visits to prison as a part of the school curriculum?
Mental health issues and serial killer personalities.
Breaking down negative stigma regarding ex-prisoners and social work.
Is prison punishment justified for economic or political crimes?
HM Prison Wandsworth Effectiveness: Control, Crime, Punishments
Barriers between Prisoners & Free People: Dual Review
Thin Line between Free Life and Prison
How do Ex-Prisoners Adapt to New Life?
Adaptation Period in Prison: Factors of Difficulties & Success

Crime & Justice Topics

When a crime is committed, people often think of the existing criminal justice system which has numerous flaws and benefits, depending on who reviews it. Choosing your dissertation topic on justice is not an easy task, which is why consider checking criminal justice dissertation ideas:

Prevention of crimes with the help of education and volunteering work.
The management of prison overcrowding.
Gang activity control and reporting systems: evidence vs official reports.
Drug legislation and insufficient punishment.
Video games violence and serial killer cases.
History of Death Penalty, Its Meaning
Illegal Acts That Attract Insufficient Punishment
Crimes in that Result in Overly Harsh Punishments
Alternative Means of Punishments: Comparisons of International Systems
Validity of Putting Education Before Prison

Ethnicity and Race Topics

Many of us know that some crimes taking place contain racial or ethnic elements. While these crimes have decreased lately, they are still widely discussed to help people avoid them and address every issue that comes up. Here are several ethnicity and race dissertation topics:

Racial inequality vs South Africa.
Law violations among ethnic minorities in Wales.
Cyberbullying crimes and ethnicity factor.
How does media contribute to the birth of hatred based on racial principles?
Sports and legal consequences of racial conflicts.
Race-Fuelled Lawlessness: 2015-2022
Laws that Could Reduce Crimes Based on Ethnicity
Minorities Representation Prisons
Murders Across English Cities based on Race & Ethnicity
Changes in Ethnicity: Relation to Crime over the Last Ten Years

Crime and Social Inequality

It is a popular belief that social access to welfare and one’s financial state always lead to either a higher or a lower criminal activity rate. While it is not proven scientifically due to insufficient sample groups, students may explore this field of science to bring innovations and new insight.

Does the lower-income situation in the family lead to an increase in crime rates?
Workplace violence towards female workers and sexual assault crimes.
Discrimination in grammar schools & learning disabilities.
Do people in rural areas have more social responsibility regarding law violations?
Social comparison crime rates and knife crimes among the teen population of Liverpool vs Manchester.
Murders Committed by Low & Middle-Class Representatives: A Comparison
London Divided into Sectors: Class Separation and Violence
Correlation between Public Resources & Felony Control
Does Low Income Cause Violence?
Discrimination: Its Impact on Violence

Activism & Riots Ideas

It is way too easy to cross the line between social campaigns and law violations as the group of people gathers together to protest. It often leads to riots and violence. Explore related criminology dissertation topics below and change them a little bit to fit your thesis statement:

The Black Lives Matter social movement branch.
The role of Instagram and Facebook influencers in social riots.
Media bias of television networks in coverage of riots.
The limitations of social activism: when responsibilities fail to work.
The use of nationalistic slogans and knife crimes during social-based riots.
Successful Riots & Their Consequences
Riots that Caused Many Crimes
Verge between Activism & Crimes
When Social Mobility Masks Crimes: Cases & Impact
Causes for Riots & Most Typical Kinds of Violence Committed as Their Result

Topics about Police

A successful work of criminology specialists always involves police officers, which is why choosing your policing dissertation ideas/police dissertation ideas must be approached with great care and without bias. After all, it is your research of both sides that matters.

How can police body cameras help decrease police violence?
Difference in behaviours of police officers in villages vs large cities.
Can children’s books have a positive impact on attitude to police among teenagers?
Male vs female police officers: why gender is not always significant.
Police work differences between and Canada.
Praise & Complaints about Police: Truth and Myths
Right of Police to Use Weapons & What It Results In
Crimes Commited by Police: Imprisoned Officers
Criminology Network of Police Officers
What Makes Criminology Investigation Successful: New Factors

If you’re still searching for other options, consider looking through a similar field. Check dissertation topics in finance or economics dissertation topics . Crimes happen in these spheres, too, and maybe you’ll locate the one that stirs your interest there. Remember, authentic interest in a theme is already a big guarantee of future success.

Criminology Dissertation Tips

Criminology dissertation represents one of the most complicated types of work even for those students who pursue their Criminology or Forensic Sciences degrees. Coming next, Psychology, Law, and Nursing also relate here. Therefore, students must consider the following rules as they start:

Research similar works dealing with your subject. Always consult with your academic advisor.
Narrow things down to become more focused on a certain problem that your criminology dissertation explores.
Provide new information and mention case studies to provide more samples for your methodology.
Include statistical information and comparisons, especially if using qualitative methodology.
Provide counter-argument sections to make your research unbiased.
Choosing your topic, avoid controversial subjects if you are not ready to deal with them.

Most importantly, always discuss every aspect with your academic advisor to avoid accidental plagiarism or copyright infringement issues as you are dealing with a plethora of information and citations.

Psychology and Criminology Connection

Regardless if you study Criminology or Psychology, these two fields of science always go hand in hand, especially when forensic analysis of mental health aspects must be done. You might already have seen it in various TV series or shows, yet take time to explore criminology and psychology dissertation ideas:

Psychology aspects of domestic abuse reporting.
The fear factor and analysis of child victims of crimes.
Psychology of gambling and the apprehension of punishment.
Male vs female perception of serial killer crimes.
PTSD and military violence analysis.
Are there typically crimes?
Attitude to alcohol-related crimes vs the United States.
Psychology of a drug dealer.
How can good psychological skills help prevent bullying?
Abuse of leadership in the workplace: moral and legal responsibilities.

Explore these topics to see how criminal studies always relate to psychology as one explores what has fueled the crime and what mental aspects have been involved.

Masters and Ph.D. Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Dealing with Criminology Master’s dissertation ideas, you can still choose basic Criminology topics. The difference lies in the depth of your research and the ways how you approach your methodology.

Police strategies on self-control and stress management in emergency situations.
Female prisons and sexual violence cases: analysis and prevention methods.
Religious discrimination in society.
Parental responsibilities monitoring: ethics and limitations.
Interrogation of child abuse victims.
Police bias in responding to emergency calls.
Negative perception of police officers: the role of media and newspapers.
Marginalization among police officers in Wales.
Does technology lead to being anonymous: cyberbullying and online gambling.
Post-prison life rehabilitation methods.

Argumentative Criminology Dissertation Topics

Argumentative dissertation topics in criminology must present some argument or make an assumption regarding whether something is possible. Using argumentative topics, make your opinion clear.

Religious beliefs and terrorism cases in Northern Ireland.
Are political crimes worse than economic violations?
Do men and women suffer differently from domestic abuse?
Mental abuse in the workplace vs physical abuse.
Are immigrants to blame for the terrorist attack cases?
Can police officers remain unbiased when dealing with male vs female offenders?
The media portrayal of serial killers: pros and cons.
School education and prevention of drug-related crimes.
Should prisoners be allowed to vote and participate in politics?
Social work as an alternative to imprisonment: Norway’s example.

Controversial Criminology Dissertation Topics

Remember that controversial criminology dissertation topics are not for everyone because it means facing disturbing topics that require exploring not only your position but the negative side of things as well.

Reporting male rape differences: community stigma.
Black Lives Matter: did the police really have their say in this case?
Covid-19 related crimes: are they financial or moral?
Bias towards female child abusers: social aspects.
Social media as justification of psychological online crimes.
Rap music as a contributor to knife crimes and violence.
Do we evaluate terror attacks based on what media shows us?
Are children unbiased when they report domestic violence threats?
Prevention of terrorism methods between and the USA.
Do serial killers have morals?
What topics may be chosen when I write a criminology dissertation?

You can consider anything from police violence and social injustice to social campaigns, prisoners, and domestic violence. Basically, anything that involves Criminology can be handled by our experts as you compose your dissertation. Just place your order and we shall assist you right away.

How to Choose a Criminology Dissertation Subject?

It must be something that motivates you for research and something that you know well. It is recommended to narrow things down a little bit and play with the alternate wording to fit your thesis statement. You should discuss things with your academic advisor and remain unbiased as you research.

Choose Professionals Who Will Help You Succeed

If you catch yourself thinking, “I’d like to pay someone to write my dissertation ,” this service is going to be a smart choice. Its specialists could meet all your requirements, crafting assignments that would have academic value, impressing committee and pleasing you. If you’re simply interested in possible law dissertation topics , check all lists with these as well as criminology topics. You are guaranteed to find what you’ve been looking for, receiving inspiration and genuine desire to start your investigation.

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Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Coming up with quality criminology dissertation ideas can get pretty complex, because it requires detailed and sometimes lengthy research. Professional writers from our dissertation writing service prepared everything you need to know about criminology dissertation writing, including specific criminology dissertation ideas.

You will find plenty of topics with which you will be able to ace your criminology class and impress your professors. But, before we go through our list, let’s take a closer look at what makes criminology dissertations so interesting, as well as how to approach them, regardless of which topic you are given.

How to Come Up with a Criminology Dissertation Topic?

Coming up with useful criminology dissertation ideas is more difficult than in some of the other disciplines. How so? Well, the subject matter is more sensitive, and while you might be able to get away with some speculation in a dissertation in other disciplines, there is zero room for that here. However, there are some methods that can make the entire process easier, and they include:

Brainstorming
Mapping out your ideas
Letting the arguments you have create your topic
Free writing
Check relevant sources for additional ideas

Don’t be afraid to put down just about on paper, especially if you are relying on free writing or brainstorming. Perhaps that silly thing that popped inside your head might lead you toward more useful criminology dissertation ideas and topics.

What Makes a Criminology Dissertation Interesting?

The best criminology dissertations are interesting because they cover an exciting topic in a way that hasn’t been done before. Also, criminology is extremely fascinating, because it covers complex subject matter, such as crime, from different angles. Not only does require you to include science, but also psychology and sociology in order to get inside the criminal mind. Exploring the motives and reasons behind certain crimes is always interesting, which is why so many effective criminology dissertation ideas revolve around it.

More about dissertation writing: The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation

Best Topic Ideas from Criminology Dissertation

We have set out to create a list of criminology dissertation ideas that are both practical and diverse. This means you will be able to find a topic for yourself, regardless of what sort of crime you are exploring. Also, you will find ideas for subject matter which has already occurred in real life. We have also kept in mind that you need to do research for these topics, which is why we have limited ourselves to those for which you can find plenty of information online or in your local campus library. Here is our list of best criminology dissertation topics:

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Serial Killers

Which people are most likely to become serial killers?
How do serial killers become serial killers?
Differences between serial killers and mass murderers
Comparison between real-life serial killers and their portrayal in Hollywood films
What drives women to become serial killers?
Exploring the possibility of rehabilitating serial killers
Differences between male and female serial killers
Should serial killers be let back into society after serving out their sentences?
List countries that have the highest numbers of serial killers and explore the reasons behind those numbers
Can a person’s social status lead them to become a serial killer?
What are the main motives of serial killers?
Has modern technology made it easier or harder for serial killers to remain at large?
What are specific trademarks of female serial killers?
Which factors contribute to the chances that a person will become a serial killer?
How common are serial killers outside of the US?

Feminist Criminology Dissertation Topics

Treatment of Women in the criminal justice system
Exclusion of women in the dominant crime theories
Gender diversity in the study of crime
Feminist theories in criminology
Women as victims of violent crimes
Percentage of women working in the criminal justice system
Feminist approaches to criminal research
What is feminist criminology?
Why is feminist criminology important?
Gender inequality in the law and criminal justice system

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Domestic Violence

Investigating the effects of domestic violence on young children
What are the key triggers for domestic violence?
The effectiveness of psychiatric treatment in overcoming trauma caused by domestic violence
Domestic violence: racial and ethnic factors
Comparison of different types of domestic violence
Male domestic violence in first-world countries
Female empowerment and its effect on domestic violence
Correlation between domestic violence and probability of suicide
What role does the media play in domestic violence
Who are the victims of domestic violence?
Domestic violence and the law
Forms of intimate partner violence
Popular culture and domestic violence
Domestic violence against people with disabilities
Gay and bisexual domestic violence

Youth Crime Dissertation Ideas

Juvenile delinquents and their family environment
How do violent movies, music, and video games influence youth crimes?
Are children of single parents more or less likely to become juvenile delinquents?
What are the earliest indicators of future delinquent behavior?
Do male juvenile delinquents receive longer sentences than female delinquents for committing the same crime?
What role do alcohol and drugs play in young people committing crimes?
What’s the outcome when it comes to the rehabilitation of young offenders?
Are corrections facilities the best to rehabilitate underage delinquents?
Are foster children more likely to end up committing a crime?
What are the most common crimes committed by juvenile delinquents?
Does a family history of crime make children more like to commit a crime in the future?
How does juvenile delinquency affect young people’s chance of employment and having a career?
What is the main motive behind youth crimes?
How to minimize violent and sexual crimes among the youth
Should juvenile delinquents be tried as adults if they have committed a violent crime?

Cybercrime Dissertation Topics

Discussing the impact of cybercrimes on the finance and banking industry
Should online identity theft be treated as a crime?
The most common cybercrimes in the United States
Exploring the history of hacking
The most vicious cyber attacks in history
What effects does hacking have on countries?
Challenges of cybersecurity and the prevention of cybercrimes at universities
Are cyber attacks considered terrorism?
Explaining all the phases of a DDoS attack
What are the most effective ways to protect children from cyberbullying?
What is ransomware and how do ransomware attacks happen?
Evolution and history of online scams
What are the best ways to prevent cybercrimes?
What are the main motives for cybercrimes and hacking?
What are the financial effects of cybercrime?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas about Drugs

Differences between the effects of alcohol and marijuana on human behavior
Should the media promotion of drugs be banned?
In what way does cannabis improve or impair the cognitive abilities of those consuming it?
Should marijuana be legalized and under which conditions?
Correlation between drugs, poverty, and crime in low-income households
How effective are the methods used by physicians and psychiatrists in drug rehabilitation facilities?
How does parental drug use affect the child’s tendency to use drugs?
Are there any positive effects of smoking cannabis?
Establishing the connection between substance abuse and violent crimes
What role does drug abuse play in domestic violence?
Comparing the effects of the most common drugs on human behavior
What are the most abused drugs in the United States?
Should schools introduce random drug testing in order to fight drug abuse among students?
Exploring the harmful effects drug abuse has on society in general
Does drug abuse increase the number of sexual assaults?

Dissertation Ideas on Mental Health and Crime

What role does childhood trauma play in a person’s likelihood to commit a crime?
Establishing the connection between mental illness and crime
Which mental disorders are most likely to drive a person to commit a violent crime?
How effective is mental therapy for criminals which have committed murder?
Is it possible to fake a mental illness in order to escape punishment?
Correlation between mental disorders and aggressive behavior
What are the most common mental illnesses among sexual offenders?
What sort of mental disorder do victims of sexual assault usually suffer from?
The most efficient ways of promoting mental health in a society
Which traumas can lead a person to commit a violent crime?
How does media content exacerbate a person’s mental disorder?
What are the common mental disorders among the youth?
Can community-based centers be effective in providing treatment for those suffering from mental illnesses?
How can members of the police force be trainers to recognize mental illnesses?
Can depression and anxiety drive a person to commit murder?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Prisons

Should the prisoners be allowed to vote and under which conditions?
To which extent is it possible to rehabilitate prisoners which have committed violent crimes?
Should murderers be introduced back into society after they have served the entirety of their sentence?
Correlation between crime rates and the length of prison sentences for those crimes
Which crimes are the most common inside prisons?
Should sexual offenders be separated from other prisoners?
What are the most common causes of unrest in prisons?
The most effective methods for preventing suicide in prisons
Why is it difficult for developing countries to reduce violence among prisoners?
What are the most common crimes prisoners get convicted of?
What is the longest prison sentence ever given to a murderer?
What percentage of sexual offenders end up in prison for the same crime?
How many criminals escape from US prisons every year?
Should prisoners which have committed murder receive benefits for their forced labor?
The most effective rehabilitation methods in prison

Coming up with useful criminology dissertation ideas can be a challenge, especially if you are looking to cover something that hasn’t been done before. Hopefully, our list of dissertation topics will provide you with enough quantity and quality, so that you are never short on ideas. We hope you will find it helpful and use some of the subjects listed in this article.

This article was written by Beatrix Potter Publish Date: Jul 21, 2022

Beatrix Potter

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A Collection Of The Most Interesting Dissertation Ideas On Prisons

If you are studying criminology or criminal psychology at college level, it is highly likely that you would be asked to write dissertations on prison and various topics pertaining to it. Here is a collection of topics handpicked for you so you can start writing your paper right away, without searching too much on the web.

Should prisoners be allowed to vote?

This has been one of the biggest debates within criminology classrooms and study circles through the decades. You need to understand the present attitude towards prisoners and compare it with the historical trends in treating prisoners. Inspect the legal aspects as well as the ethical aspects.

How prisoners convicted of domestic violence should be treated in prisons?

You need to find more about different cases of domestic violence and find out what kind of people are more prone to torture members of their family than others. Based on this study, you can talk with therapists to know what kind of treatment prisoners convicted of this particular crime should receive.

Causes of unrest and arsons in prisons

For writing this paper, you may have to interview a few jail wardens and gather historical data from them. Based on this study and research, you can easily write about the common causes of unrest and arsons in prisons.

Suicides in prisons: Preventive measures

Suicides inside prisons can lead to many unwelcome consequences. You can talk to the inmates and wardens and read psychological theories about inmate psychology and desperation and mix your readings with interviews and all to produce a high-scoring paper.

Brutality inside prisons: why developing countries cannot resort to better corrective measures?

In many developing countries, police brutality and inhumane torture on prisoners is a common issue that human rights activists often become vocal against. Analyze from a criminological perspective why these brutalities happen, what the limitations of these prisons, policemen and wardens are and how better corrective measures can be adopted.

If you cannot find the right topic to write on, you can search for more ideas online. A simple web search would fetch you hundreds of relevant topics and resources from the web. You can easily find topics and assistance online as these days, the internet is teeming with hundreds of dissertation writing services and service providers that provide great services to academicians who are stuck at some point while writing their research paper on prison or any other topic for that matter.

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241 Prison Topics & Essay Examples

Whether you are writing about criminal justice reform or the sociology of prison population, you’ll find a good topic here. Check out these recommendations of prison essay topics put together by our experts .

🏆 Best Titles for a Prison Essay

👍 good essay topics on prison, 🎓 simple & easy thesis titles about jail, 📑 good research topics about prison, ✍️ prison essay topics for college, 💡 most interesting prison research topics, ❓ research questions about prisons.

Unethical and Ethical Issues in Prisons (Corrections) This is one of the unethical practices that are evident in the prison systems. In this case, prison warders and authorities are usually noted to be actively involved in the business.
Ethical Issues With the Stanford Prison Experiment – Essay Nowadays, modern psychologists are expected to adhere to a strict and rigid code of ethical principles in order to ensure the validity of their practices and the safety of the patients and participants.
Cognitive Dissonance and Stanford Prison Experiment The leader of the team, doctor Zimbardo, was also the person who conducted the analysis of the course and the results of the experiment.
Stanford Prison Experiment: Results Analysis One of the results that were realized from the experiment was the level of rebellion that the prisoners developed after some time within the prison set up.
Jeffrey H. Reiman: The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison One thing that must be cleared to all is that it is not our view that the poor people are all guiltless victims who suffer the persecution of the rich people but it is said […]
Prison Overcrowding As mentioned in the introduction, building more prisons is just one of the many solutions to the problem of overcrowding in prisons.
The United States vs. Norway Prisons The article by Gerhold emphasizes the system’s effectiveness by highlighting that “only 20% of those released become repeat offenders in the country” in Norway, compared to the 76. To summarize, the Halden prison in Norway […]
Female Prison Gangs: Are There Any? I believe there are no prison gangs as women see themselves as torn from the rest of their world and try to keep the connection.
“Good Time” in Prisons: Benefits and Drawbacks A pre-term release can negatively affect prisoners’ mindsets, increase the risk of ex-inmates committing a crime and returning to prison, and be dangerous to society.
North Central Correctional Institute or Gardner Prison The rapid expansion and rehabilitation of the prison facilities have enabled the prison to increase the number of inmates in the prison.
Socrate’s Choice to Remain in Prison Being a man who believed and supported all that the government of Athens stood for, he was not going to be the one to falter from his beliefs and faith in the state and its […]
Women in Prison: Issues and Challenges Faced by Female Inmates Incarcerated Women and Abortion One of the rights that women have championed and gained in the 21st century is the right to access abortion services.
Supermax Prisons: Pros and Cons The main purpose of such prisons should be isolation and safety leading to correction instead of destruction of personal character or mental and physical harm.
Imprisonment Effects: Prisons’ and Society’s Role The USA’s inmate population is the largest in the world. Is it the prison departments, the society, or the inmates themselves?
Applied Functional Behavioural Analysis in Prison The basic rights of the prisoners are taken away and conflict between wardens and prisoners kick in when the wardens try to assert their authority.
Shawangunk Correctional Facility The prison is aimed to help people to understand the badness of their actions and to improve. As it was already mentioned, the prison is impossible to escape from, in spite of the fact that […]
Differences Between Jails and Prisons These include their mode of operation, the size of facilities, the source of funding and the length of sentence for offenders.
Negotiations in the Attica Prison Riot It is the purpose of this paper to determine how the negotiators used their power or leverage in the negotiations? What went wrong in the negotiations?
Gangs in Prison: Black Guerrilla Family The fact that the gang members were called “Disciples” and the ten rules were a reference to the Ten Commandments demonstrate that inmates seek to find a purpose to follow.
Michel Foucault: Views on Prisons and Psychiatric Hospitals The main concern of Foucault consists in the way technology has influenced quest for power among the ruling class in the society, and also the reason as to why the society is violating the rules […]
Prisons Role in Society While jails are run by local governments or sheriffs and are designed for housing people serving short sentences or awaiting trial, prisons on the other hand, are run by Federal Bureau of Prisons and state […]
Bureaucratic Style of Prison Management Therefore, the primary focus of the bureaucratic style of prison management is to ensure the growth and continuity of the prison system.
Leadership Approaches in Prison The leader should also ensure the subordinates monitor the behaviors of the targeted prisoners. The main focus will be to examine the potential causes of the issues affecting the prison.
The Justice System: Prison Congestion The criminal justice system often fails to respond to crime in a humane and efficient manner hence in most parts of the world, prisons display elements of violation of human rights.
Prisons as Mental Health Institutions The following list contains the group’s goals: Identification of the cause of unfavorable circumstances; Resolution of legal disputes regarding the perpetrators; Help the victim to improve their living conditions; Achieving the payment of a fine […]
Stanford Prison Experiment and Criminal Justice The researchers used cameras and microphones to assess the behavior of the correctional staffs and inmates. The capability of managing the correctional facility depends on effective communication between the inmates and the prison guards.
War on Drugs and Prison Overcrowding Analysis In this way, it is possible to reduce the number of inmates in state prisons because studies have shown that low-level offenders make more than 55% of the total number of inmates in American prisons.
Notorious Prisons E01 Oklahoma State Penitentiary Documentary This lockdown was effected following two particularly destructive prison riots; the first in 1973 in which most of the prison succumbed to flame, and the second in 1985, where most of the prison staff was […]
Prison Overcrowding: A Persistent Problem It was found that overcrowding contributed to the reduction of the mental well-being of prisoners and the correctional staff; nevertheless, there was no relationship between the decrease in crime rates and the increase in the […]
Prison System in England and Wales The prison system in England and Wales is in crisis because of different constituents, which leads to the deterioration of the prison system.
The Conditions of Russian Prisons Although this is not always the case, but rather the influence of cinematography, in Russian prisons, the prisoners are in a constant struggle. The state of the prisons and the staff’s attitude repeatedly violate all […]
The Importance of Health Care for Prisons Factors needed to ensure the safety and comfort of inmates include proper holding conditions, rational decision-making, adequate supplies for food and other necessities, adequate staffing and training of prison attendees, and provision of necessary support […]
Private Prisons’ Benefits vs. Drawbacks Many of the duties involved with prison management are passed to the private corporation rather than the government. Similarly, a public jail is owned and run by the local, state, and federal governments, while a […]
Scientific Integrity: The Stanford Prison Experiment The most important lesson drawn from the experiment is that scientific integrity is essential in the process of collecting evidence. In conclusion, the Stanford prison experiment is not about groupthink, obedience, and compliance but rather […]
The UNICOR, the Prison University Project, and the Safer Foundation The UNICOR, the Prison University Project, and the Safer Foundation meet the reentry objectives to a different extent, with the first two programs emphasizing only the preparation goal.
Riots in Kingsman, Arizona Prison Riots in correctional facilities are frequent, and it is the duty of the administration to ensure preparedness for critical situations and eliminate any chance for mistakes.
Researching of Michigan Prison System The severity of the consequences that are meted out to those who commit crimes varies from one state to the next. The data support the dramatic rise in the number of people incarcerated in federal […]
The Use of Prison Gardens as a Model for Corrections The industrial revolution in the country then advanced the matter further, with the number of prisons and corrections officers growing. The inability to maintain the current large numbers of inmates in the U.S.leads to a […]
State Crimes: Strategies to Resisting Tortures in Prisons This paper intends to uncover the effective methods of resistance to state crime on the example of torture in prisons. The main argument will be that the specificity of repressive regimes, which are the main […]
Prison Misconduct Issues in USA and World The aim of the analysis will be to determine whether there is a relationship between the X-variables and Y-variables as hypothesised.
Prison Labor: Mass Imprisonment They are subjected to a long day of selecting and loading the coffee into packets later sold at Starbucks. Therefore, there is a need to produce in large quantities to serve all clients and, in […]
Black Children Start on the Road to Prison in Preschool The Center for American Progress report analyses and compares the Black and white child upbringing in the United States. Therefore, it could be said that both teachers’ and education systems’ biases toward black children in […]
Improving Prison Living Conditions and Reintegration According to Ismail, the conditions in penitentiaries are affected by the growth in the prison population and the lack of funding for the construction of new facilities and appropriate maintenance of the existing ones.
The Midnight Special Prison Music The version of the song was recorded by Leadbelly for Alan Lomax and John in 1934 when he was imprisoned in Angola state prison.
Construction of a New Prison in New York The policies will describe when the need to apply force is suitable in the new facility. Once the facility has been established, the resulting impact on the victim’s family and the community will be accounted […]
School-To-Prison Pipeline: Educational Perspective The school-to-prison pipeline is a phenomenon, which implies that expelling students can push them to face the criminal justice system. Keeping students informed about the existence of such a phenomenon and discussing it in classrooms […]
Prison Reform in the US: Background Information To understand the issue, one would need to look at the history of the American punishment system, how it changed throughout the turbulence of the post-war age, and came to the today’s state of existence.
Injustice in American Prison System Between the articles of violence and the observations about the extent of injustice in the American prison system, there is a high level of injustice instigated by the U.S.government to the African Americans.
Researching of Prisons in Corcoran The present essay explains an ornate connection link between agriculture and prisons and discusses the influence of political and economic trends in the US from the 1970-s the 1990-s on some of the failures of […]
Mass Incarceration: Prison System in America In 1934, a new building was erected on the island, cause of the transfer of Alcatraz to the U.S.federal system. Guantanamo was established in 2002 on the grounds of a U.S.military base.
Ethical Issues in “Prison Experiments” Video To resolve the identified ethical issues and prevent them in the future, it is critical to ensure that the subjects are not placed in coercive environments and a vulnerable position as it significantly impacts their […]
Problem of Overcrowded Prisons To reduce overcrowding in the prisons, legislators should assess the prison conditions to see the high populations that are in the jails.
How the Prison Industrial Complex Perpetuate Racism In the United States, the system is a normalization of various dynamics, such as historical, cultural, and interpersonal, that routinely benefit the whites while causing negative impacts for the people of color.
Probation/Parole Excessive Caseloads, Proper Supervision and Prison Re-Entry Programs It is vital to ensure that all individuals with the experience of detention have the chance to resocialize and become society members; otherwise, the problem will remain topical, and citizens will suffer from crime and […]
Prison Sentence Alternatives for Drug-Related Crimes Drug addiction often drives people to commit crimes; the criminal behavior of drug addicts is often associated with the manufacture, storage, and use of chemicals. Rehabilitation is a more effective way to combat drug addiction […]
The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethics Principles Examples of the violation of these are deception in how the participants selected to be prisoners were delivered to the facility and the violent treatment they experienced.
Woman Doing Life: Notes From a Prison for Women However, it is not correct to believe that this act is the only legal document to reduce and control unwanted sexual contact in jails and prisons in terms of which prisoners are provided with fail-safe […]
The Ethical Dilemma in Guantanamo Bay Prison in the USA In Guantanamo Bay, it is the role of soldiers to ensure justice and protection of human rights. However, the housing of these prisoners and the condition of the Guantanamo Bay detainee camp is ethical.
How the U.S. Prison System Has Changed Over Time The Auburn system and the Pennsylvania system were the first ones to emerge, focusing on rehabilitation as the goal for prisoners.
“Correcting Corrections: Why I Am in Prison” by Lefford Fate I feel that the prisons have become a failure in handling the mentally ill in society because of failing to understand how to help and deal with mental illness to reduce the likelihood of returning […]
Prison Reforms for Handling Crime Effectively Jen Manion, an Assistant Professor of History at Connecticut College, outlined the crime and punishment in early America: from harsh British system to reforms by Philadelphia Society, the introduction of the system of hard labor […]
Constructionist View on the Overrepresentation of Minorities in the Prison System This paper discusses the overrepresentation of minorities in the United States prison system through the prism of the constructionist theory and the principle of labeling.
The Purpose of Prisons Overview Statistics prove that there was a minor reduction of the US residents in prisons, and, still, those are the minor amounts.
Prison Industrial Complex and Its Development In order to predict the likelihood of this trend taking place in the future, it is essential to analyze the history of PIC in terms of profit.
Profit and Racism in the Prisons of the United States As an argument for the work of prisoners, the prison of Angola makes the argument that work is a way of rehabilitation for the prisoner.
Sexual Assault and Rape in American Prisons Hence, according to Lennard, lowering “the number of people sent to prisons and detention centers” is pivotal in addressing the issue.
Analysis of Prison Letters of Paul The primary accomplishments of Paul while he was in prison are the aforementioned letter, which became part of the New Testament, and his tireless work, which caused many of his contemporaries to convert to Christianity.
The Prison System Structure in the United States Over the past decades, the Federal Bureau of Prisons and the US Department of Justice have adopted many reforms to ensure successful reentry, including the transfer of prisoners to halfway houses in the final months […]
Mental Health Issues of Disabled People in Prison There is a need to enforce the rights of disabled people in prisons by understanding the causes of mental health issues and developing the necessary support systems.
Private Prisons in the United States These prisons started way back in the 1840s and continue to be operational today since the government finds it cost-effective to relegate some of the prisons to the private sector.
Jennifer Morse: Parents or Prisons Among the many reasons cited to have led to high the number of cases of juvenile offending is divorce and single parenthood.
Jail and Prison Comparison: Description, History, Pros and Cons, and Factors In terms of security differences, one notes that the level of security is higher in federal prisons compared to state prisons.
The Purpose of a Prison: Rehabilitation and Punish In prisons, the young people are taught to be responsible for their deeds in the society they live in, they are taught to avoid their involvement in criminal activities. The educational programs available in the […]
Florida Prisons: Location, Population and Current Issue This paper will identify the types and locations of Florida’s prisons with a description of the recent inmate population and an analysis of the issues that currently affect the prison system.
Life in Prison: Issues Analysis There are many claims that quite a number of the components of conduct, as well as the language prototypes within the subcultures of inmates, are modeled to act as a response to the various deficits […]
US Prison Reformatory Reforms Analysis The reform agenda that was started in the 1700s saw the creation of prisons as a departure from hanging of offenders, to cruel punishment, to manual labor, to rehabilitation and to current reforms that continue […]
The Evolution of Probation, Parole, Prisons, Jails, and Sentencing The evolution of probation started in England and later spread to America as recognizance upon release and bail on condition that the suspect would avail him/herself before the court.
Medical Experimentation in Prisons I conclude that we are not ready to lift the restrictions, but the improvement of the quality of life in prisons and the control over ethics in research might allow us to consider changes.Dr.
Criminology: Employee Satisfaction Within Prison In effect, one of the main plans that I would put in place to ensure that the work is done effectively is to improve the morale of the staff.
The Fight in the Valley State Prison for Women Arlene Mitchel is viewed as a primary initiator of the fight, and the second woman can be referred as an opponent in the risen conflict. Nonetheless, the occurrence of the fight has to be reported […]
Prison Contraband Control and Detection This paper will highlight the effects of contraband in the prison system and some of the steps being taken to control the issue.
Types of Procedures in Prisons The booking process involves procedures such as recording the name of the suspect and the reasons for the arrest. The officers then scan the fingerprints of the suspect and the information is noted down in […]
Prison-Based Sex Offender Treatment Programs The outlined research question points to the purpose of the study. The researchers compare the recidivism patterns of offenders who undergo sex offender treatment with the same patterns for offenders who do not undergo the […]
Prisons: How They Changed in the Past 25-30 Years The correctional services offered by the Criminal Justice System of a country are of great importance in the effective running of the society.
Stanford Prison Experiment by Philip Zimbardo: Legal Research The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of situational variables on human behavior. What was even worse was that the initiator of the experiment kept watching as these things going on in […]
Privatization of Prison Industry in the United States According to Nossal and Wood, increasing population of inmates, economic crisis that led to budget deficits, overcrowding in prisons, and the need to reform the prison system are factors that contributed to the emergence of […]
Prison Overcrowding: Catalysts and Solutions The process of decongesting correctional facilities requires careful planning to come up with the correct procedures that will be implemented to reduce the number of inmates in the correction facilities.
Prison Facilities and Certified Mental Facilities The main purpose of this research is to find out the extent to which the prison facilities are not relevant and or appropriate in the handling of mentally ill individuals.
Modern Prison, Its Facilities and Design Support It will be the highest building in the facility, and the upper floor will be used for monitoring purposes. The playground will be in front of the dormitories and located at a place where monitoring […]
Modern Prison: Correctional Task Force Project The jail will be a men facility; the facility will be divided into three classes according to the classification of crime committed.
Keeping Women Out of Prison Peer counselors should form part of the workers since they will be required to continually counsel the inmate and prepare her for life outside the precincts of jail.
Religion in Prison Overview and Analysis Independence of religion is the right to reverence of a supreme being by professing a preferred religion. In fact, it is to the benefit of inmates and the community as a whole.
Reforms to Ease Overcrowding in US Prisons This increase necessitated the need for reforms to the correctional system; either reforms that would provide alternatives to the traditional long-term imprisonment, or government spending to the tune of billions of dollars in construction of […]
Substance Abuse and America’s Prison Population The Juvenile program offers an opportunity for the community to prevent the young people stay away from criminal behavior and efficiently rehabilitate the young wrongdoers.
Prison: Imprisoning and Alternative Ways Most of the population is intended to think that the most “comfortable” place for criminals and those who are attempting to cross the border of justice is in the prison with its cruel realities and […]
Prison Reforms and Alternatives The fact is that, there are several ways of the deprivation of freedom, and each may be differentiated with the level of monitoring and the level of deprivation of freedom.
Prison Gangs’ Evolution and Solutions to Them Prison gangs develop in prison environments and sore of increase in disturbances in prison such as that experienced in the United States in the early 1990s may point to more prison gang activity, according to […]
The Confession of Nat Turner in Prison During the late 18th and early 19th century, the revolts and rebellions of the slave started in the whole of the Western Hemisphere.
The Spread of HIV and AIDS in Prisons: Causes and Measures of Control Other causes of the spread of the disease include overcrowding and lack of education on the danger of the virus. At-risk individuals need to be sensitized about the devastating consequences of this virus and the […]
Prison Punishment in the United States The United States criminal justice system is one of the countries that ignore the guidelines in regard to the law. It is a form of torture which is not generally undertaken to punish the victim […]
Tuberculosis Control and Prevention in Prisons It is widely accepted that the overall conditions in the US correction facilities, along with the background lifestyles of some inmates, lead to a dramatic disease rate in cells.
Mass Incarceration and the Prison Industrial Complex Deontology is one of the classical ethical theories that can be used to understand the problem of mass incarceration and the prison industrial complex.
Young Adults in Prison and Behavioral Correction Prisons providing special confinement for young adults use the concept of ‘assisted resistance in their rehabilitative efforts to promote the impetus of their inmates specifically to stop them from further committing offenses. To the young […]
The Stanford Prison Experiment Overview The persons who agreed to participate in the experiment were all volunteers simply because the chief experimenter did not control the warders during the experiment in which they infringed upon the human rights of the […]
Opinion and Clarification of the Stanford Prison Experiment An analysis of the experiment reveals that the fake prison environment managed to evoke emotions and feelings in the prisoners, the prison warden, and even Zimbardo who played the warden.
Stanford Prison Experiment Definition Some played the role of prisoners and others that of prison guards in a situation formed to suggest a sense of the psychology of custody.
The Stanford Prison Experiment and My Perception of Human Behaviour Nevertheless, despite the fact that in his book The Lucifer Effect: Understanding how good people turn evil, Zimbardo strived to undermine the soundness of a dispositional outlook on the subject matter, while providing readers with […]
Policy of Releasing Parolees From Prisons Also, “prisoners could be released on parole for part or all of the middle third of their sentence and until the end of that period they would have supervision in the community,”.
Criminal Justice: Misconduct by Prison Wardens The purpose of the study would be to examine the misconduct of prison wardens specifically as it relates to how they treat inmates.
Jails, Prisons and the US Correctional System This essay outlines the main differences between jails and prisons and the connected related components of the correctional system in the United States.
The History of San Quentin State Prison In this paper, we will focus on San Quentin State prison, based in California, USA, where we will discuss factors such as current conditions of the prison, proposals, and approaches to help protect the public, […]
Crime, Criminality, and Prisons in the USA In such a case, the minority and the weak are forced to live with the rules set by the strong and the majority. Definition of crimes and composition of prisons in the United States have […]
Functional Behavior Analysis in Dealing With Problematic Behavior in Prison These inmates are left in the hands of prison security staff that in most cases do not have any form of training to deal with any extreme behavior.
Social Psychology: Attitudes and Behaviors in Prison Fundamentally, the role of people in prison is to undergo reforms, unfortunately, they do not perceive this. According to Levitan and Visser, people attitudes are open or rigid to change depending on the social network […]
Has Proposition 36 Relieved Prison Overcrowding in California’s Prisons? The proponents of this proposition believe that it is the most effective policy to ease congestion in the state’s prisons via a substantial reduction in the number of people being sent to prison as well […]
California’s Prisons-Punishment or Rehabilitation? Inmate Rehab Programs These and other discussions in this essay will therefore make the reader understand that the programs offered to the inmates are of great benefit to the socio-economic welfare of the United States.
Prison Isolation: Its Effects and Damage This unwillingness of prisoners in isolated confinement is in considerable measure a rejoinder to the insight that such imprisonment is an evident effort by the system to “break them down” mentally, and in some cases, […]
Prison Overcrowding and Costs in Nevada It is being pushed on the advice that Nevada prison populations are going to mushroom in the future and the facilities cannot deal with it.
U.S. Prison Gangs: A Threat to Internal Security Today, however, the nature and range of activities of prison gangs have extended beyond the normal ‘law and order’ offenses and are a direct threat to the internal security of the United States.
The Theory and Practice of the Privatisation of Prisons To solve these problems, especially the cost factor, the UK has encouraged the private sector to build and run new prisons.
Prison Rape: Issue Analysis Among all the exhortations and abuse by the prison officials, the rape and sexual assault on the prisons are the worst of its kinds.
Prison Overcrowding in the United States The increase in the liberties of prisoners occurred against the backdrop of the historical abuse of power of the prison system, as well as the increased awareness of the need for prison systems to follow […]
Stigma of Conviction and Prison: Reentry to Society The study indicated that some forms of measurement and assistance help for certain types of offenders under particular conditions but, overall, the consensus that emerged is that this kind of program still has a long […]
Gun Crime: Prison Program for the Rehabilitation The elaboration of the current rehabilitation program for the gun offenders is heavily indebted Prochaska, DiClemente wheel of change to rehabilitation which regards as a reflexive process of changing a person’s patterns of thinking, cognition […]
CTP (Correctional Training Program) in Prisons and Rehabilitation Centers The training is conducted and offered to new recruits and to the old staff members. For the officers to conduct their work efficiently, they are taken through training programs so that they acquire specialized training […]
Overcrowd Prisons With Non-Violent Offenders The sentencing reforms that began in the 1980s had a simple purpose, to contain and diminish criminal activity by extending prison sentences which served to not only remove offenders from the community for a longer […]
Teaching Women’s Studies in a Women’s Prison The study began with the researchers tracing out the broader institutional contours of Michigan’s growing prison industrial complex from tax dollars competing with universities to popular perceptions of prisons, discuss the conflicts over the meanings […]
Slavery Still Exists in American Prisons An examination of the history of the penal system as it existed in the State of Texas proves to be the best illustration of the comparisons between the penal system and the system of slavery.
Supermax Prisons and Its Legal and Ethical Issues Therefore, the placement of prisoners in supermaxes, which are known for their ill-treatment and cruelty, can result in the violation of laws and human rights.
Opioid Dependence in the Prison Environment The rationale for this study is to understand the current state of misuse of prescribed opioids in prisons and measures taken to address the issue of diversion of these drugs.
The Needs of Prison Inmates Serving a Life Sentence The purpose of the treatment group is determined by the reason for the chosen population’s vulnerability and their conditions of life.
The Concept of School-To-Prison Pipeline Process Schools that are unable to handle the disorder impose penalties encouraging expulsion and leading to a higher level of school violence.
Establishing Therapeutic Environment in Prisons to Address Recidivism in the USA The financial aspect of the issue is one of the most sensitive topics related to the discussion of the correctional system due to the overall financial situation in the country.
Total Military Experience Effects on Arrests in Prison Inmates The objective of the study is to find the relationship between service in the army and the number of arrests in veterans.
People With Schizophrenia Diagnosis in Prisons As a result, the behavior of the individuals with the condition is a threat to the members of the family and the society.
Children in Adult Prisons: Reasons for Concern The fact that some children in the United States are sent to adult prisons is of great concern to many researchers and policy-makers.
Religion in Prison: “Dead Man Walking” by Prejean CCC2266 states that the initiatives of the government to control the spread of conduct detrimental to individual’s privileges and to the fundamental rules of civil society are in accordance with the prerequisite of protecting the […]
Prison Privatization Policy and Its Benefits Supporters of the idea affirm that privatizing prisons is beneficial to the criminal justice system and the public and those who oppose the idea strongly affirm that it is a waste of resources.
Prison Life: Understanding and Opinions The three-strikes law is among the fundamental causes of why the population in prisons increases and contributes to the rise in the number of permanently ill inmates.
Private Prisons’ Ethics and Capital-Driven Corruption The promotion of private prisons in the U.S.context was a response to the identified crisis. Even though there is a slight propensity to justify the idea of private prisons as the tools for containing prisoners […]
Public and Private Prisons The purpose of jails is to confine the offenders so as to ensure their safety, that of the prison personnel, visitors, and society in general.
Gender and Conflict in Prisons The aim of this paper is to discuss the gender differences between incarcerated populations in terms of the likelihood of engaging in violence as well as interpersonal and racial conflicts.
The US Prison System: Qualitative and Quantitative Research The term can also be used in the field of academics to refer to the study of programs, policies, and theories that are related to the practice of corrections.
Prison Life in the USA The fact that the number of offenders who live in prison increased greatly attracts the attention of experts and the representatives of the general public.
Prison and Social Movement in Black Feminist View Arguably, much of black feminist theories have insisted not only that the state has a particular perspective, but that the state’s perspective differs significantly, and problematically, from that of the black women in general and […]
The Stanford Prison Experiment by Philip Zimbardo This work provides a brief introduction and summary of his work, analyses the data, discusses its relevance to criminal justice, and compares the study to the real-life Abu Gharib’s situation. In the same article, Zimbardo […]
Boot Camp, Prison, and Community-Based Corrections This is why it is safe to say that the time spent in a boot camp is better than the time spent in prison.
American Prison Overcrowding and Its Future Of course, the inmates will be detained and monitored, but it is the government’s attitude to the problem that will change.
Aging Population Issues in American Prison System
Ethical Dilemmas in Prison’s Research
Public Administration: Reducing the Number of Prison Inmates
Policy Analysis on the Prison Rape Elimination Act 2003
Supermax and Prison Regimes in the UK
Blacks’ Prison Experiences in Hip Hop Culture
Prison Privatization: Pros and Cons
Security Threat Groups and Prison Gangs
Prison System Classification in Virginia
Prison Issues in “Ishmael” by Daniel Quinn
California Prison Gangs: Disrupting and Dismantling
Controlling and Preventing Gang Activity
Prison in the USA: Solutions to Reducing Overpopulation
Aging Offenders in Prison
Prison-Based Drug Treatment Approaches
Prisons and Jails: Learning the Difference
Criminology: Prisons Impact on Crime Rates
Criminology: What Is the Solution to the Prison Problem?
Cooper’s Ethical Decision-Making Model: Corcoran State Prison
History From the Inside Out: Prison Life in Nineteenth-Century by L. Goldsmith
The Policy Process and Outcome for Privatization of Prisons in the United States of America
Temperance, Women’s Rights, Education, Antislavery and Prison Reform: New Objectives, New Concerns
Prison Life in the United States
The Concept of Vipassana Prison Program
Keeping an Eye on Prisons and Inmates
The Significance of the Prison Films
Social Psychology Issues: The Stanford Prison Experiment
A Grand Escape From the Prison of Chauvinism: Awoken and Ready to Fight the Society Prejudices
Jeff Henderson’s Life After Prison
Prison Term Policy Recommendation
The History of Prisons in Pre-1900 America
Jail and Prison: What’s the Difference?
“Ousted Tunisian Leader Sentenced to Over 15 Years in Prison”
What Is the Relationship Between Race, Poverty and Prison?
Why Lack of Awareness Leads to the Spread of HIV/AIDS in New York Prisons
Strategies to Decrease Recidivism Upon an Inmate’s Release From Prison
An Introduction to Correctional Facilities
African Americans in America’s Prison Systems
The United States Should Improve Their Penal System and Alternatives to Prison
Transforming the American Prison System
The Prison Detainment System’s Need for Reforming: Too Many Inmates Led to an Organization Issue
The 1993 Prison Riot in the Southern Ohio Correctional Facility
Rehabilitation: Prison and Community Corrections
The Stanford Prison Experiment and Its Effects on Social
Social Psychology and the Stanford Prison Experiment by Philip Zimbardo
Impact of the Prison System on Violent Gangs
The Development and Provision of Prison Library for Juvenile
The Link Between Increased Prison Population and Improper Punishment System
Reasons Why Angola’s Prison System Is an Effective Correction System
The Reasons Why Going Into Prison Is a Horrible Experience
Strategic Agribusiness Operation Realignment in the Texas Prison System
State Making, and Systems of Governance Based on Prison Gangs
Importance of Swedish and American Penitentiary Systems
The Role of Solitary Confinement in Prison Offenses
The Attica Prison Riot of 1971 and Its Impact on Prison Reform
Overview of Alabama Prison Safety Law
The Role of the United States and the Federal Penitentiary System
The Reasons Why Individuals Who Abuse Animals Should Be Put Into Prison
The Prison Industrial Complex and How Does It Generate Profit
Why Prison Safety Is Vital
United States Prison Population and the Criminal Justice Programme
State Prison Inmates Should Be Paroled Early to Help With the States Budget
General Information About the California State Prison System
Why the Police Want Prison Reform?
Why Is There an Increase in the Number of Prisoners?
What Takes Women Into the Prison System?
Should Prison and Jail Be the Primary Service Provider?
What Are the Positive Impacts and Benefits of Imprisonment?
What Are the Main Goals of the Prison Reform System?
Why Is the American Penitentiary System an Important Part of American Society?
What Are the Reasons for the Constant Increase in the Number of Prisoners in the United States?
Why Is the Danish Military System Better Than American Prison System?
What Is the Current Prison System in the United States?
Should Homosexual Prison Inmates Have a Right to Share the Same Cell?
What Is the Current Magnitude and Associated Problems of Overcrowding in Prisons?
Should Convicted Teenagers Spend Their Youth in Juvenile Prison?
What Do the State and Federal Penitentiary Systems Have in Common?
Why Is America’s Prison System Failed?
Why Should Prison Reform Be Used as a Last Resort?
What Are Prison Gangs?
What Is the Relationship Between the War on Drugs and Prison Overcrowding?
What Happens Behind Prison Doors?
Why Should Children Not Go to Prison?
Why were the Prison Camps During the American Civil War Were So Terrible?
Why Is There Concern About the Privatization of the Penitentiary System in America?
Why Is Andersonville Civil War Prison Notorious?
Was the Stanford Prison Study Ethical?
Why Should the Us Government Find an Alternative to Jail?
What Are the Causes and Consequences of Torture in Prison?
How Did the Stanford Prison Experiment Affect the Prisoners?
What Happens if Drug Offenders Go to Jail?
What Are the Problems of Privatizing the American Penitentiary System?
Should Prison and Death Be an Easy Decision for a Court?
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120+ Amazing Criminology Dissertation Ideas for Students

Table of Contents

Criminology is the scientific study of crimes and the behavior of criminals. The subject predominantly studies crimes from a social angle. If you are a student who is pursuing a degree in criminology, then obviously you will be asked to submit a dissertation on topics related to criminology. Basically, for writing a dissertation, a good topic is needed the most. On the internet, you can find several criminology dissertation ideas. In case, your professors ask you to choose a criminology dissertation idea and topics on your own instead of suggesting some topics, you can very well take a look at the internet or any other credible sources.

Especially, to help you in composing a great criminology dissertation, here, in this blog post, we have shared some effective writing steps. In addition to that, we have also shared a list of criminology dissertation topics.

Explore this blog post and get ideas regarding criminology dissertation writing.

Steps for Writing an Excellent Criminology Dissertation

If you have no idea how to write a criminology dissertation, then make sure to sequentially execute the steps that are presented below.

Firstly, read and get a clear understanding of the guidelines that your university shared with you.
Secondly, know your target readers.
Thirdly, identify the criminology research area that you are passionate about and have strong knowledge of.
Fourthly, pick an ideal criminology dissertation topic that matches your interest.
Fifthly, analyze the topic and create a strong thesis statement.
Sixthly, research various credible sources related to your topic and collect major ideas for discussion.
Next, with the collected ideas, sketch a criminology dissertation outline.
Then, elaborate on the outline and compose a well-structured dissertation by including the essential sections. In particular, the dissertation should be crafted as per the writing guidelines provided by your university.
At the end of the dissertation, create a references section and cite your sources as well.
Lastly, before submission, proofread and edit the copy of your criminology dissertation. Note that, the final draft that is ready for submission should be free from errors and plagiarism issues.

List of Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Criminology is a vast field of study with plenty of research areas. When it comes to writing a criminology dissertation, you can very well choose a topic related to terrorism, victimization, racism, domestic violence, discrimination, criminology theories, and so on.

In case you run short of ideas or if you are seeking the best criminology research topics for your dissertation, then without any hesitation, go through the below-mentioned list and pick a topic that you feel is perfect for you to research and write about.

Also, Read – Top Criminal Justice Research Topics and Ideas for Students

Ph.D. Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Examine the police force and crime.
Study the cybercrime legislation and its place in maintaining law and order.
Explain the role of women in aiding crime.
Explore the part of rehabilitation centers in curbing crime.
Write about LGBT and Crime.
Analyze how the US government responds to terrorist threats.
Conduct a critical evaluation of bullying in schools versus crime.
Examine the role of technology in fueling crime.
What makes women join ISIS?
Prepare a case study of sexual violence as a weapon in armed conflict.
Explain the influence of drugs and alcohol on sexual assaults.
Analyze how the coronavirus has shaped crime.
Explore the impact of genocidal acts on community cohesiveness.
Describe the relationship between racist stereotyping and crime.
Explain how corruption affects the political, social, economic, and security of a country.

Argumentative Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Explain whether it is possible to have a crime-free society or not.
Describe the role of the school and community in preventing child abuse.
Does parental supervision reduce crime among teenagers?
Explain how counterfeiting has evolved with the advent of new technologies.
Is the education system lagging in its role of shaping good morals and character?
What are the contributing factors for serial killers?
Is immigration the cause of the increased crime rate?
Which is worse than natural disasters or crime?
Is there a thin line between law enforcement and criminology?
Can religious ideologies be the cause of terrorism?

Controversial Criminology Dissertation Topics

Is it acceptable to acquaint rape perpetrators with bail terms?
Does prison truly correct criminal behavior?
Most crime offenders are teenagers and especially college dropouts.
Is the patriarchal society responsible for the increase in the crime rate?
Explain whether social media is a prime reason for crime in this technological era or not.
Corruption is a result of imitation.
Is abortion a crime?
Should the government increase the age limit for acquiring a national identity card?
Is media the main instigator of moral panics in society?
Will regulating prostitution reduce crime?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Racism and Discrimination

How does race correspond with the type of crime?
Targeting minority groups on the basis of race and ethnicity.
Discuss the relationship between racist stereotyping and crime.
How discriminatory is the US and UK Court System?
Is discrimination because of religion the main cause of crime?
Racism and discrimination towards African-Americans.
Discuss the Pros and Cons of Racial profiling.
How systemic bias affects criminal justice?
Is racist abuse towards international students the cause of crime and violence?
How does the discriminatory portrayal of minority groups in the media affect criminal justice?

Awesome Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Does street lighting reduce crimes?
Write about crime control in criminal justice administration.
Explain illegal research and the dangers of genetics.
Discuss the role of Psychometric examinations in criminal justice.
Explain the use and function of smart handheld devices in enhancing security.
Discuss the portrayal of serial killers in media.
Write about crime prevention programs.
Corporate crime: the ruling class criminals.
How does terrorism prevent technology?
Explain how organized crime affects criminal justice.
Discuss the stages and methods of criminology research.
Analyze the inspection tactics of the crime scene.
Explain the ethical basics of police activities in modern society.
Discuss the hidden mechanisms and possibilities of prevention in Lust murders.
Write about the identity of a criminal.
Explain how to prevent child pornography.
Analyze the factors of suicide and problems of statistics.
Describe the characterization of crimes connected with rape.
Write about graphology and handwriting expertise.
Explain the meaning of Fingerprints in the investigation.

Engaging Dissertation Topics on Criminal Psychology

Describe the role of criminal psychologists.
Does socioeconomic status affect one’s criminal behavior?
Compare therapeutic and forensic evaluation.
How does the lack of education affect incarceration rates?
Explain the impact of forensic psychology on the legal system.
Discuss the effect of upbringing on antisocial adult behavior.
Describe the nature of criminal behavior.
Write about Childhood aggression and the impact of divorce.
How does gender and cultural background affect one’s attitude toward drug abuse?
Analyze the different types of forensic psychological evaluations.
Discuss the most common ethical challenges in interviewing children as eyewitnesses
Is enough being done to reduce the likelihood that special education students will end up in jail or prison?
Are there enough safeguards in place to lessen the chances that students in special education may wind up in jail or prison?
Can forensic psychologists anticipate potential danger in the future?
How a person’s upbringing and psychological development can prevent him/her from becoming a serial killer?
What part do movies, video games, and the internet play in encouraging criminal copycats?
Discuss the effectiveness of the criminal justice system and prisons in rehabilitation
What is eyewitness identification psychology?
Impact of eyewitnesses’ psychology on the trustworthiness and legitimacy of their statements
What standards of conduct should American forensic psychologists need to adhere to when testifying in criminal court?

Criminology Dissertation Ideas on Different Crime Types

Discuss the constitutional and legislative issues in counter-terrorism.
Write about gambling in America.
Research and write about cybercrime: cyber fraud, defamation, hacking, bullying, and phishing.
Study the history of terrorism and its countermeasures.
Write about wildlife harm and exploitation.
Analyze the Types of child abuse and its detection, prevention policies, prosecution, and punishment.
Environmental crime. Natural resource theft: the illegal trade in wildlife and timber, poaching, illegal fishing.
Write about the different types of white-collar crimes and their detection, prevention policies, prosecution, and punishment.
How to prevent college campus crime.
Robbery: risk groups, ways of prevention, prosecution, and punishment.
How does prejudice motivate violence?
Discuss the causes and effects of Juvenile Delinquency.
Explain domestic violence with disabilities.
Methods of deception, risk groups, ways of detection and prevention of human trafficking.
What motivates one person to kill another?

Criminology Dissertation Topics on Crime and Victimization

How does ownership of firearms correspond with law violations?
Discuss the connection between family status and law violation.
Explain the role of gender in law violation.
Does unemployment have a relationship with the crime rate?
How does social class correlate with a crime rate?
Analyze the causes of violence in society.
How does the weather correspond with law violations?
Explain the reasons for homeless imprisonment.
Is there a connection between mental health and law violation?
Does the crime rate depend on the neighborhood?

Interesting Criminology Dissertation Topics

Discuss the impact of detention cells on the criminal.
Analyze the psychology of rape victims.
Conduct a comparative analysis of male and female crimes.
Explain the patterns of criminal thinking and their effects of them with examples.
Prepare a comparative case study based on the Juvenile crime rates in India and Pakistan.
Research and write about the various types of serial killers.
Explain the different types of offenders.
What are the causes of victimization and how to prevent it?
Analyze the key problems of the prison system.
Discuss the rights of the victims of rape.
How should people protect themselves from false accusations?
Write about street crimes.
Discuss the psychology behind human trafficking.
How to prevent shoplifting.
Write about feminist criminology.

Outstanding Criminology Dissertation Ideas

Write about the Drug traffic tracking strategies used in the UK.
What is the effectiveness of the International Criminal Court in achieving its mandate?
Why are most crimes in the US and UK mainly committed by the youths?
How does memory impact eyewitness testimony?
Why do college students engage in cases of arson?
What are the implications of Solitary confinement for drug traffickers?
Write about the latest innovations in experimental criminology.
How does information-sharing technology help in fighting terrorism?
How does systemic bias impact criminal justice?
Analyze the investigation process of police officers in solving a crime.

Final Words

Hopefully, the list of ideas shared in this blog post will help you in crafting a brilliant criminology dissertation. In case, you need help with criminology dissertation topic selection and writing, contact us immediately. We have numerous subject matter experts on our team to offer you high-quality criminology assignment help . Especially, according to the requirements you submit to us, our scholarly writers will prepare and deliver a plagiarism-free criminology dissertation in advance of your submission date. Moreover, by utilizing our assignment help services online, you can boost your academic performance and also get valid clarifications for all the subject queries you have.

220 Amazing Religious Research Paper Topics and Ideas

Read and Understand How to Write a Research Proposal

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Mental Health in a Prison Setting: Implementation and Practice (mhPIP)

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The prevalence of mental illness among mentally ill offenders exceeds that in the general population. The quality and scope of care for the mentally ill in prisons and police cells fall below that of the general population, particularly in resource-poor settings in low- and middle-income nations. Reports from ...

Keywords : nature of mental health problems, suicide in prisons, promoting offender mental health, prison mental health, mentally ill offender, epidemiology of prison mental illness, assessment and treatment, social care

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Published: 17 April 2024

Breaking down barriers to mental healthcare access in prison: a qualitative interview study with incarcerated males in Norway

Line Elisabeth Solbakken 1 , 2 ,
Svein Bergvik 3 &
Rolf Wynn 1 , 4

BMC Psychiatry volume 24 , Article number: 292 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Mental health problems are highly prevalent in prison populations. Incarcerated persons generally come from disadvantaged backgrounds and are living under extraordinary conditions while in prison. Their healthcare needs are complex compared to the general population. Studies have found that incarcerated individuals are reluctant to seek help and that they experience challenges in accessing mental healthcare services. To some extent, seeking treatment depends on the degree of fit between potential users and health services, and actual use might be a better indication of accessibility than the fact that services are available. This study aimed to explore individual and systemic facilitators and barriers to accessing mental healthcare in a prison context.

An analytical approach drawing on elements of constructivist Grounded theory was the methodological basis of this study. Fifteen male participants were recruited from three prisons in Northern Norway. Data was collected through in-depth interviews on topics such as help-seeking experiences, perceived access to services and availability of health information.

We found that distrust in the system, challenges with the referral routines, worries about negative consequences, and perceived limited access to mental healthcare were barriers to help-seeking among incarcerated individuals. How prison officers, and healthcare personnel respond to incarcerated persons reporting mental distress could also be critical for their future willingness to seek help. Providing information about mental health and available services, initiating outreaching mental health services, and integrating mental health interventions into treatment programs are examples of efforts that might reduce barriers to accessing services.

Conclusions

Facilitating access to mental health services is crucial to accommodate the mental health needs of those incarcerated. This study provides insights into the complex interplay of individual, social and systemic factors that may contribute to the utilization of mental health care among incarcerated persons. We suggest that correctional and healthcare systems review their practices to facilitate access to healthcare for people in prison.

Peer Review reports

Mental health of people in prison

The rates of mental disorders are considerably higher among incarcerated individuals than in the general population [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Co-morbidities are common, and around 20% of incarcerated individuals have concurrent mental and substance use disorders [ 5 ]. They are at increased risk for all-cause mortality, self-harm, violence, and victimization, and suicide rates are about 3–6 times higher among incarcerated males relative to males in the broader population [ 6 ]. Adverse life experiences and disadvantaged living conditions from an early age may explain the observed accumulation of mental health problems in prison populations worldwide [ 7 , 8 ]. Genetic predispositions combined with environmental stressors are implicated in the development of mental disorders [ 9 , 10 ]. People in prison generally experience low educational achievements, low income, and unstable housing. Thus, the poor mental health of prison populations is caused by a complex interplay of social, environmental, and genetic factors [ 7 , 11 ]. In addition to the pre-existing burdens, incarcerated individuals are facing prison–specific challenges such as loss of autonomy, social isolation, bullying and violence that may exacerbate mental health issues [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Considering the elevated rates of mental health problems in prison, facilitating access to mental health services is crucial to accommodate the needs of those incarcerated.

Access to mental health services

The treatment gap refers to the proportion of individuals with mental health problems within a specific community that require treatment without receiving it [ 16 ]. Variable access to mental healthcare and high levels of unmet mental health needs are universal challenges in communities across the world [ 17 , 18 ]. Even when health services are available, individual and systemic barriers may hinder their use. In a narrow sense, access to healthcare may be considered equivalent to available services. However, some argue that a more meaningful way to define access is the “degree of fit” between the potential users and health services [ 19 ]. For instance, if services are accessible in terms of transportation and treatment costs and whether they are compatible with potential users’ personal attitudes, beliefs and preferences. “Having access” can be understood as the potential for using available mental health services. “Gaining access”, is the individual process of choosing to use those services [ 20 ]. Within this frame of reference, access to services is more precisely defined by the actual use of services.

Mental health help-seeking

Across settings and populations, the majority of those suffering from mental health problems do not seek treatment [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. The literature on help-seeking gives insight into the intrapersonal factors involved in accessing mental health care. Within this context, help-seeking has been defined as: " an adaptive coping process that is the attempt to obtain external assistance to deal with a mental health concern” [ 24 ]. The process of seeking help involves becoming aware of a mental health problem that may require intervention; articulating the psychological challenges in a way that can be understood by others; awareness of help sources that are available and accessible; and a willingness to talk about the mental health problem to available help sources [ 25 ]. Throughout the help-seeking process, personal thoughts and feelings become increasingly interpersonal as an individual confides in and seeks support from others. It is not uncommon to share mental health concerns with informal sources of support such as friends and family prior to, or even instead of, seeking professional help [ 26 ]. Moreover, informal networks are found to facilitate but may also discourage professional formal help-seeking for mental health problems [ 27 , 28 ].

The theory of planned behavior (TPB), a well-known model within behavior change research, may also provide a framework for understanding how personal attitudes and social influences are implicated in accessing healthcare. Subjective norms, attitudes, and perceived behavioral control are elements of TPB that are particularly important for understanding the help-seeking process [ 29 ]. In this context, subjective norms refer to a person’s beliefs about other peoples’ practice or approval of help-seeking and are related to expectations of social support in pursuing professional help. Attitudes refer to appraisals of seeking professional mental help as beneficial or harmful and a judgement of whether help-seeking would be constructive compared to alternative behaviors. Perceived behavioral control can be divided into self-efficacy (the confidence that one can seek help), and controllability (the extent of personal control in the help-seeking process). A recent review found that attitudes and perceived behavioral control predict help-seeking intentions across different population groups and cultures [ 30 ].

Access to mental health services in prison

Equity is essential in healthcare to ensure that the health system meets the needs of different groups of people and individuals [ 20 ]. “The principle of equivalence” is a widely endorsed standard for healthcare in correctional settings [ 31 ]. This principle is laid down in the United Nations´ Nelson Mandela Rules. Rule number 24 states that: “Prisoners should enjoy the same standards of health care that are available in the community, and should have access to necessary health-care services free of charge without discrimination on the grounds of their legal status” [ 32 ] (p.8) However, some argue that equal standards are not sufficient to meet the complex needs of incarcerated individuals and that mental healthcare in prison must be more intensive and integrative than services provided in the community [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. In reality there are several reports of shortcomings in the delivery of mental healthcare in prison in many countries across the world, as mental disorders in incarcerated persons are underdiagnosed and undertreated [ 6 , 34 ]. Studies from Canada, the US, and the UK indicate that a significant proportion of incarcerated people with mental health problems have not received adequate treatment [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Suggested explanations for unmet needs are underfunding, failure in screening procedures and quality at reception, demand for more mental health knowledge among prison staff, and possible underrating of the severity of mental health problems by the prison administrations to reduce treatment costs [ 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Taken together these reports suggest that mental health services do not fit the complex needs of incarcerated persons in high-income countries. There is less knowledge about the situation in low- and middle-income countries. However, the elevated rates of mental disorders in these countries suggest that unmet needs among incarcerated persons are a widespread challenge [ 1 ].

Mental health help-seeking in prison

Evidence suggests that the immense burden of mental disorders among people in prison is not matched by a proportional use of mental healthcare [ 41 ]. Several reports from various correctional settings have documented that incarcerated persons are reluctant to seek help for mental health problems [ 41 ]. Among the reported barriers to help-seeking in prison are confidentiality concerns [ 42 ], fear of stigma associated with a diagnosis [ 43 ], a preference for self-management or informal support [ 44 ], lack of knowledge of psychological services [ 42 , 44 ] and distrust in the system [ 45 ]. In addition, systemic factors may influence access to healthcare in prison. The culture in all-male prisons typically demands that those imprisoned mask their vulnerabilities by adopting a tough and dominant demeanor [ 46 ]. Experiencing mental illness and receiving professional mental health treatment is also associated with an increased risk of victimization in incarcerated individuals [ 47 ].

Mental health literacy (MHL) is a concept that includes the knowledge and attitudes that influence how people manage their mental health needs [ 48 ]. Having sufficient knowledge and access to information about mental health and mental health services can be a prerequisite for seeking professional help [ 49 ]. For people living in the community, seeking online information and advice is an important strategy for gaining knowledge about how to cope with mental health challenges [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. For security reasons, access to the Internet is typically severely limited for those imprisoned [ 53 , 54 ]. Hence, this essential mental health information source is largely unavailable to them. Accordingly, incarcerated individuals are reliant on finding mental health information through information pamphlets, books, TV programs, newspapers or consulting healthcare professionals [ 55 ]. Some argue that limited access to online information and digital health services may have consequences for the well-being and successful rehabilitation of those incarcerated [ 53 , 56 , 57 ]. Thus, there are reasons to believe that restricted access to mental health information may also affect help-seeking and access to healthcare for incarcerated individuals.

The rationale for the current study

Fostering health-promoting environments and adequate access to mental healthcare within prisons is a public health imperative increasingly acknowledged in the literature [ 33 ]. Moreover, the mental health of incarcerated persons is a matter of public safety since untreated severe mental disorders are associated with a higher risk of recidivism [ 58 , 59 ]. People in prison retain their right to health services, and in principle, incarcerated persons have access to mental health services. A vital question, however, is how incarcerated persons experience gaining access and how this affects their actual use of services. Existing research on the provision of mental healthcare in prisons, particularly within a Scandinavian context, is sparse, leaving significant knowledge gaps. The question of access to health information for incarcerated persons is similarly understudied. This study aimed to investigate how incarcerated persons experience individual and systemic factors that facilitate or impede access to mental healthcare in prison.

The Helsinki Declaration of Medical Research involving human subjects and services laid the basis of the ethical considerations of this study [ 60 ]. The study was approved by the Data Protection Officer of the University Hospital of North Norway (No. 02415). The Norwegian Correctional system, which is responsible for the welfare of incarcerated individuals, approved of the study (Ref. 200900463-347). The Regional Health Research Ethics Committee concluded that the project was outside their mandate (Ref. 40,701).

The principles of voluntariness and informed consent are central to human subject research. Individuals in prison are considered vulnerable due to their restricted freedom and autonomy, poor health status, higher incidence of learning disabilities, and lower literacy levels. Consequently, additional precautions are required to ensure that research with incarcerated participants is conducted ethically [ 61 ]. User participation in designing research that includes vulnerable groups is crucial to achieving this objective [ 61 , 62 ]. Measures in accordance with recommendations were taken to ensure consent information that is complete, relevant, and understandable [ 63 ]. A user representative from Way-Back, an organization that supports incarcerated persons with reentry to their communities, contributed to the project’s planning. The user representative provided input on information about the study, research questions, the interview guide and how to conduct the interviews. The input was used to tailor information and for conducting the interviews in accordance with the constraints of the prison contexts and the needs of the incarcerated individuals. The choice of whether to reimburse participants in prison studies is debated. Because of the relative deprivation of prison life, some argue that even small incentives could potentially result in undue influence for participation in research [ 64 ]. For this reason, we chose to abstain from offering reimbursement for the participants in this study.

Study context

At any given time, about 3000 persons are serving a sentence in Norway, of which 5.6% are women and 26.2% are non-Norwegian citizens [ 65 ]. A recent study found that almost 60% of incarcerated persons in Norway had a diagnosed mental disorder, together with a 33% rise in the one-year prevalence of mental disorders between the years 2010–2019 [ 66 ]. Thus, the proportion of people with mental disorders entering prison has been increasing. In Norway, access to necessary healthcare is considered a basic human right and is legislated in the Patient’s Rights Act section 2 [ 67 ]. Healthcare is primarily tax-funded, with a nominal service fee and a relatively low cap on yearly individual costs [ 68 ]. Norway has committed to “the principle of equivalence” meaning that those imprisoned retain their right to healthcare equal to that of the general population [ 31 ]. Prison health services serve incarcerated persons with milder mental health problems and are accessible by self-referral through a paper-based request system. The prison health services can refer those who experience moderate to severe mental disorders to specialist mental health services, and treatment is often provided in prison by mental health professionals from local hospitals For people imprisoned in Norway, healthcare and medications are free of charge [ 69 ], eliminating one significant barrier to mental healthcare access [ 70 ]. Furthermore, as the municipalities and local hospitals provide health services - the importation of services promotes equity and that services are independent of the correctional system, thereby strengthening the rights of people in prison [ 71 ].

A study found that incarcerated persons in Norway were reluctant to seek help for mental health problems from prison health services unless they had concurrent sleep or substance use problems [ 72 ]. A survey by Bjørngaard et al. [ 73 ] found lower patient satisfaction with prison health services compared to people using community health services and that those with mental health problems were less satisfied compared to incarcerated patients with other health challenges. A survey representative of the Norwegian prison population found that 20% of incarcerated males sample reported that they had received mental health services, while 25% reported that they had been in need of mental health services in prison but had not received any [ 11 ]. More recent reports suggest that mental health services are insufficient to meet the needs of those imprisoned in Norway and that incarcerated individuals referred due to their severe mental illness may not be admitted to specialist services for in-patient assessment and treatment [ 74 , 75 ]. These reports indicate that mental health services do not fit the complex needs of incarcerated persons in Norway and that there are potential obstacles in their access to mental healthcare.

Study design

This study was underpinned by relativist epistemology which is based on the assumption of multiple individual realities that allow for different understandings of the same phenomenon [ 76 ]. The study design was suitable for exploring and explaining commonly experienced individual, social, cultural and structural factors that influence help-seeking and access to mental healthcare for incarcerated individuals. The study incorporates vital Grounded Theory (GT) components, including initial coding, categorizing data, constant comparative methods involving inductive and abductive reasoning, and memoing [ 77 ]. The use of theoretical sampling, which is rare in prison research due to ethical and practical constraints [ 78 ], was not employed in this study. Data collection concluded once additional data no longer contributed new insights or further elaborated the developed categories.

Preconceptions

The first author, a clinical community psychologist and a PhD student, worked part-time as a prison officer for two years during her psychology education. This experience gave her an insider’s view of the correctional system, inevitably influencing her initial perceptions. Before conducting the interviews, she held a somewhat optimistic view of the correctional system’s capacity to support and enhance the mental health of those incarcerated. However, this perspective was challenged through the narratives of the study participants, who conveyed powerful personal accounts that highlighted substantial barriers to obtaining mental health services within the prison environment. The other two authors, serving as supervisors, are also researchers and mental health professionals with considerable clinical experience. Their diverse backgrounds contributed to a supervisory dynamic that adresssed the research topic’s complexities. Throughout the study, the authors engaged in a process of collaborative reflection, concerned with maintaining a balance between engaging with participant stories and sustaining a critical stance towards the data. These discussions were essential in helping the first author navigate an empathetic understanding of the participant’s experiences with the necessary analytical objectivity required for rigorous qualitative research.

Participants and study settings

Fifteen males serving a prison sentence were recruited from three prisons in Northern Norway. Thirteen of the participants served a sentence at a high security level, while two served at lower security. The participants’ age ranged from the early twenties to the late sixties (M: 43.6 years). Two participants had other nationalities, while the rest were Norwegian citizens. Further details about the participants must be withheld to preserve their privacy. When citing individual participants, they are anonymized by using pseudonyms.

Recruitment

Participants were recruited through posters in the prison ward that conveyed basic information, including the fact that the interviews were confidential and would be recorded. The posters encouraged those interested in participating to approach a contact person for more information. A prison officer, a social worker or a reintegration coordinator were assigned the role as contact persons in the selected prisons. Those who actively approached the contact person were given more comprehensive written information about the study. Requiring an active choice by incarcerated individuals was done to enhance their experience of self-determination and autonomy in their decision to participate. The contact person scheduled appointments with the participants, and the interviewer had no prior knowledge of the participants other than what they presented in the interviews. One potential participant cancelled the interview appointment due to health issues on the interview day and withdrew from the study.

The first author conducted face-to-face, in-depth interviews. The interviews took place in prison visitation rooms or in an office in the health wards. Before the interview, the participants were given information about the study and their rights as research participants and signed a written consent form. The interviewer was alone with the participants during the interview and had a personal alarm as a safety precaution. The interview guide covered topics on knowledge of mental health and available services, help-seeking experiences, and access to mental health information (sample questions provided in Table 1 ). The participants were asked open-ended questions and were invited to speak freely on these topics. Thus, the order and framing of questions varied depending on where they fit into the participants’ narratives. This allowed for following up on the participants’ experiences and may have given the participants an increased sense of control in the interview. The first author who conducted the interviews was attentive to signs of emotional discomfort in participants and avoided pressure on sensitive topics. After the interviews, the participants were encouraged to ask questions and comment on their experience and reminded of their right to withdraw from the study. Nearly all the participants expressed that the experience of participating in the study was positive and that they appreciated the chance to contribute to the research project.

The first author transcribed the audio-recorded interviews in Norwegian, ensuring a verbatim account of the participants’ narratives. The initial eight interviews were transcribed before initiating data analysis. This early examination of the data facilitated a refinement of the interview guide, which was then applied to the subsequent seven interviews to deepen the inquiry. Data collection and analysis were concurrent as the study progressed from the ninth interview, which allowed for immediate integration of new data into the evolving analytical framework. The data was examined using the NVivo 12 software, which supported the systematic organization and analysis of the data. The data was analyzed line-by-line, searching for incidents in the form of recurring beliefs, actions, experiences, and explanations [ 79 ]. The constant comparison method was applied throughout the analysis. In the initial coding phase, incidents were compared to incidents, and through this process underlying recurring concepts and similarities were identified and assigned codes. Subsequently, codes were then compared to codes, and related codes were organized into conceptual categories, reflecting both common features and divergent viewpoints [ 77 ]. In the intermediate coding phase, the data was abstracted into categories which were compared to each other, and relationships between categories were developed and refined. The authors engaged in a collaborative and reflective dialogue throughout this process, meeting regularly to deliberate on preconceptions, the emerging categories and their interpretations. This dynamic exchange was informed by memos that captured analytical decisions, insights, and evolving interpretations, thus guiding the reflective process. In the last stage, advanced coding, a core category which binds the other categories and sub-categories together was developed. Through a collaborative process the categories were substantiated with representative quotes, which, upon completion of the analysis, were translated from Norwegian to English for inclusion in the report. This resulted in a nuanced understanding grounded in the participants’ experiences and the researchers’ interpretative lens.

The data analysis yielded four main categories illustrating the participants’ active engagement in identifying challenges and facilitators for mental healthcare access within the prison environment. The first category, “Mental health awareness,” captures how beliefs and knowledge concerning mental health were influenced by the experiences and constraints inherent to prison life, potentially affecting the pursuit of help and access to healthcare services. The second main category reveals how systemic sub-cultural values can obstruct healthcare access, whereas, on a personal level, fellow inmates served as vital support for obtaining mental health services. The third main category, “Access to mental health care,” examines how organizational and systemic barriers impede access to mental healthcare. The final main category, “Enhancing access to services,” delineates factors that lowered the bar for mental healthcare access. The core category, “Breaking down barriers,” encapsulates the dynamic interplay between incarcerated individuals and the contextual factors that influenced their ability and willingness to access mental healthcare in prison. This central theme also recognizes the collaborative effort between participants and researchers in identifying problem areas and solutions to mental healthcare access, thereby “breaking down barriers”. An outline of these categories is presented in Table 2 .

Mental health awareness

An information void.

Seeking information can be an essential first step for recognizing symptoms of mental illness that may require intervention. Prior to imprisonment, visiting their general practitioner or using online search engines were the preferred methods for finding health information for the participants in this study. In prison, however, access to the Internet is severely limited:

Where can we get information? We do not have access to computers or anything. So, I would have to call someone on the outside to get them to print articles and send them to me by post. So, no. We don’t know our rights, we don’t know about the services available to us, as a matter of fact we know very little. There’s an information void. Stuart

A few of the participants referred to the prison library as a source of information. Some also said that they could talk to health care professionals, correctional officers, or other staff members like the priest, to get mental health information. Fellow incarcerated individuals who had experienced mental health problems and received health services were also mentioned by some participants. The common thread in all suggestions was a dependency on others to access information about mental health. Only a couple of participants had tried to find mental health information during their time in prison. However, they found it difficult to obtain:

The only choice I have is to ask the prison officers to print it [mental health information], but sometimes they don’t want to do it because they think it’s bad. And I have tried to search for psychosis and such in school [in prison], but then the teachers ask why I would seek out such a gloomy subject. It feels a bit complicated to obtain information. Larry

Participants from all three prisons also pointed out the need for more information about mental healthcare in prison:

We have a notice board on the ward (…). The information should be hung there for people to see, that there is a psychologist here, and that you can talk to her. ‘cause I’ve seen little of that sort in here. Liam

One participant underscored that information about available mental health services is particularly important for those with no experience from such services prior to imprisonment:

It [information] must tell you about your opportunities. To normalize it [seeking help] in a way. And the threshold must be low. I think many experience that it is too high. If I hadn’t been in contact with mental health services before I came here, the threshold for seeking help would have been sky high for me as well. Neil

Awareness of mental health issues

Factors in the prison context were fundamental to the participants’ explanations of mental health problems. Many participants attributed the onset or worsening of mental health problems to the shock of imprisonment and to the continuous hardships of prison life. Understanding symptoms as primarily caused by external stressors such as prison hardship may have influenced their appraisals about the need to seek help. As Frank stated:

I’ve always had good mental health. Until I came here, inside these walls. Frank

Frank reported considerable symptoms of post-traumatic stress. Understanding his symptoms as something triggered by the prison living conditions, he did not see how seeking professional help could benefit him. Like many other participants, he insisted that the correctional system needed to change and had lost hope that he could improve his own situation.

In contrast, other participants who attributed their mental health problems to external stressors concluded that they indeed needed help to cope. The suffering they experienced during their first weeks in prison motivated them to seek formal help:

I asked to talk to a psychologist in here. ‘Cause, I felt that I needed to. ‘Cause in the beginning when I came here, it all seemed dark. No matter how hard I tried to do the right thing, there was some sort of dark force that was just pushing on, and the obstacles were piling up. Travis

For some, their main motivation for seeking help was to receive professional validation from healthcare personnel regarding the negative health consequences of their prison experiences. Some also hoped that healthcare professionals could advocate for better living conditions:

And it is good that others [psychologists] can take part in these things. So that it is manifested what prisons actually do to people. Jack

Social influences on help-seeking

Prison culture and mental health stigma.

The participants described how the culture within prison influenced their willingness to talk about mental health issues. The importance of appearing strong and dominant within the prison setting was emphasized by many. According to several participants, the talk at the wards was characterized by attempts to one-up the others’ stories about criminal activities to appear tough. Many also explained that hiding vulnerabilities was critical in the prison community, and some also underlined the potential for victimization for those who were not able to conform to the prison norms:

You are wearing a prison mask. You cannot show weakness. ‘Cause then you’ll soon be a victim, a sitting duck. I have experienced inmates that have, eh mostly stayed in their cells. They have been harassed so badly that they are sitting there crying. The prison milieu can be tough. Neil

Choosing to confide in and seek advice from peers can also have negative consequences. Several of the participants said that it was wise to be careful with who you chose to share mental health related issues with:

Let’s say you talk about your personal feelings, and about your sentence and stuff, right. They can be very nice to you there and then, before they stab you in the back later on, spreading everything you’ve said to destroy you. It is a cynical game. Bobby

Bobby went on to explain that a fellow incarcerated individual could use personal information for harassing, blackmailing and threatening the family of someone who has confided in them, if a conflict should arise. Some of the participants also addressed directly how the prison climate may influence willingness to seek mental health treatment:

They do not want to go to a psychologist and talk. Because then they are seen as weak and not able to cope. Because in prison everyone should be tough. Drug lords and such. But, on the inside they are not like that. Nicky

The role of peers in accessing mental health services

Despite the clear barriers, fellow incarcerated appeared to be an important informal help source for mental health problems. Many of the participants had observed signs of emotional distress among their incarcerated peers and described how they had given them advice and encouragement. According to several participants, those imprisoned also had an essential role in recognizing mental health problems in their peers:

There is no-one who talks to us regularly to check on how we are doing. That’s not a priority here. So, unless some of the inmates take on the role of an officer or a psychologist, then there’s no-one who reports concern (…) There are many inmates who are taking on a role as a social worker, but it’s kinda wrong. They are neither paid for it, nor qualified. They do it because no-one else does. Stuart

Although none of the participants said that they themselves had been prompted to seek help by peers, they told stories of how they had pushed their peers to seek formal help:

A fellow inmate. I could tell he was struggling because he talked to me as the only person. In a way, I was his psychologist. The days when he was down in the dumps, I tried to talk to him (…) And I said, listen up. It’s for your own good. I will write a request form, and we will arrange contact with a psychologist (…) and it will help. Nicky

Experiencing fellow incarcerated people in distress appeared to be common, and participants also explained how they reported to prison officers their concerns about peers with self-harm and suicide plans:

There was a fella’ who told me that he knew exactly how to take his own life (…). “I’ll just do it like this and this and this”. And, uhm. Then he said he was going to do it. And I thought that I would have to report it, and I did. Roy

Roy went on to describe in detail how his reported concern led to a prison officer interrupting the suicide attempt by the fellow incarcerated, thereby saving his life. Several other participants shared similar stories, indicating that peers played a significant role in recognizing and getting help for mental health related problems in prison.

Access to mental healthcare

Self-referral and disempowerment.

In order to access prison healthcare, those imprisoned must write and deliver a paper-based request form. All the participants in this study were aware that this is the way to contact prison healthcare, and most of them knew that the general practitioner working at the prison could refer them to a psychologist or to a psychiatric hospital. Unfortunately, the request form system seemed to amplify the participants’ perceptions of disempowerment. Rather than seeing themselves as agents taking charge of their own situation and health, they were left passively waiting to be contacted after filling out the forms:

You are pacified when you must write a request form to talk to someone. Then you don’t know when they are coming to talk to you. And then it’s like, the problem may be swept under the rug when they finally get to you. Tommy

According to the participants, many of these request forms seemed to disappear, and it could take an exceedingly long time before they got any response to their request:

Many times, when you write a request form it disappears. Nothing happens. Those request forms are worthless most of the time. Keith

There were also several participants who voiced concern over the confidentiality of the request forms even when the forms were delivered in closed envelopes:

We can see for ourselves that they [prison officers] open and read, uhm, confidential information, [lowers his voice] and to put it mildly, uhm, breaches in confidentiality are all too common. It is alarming! Neil

One of the informants also explained that incarcerated persons who had mother tongues other than Norwegian could have problems with understanding and filling out request forms to health, and that forms that were not filled out correctly were of no value. According to Roy and other participants, the correctional system did not give sufficient information and guidance about the request forms:

They might not know how to write, or understand what it [the form] says, you know? Potentially it is severe for that guy, right. It’s garbage! Garbage, that request form. They haven’t received any request from him. Roy

The perceived availability of mental healthcare

The perceptions of accessibility of mental health care varied between the participants. A few of the participants were in active treatment with a psychologist at the time of the interviews, and they had experienced the access as unproblematic. Common for some of these participants was that they had been in treatment before they entered prison:

From sending my request and to receiving an acceptance letter it took one and a half weeks. Less than three weeks later I was in treatment. It was efficient. Much quicker than I’ve ever experienced before. Neil

However, many participants said that they could not access secondary mental health services. There were two notable sub-groups among the participants who perceived that access to specialized psychological treatment was limited. The first group shared stories about living unstructured lives at the edge of society. They seemed to have little confidence in health care and correctional services, and were less hopeful of their own potential of being rehabilitated:

I have tried for several years now, but I didn’t get help. They can say whatever they want about how easy it is to access a psychologist and prison healthcare and everything, but it is not true. Ronny

Two of the participants explained how they would have to take drastic measures such as performing violent acts or acting weird to get help for their mental health problems When Marlon was asked how he could access mental health services he responded:

You would have to either hurt yourself, or someone else, so that they end up in hospital. Marlon

The interviewer asked if it was possible to access mental health services by using less drastic measures, Marlon answered:

Uhm. Naaah. I don’t know. I do not think so. Not from my experience. Marlon

Another sub-group having difficulties accessing mental health services was those in prison for the first time. Most had led more typical lives with stable employment and housing conditions before imprisonment. When they sought mental health services, they were told that these adjustment problems were normal in prison:

I’ve been struggling for several periods here and have said that I wanted to talk to a nurse or a psychologist. And then I was referred to a psychologist. And the psychologist assessed me, and said that: “Nothing’s wrong with you, you are just having a hard time, I cannot help you”. So, you do not get anyone to talk to, unless you- I don’t know what you must have really, but I sure ain’t got it. The nurses say that they haven’t got the time, and the psychologist says that I am not ill. And then I am left to feel bad. In my case, there is no service really. Stuart

Prison officers’ role in mental healthcare and accessing services

Several participants stated that mental health problems and well-being were not high on the prison agenda. Many would have appreciated it if correctional officers on a more regular basis had asked how they were doing and believed that this would have facilitated them to open up and talk about mental health issues.

In my opinion, mental health is forgotten here in a way. Physical activity, movement, workouts, yes. Since I arrived here some months ago, only twice I’ve been asked: “Hi, how are you? Is there something you want to talk about?” Travis

Some also said that they knew people in prison who were unaware of their own need for mental health care or unable to access help, and argued that the correctional system should do more to help these people to access care:

You have the type where people do not get help because they themselves are not able to request help from the prison health services and the prison officers do not see to that they get the help they need. Neil

Some were concerned about how acute health problems were handled in the weekends and evenings when prison health services were unavailable. In these situations, prison officers were left to decide whether or not to contact emergency healthcare services. Several of the participants were not satisfied by this arrangement:

(…) they think that they can make a doctor’s judgement. That they can decide that it is not that important. It is rude. It is trespassing norms. Jack

Some participants told stories of how their peers in prison did not seem to get the help they needed even though it was apparent that they were in a bad state mentally:

I have reported concern about people, before they started cutting themselves and f***ing themselves up. But what worries me, is that even though I voiced my concern to both prison health services and prison officers, no measures were taken. Before it was too late. Stuart

Asking for help from correctional officers could also have consequences. Ronny served at a lower security level. He experienced that his requests to see a psychologist were met by suggestions of transferring him to a higher security level:

I have written request forms: “I need to speak to a psychologist. Immediately”. And then they [the prison officers] are threatening me by saying that they are going to transfer me to a higher security level. They ask if I am going to hurt myself. No, I tell them. I’m not going to hurt myself. I just need to talk to a psychologist. Ronny

Another participant described how he had sometimes cut himself by shards from plates and drinking glass to suppress mental suffering. He explained how he on one occasion used the intercom to notify the officers that they needed to come and pick up a glass that was triggering an urge to self-harm. The participant said that initially a single officer came to his cell to pick up the glass:

A few minutes later there were four officers, and they unlocked the cell door, and there were a lot of questions. I guess they were worried about my mental state, and I said that I appreciated the concern. Then I reminded them that I had asked them to pick up the glass so I would NOT cut myself, so if they were to use that against me, it would be unfair. Tommy

He reassured that the situation had been resolved with the conversation. However, he had the impression that disclosing mental distress to officers could increase the risk for being transferred to a higher security level, or to a security cell.

Enhancing access to services

The perceived advantages of seeking professional help.

There were some commonly experienced benefits of seeking mental healthcare among the participants. Coming off drugs and living under stable conditions in prison provided some participants an opportunity to reflect on their lives and to gather motivation to work on their addiction and mental health problems:

I have been thinking a lot about treatment in an institution. I know how it went the last few times I got out [of prison]. Within half an hour I was sitting there with the needle. And if I don’t do anything before I get out, the same will happen again. I’m trying to prevent it (…) I’ve had treatment for drug and alcohol use before. And back then there was a psychologist who said that, once you’ve been clean for a year, then the brain is back to normal. I can feel it, like, my mindset is already changing . Kurt

For about half of the participants, seeking professional help was related to their motivation for living a law-abiding life after prison. The participants linked substance use to both mental health problems and a criminal lifestyle, and getting treatment was seen as essential for preventing recidivism:

I have lived a rough life, and I have no-one, NO-ONE. How long am I going to live? One doesn’t know. But I’ll be fifty soon. So, I must make it now. I really have to make it now [his voice bursts]. And it depends on many psychological factors. So, I’m choosing to use all the things that I have access to in prison, like treatment for drug addiction. Roy

Although many had previous experience of treatment for their substance use, they still had hopes that treatment could help them. Liam had previously experienced that consultations with a psychologist brought up subjects that was difficult for him to talk about:

I regret that I quit, because it could have done me good. But I guess it got too personal, and it stirred up things. Liam

He also explained that at the time he was more interested in doing drugs than going to therapy. However, he still believed that treatment could help him:

I will probably contact a psychologist, now that I’m about to get treatment for my addictions. It is easier to open up when there are no substances involved. Liam

In summary, seeking professional help for mental health problems was perceived to promote in-prison coping, rehabilitation, and preparation for life outside of prison for most of the participants.

Lowering the bar for accessing mental health services .

Many of the participants expressed skepticism towards ‘the system’. They described how they had been let down and disappointed by the child welfare services, the criminal justice system, and healthcare professionals. Experiences from childhood to adult life had led to a lack of confidence that healthcare personnel and the correctional system and society had their best interest at heart. For them, it was important that healthcare professionals were perceived as genuine and “on their side”:

The experience of being believed and listened to… They do not have to relate, to say that they understand so damn much, ‘cause that’s not really important. Marlon

Several participants said that barriers for talking about mental health were reduced when healthcare personnel reached out in the prison ward. One of the prisoners described two nurses who used to visit the prison wing every day at lunch-hour. He appreciated that it was possible to request a private conversation in the cell, and that he was taken seriously:

They were highly skilled. And they listened. They listened to what you had to say, and they understood you. Tommy

Having previous positive experiences of mental health treatment and knowledge of what to expect from mental health services also seemed to reduce barriers for in-prison help-seeking from some of the participants:

I saw a psychologist on a regular basis, once a week (…). And after six consultations I was past the worst in some sense. I was provided with the tools I needed to cope. Bobby .

This participant had experience with psychological treatment outside of prison and had tried to access mental health services for months in prison. However, he believed his challenges were too mild to get help from a psychologist. He emphasized the need for available low-threshold services for those who suffer from milder mental health problems:

It should be available for everyone who wants it. It should not be embarrassing, it should not be taboo, it should be… A natural part of it, really. Bobby

In addition, when services were provided as standard procedure and a natural part of rehabilitation, they were perceived as less stigmatizing. Nicky described how he was placed on a prison ward that was specialized in substance use treatment:

And when you are placed in that ward, then you are automatically assigned to a psychologist from the substance use clinic, that you can have weekly consultations with. Nicky .

Some also suggested that the systematic screening and assessment of health and social problems also could facilitate access to mental health services and this was suggested as an integral part of healthcare and rehabilitation in prison by some of the participants. Ronny underscored the importance of proper assessment:

What is this person’s problem? Why did he come back? Is there something happening to him on the outside? Could he need help with anything? Maybe someone should ask him? Ronny

Ronny went on describing the nice brochures of the correctional system, with promises of assessment of strengths and needs of individuals, but he claimed that this did not happen in reality. This view was shared by several of the other participants, as they called for more assessment to benefit the mental health and rehabilitation of incarcerated individuals.

Mental health support from different sources

The participants had different preferences regarding where to get help. Support from friends and family was seen as important for most of the participants. However, health professionals could sometimes be preferred over informal or semi-formal sources because of their role in advocating for better living conditions in prison:

I get visits from my family, but I’d like to talk to someone here in prison, so that they could gain awareness of the actual problem. If I’m spitting venom to some random lady that is here as a volunteer with the Red Cross, it’s useless, I think. If I talk to a nurse who works here at this establishment, she could perhaps do something about some of our challenges. Stuart

The cultural competency of health care personnel could also be a key factor in promoting help-seeking and forming a therapeutic alliance with people in prison. Many incarcerated individuals have lived on the edge of society, while most health care personnel, and particularly doctors and psychologists, are from the upper middle class. These cultural differences may form an abyss between the incarcerated individuals and mental healthcare personnel:

A psychologist does not have a criminal record. Now I’m generalizing. But they have performed well in school. Have passed through the system. Highly educated. Their lives have been smooth sailing (…) They have not experienced the shadow side of life. Tommy

This participant had one prior positive experience with a psychologist, but his general impression of psychologists was that they were of no help. He did not feel a connection with any of the others and had written them off completely. He preferred talking to a representative from a user organization who have led a similar life to himself:

I know that they know exactly how I’m feeling. They have served a prison sentence. And they… They have lived experience, and then it’s much easier to listen to what they have to say, because I know it’s not knowledge that they have acquired through reading. Tommy

Prison officers can also be of help to incarcerated people who experience mental health problems. Nicky said that while he was at a lower security level, he had been to a sports event outside prison with an officer and some fellow incarcerated. He had a panic attack because of all the people who kept arriving at the venue and he had to go outside for some fresh air. The prison officer followed him and was understanding, and told Nicky that he had seen many incarcerated people with similar reactions:

He was understanding and said: It will be OK. After that day at the match, coincidently, he ended up being my primary contact officer. And to socialize me back to society he fixed it so that every weekend he was working we could go to a shopping mall, to try. Little by little, by little. (…) It helped. It did. Yes. Nicky

Although Nicky had no plan to seek help for his anxiety symptoms, he appreciated the support he received from his primary contact officer.

Bobby, on the other hand, had some informal support from fellow incarcerated and had also talked with a priest. He said that he often ruminated when he had time alone in his cell and emphasized his need for sharing his thoughts with others and receiving advice. He explained why he preferred to get help from formal sources:

So, to have someone who is an outsider. Who’s not an inmate. Who has got a sensible outlook on life, that can guide you– I think that’s important. (…) Because when you talk to a fellow inmate, then… It can go in the opposite direction, right. Because many have been through major crises, they have lost friends, they have lost family, maybe they have lost their girlfriend and wife, their children won’t speak to them, right? Bobby

Most participants also held the prison priests in high regard and appreciated the availability of the service. However, talking with a priest was not seen as a replacement for a consultation with a psychologist:

It was peculiar, when I asked for someone to talk with, the priest was offered first. For me it is alright, I go to church. But I’m thinking, if someone is not a Christian. I’m like: a priest? Or if you’re not religious. A session with the priest is more like a consultation towards God and his will. He can be a good listener [the priest], but you might not get the help you need in a mental sense. So, a psychologist, a “talking person” in prison is necessary. That could check on you sometimes.

This study’s findings demonstrate that many of the factors deciding access to mental healthcare are firmly rooted at the organizational level of the correctional and healthcare systems. Prisons in the Scandinavian countries, including Norway, are presumptuously humane compared to harsher correctional settings in other parts of the world. One could assume that these favorable conditions would be more conducive to mental healthcare access. However, the systemic barriers we found largely overlapped with challenges reported in other countries [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]. In addition, we found that individual beliefs, attitudes and aspirations also influence willingness to seek mental healthcare. Interestingly, most of these intrapersonal factors are tightly interwoven with the participant’s appraisals of how the prison conditions influence their mental health. This study also addresses an important knowledge gap in the literature, namely how restrictions on access to mental health information could influence mental health help-seeking for people in prison. The identified core category, “Breaking down barriers”, reflects an overarching focus on solutions to improving mental healthcare access based on the experiences of the participants in this study.

Access to health information

Knowledge of available services and how to access them is a prerequisite for mental health help-seeking [ 80 ]. The participants in our study claimed that information about mental health services was unsatisfactory, and lack of such information has also been noted as a barrier to help-seeking in other prison-based studies [ 44 ]. Moreover, sufficient levels of mental health literacy are positively associated with increased intentions for help-seeking from both informal and formal sources [ 81 ]. The participants in our study reported severely restricted access to their preferred sources of health information and a dependency on others to obtain such information. Since information seeking may occur before individuals are ready to share their health concerns with others, having to rely on others for accessing information is a potential barrier for recognizing mental health problems [ 25 ]. Thus, it is likely that the limited access to mental health information negatively impacts incarcerated persons capacity to manage their own mental health needs. The potential consequences of restrictions on access to health information among people in prison need more research attention. However, findings from other populations suggest that closing the apparent health information gap could be an important intervention for improving help-seeking for mental health problems [ 82 , 83 ].

The social influences on accessing mental healthcare

The participants reported that prison culture reduced their willingness to seek support from fellow incarcerated and the use of professional help for mental health problems. The TBP element “subjective norms” posits that beliefs about the opinions of others may influence the willingness to seek help [ 29 ]. Attributing mental health problems to personal weakness may reflect a stereotyped attitude involved in stigmatizing mental disorders [ 84 ]. Stigma may lead to concerns about what others might think if one were to seek help, and may delay or hinder help-seeking efforts [ 80 , 85 ]. It also seemed to be an important constraint to mental healthcare access in our study. This corresponds with findings from other studies [ 45 , 46 , 47 ] and suggests that fear of appearing weak is also a significant barrier to help-seeking in a Scandinavian prison context. Based on our findings and recommendations, we advise that focus on health education and normalization of mental health problems are measures that could decrease stigma [ 86 ], and increase willingness to seek mental health support and treatment among people in prison.

Although the culture among those incarcerated was perceived to discourage seeking support for mental health problems, fellow incarcerated also played a key role in supporting those who experienced mental health problems. They were more available than other help sources and had lived experience with distress related to imprisonment. Since information about available services was insufficient, fellow incarcerated were also perceived as an important source of information. Thus, naturally occurring peer support seemed to normalize mental health problems, possibly reducing stigma and lowering the threshold for mental health help-seeking. From the literature, we know that peer-based health interventions is effective in correctional settings [ 87 ], and formalizing peer-based health information and support could be beneficial in interventions aiming to increase the use of mental health services.

Beliefs and motivations for help-seeking

The prison environment was embedded in the participants’ beliefs: attributing the onset and worsening of mental health problems to the prison conditions was common among the participants. According to the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), attitudes about the potential benefits of help-seeking and alignment with individual goals affect the readiness and willingness to seek professional help [ 29 ]. Our data supported this notion. Some participants abstained from seeking professional help as they did not see how it might benefit them in their goal of improving their living conditions. For others, a prominent motive for seeking professional help was to receive validation and help managing their challenging life situations and the everyday stressors of prison life. A few participants also framed mental health help-seeking as a mission to document the consequences of imprisonment. By sharing their experiences with professionals, they hoped healthcare personnel could help them advocate for better conditions in prison. Obtaining sufficient knowledge about essential aspects of prison life is essential for health professionals working in a prison setting [ 88 ]. Based on our findings we propose that the ability of healthcare staff to communicate their understanding of the influence of prison living conditions on mental health is crucial for gaining trust and building an alliance with their incarcerated patients.

Another important motivator for many participants seeking help was their aspirations to live a law-abiding life after being released. It has been increasingly recognized that the relationship between mental disorders and criminal activity is complex and that integrated treatment that addresses both criminogenic factors (i.e. antisocial attitudes and behavior, substance use, criminal network, family issues and low educational/vocational engagement) and mental health issues is a must to prevent recidivism [ 89 ]. This view corresponds with the beliefs and preferences for rehabilitation and healthcare of several participants in our study. They were worried about their reintegration into society, which motivated them to seek professional help. Substance use treatment, in particular, was seen as essential to attaining rehabilitative goals. However, some participants who had served multiple sentences were less positive towards help-seeking. They had more negative experiences and seemed less hopeful that mental healthcare could improve their situation. Their low expectations for potential gain combined with a perceived lack of personal control in the help-seeking process, appeared to stall help-seeking for these participants. We suggest that implementing health services with a concurrent focus on addressing both criminogenic needs and mental disorders could be especially important for fostering healthcare utilization for people with a history of reoffending.

Organizational barriers to accessing mental healthcare

The perceived challenges with the paper-based request system were considered a significant barrier to healthcare access. TPB postulates that behavioral control and self-efficacy are important in help-seeking [ 29 ]. In a system where autonomy is limited, one could assume that a self-referral system can be empowering for those seeking help. However, the participants seemed to experience the opposite as they were left passively waiting for an answer to their request. Some also expressed confidentiality concerns, as they believed that prison officers read the request notes. Thus, the process of accessing health services seemed to diminish, rather than enhance their notions of control and self-efficacy. Improving the reliability of responses to requests and ensuring confidentiality could increase the experience of control in the self-referral process and may also empower imprisoned persons to seek help.

A barrier rooted in the interactions between the individual and the helping services was found in various expressions of skepticism towards “the system” by many participants. Earlier studies have also reported distrust in the system as a barrier to help-seeking [ 41 , 44 ]. Our results elaborate on these findings as the participants spoke of how suicides and severe self-harm by fellow incarcerated people contributed to diminished faith in the system. Some had voiced concern over the health and welfare of peers and had experienced that they were not listened to by the prison officers. According to the participants, many of their fellow incarcerated people had more severe symptoms of mental health problems and did not seem to have access to the help they needed. This confirmed their beliefs that the system took little interest in their mental health, and for some of them this led to a growing feeling of hopelessness and resentment. In addition, the high prevalence of mental disorders in prison implies that incarcerated persons witness people in severe distress regularly and for prolonged periods. This issue is largely unexplored and unrecognized in prison research, and the impact of these experiences on mental well-being and recovery should be investigated further.

Participants who experienced mental distress and adjustment problems had difficulties in accessing mental health services. They needed someone to talk to about their situation that could give them advice on how to cope, however they did not fulfil the criteria for secondary mental health services. Minor mental health problems in Norwegian prisons are to be handled by the prison healthcare services. However, according to the participants their capacity is very limited. This finding corresponds to other studies [ 90 ] documenting that access to integrated mental health services was limited for those with milder mental health problems. In the community, the establishment of low threshold services for people with mental health problems has been an important commitment as early intervention can prevent the development of more serious conditions. This may be even more important for those imprisoned, since coping strategies such as physical activity and seeking social support are less accessible [ 91 ].

Prison officer’s influence on access to mental healthcare

Prison officers were perceived to have a key role as gatekeepers to healthcare. Officers can facilitate access to healthcare by encouraging help-seeking or directly contacting healthcare services based on observations and conversations with incarcerated individuals [ 39 , 41 , 92 ]. The participants in our study pointed out the need for prison officers to take their health concerns more seriously, and that the threshold for contacting healthcare services by their request was too high. In addition, being asked directly about their psychological state by staff members was seen to ease talks about mental health by the participants. Our results support the notion that prison officers that are responsive to the mental healthcare needs of incarcerated persons could build confidence that these needs would be attended to when required [ 92 ]. Thus, ensuring sufficient mental health knowledge and awareness among prison officers of their role in mental healthcare access is an essential task for correctional systems.

Previous studies have found that the correctional systems´ procedures for managing suicidal risk is a potential obstacle for help-seeking. The fear of being moved or placed in a safety cell without personal belongings was identified as a barrier to disclosing suicidal thoughts [ 39 , 93 ]. In Norway, the risk of self-harm and suicide is ideally handled by increasing social contact, activities, monitoring and healthcare. However, in the face of acute mental crisis and severe suicide risk, placing persons in solitary confinement is not an uncommon practice [ 94 ]. Challenges with having incarcerated persons admitted and treated in specialized health care institutions, understaffing, and a lack of central guidelines for handling suicide risk may contribute to the use of solitary confinement for incarcerated persons in acute mental distress in the Norwegian correctional system [ 94 ]. The Norwegian Parliamentary Ombudsman reports that fear of solitary confinement and being placed in a security cell is a barrier to seeking help for suicidal ideations and plans [ 95 ]. In our study, participants who had asked for help when they were in acute distress experienced that the officers assumed that they intended to harm themselves. They were faced with the potential of being transferred to a higher security level or being placed in solitary confinement. Thus, how prison officers respond to incarcerated persons’ reports of acute mental distress could be of critical importance for their willingness to seek help for mental health issues in the future. However, more research on the perceived and actual consequences of disclosing mental distress and suicidal ideations in prison is needed to inform interventions to promote help-seeking.

Enhancing access to mental healthcare in prison

The participants underscore some conditions that may lower the bar mental healthcare utilization. Earlier positive experiences with mental healthcare in the community was mentioned by participants as important for their willingness to seek such services in prison, which also corresponds with findings in earlier studies [ 42 , 96 ]. In addition, the participants saw mental health services that were outreaching and integrated as positive. A few participants also highlighted mental health screening at reception to discover mental disorders that may need intervention. Screening at intake, and outreaching and integrated services are also recommended in the prison research literature [ 88 ]. Our findings show that these recommended measures may also make intuitive sense to incarcerated persons - common for all of them are that they seem to reduce stigma related to utilizing mental healthcare.

Our results indicate that incarcerated persons with both milder and more severe mental disorders experience barriers to accessing mental healthcare. These results are in line with studies from other correctional settings reporting unmet needs due to challenges with access and delivery of mental healthcare [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. The underutilization of mental health services by incarcerated persons suggests that the ‘degree of fit’ between their needs and the available mental healthcare requires improvement. The World Health Organization (WHO) advocates for correctional systems with health and well-being as an integrated part of their core business and culture [ 33 ]. Along these lines, we found that participants called for a correctional system with mental health higher on the agenda. Some also preferred to seek help for mental health problems from other sources than mental health professionals. This finding supports the recommendation of the WHO that it is important to build mental health competency in all staff members in contact with those imprisoned. As many of the barriers to mental healthcare utilization are rooted in the wider correctional setting, we also suggest that the correctional and healthcare systems, in collaboration, should review their practices to enhance perceived efficacy in accessing healthcare.

Limitations

The data in this study are based on interviews with fifteen participants from three prisons. The participants were self-selected and may have had more knowledge, interest, and willingness to talk about mental health issues than the average person in prison. We cannot claim that the results represent a complete account of access to mental healthcare and help-seeking among incarcerated persons in Norway. However, our findings were consistent with findings from other studies from Norway and correctional settings in some other countries. We have presented details about the participants, method, data, and context to allow others to consider the potential transferability of the results. We hope our findings encourage further research on access to mental healthcare for people in prison.

Mental healthcare that is outreaching and integrated is perceived to facilitate access and decrease stigma. The correctional system should address access to health information, the referral system, and their responses to incarcerated persons who disclose distress to facilitate access to healthcare. Our results also indicate that mental healthcare extends beyond the scope of health services, suggesting that sufficient mental health knowledge and agency is needed at all levels of the correctional system.

Data availability

The data produced in the course of this research is not openly accessible owing to considerations regarding privacy. However, they can be obtained from the corresponding author upon a reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Theory of planned behavior

Mental health literacy

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the study participants and the correctional facilities for their cooperation.

Open access funding provided by UiT The Arctic University of Norway (incl University Hospital of North Norway). The study was supported by a grant from the North Norway Regional Health Authority (Helse Nord RHF). The funding body had no role in study design, data collection, analysis, or writing of the manuscript. The study was supported by the Publication Fund of UiT The Arctic University of Norway.

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Solbakken, L.E., Bergvik, S. & Wynn, R. Breaking down barriers to mental healthcare access in prison: a qualitative interview study with incarcerated males in Norway. BMC Psychiatry 24 , 292 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05736-w

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Criminology, Sociology and Policing at Hull

Student research journal, women in prison: from a critical analysis of female imprisonment, towards a female centred approach to penology.

This dissertation aims to investigate the impact that prison has upon female offenders with regard to the criminal justice systems treatment of women in England and Wales. Research on this topic is needed because there is an identified gap in the literature pertaining to women in prison, and such data that does exist, is fragmented and thus fails to adequately address women’s needs. This study will undertake a secondary analysis of existing research in order to consolidate current data and bridge the identified gap. The findings of this dissertation are that women have been excluded from criminal justice rhetoric for too long, and that given their complex needs and vulnerabilities, prison as a form of punishment enacts disproportionate harm upon women. Despite the evidence attesting to this, there is still a noticeable lack of public and political will for tangible criminal justice reform. This leads to a number of gendered and differential inequalities that are systematically imposed upon women at the hands of the prison system and the criminal justice system at large. It is concluded that it is this lack of public will that presents the largest barrier to achieving a more proportionate and appropriate form of punishment for women in the criminal justice system. To tackle these harms and inequalities, this work recommends implementing a policy of decarceration for women and adopting an overall shift towards a female centred approach to penology.

Author: Jodie Corke, September 2019

MA in Criminal Justice and Crime Control

Acknowledgements

Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Paul Dearey for his support and guidance in conducting this research and writing this dissertation.

I would also like to thank my grandparents, Janet and Christopher for their generous and plentiful gifts of strength, time and advice.

Lastly, I would like to acknowledge my mum and dad – without their love and encouragement, this work would not have been possible.

Introduction

Women in the criminal justice system have consistently accounted for just 5% of the prison population in England and Wales – as of June 2018 this equated to 3,803 female prisoners compared to 78,970 male prisoners (Ministry of Justice, 2018a). Perhaps due to this relatively low number of female prisoners, compared to men, there appears to be insufficient research within the current academic literature on both women as offenders and the impact that prison has on them. This is not to say that this is a topic that has never before been researched and academically considered; however, one might consider that given the magnitude of the identified problems, the area is certainly under-researched and under-considered. Thus, having identified a gap in the current literature, this work holds value in its attempt to address these chasms by piecing together the fragmented existing research into women in prison, so as to paint a representative picture of women’s experiences as offenders in the criminal justice system.

Chapter one of this work will begin by exploring historical and modern concepts of what it means to be both a woman and an offender, taking a critical approach towards historical concepts of gender and double deviance in order to situate them into today’s landscape. Part of this contextualisation will refer to what it means to be a woman beyond the binary systems of femininity and masculinity. Chapter two will then utilise the findings of chapter one’s pairing of gender theory and criminology to provide a more empirical analysis of women in prisons contextualised experiences. Female offenders have a number of specific vulnerabilities that are not accounted for in current criminal justice practice, which leads to disproportionate harms and deeply embedded inequalities. In this context, ‘vulnerability’ is not taken to mean weakness, but is rather understood to refer to factors that make women more likely to experience harm. Chapter two will explore these vulnerabilities and provide a critical analysis of how prison provides a disproportionately harmful punishment for women given the nature of these vulnerabilities. Building upon the work of chapter two, chapter three will aim to provide a larger discussion for how the harms women face in prison and in the criminal justice system at large, produce a profoundly inequitable experience for women. This chapter will take particular interest in an intersectional approach towards difference and look towards how it provides an excellent framework from which to further explore – and redress – these inequalities with regard to difference amongst women. Having identified that women experience harms beyond those associated with proportionate punishment, and the systematic inequality that prison perpetuates for female offenders, chapter four will look towards the future. The Corston Report’s (2007) recommendations and its impact upon following policy proposals and real-world change (or lack thereof) will be explored in depth. Where problems have been identified, chapter four will aim to fill these gaps with adapted and more considered recommendations. Alternatives to prison as a form of punishment will be explored, placing women at the centre of criminal justice practice, so as to work towards a female centred approach to penology (punishment).

Chapter four will also see this dissertation go on to propose that a policy of decarceration is the most effective and proportionate response to women as offenders in the criminal justice system. The term ‘decarceration’ refers to an extensive reduction in female imprisonment, with prison being used only as a tool by which to incapacitate the most dangerous offenders. A policy of decarceration for female offenders is certainly seen as controversial and faces opposition from individuals across all sections of society – including women themselves (Corston, 2007). However, this dissertation sets out that this opposition is formed out of a lack of understanding of the uniquely damaging and disproportionate punishment that prison as an institution provides for women. Here, it is also appropriate to acknowledge that this work in no way is designed or intended to undermine the plight of the male prison population and the injustices that they may face at the hands of the criminal justice system. Whilst this work may not detail these instances, it is acknowledged that reform is needed across the criminal justice system, for men and women alike. However, female offenders in prison are often a group that go forgotten and unacknowledged; therefore, this dissertation will focus its scope in order to shine a light on the struggles women in particular face and why a policy of decarceration is beneficial for promoting equity across the criminal justice system. Part of this focus means omitting the experiences of women who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and other (LGBTQ+). There is inadequate research on LGBTQ+ women in prison, which poses a dual issue. On one hand, the need for such research is great, therefore it seems counterintuitive to exclude the experiences of LGBTQ+ women in the criminal justice system. However, given the scope of this dissertation, it is simply not viable to include their voices in any meaningful or impactful way, and to try to do so would trivialise their realities and generalise their vulnerabilities.

The overall aim of this dissertation is to provide a critical analysis of female imprisonment with a view towards crafting suitable recommendations as to how the identified problems associated with female incarceration might be alleviated and treatment of women in the criminal justice system might be better improved. The objectives inscribed below are not only achievable, they incrementally build upon each other in order to thread together a cohesive and appropriate focus that works to fulfil and meet the overall aim of this dissertation. They are as follows:

Taking into account contextual factors, what does it mean to be both a woman and an offender in today’s society?
What are the vulnerabilities that are almost exclusively attributed to female offenders and how do they disproportionately impact upon the harm female offenders experience in prison?
How does prison as an institution perpetuate inequality for female offenders?
How can a policy of decarceration be legitimised and what are suitable alternatives to prison as a form of punishment for female offenders?

This dissertation will conduct a secondary analysis of existing research, given constraints to both time and resources, utilising secondary data facilitates a far more extensive and detailed analysis of female imprisonment than would have been obtainable through primary research (Bryman, 2016). Engaging in further analysis of existing data also allows for “new interpretations” to be gauged from others’ research, re-affirming – or not as the case may be – the importance of the data and its relevance to women’s offending behaviour and subsequent punishment (Bryman, 2016, 312). From this, a number of conclusions can be drawn and new theories and recommendations can be proposed, which not only adds value to this work, but also has the possibility of effecting real-world change. Whilst this dissertation hopes to provide a well-reasoned argument as to why a policy of decarceration should be implemented for female offenders on a national level, if this work achieves this goal by changing just one person’s perspective, it will be considered a success.

For too long, women have been controlled and placed in constraints upon the parameters in which they can exist – both as women and as offenders. Tending to be simultaneously eradicated from embodiments of what it means to be an offender and evaluated through highly gendered lenses that attempt to hyper-feminise women. Such women are constrained by the boundaries of societal expectations and regulation. In today’s society, it is easy to assume that women are no longer placed into ‘traditional’ norms of what it means to be a woman and to some degree this is true – notions of gender and sexuality have made significant leaps and bounds over the past decades (Skewes et al, 2018). Despite this, ‘women as offenders’ is still an area that is significantly under-researched, and, when theorised upon, academia shows that perhaps not as much has changed as society would like to believe (Fitz-Gibbon and Walklate, 2018). This chapter intends to provide an exploration of historical notions of female criminality, drawing upon traditional concepts of femininity and gender theory to contextualise what it means to be a woman – and an offender – in today’s society.

It is important to consider the historical context and development of the female offender throughout time, in order to begin to contextualise the current climate for female offenders in the contemporary criminal justice system. Much of the academic literature on women seems to historically exclude them from involvement with the criminal justice system, despite evidence suggesting that in the early eighteenth century, women accounted for a significant proportion of recorded offenders who had some involvement with the criminal justice system (Feeley and Little, 1991). However, since then there seems to have been a notable decline in women’s involvement with the criminal justice system as offenders, which has led to the concept of ‘the vanishing female’ (Feeley and Little, 1991). This notion of ‘the vanishing female’ refers to the systematic eradication of female offenders from history, instead promoting a consciousness that crime is – and always has been – a “male phenomenon” (Feeley and Little, 1991, 723). Of course, over time laws have changed – laws which were designed to persecute and demonise women specifically, such as laws pertaining to witchcraft and infanticide, acknowledged as “distinctly female offences” (Feeley and Little, 1991, 734). However, whilst there may be some decline in such targeted regulation of female ‘criminality’, which may in turn account for some decline in the recorded and acknowledged presence of women as offenders; there are still many barriers which prevent academics from being able to accept this as a sufficient reason for the decline in recorded involvement of female offenders within the criminal justice system. Not only have women long been charged on account of committing crimes that do not fall under the purview of female offences, but they still continue to face criminal repercussions for crimes that do – namely prostitution (Feeley and Little, 1991). When faced with such juxtaposed explanations of why representation of female criminality has declined (or as the case may be, why it has not) scholars and practitioners alike are faced with searching for an adequate response to the lack of female criminality in societal consciousness.

One may contend that the most adept explanation for ‘the vanishing female’ is the evolution of gender roles and their pervasiveness in society. In an attempt to understand crime and criminality, there is often a tendency to only consider the current social, political, cultural and economic climate, as the first indicator as to why people commit crime and how society can regulate and punish these individuals. However, when considering a variable such as gender, perhaps a “broader perspective is needed” in order to adequately capture the role it has fulfilled across history and will continue to in the future, in regard to the criminal justice system (Feeley and Little, 1991, 721). Only then will it be possible to consider gender as a central construct within criminology; which is particularly pertinent as it is arguably gender stereotypes which shape the degree of criminality and culpability that is associated with women. This is certainly supported by the thought that stereotypes of female offenders are often rooted in traditional notions of masculinity and femininity, which work to create a dichotomy in the treatment of women in the court process. Whilst some stereotypes work to alleviate women’s culpability – which is problematic in and of itself – others work to present women as double deviants. The concept of the ‘offender’ as an entity unto itself, possessing its own identity, provides an interesting point of contemplation when considering female offenders in particular. There is certainly a perceived notion that criminality and as such the ‘offender’, is inherently male, rather than female – a byproduct of women’s eradication from historical notions of criminality (Feeley and Little, 1991, 723).

The overt lack of visible female representation in criminal justice records and subsequent literature most notably presented severe implications with the emergence of feminist criminology – a perspective that gained in strength with the rise of second wave feminism in the 1960s and an emerging “cultural shift” in western society (Heidensohn, 2012, 123). Revolutionary at its time, feminist criminologists made advancements so notable, they have gone on to “pioneer” the entire academic sector of gender and crime (Heidensohn, 2012, 124-125). Much of this pioneering centred around the unknown as well as the known – feminist critique focused on an apparent failure to recognise women as being a worthy subject within criminological writings (Heidensohn, 1968). Key differences between men and women in the criminal justice system and within crime records were also highlighted as areas which required further research, both retrospectively and looking forward (Heidensohn, 1968). From this point, the academic study of women and crime seemed to flourish, providing literature that worked to deconstruct “notions of gender”, whilst evaluating the merits of rising theories such as ‘double deviance’ and the ‘chivalry thesis’ (Heidensohn, 2012, 126). Both of these theories rely upon traditional notions of masculinity and femininity, which in today’s society one might struggle to define.

The definitions of ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ upon which such theories are based are perhaps best posited by one of the more controversial thinkers, functionalist, Talcott Parsons. Parsons (1956) highlights the key traditional features of femininity and masculinity through their roles in relation to the family; women fulfil the ‘expressive’ role, meaning that they are the primary caregivers, nurturing and caring for the children whilst alleviating the pressures that their husbands face from adopting an ‘instrumental’ role as the breadwinner. These definitions are open to wide interpretation and overwhelming criticism, on the basis that they are seen to promote men’s dominance and relegate women to the private sphere; gender roles are thought to be largely outdated and fail to take account of women’s contemporary presence in the public sphere as well as her role in the private sphere (Lindsey, 2016). However, as a recognised explanation of the origin of gender roles, they do hold weight, and thus provide a foundation from which it becomes possible to see how when women commit crime, they are thought to be doubly deviant (Smart, 1976). Double deviance refers to the view that when a woman commits a crime, not only is she perceived as deviating from being a law-abiding citizen, she is also thought to deviate from her ‘role’ as a woman (Cowen, 1995). Referring back to the concept of the ‘offender’ as being its own entity, it can be seen that when men commit crime, they are judged according to how well they fit with the notion of the ideal offender. For female offenders, their expected behaviour, based on preconceptions of gender roles, immediately fails to match with this profile of the typical offender, which can lead to them facing increasingly subjective (and punitive) sentence variations. Cowen (1995) surmises that this is because where men are judged against offender stereotypes, women are instead judged and sentenced according to how congruent they as individuals compare to the traditional feminine gender role – that of a wife, mother and home maker (Moore and Scraton, 2016). The concept of femininity therefore plays a significant role in a woman’s involvement with the criminal justice system.

Juxtaposing the theory of double deviance is the concept of the chivalry thesis, which suggests that women are treated less punitively in the criminal justice system than men (Grabe et al, 2006). Women are thus placed into a passive role, whereby they are treated more leniently throughout their involvement with the criminal justice system because they are seen as “weak and irrational” (Grabe et al, 2006, 139). However, alleviating women’s culpability can be problematic on a multitude of levels; such behaviour feeds into a narrative that women are overly “emotional”, or that they are inherently “bad, mad, wicked, or weak” (Grabe et al, 2006, 140). Such narratives typecast women into almost pantomime characters – overly simplified and conceived within black and white moral boundaries. This works to erase the very human nature of female offenders, as people capable of both good and evil, with their own stories, experiences and circumstances. The problem with this is that it also feeds into a discourse that suggests that women are incapable of taking responsibility for their actions by negating women’s culpability in their crimes, when the truth is that despite the many factors which do contribute to the reasons why many women decide to offend, such women have still made a rational choice to commit a crime. Simply put, “you don’t go to prison for doing good things” (Skinner, 2019, 13). Fundamentally, this work acknowledges the historical significance of female criminality and how it is interwoven and embedded into the fabric of society, whilst theorising that as the society on top of it has continued evolving and adapting in its own right, so too have public perceptions of what it means to be a woman. It is only in recognising this conflict, that it becomes possible to follow the tangent of female criminality throughout time into today’s society, enabling for poignant and appropriate exploration and understanding of the unique and complex challenges that women in the criminal justice system face today.

The concept that gender is a social construction rather than an innate aspect of personality is not a new one, yet gender norms have continued throughout history to permeate social consciousness, shaping and controlling the way in which we behave and perceive others (Lorber and Farrell, 1991). As such, binary systems of gender – whilst outdated and often redundant – continue to shape social consciousness even today, influencing societal perceptions of what they feel it means to be a woman (Fitz-Gibbon and Walklate, 2018). It is in so many words ‘‘a gender system we simultaneously live and deny” (Williams, 2000, 15). To contextualise theories of double deviance in today’s society, one might look to depictions of ‘ladette culture’ in British media, characterised by an adoption of masculine traits amongst women (Player, 2013). Such depictions include emphasis upon women’s excessive alcohol use, increasing violence and role as abuser (Hickley, 2009). Whilst such behaviour is certainly not desirable of any member of society, these media hysterisations of women’s increasingly ‘masculine’ behaviour demonstrate that there is still prominance placed upon a binary system of masculinity and femininity, with the implication being that these boundaries must not be crossed. Rather than being seen as transcending archaical restrictions of genderised behaviour, when women do not fit the perfect mould of traditional femininity (and it is important to note that they seldom do) it is witnessed as a transgression of behaviour. One might therefore suggest that rather than a double deviance, there is a triple deviance of sorts happening, whereby female offenders are simultaneously judged on conflict between traditional notions of femininity and today’s definitions (or lack thereof) of what it means to be a woman, alongside their criminal behaviour.

By adhering to binary models of gender, more specifically, to a pre-conceptualised vision of what it means to be a woman, there is a danger of prescribing to gender essentialism, which may prove a barrier to achieving gender equality (Skewes et al, 2018). Essentialism fixates gender differences as inherent and determined. This leaves much to be desired in terms of defining what it means to be a woman in today’s society. Whilst this work does not pose that gender differences are “fundamental” (Skewes et al, 2018, 12), nor are they “immutable” (Fitz-Gibbon and Walklate, 2018, 7), it would be remiss to ignore both the facts of those differences which do exist and the cultural, social and historical contexts that continue to directly impact perceptions of gender in today’s society. This is not to justify them, nor to adopt them, but by understanding difference through a lens of gender, it becomes possible to see how these gendered conceptions inflict harm and perpetuate inequality for women, as will be explored throughout the course of this dissertation. This then means that systems of oppression can be broken down and new ones built to redress this inequality, which will bring along with it a deconstruction of these gendered roles, allowing women – and men – to be, and to love, whomever they choose, without the fear of repercussion, or the constraints of an ill-fitting, contextual gendered role. In this image, whilst this work will largely characterise one type of ‘woman’ – she who represents the majority of the female prison population, it does so with great respect and acknowledgement for all types of women, with the view towards prompting a criminal justice system that will benefit all women.

Whilst acknowledging that women no longer fulfil the expectations and requirements of the role of traditional femininity, it is important to recognise that despite this, women are still sentenced and treated inequitably, based on their gender. This contradictory nature is something that proves a significant barrier when considering female criminality and imprisonment in contemporary society, as it not only requires great finesse in conveying the facets of each and how they interweave, but also hinders the ease with which the many and conflicting concepts can be bridged and evolve into a whole theory of justice in regards to female criminality. Thus far, this work has been heavily centred in gender theory and the historical importance of what is means to be both female and a criminal. However, one could argue that up until now gender theory and criminological theory have largely remained separate, meeting only when absolutely necessary. It is intended that this work will draw and pull them into each other throughout the course of this dissertation, however first one must explore not only the gap between gender theory and its relationship with crime, but also delve into the chasm that seemingly exists between existing theory and reality. In order to achieve this, the next step indicated is an analysis of the empirical research into actual life-experiences of women in prison.

Chapter Two

Women in the criminal justice system are often characterised by a complex set of vulnerabilities; their patterns of offending often lead to shorter terms of incarceration (Earle, 2017), their lives are defined significantly more by their children (Cox and Sacks-Jones, 2017) and their histories are regularly characterised by oppression and abuse (Cabinet Office Social Exclusion Unit and Ministry of Justice, 2009). This is not to say that men do not experience hardships beyond what may be defined as proportionate in prison but regards more of a comment on the characterisation of women as a group that cannot necessarily be applied with such rigor to men. Men and women are treated differently, and their experiences of life, and indeed prison are gendered accordingly. When the criminal justice system overlooks women in prison, their voices are lost; experiencing imprisonment not only means that women lose their agency, their families and their personhood, but also speaks to a system that is highly and inequitably gendered. This chapter aims to address these losses, by giving women in prison their voices back.

It is perhaps pertinent to first identify issues associated with short prison sentences for female offenders, as they can lead to unique and notably disproportionate harm. The impact and high frequency of short sentencing decisions on the wellbeing of those women currently incarcerated – particularly mothers – is not to be under-estimated (Masson, 2019). In fact, the magnitude is to such an extent that this work argues that the harm inflicted by prison upon female offenders means that it should be a “place of last resort”, reserved for only the most serious and dangerous offenders (Masson, 2019, 10). A ‘short’ prison sentence is typically used to refer to periods of less than 12 months (Masson, 2019) with around two thirds of women in prison serving a sentence of less than 6 months (Earle, 2017). Under the Criminal Justice Act (CJA) (2003, s.153) “the custodial sentence must be for the shortest term…that in the opinion of the court is commensurate with the seriousness of the offence”, this means that for a sentence of incarceration to be imposed, the crime committed must be judged by the court to be “so serious that neither a fine alone nor a community sentence can be justified” (CJA, 2003, s.152(2)). It is however advised that incarceration as a form of incapacitation, and the loss of liberty that is associated with it must be applied to only the most “dangerous and violent offenders” (House of Commons Justice Committee, 2008, 7).

In terms of functionality, there are a number of problems that short prison sentences incur for the system itself, not least the high cost despite the short time spent incarcerated; short sentences create a high turnover of offenders, which creates a significant workload of processing and paperwork that is constantly being handled throughout the prison and criminal justice system (Ministry of Justice, 2018b). Alternatives to prison custody, for example programmes designed towards drug intervention, where appropriate, would save exponentially on costs (Matrix Evidence, 2009, 9), whilst also serving to address the root causes of female offending. Despite this, the concern here should lie much more with the offender than it does with the criminal justice system and the Government. In order to take this critique even further, one must identify and consider the ways in which short term sentences are dis proportionately harmful, despite logic prompting the assumption that a short term sentence is a proportionate response to low-level offences committed by women. When short term prison sentences are given in response to crime committed by women, rather than acting as a resource from which women can seek help and work towards rehabilitation – whether this be in the form of desistance from crime or through addressing more personal issues such as addiction – short term prison sentences “narrow” the often already limited social support and resources of female offenders (Carlen and Tombs, 2006, 353-354). The amount of time spent incarcerated is not only insufficient to undertake programmes to aid rehabilitation, but also can be seen to exacerbate offending behaviours (Masson, 2019), as evidenced by the high recidivism rate of offenders who have experienced short terms of incarceration (Ministry of Justice, 2013).

One explanation for why there is such a high proportion of short term custodial sentences for women is the severity of their crime. Of those women remanded to prison between 2015 and 2017, the majority were done so for a variety of crimes including ‘drug offences’, ‘miscellaneous crimes against society’ and most commonly ‘theft offences’ (Ministry of Justice, 2018c). At the same time as acknowledging that these are criminal acts, in breach of both moral and legal restrictions, one must also place such crimes into perspective; ultimately these offences are relatively low-level crimes (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017), meaning that under law the shortest custodial term possible must be applied as proportionate to the relatively low-level severity of the offences committed. Such practice can be critiqued on two strands; firstly, the high frequency of short term sentences for female offenders can be accepted as being a proportionate punishment, when viewed based only on the surface layer. To begin to provide a true critique of this legislation, one must look beyond the surface, to see how given that the nature of these crimes is not inherently ‘dangerous’ nor ‘violent’ (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017), awarding prison terms as punishment for these crimes in the first place, actually provides a disproportionate response to the guidelines set out by the House of Commons Justice Committee (2008). Secondly, when incarceration for relatively low-level crimes is used so frequently, it demonstrates how not only is prison not used as a ‘last resort’ for the most dangerous and violent offenders, but it also illuminates how little sentencing authorities take heed of advice not written into legislation and law. The documents and words provided by the House of Commons Justice Committee (2008) seem to be treated with little respect; without the power of active and legal legislation to enforce a greater consideration for female offenders and to implement a structure on how they are sentenced, there can be little advancement. This is but one way that the law is failing to protect and provide adept consideration for female offenders in the criminal justice system.

These harms from both short and long term prison sentences are aggravated even more so for female offenders who have children. It is key to recognise that despite increasing diversity in family representation, a significant proportion of women still fulfill a pivotal role in family life. Of the approximately 12,000 women imprisoned yearly (Prison Reform Trust, 2019), around two-thirds are mothers to children under the age of 18 (Minson, 2015, 2). Yearly, imprisonment separates an “estimated 17,240 children” from their mothers (Prison Reform Trust, 2019), a number that is significant on its own, yet even more poignant when considering the fact that the majority of these women are the sole caregivers to their children, often displacing these children into state care (Cox and Sacks-Jones, 2017, 4-5). A statistic that is even more “acute” for black and minority ethnic (BME) women and communities, which are overwhelmingly lone-parent families headed by mothers (Cox and Sacks-Jones, 2017, 5). Despite the identified need for active and relevant legislation, it may also be seen that when such legislation is in place, it still remains ineffective. In the case of women as both offenders and as mothers, under the Human Rights Act 1998 there must be some consideration given to the welfare of the child under Article 8 which refers to the ‘rights of the child’. This legislation requires sentencing authorities to “balance the Article 8 rights of the child against the seriousness of the mother’s offence” (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017, 11). Around 14% of those children who are forcibly removed from their mothers because of incarceration end up in state care (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017). The consequences of this can be devastating.

Children in care are at a much higher risk of offending behaviour in adulthood (Doyle, 2008), thus creating “intergenerational cycles of offending” (Stone et al, 2017, 297). In one study, the impact of short term sentences on mothers and their children was explored, with great emphasis being placed on the women’s view that they found prison as punishment to also unjustly “punish [their] children”, due to the emotional strain of being separated and the stigmatisation that both mother and child faced as a result of a custodial sentence (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017, 41). In fact, many of these mothers attributed the pain of separation to be the largest deterrent to re-offending, rather than the experience of prison itself, with the observation being made by the women that many of the other women they saw enter prison left “worse than when they went in” (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017, 39). Having acknowledged that short term custodial sentences are disproportionately used as punishment for less serious offences and when considering the high number of mothers who are incarcerated, it becomes clear that such legislation is ineffective at protecting the rights of the child, and indeed the rights of the women being imprisoned (Epstein, 2012). This disregard speaks to the great power and authority that sentencing bodies are awarded; from this it is essential to recognise that alongside a greater implementation of law and legislation (including significant limitations and provisions being placed over sentencing authorities), the real shift that is needed is a societal recognition of the inequitable harms faced by women in prison. Ultimately, “disruption and damage occurs with a sentence of any length, and the ideal outcome, would not be shorter custodial sentences, but fewer” (Baldwin, 2015).

The idea of social control over women, regulating them in their everyday lives and altering the extent to which they engage in criminal behaviour, permeates into the criminal justice system and is mirrored in penal policy for female offenders as it is for women on the outside going about their everyday lives. The concept of power is never quite as potent as when it is placed in the penal system; its key role is in its very nature – that by which the criminal justice system is run and ‘works’. Power is a requisite aspect of discipline, as it allows for one actor (whether this is an individual or the state as a whole) to regulate and control an offender through incarceration as a form of punishment (Thomas, 2003). As such, it can be argued that prison as an institution serves to “disempower the individual, and re-empower the threatened state” (Leder, 2004, 52). This can be particularly damaging when it is applied to individuals who are already vulnerable, marginalised and dis-empowered in wider society. The lives of women in prison are often already characterised by histories of poverty, homelessness, a lack of education (Cabinet Office Social Exclusion Unit and Ministry of Justice, 2009) and extensive abuse (Cox and Sacks-Jones, 2017). Despite recognition of their histories of victimisation, women are further victimised by prison policies; strip searches in particular can be especially damaging as a form of “sexual coercion”, leading to feelings of “powerlessness and undermin[ing] self-esteem and self-worth” (McCulloch and George, 2009, 121-122).

Prison as an institution – at least regarding women in prison – thus mirrors “the gendered structure” of wider society (Davis, 2003, 61). That is, that women’s agency is regulated during incarceration just as it is outside of prison. Historically, women have been coerced through their bodies, a vessel by which they are objectified, sexualised and controlled (King, 2004). A prison sentence has several phenomenological effects upon an offender; firstly, in a physical sense, it removes the familiar space in which an individual exists as prison is designed to “constrict”, “rupture” and “disorientate” (Leder, 2004, 57). By this, it means to literally reduce the space in which the offender resides, deny access to areas that are not directly designated and in no way mimic the home comforts, instead favouring spaces that promote easy surveillance and segregation. Secondly, there is a more meta deconstruction of this concept of power; in order to situate these power relations into a criminal justice landscape with regard to female imprisonment, one only has to look to the work of Foucault. Foucault (1995) sought to explore power relations through the concept of the body and how dominant expressions of power are used to subjugate and manage others. Contextually, Foucault (1995) presented this concept through the exploration of punishment and discipline. The organisation of punishment through the structurally stagnant penal system is a force by which offenders in custody become ‘docile bodies’. That is, the removal of agency through tools such as enforced routine and extreme regulations upon behaviour, discipline the body to such an extent that it creates an oppressed and docile group who submit to the power enforced upon them (Foucault, 1995). Foucault’s work is simultaneously affecting and flawed for feminist scholars, leading to extensive critique for his “gender neutral” approach towards relations of power and the body, disregarding the nature of power between men and women (King, 2004, 33). However, this does not render his work ineffective, by adopting Foucault’s concept of power, one can see how the nature and effects of prison act as an extension of the ‘gendered structure’ of society. Yet, these are not malleable bodies, these are women’s bodies, subjected to a duality of regulation, specifically punishment of being an offender through a regime that victimises.

However, to place the individual offender into a passive, docile role is to ignore the mechanisms of their own conception of the world around them – one that reduces significantly upon incarceration. In acknowledging this, it then becomes possible to develop an understanding from the perspective of the very people that experience prison as an institution. By opening up a dialogue with female offenders it provides researchers, academics and policy makers with an understanding of prisoner’s experiences through a narrative that describes a female prisoner’s “life-world” (Leder, 2004, 52). This can be seen in the way that female prisoners negotiate and manage power imbalances. Historically, there has been a view that a prisoner’s act (in any form) is equated to one of resistance, directed against the dominant power exerted over them (Ferraro and Moe, 2003). However, Rowe (2015, 332) takes the view that demonstrations of agency are merely acts of “problem solving” as opposed to a more targeted resistance. In this light, female prisoners must learn how to live within the boundaries imposed upon them by the penal system and manage perceptions in order to exert agency, in a system that is designed to remove it. Rowe (2015) demonstrates this via the testimony of women in prison, taking their own narratives and experiences and conveying them in such a way that the women are both seen and heard, rather than lost within the data.

One such experience is that of Joanne, a prisoner at New Hall, who helps Rowe (2015) explore the influence that prison has on prisoners’ inter-personal relationships. Their relationships are lived but also observed, which means that an experience that might otherwise be labelled as a routine argument, resulting from a mutual conflict, becomes an accusation of bullying, which thus requires the interference of prison officers as an over-arching authority on their relations with each other. In order to manage this power dynamic, prisoners may turn to alternative means in order to achieve agency by taking knowledge of the institution they reside in and using it to their advantage. An example of this is given by Joanne who recalls a situation wherein a prisoner fabricated an incident with another prisoner, which resulted in them being moved to another wing, as a means of exerting agency over whom they lived with (Rowe, 2015). By taking “indirect” action, which has been raised as an act which a prison officer might see as “manipulative”, Rowe’s explanation of ‘problem solving’ rings sincere, as a means of prisoners managing agency and power within the confinements and impositions of the penal institution, and reduction of their life-world (Rowe, 2015, 337). Having this comprehension shapes the discourse on women in prison, positing them as human beings with thoughts, feelings and experiences, rather than as a statistic buried in a report or a demonised and distorted version of themselves.

The gendered structure of prison means that women experience harms far beyond that which might be deemed proportionate. These harms are systematic and deeply ingratiated into the penal system, presenting a picture that whilst seemingly banal, is overwhelming in its testament to the quite frankly devastating impact that prison can have upon women. In the face of such pains, women’s resilience is certainly something to be admired, but ultimately should not have to exist in the first place. A criminal justice system that is fair and just in its application of punishment would not only promote parity between men and women but would also mitigate such harms beyond those which would be a necessary requisite of punishment – something that the current system starkly fails to achieve. Given such evidence, it is difficult to comprehend why equality is still not an actively prioritised agenda within criminal justice and prison reform.

Chapter Three

There is no shortage of legislation on promoting gender equality in wider society and within the criminal justice system itself. The Equality Act 2010 incorporated and bound together various legislation on gender equality, cementing the principles of the Equality Act 2006 towards taking a more proactive approach in tackling discrimination and advocating for equal opportunity for women. The capacity of such legislation on addressing the specific needs of women and its ability to provide redress for historic gender inequality is significant in its potential. However, despite the existence of such comprehensive and considered legislative frameworks and indeed multiple policy proposals that would attempt to advance gender equality within the criminal justice system – of which the Corston Report (2007) is perhaps most notable – any action taken in terms of practical change appears to be both intangible and insignificant (Player, 2013), meaning that the true potential of this legislation is not being met. Due to this the focus of this chapter is not so much on the lived experience of a female offender but rather more of a commentary on the criminal justice system itself and its justifications behind female incarceration, culminating in an exploration of what equality means in the current criminal justice climate for women and why attaining it should be a priority across all sections of society.

There appears to be a notable difference between “logical and political necessity” with regard to prison as a form of punishment for crime (Carlen, 2013, 220). The “state’s ‘power to punish’” and the Government’s political power in the area of criminal justice is derived from a public will for it (Carlen, 2013, 220). Thus, in order for the state to maintain the current justice system for female offenders and continue utilising prison as a form of punishment for women, there must be some form of public support, giving prison as an institution “popular legitimacy” (Carlen, 2013, 220). However, the conditions for this public support do not exist in isolation – they are subject to differences in the cultural, social and political landscape of the time. These attitudes play a significant role in the experiences that women as offenders in the criminal justice system seem to face, which for the purposes of this work can be loosely positioned into three key stages; sentencing, imprisonment and release. Each of these stages present women with unique obstacles based on their gender and can be used to comprehensively highlight how the current criminal justice system provides an inadequate, harmful and overwhelmingly inequitable response to the crimes committed by women. As such, whilst there must therefore be some form of ‘political necessity’ for prison as a form of punishment for female offenders, that does not mean that there is also a ‘logical necessity’. This leads to the question of why there is a public and political will for female incarceration, when it can be posited that oftentimes such political necessity is inherently illogical.

The criminal justice system’s failings regarding providing an equitable process for women arguably begins at the first identified stage: sentencing. Namely, in the continued (and increasing) frequency and severity with which it applies custodial sentences for female offenders (Player, 2013). In a changing world that is placing an ever-growing importance upon gender equality, there still remains space for the argument that gender equity means mirrored sentences as a proportionate response to similar crimes committed by men and women (Player, 2013). This standpoint is recognised as a “gender neutral” approach, which suggests that sex should not be factored into sentencing decisions; this term is most prominently recognised as the advice of the Sentencing Advisory Panel (SAP) (2010, 68). These guidelines were accompanied by a token acknowledgment of the diverse impact and harms that resulted from custodial sentences in the case of gender differences, yet failed to provide guidance on how courts might practically factor such differences into their decisions, beyond calling upon them to partake in their own consideration of such matters (Player, 2013). This is a gross failing of the Sentencing Advisory Panel. A gender neutral approach not only promotes ignorance of the severity of gender differences that result from custodial sentences, but could also be argued to diminish the importance of women themselves and their repressed position in society; these guidelines demonstrate a systematic failing within the political sphere in addressing women and their place in the criminal justice system. The SAP acknowledges that the resulting harms caused by prison are both gendered and inequitable yet fails to address these harms in any meaningful way. The implication here is that these harms are seen as a reasonable and unavoidable consequence of what the SAP view to be a fair and equal sentencing process. This not only minimises and undermines the disproportionate harms women face in prison, it also places higher importance upon the equality of the process than it does upon the outcome.

This opens the topic up to a much wider debate around equality of opportunity versus equality of outcome and it would be remiss not to acknowledge the highly controversial nature of such a politicised debate (Phillips, 2004). The concern here however is that the women that initially sparked such a debate will get lost in amongst the political caricatures, in both this work as in real life. This is echoed in the work of Baroness Corston, who suggests that the chasm between legislation and practice may be perceived in such a way that a complete agenda for women in the criminal justice system – more specifically a policy of decarceration for female offenders – presents itself in some manner as “highly controversial” in nature (Corston, 2007, 16). At the same time as suggesting this is how the issue may be perceived, Corston denies in no uncertain terms that it is in any form a controvertible matter (Corston, 2007, 16). This may provide some form of explanation for why there is a lack of both public and political will for change to women’s agendas in criminal justice practice. Despite arguments attesting the generalisation of such a statement, society is permeated with “widely shared beliefs that women are already treated more leniently than men” (Player, 2013, 284). Thus, if public opinion is reliant upon and exists under the influence of the political and cultural climate and if equality between men and women is rooted in the notion of universality (in this instance meaning the same sentencing guidelines), then public will is likely to view any divergence from this as promoting leniency for women (Player, 2013). Given that political agendas are structured to gain public support, any public resistance instigated by ‘controversial’ perceptions of equality and justice, deny female centred agendas the ‘legitimacy’ they need in order to be practically implemented, as explored by Carlen (2013).

The second and third stages: imprisonment and release respectively, appear to be significantly more complex in their relationship with equality and female offenders. There are many threads by which it is possible to criticise the criminal justice and penal systems, but what is to follow is felt to be the most inclusive account of impediments that women in prison face as barriers to equitable treatment. It is by no means an account of every inequality faced by female offenders, but it is hoped that it conveys the truly terrifying scope and power of the penal system and the institutional barrier it poses to gaining equality for women in the criminal justice system. Common-sense by definition is understood as being a rational and logical view of the world and its workings – it is by all means based on consensus and mutuality of thought (Carlen, 2013). As such, it possesses a great deal of resistance and resilience towards contrasting explanations of various systems, in this instance those explanations as conveyed by theoretical understandings towards the inner-workings of female criminality and prison reform (Carlen, 2013). In an attempt to understand the chasm between will (both public and political) and the evidence (both theoretical and academic), Carlen (2013) sheds light upon the language that is adopted around prison reform and women’s experiences of custody through the utility of ‘common-sense’ discourse and ‘theoretical’ discourse.

Under various reports conducted with the hope of prison abolishment reform, terminology and language appear to have changed manifestly; In 2000, the Wedderburn report, commissioned by the Prison Reform Trust, saw the complete erasure of theoretical terms that can be used to directly identify marginalised groups (notably ‘class’, ‘race’ and ‘sexuality’) in favour of the term ‘social exclusion’, as understood to be a more common-sense term. This report, which was written with the interests of female offenders in mind, towards “reducing… imprisonment” and “improving treatment” (Prison Reform Trust, 2012, 1) has had a number of unfortunate consequences, firstly, by excluding an already under-represented section of society. This exclusion is a direct result of the change in terminology as such terms are not as irrelevant as the aforementioned report and subsequent literature would have you believe and thus cannot be brushed over, as they speak to an identity, rather than being used merely as a label. That is to say that such terms are much larger than being personal characterisations, as they refer to much wider social implications – that of social standing, organisation and most poignantly oppression, based on the very existence and presence of these factors (Baca Zinn and Thornton Dill, 2016).

Another repercussion is that the very people who have claimed to be dedicating their help to reducing female imprisonment have unthinkingly done just the opposite by supporting its popular legitimisation. In her work, Carlen states that the penal system is an active force, in that it has to continuously work to legitimate itself in order to fulfill its most basic function – that of incapacitation, in other words, to maintain its function of “keeping a prisoner in prison”; this is what Carlen has termed ‘carceral clawback’ (Carlen, 2013, 220). The succession of carceral clawback, although a constant motion rather than one singular action, can be attributed in some degree to the ‘common-sense’ principles promoted by abolitionist literature (Carlen, 2013). In a bid to address issues around ‘social exclusion’ and justify the high numbers of women incarcerated, who were understood under the new terminology to be socially excluded (working class or members of BME communities for example), there was a renewed focus upon the benefits of prison as a facilitator of rehabilitation for such women (Carlen, 2013). There is no shortage of evidence attesting to the influence of social factors upon offending behaviour, such as poverty, addiction and homelessness to name but a few (Corston, 2007). Here it is possible to see how the idea of carceral clawback and the role it plays in the criminal justice system has significantly impeded upon attaining equal and just treatment for female offenders in determining custodial sentences.

Fundamentally, it is not possible to justify imprisoning women as a means of rehabilitating them, as the core function of prison as an institution is punishment, in fact it is the “only” common thread that ties female prisoners together (Carlen, 2013). To incarcerate women based primarily on the assumed ability of prison to provide successful rehabilitation for means that are often outside of their control, is both unjust and paternalistic. Most overtly, because of the overwhelming evidence attesting to the fact that prison seldom works as a means by which to reduce women’s reoffending (Hedderman and Jolliffe, 2015). To understand this further, one may look to the moral and ethical implications of such an act to see how these women are being punished for being part of ‘socially excluded’ groups, rather than for their actual acts of criminality. This particular ‘reform’ is designed more so in a way to work on the individual – to change their “beliefs” around their options given the context of their social circumstances, rather than to work to change the external factors themselves (Carlen, 2013, 235). When understanding that the reform tries to change how women view their options, rather than actually providing them with help to adress their options, it becomes impossible to view their policies as a legitimate way of fulfilling a prison’s rehabilitative function. In this instance, the facts have been subjectively interpreted and presented in such a way that infers an inherently positive nature of penal policy and custodial sentences, by placing emphasis upon its rehabilitative functions. This is a form of carceral clawback, whereby women face significant inequalities at the hands of the criminal justice system and more specifically the penal system as a means of maintaining its own political power.

The essence of this work, and the literature it relies upon are inherently, yet seldom overtly feminist in their nature, with much feminist literature studying women in the role of victimhood as opposed to in a role of demonstrated criminality (Chesney-Lind, 2006). Whilst this is not to negate the work that has been and is being done in this sector, there are still significant advancements that need to be made to create an adept and complete charter of feminist criminology. There exists no one feminist theory of criminology and given the often lively and conflicting debate on the matter, at times feminist theory can – and does – contradict itself (Musto, 2019). It is arguably this very nature that allows for critical and well-informed feminist intervention into criminal justice matters (Musto, 2019). For the purposes of addressing the unique issues associated with women in prison, there are two loose explanations of feminism that this work favours, posited more as objectives than definitions, that is to achieve gender equality and to study and observe difference amongst women (Baca Zinn and Thornton Dill, 2016). However, of those existing feminist criminologies (including the extensive work of Carlen) much have been critiqued on the grounds that they fail to adequately take into account the politicised nature of the criminal justice system in favour of promoting a culture of blame against dominant institutions (namely the patriarchy) (Carrington, 2016). In this line of thought, it is a process of everyday normalisation to blame for any apparent inequality in the criminal justice system, rather than an over-arching oppressive patriarchal power (Carrington, 2016). Here, Carrington (2016) fails to acknowledge ties between the grand and the mundane. Whilst the two are not mutually exclusive, it appears obtuse to deny that grand patriarchal systems of power can have a direct impact upon mundane normalised routines and actions – particularly when the subjects of the harms caused by these systems are women.

Carrington (2016) believes that this has come at the expense of specificity for some women in favour of relevancy for all women. On this point, one would have to agree; given the fact that under feminist thought women seem to have a common oppressor, that of the patriarchy, other oppressive systems are often disregarded as being comparatively unimportant (Musto, 2019). This provides an excellent segue into intersectionality within feminism and the impact it has on providing a whole and just account of the diverse women in prison and their unique experiences. Intersectional feminism is concerned with providing a feminist theory for all women, inclusive of differences such as class, sexuality and perhaps most prominently, race (Henne and Troshynski, 2019). This is important not least because of the already identified impacts of prison upon black and minority ethnic women and their communities, such as the erasure of identity through terminology and the paternalistic governance of such ‘socially excluded’ groups through increased incarceration; the implications of this on race especially are significant. By accounting for multiple, layered oppressions, an intersectional approach enables a deeper insight into the experiences of marginalised groups, and the systematic inequalities such groups face. By placing specific focus on women of colour, it illuminates institutional inequalities such as harsher sentences and more punitive treatment (Sudbury, 2010). For these women, they are subject not only to the inequality that arises with being a woman in prison, but this is made all the more acute by the inequality that they face based on their race as well. Having this understanding, enables for reflexive practice, both within the academic discipline of criminology but also provides real-world understanding and solutions, which is essential if we are to enact positive change by mitigating harms to all women serving custodial sentences and provide them with a just and equal form of justice, in whatever form this may take.

However, recognition of difference amongst women is arguably as problematic as it is essential. One of the concerns here is that feminist politics grows to see nothing but difference, which becomes divisive rather than encompassing (Martin, 1994). The concerns of this article remain just as relevant today as they were in 1994, taking on a new form with the focus shifting towards a separation between what is viewed as “normal” (white) as opposed to “different” (women of colour) and the “inequalities” which these distinctions are borne out of (Baca Zinn and Thornton Dill, 2016, 36). In this sense, ‘difference’ can develop negative connotations that imply those women who are different (also largely understood to be marginalised groups) are somehow ‘less than’ the perceived social norm of a universalised woman (Baca Zinn and Thornton Dill, 2016). For women in prison, there is already an observed removal of identity, through loss of agency, loss of familiarity and restrictions to self-expression (Bosworth, 2017). For women of colour, this loss of identity is even more so discriminating as they face erasure through discourse (referring back to the gloss of ‘social exclusion’) that is “color-evasive” (Baca Zinn and Thornton Dill, 2016, 36; Frankenberg, 1993). This succeeds in reducing down and painting over the harms that women from black and minority ethnic groups experience and the inequality they are subjected to during their terms of incarceration. It also cannot be ignored that there is a clear lack of academic literature on the experiences of BME women in prisons across England and Wales; whether this is due to language that suppresses their voices or whether there are simply not enough of such women to gain wide recognition is unknown – what is known however, is that they are an “important part of the story that we need to be listening to” (Skinner, 2019, 1). As such, more research needs to be done into the multi-faceted harms and inequalities that black and minority ethnic women in prison face daily – there can be no true equality for women, until there is equality for all women.

At its essence, the takeaway here is that by acknowledging difference, between men and women and between women themselves, equality does not have to mean the same treatment. In fact, calls for ‘equality’ under the guise of the same routines and policies often lead to worse conditions for women (Davis, 2003). It is for this reason that this piece of work is so important, as it aims to provide an academic and adept response to this viewpoint through an intersectional approach, highlighting its flaws whilst illuminating the hidden harms that arise for women under the guise of gender equality, as is the case when imprisonment is used as a form of punishment. Grand theory along with lived experiences are integral to each other in order to move forwards, both practically and academically – if they continue to exist in isolation, the criminal justice system and its treatment of women as offenders will remain stagnant. As such it is of significant importance to explore how one might marry the two so that they are inextricably linked in order to move the system forwards and begin to look at adequate justice – and care – choices for female offenders.

Chapter Four

What follows addresses a number of societal and systematic failings to provide an adequate and considered response to female offending behaviour. The chapter will provide a synthetisation of these failings, specifically with the intent of drawing appropriate recommendations that might address these inequalities in the criminal justice system, with great attention being paid towards creating a model of criminal justice that is fair, equitable and molded so as to mitigate women’s specific vulnerabilities and harms. Despite public perception, the following recommendations are not always new, or indeed revolutionary, but they are significant in their endeavor to provide a female centred approach to penology.

The first identified failing is that of a significantly under-researched and overlooked group of prisoners – women. Here, it can be seen that an integration of gender theory and penology is imperative in order to effect change. The Corston Report is largely understood to be a seminal piece of research that has shaped all following conceptions of this re-focused insight into women in the criminal justice system (Corston, 2007; Ministry of Justice, 2018d). With a focus upon “women with particular vulnerabilities” the Corston Report identified “the need for a distinct, radically different, visibly-led, strategic, proportionate, holistic, woman-centred, integrated approach” to criminal justice reform (Corston, 2007). The report provided a number of heartening recommendations, including an emphasis on “reducing the women’s prison population”, championing gender equality and devolving prisons into smaller localised facilities for those women who pose a threat to others and as such require some form of incapacitation (Corston, 2007, 81-82). The most promising token of Corston’s (2007, 16) work is the recognition that “equal treatment of men and women does not result in equal outcomes”. It is this conviction which lies at the heart of a female centred approach to penology and is one that incites such passion. The year 2018 saw the recommendations of the Corston Report solidified into the ‘Female Offender Strategy’, which aimed to present a dynamic strategy towards achieving a criminal justice system that catered to the unique and complex needs and vulnerabilities of female offenders (Ministry of Justice, 2018d).

Whilst the strategy greatly favoured solutions to punishment in the community – which was met with sincere and enthusiastic praise by academics – there are a number of limitations that render the strategy both implausible and inadequate (Booth et al, 2018). On a practical level, the allotted funding for the Female Offender Strategy has suffered significantly compared to previously promised amounts – with just £5 million now being set aside (Ministry of Justice, 2018d). Whilst this certainly seems like a lot of money, it simply is not enough to actively follow through on the promised implementations of the strategy (Booth et al, 2018). The Female Offender Strategy also neglects to pay due diligence towards three essential areas of prison reform: restorative justice, impositions on sentencing authorities and the adoption of models working against short sentences. In spite of such promise, it is evident that the recommendations of the Corston Report “have seen a stagnation and loss of momentum…in recent years” (Women in Prison, 2017, 27). As Corston (2007, 16) said “there can be few topics that have been so exhaustively researched to such little practical effect as the plight of women in the criminal justice system”; given the shortcomings of the Female Offender Strategy and the diversion of attention away from a female centred agenda, the sad reality is that this sentiment remains as relevant and as poignant today as it was 12 years ago when the report was written.

The former Secretary of State for Justice, David Gauke (2018) stressed the underuse of alternative forms of justice to prison, such as that of restorative justice. Despite this, any mention of restorative justice seemed to be noticeably absent from the content of the Female Offender Strategy (Booth et al, 2018). Restorative justice provides an excellent alternative to prison, as it surpasses public concerns that community sentences are not punitive enough, as a suitably ‘punitive’ option (Masson and Österman, 2017), whilst proving to be extremely effective at reducing reoffending and diverting women away from the criminal justice system altogether (Larsson et al, 2018). This may be due to the fact that research suggests restorative justice is a deeply painful process for female offenders to experience and as such meets the need of public will to have a punitive aspect to punishment – that is, to make punishment an unpleasant experience (Daly, 2008). There are of course a number of recommendations towards appropriate uses of restorative justice, so as to represent a fair punishment without exacerbating women’s unique vulnerabilities. These recommendations lie mainly in education for all of those involved in the restorative justice process; for police and mediators to have a knowledge of offender’s histories and a sensitivity to previous victimisation, which can pose an adverse risk towards the success of restorative justice, and for women engaging in restorative justice to have an educated knowledge on its practices and purposes (Larsson et al, 2018). With these advisements in mind, restorative justice is arguably the future for a female centred approach to penology, as it mitigates disproportionate harms that arise out of women’s vulnerabilities and complex needs, whilst still fulfilling a symbolic aspect of inflicting punishment upon someone, thus meeting the necessary conditions for public and political will.

The Female Offender Strategy has been criticised on the grounds that it “abdicat[ed]…responsibility with regard to gender-specific guidelines” (Booth et al, 2018, 433). This has several implications, firstly, that it therefore fails to provide a direct and binding counsel over those who possess sentencing power. As identified in chapter two, sentencers are awarded significant power and face insufficient regulation given their extensive capacity to imprison women. This means that women will continue to be improperly sentenced to short custodial terms, concurrently leading to higher levels of recidivism amongst female offenders by embroiling women into patterns of offending, creating more work for the system itself and inflicting unjust harm upon women. Thus, sentencing guidelines that are gender-specific are essential in promoting diversion away from the criminal justice system for women, and for substantially reducing the amount of women in prison – especially those serving short term sentences (Baldwin and Epstein, 2017). However, the lack of accountability that sentencing authorities face when making their decisions also needs to be addressed in order to ensure that gender-specific guidelines are adhered to. To achieve this, one method is to devolve sentencing powers from one judiciary to a panel of judges who are amalgamated from a selection of interdisciplinary bodies, or alternatively, to have this panel report directly to and advise the judiciary. This not only holds those who sentence to accountability, ensuring that women’s needs are being met and that their vulnerabilities (such as children) are being considered, but it also provides for better informed practices, on a number of levels.

One of these levels is in the marrying of academia and practice – two spheres which concern themselves with each other but seem to fail to ever truly meet in a way that enacts meaningful and tangible change. Academics have often been likened to residing in an ‘ivory tower’, a euphemism for the impractical nature of academia, suggesting that it has little real-world impact (Newbury-Birch et al, 2016).By creating a working partnership, academics are opened up to providing research that holds the potential for change by taking an accurate account of the criminal justice landscape, alleviating barriers to access which often obscure the parameters of their work. For criminal justice practitioners, such as prison officers, politicians and judiciaries, this means that they have an evidenced-based account of what works in terms of criminal justice reform, which they recognise as legitimate due to their involvement in the process as collabarative producers, allowing for more considered and informed practice. This interdisciplinary approach is an excellent starting point to criminal justice reform and would significantly benefit both parties involved, but is not the only means by which a multi-disciplinary system can be evolved.

This idea of joined responsibility for research and practice can be replicated across the criminal justice system. The need for reform and evidenced recommendations towards achieving it have not arisen from a small, radical group in society, but rather has seen calls for action from those in politics, in the form of extensive legislation – both in England and Wales itself and internationally, from those in academia and from those on the ground, working with women in prison day in and day out, whether through charitable organisations or the prison system itself (Booth et al, 2018). By utilising these groups and drawing upon their expertise to create a criminal justice system that depends and relies on others’ knowledge, a female centred approach to penology will naturally emerge. Such a framework is “key” in effecting palpable “progress” (Gauke, 2018, 3). This framework will allow for an organic enforcement of women’s rights as the system – balancing upon each other – holds each member accountable, and acts with the interest of the female offender and their vulnerabilities in mind. Expressly, in facilitating awareness and respect for the “diverse forms of ‘family’ alongside women’s lived experience and their histories” (Booth et al, 2018, 434), with regard to building women’s self-esteem and mitigating the impact of stigma upon women and their families and towards a better informed, holistic approach to treatment of women in the criminal justice system. This will present itself in the reduction of incarceration for female offenders, increased support and after-care for womens unique vulnerabilities and in the direct addressal of women’s criminogenic needs.

One such important vulnerability arises out of those created by difference amongst women. This work acknowledges its shortcomings, which were felt acutely but were sadly unavoidable; namely, that there is a noticeable lack of continued consideration for all types of women, signposted by the deficit on research regarding women who identify as part of the LGBTQ+ community, as well as women from black and minority ethnic groups. Arguably, these women’s experiences and hardships within the criminal justice system can be felt even more acutely, but constrictions on this work (time, resources and length to name but a few) meant that this group could not be afforded the depth or recognition which they both deserve and require. This is identified therefore as an interesting and very much needed area of future research, to truly begin to present a full and realistic portrait of the vivid differences found in society and the often resulting friction faced by such women. Such women’s needs and experiences are so complex that it is felt that they would need extensive work focusing on them exclusively, an objective that unfortunately could not be met in the course of this work. An intersectional approach therefore provides an excellent theoretical framework from which to base all future work on, in order to carry out research that is truly intersectional and representative of all women and their experiences within the criminal justice system; one that is wholly inclusive in spite of its exclusivity.

It is important to note that at the same time as acknowledging that processes within women’s prisons do need to be improved and indeed that the institution’s infrastructure needs to be radically reshaped (refer back to Corston’s (2007) proposal of smaller localised units for women), a female centred prison system is not the objective, but rather a female centred approach to penology. The distinction may not seem clear at first, but it is of key importance when looking towards the future of women’s involvement with the criminal justice system. A female centred prison system serves only to re-conceptualise and thus re-legitimise those punitive policies which are so extensively criticised by prison reform rhetoric (Hannah-Moffat, 2002), thereby, rationalising a shift towards a female centred approach to penology. Such an approach relies on a number of changes to women’s punishment, such as the previously explored incorporation of restorative justice, use of multi-disciplinary teams and an adoption of an intersectional, female led theoretical framework. However, the most essential proposal of a female centred approach to penology is an active and compelling policy of decarceration for female offenders. Above all, the primary objective of prison reform should thus be an adoption of an abolitionist agenda. That is, to reduce the female prison population down significantly so that it houses only the most dangerous and serious of offenders. Anything less than a rigorous policy of decarceration is insufficient at addressing the specific needs of women as offenders and will continue to perpetuate deeply ingrained harms and inequalities for women. This is, and should remain of utmost importance, embodying the spirit of prison reform and guiding all future policies. Having acknowledged this, there are however several notable barriers to achieving a fully implemented policy of decarceration, which not only prevent it from being executed with any sense of urgency but also restrict its perceived legitimacy – inhibiting its validity as an achievable and desirable objective and instead presenting it as an aspiration of only a select few.

It could be argued that the current criminal justice system is very much rooted in the ideals of an ethic of justice, which posits that as humans develop, their moral compass evolves to prioritise values of equality and justice (Larrabee, 1993). This may explain in part the desire for a punitive aspect to punishment, as it personifies a moral intent to see justice upheld. Developed as a criticism of an ethic of justice, Gilligan (1982) formulated an ethic of care. “A theory of moral concern grounded in responsiveness to others that dictates providing care, preventing harm, and maintaining relationships” (Larrabee, 1993, 5), principles which assimilate well with the orientations of a female centred approach to penology, even decades later. Much of the literature on an ethic of care is notably dated (see Gilligan, 1982; Larrabee, 1993; Clement, 1996) which can make it difficult to see its relevance in today’s ever-changing and highly politicised society. Gilligan (1982) marketed an ethic of care as aligned with distinctly feminine virtues, which calls to mind notions of women as the caregiver and homemaker, roles which have “traditionally been used to keep women in the ‘private’ sphere” (Larrabee, 1993, 5). This has understandably led to some criticism, particularly from concerned feminist activists. One could propose a new way of looking at Gilligan’s ethic of care however; it is well established by now that there are notable differences between men and women’s offending behaviour and that women in prison suffer an inequitable and disproportionately harmful form of punishment. By creating a theory that is distinctly female-centric (by virtue of placing women’s experiences at its core), an ethic of care subverts systematic tools of oppression (those means by which women have traditionally been excluded from criminal justice narratives) by directly encompassing women’s lived-experiences and the real-life implications of such histories into criminal justice discourse. It is the extreme polarisation of an ethic of care as opposed to an ethic of justice that can be so dangerous as it leads to “uncaring forms of justice and unjust forms of care” (Clement, 1996, 2). The picture painted by this dichotomy is one that is uncomfortably familiar given the nature of today’s criminal justice system and its treatment of women. By drawing upon both an ethic of justice and an ethic of care in regards to abolishment rhetoric, it may become possible to create a whole theory of a female centred approach to penology, as it creates caring forms of justice and just forms of care. That is, a theory which meets women’s needs and accounts for their vulnerabilities, whilst gaining public and political traction as a legitimate form of justice.

Based on the explorations of this chapter, three definitive conclusions can be made. Firstly, that the need for criminal justice reform, specifically in the form of a female centred approach to penology, is both essential and well over-due. The recommendations in this chapter also show that achieving such a model, whilst not a process that can happen overnight, is by no means implausible, nor is it a biased form of justice that ‘let’s women off easy’ so to speak. Thirdly, it is apparent that without dedicated political backing, and strong evidence-based policies and legislation, with its implementation held to account, little progress can be made to criminal justice reform.

This work was structured with the intent to provide a logical and comprehensive response to the identified objectives. This began with a contextual analysis of what it means to be both a woman and an offender in today’s society. As a means of addressing the identified gap in research pertaining to women as offenders, a number of vulnerabilities were established that are shown to make women more prone to suffering harm during the terms of their incarceration. With an understanding of the gendered nature towards these harms, research followed that spoke to a systematic perpetuation of inequality for female offenders. Finally, the dissertation reached its final chapter by providing recommendations towards mitigating these harms and inequalities for women in prison. This structure and its facilitation of a successful meeting of the proposed objectives, meant that the overall aim of this dissertation was effectively and appropriately achieved. This dissertation has provided a critical analysis of female imprisonment and has crafted a set of suitable recommendations as to how the identified problems associated with female incarceration might be alleviated and treatment of women in the criminal justice system might be better improved. What follows is a summarisation of conclusions that can be drawn from the findings of this dissertation as well as a short exploration of both the limitations and the value of this work.

To conclude, there is a distinct and notable lack of research into women as offenders, not only into their experiences in prison, but also in their involvement in crime as a whole, from those factors which might be seen to impact offending behaviours, through to insufficient after-care practices upon release. With consideration being taken to avoid adopting an essentialist point of view, the research highlights that there are multiple and significant vulnerabilities that characterise women’s offending behaviour and subsequent incarceration. More concern needs to be applied to these vulnerabilities, as low-level offending behaviour too often unjustly results in short term sentences that entrench women into the criminal justice system. Women’s family dynamics, specifically their role as mothers, also need to be significantly considered, as well as their histories of victimisation and abuse. This has led to women in prison suffering disproportionate harms and with such little attention being shed upon this problem, there are few evidence-based solutions that are considered to be viable and achievable. There is also a lack of understanding, amongst the public and some practitioners and academics alike, that gender equality in the criminal justice system does not mean mirrored punishments. Gendered structures and systematic oppressions mean that when women experience the same form of punishment as men (prison), they are disproportionately more affected.

With regard to solutions, there are several barriers that prevent tangible change. Firstly, there are a notable lack of practical resources by which reform can be implemented, namely a lack of funding and several inadequacies with the proposed ‘Female Offender Strategy’, as well as other key legislation in the area. However, legislation has been shown not to be enough and more needs to be done to hold sentencing authorities and those in power accountable for their actions in the name of the law. Secondly, this leads to the understanding that without sufficient public will, to provide female centred criminal justice reform with popular legitimacy, and the political support that is derived out of this will, there can be no tangible change for women in prison. In order to garner this public and political will, women have to be significantly more included within criminal justice rhetoric and there needs to be a shift in public knowledge and perception. Such a shift would be facilitated by adopting an intersectional approach that pulls in the principles of an ethic of care and applying these theoretical frameworks to multi-agency workings across the criminal justice system and into wider society. Only then can true and effective reform be carried out. The best method of providing a just form of punishment for women is to adopt a female centred approach to penology. The primary objective of the approach is in the implementation of a policy of decarceration for female offenders, with a view to adopting alternative forms of punishment, such as restorative justice. Then, and only then, can women’s vulnerabilities be accounted for adequately and a simultaneously just and caring form of dealing with female offenders in the criminal justice system be achieved.

Despite the identified need for significantly more intersectional research into LGBTQ+ and black and minority ethnic women, this work has provided somewhat of a starting point from which work in this arena can be built upon. This dissertation has endeavoured to draw together fragmented research on women in prison, in order to present a logical and persuasive account of their vulnerabilities and experiences, in favour of implementing a policy of decarceration. However, even with the overwhelming account of harm and inequality that this work has encompassed, there are still areas that this work has declined to address. Specifically, that it has placed its focus upon only one type of female offender, and even then, this work has provided only a limited account of the vulnerabilities that these women carry – the harm that women in prison experience simply cannot be captured or adequately conveyed in such few words. With that in mind, society must work harder and with more conviction, in order to create a criminal justice system that does not simply respond to the harms and inequalities perpetuated by prison for women but prevents them from being inflicted in the first place.

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Maddow, Rachel. "HIV/AIDS and health care reform in British and American prisons." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.369619.

Vourkoutiotis, Vasilis. "The German Armed Forces Supreme Command and British and American prisoners-of-war, 1939-1945 : policy and practice." Thesis, National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada, 2000. http://www.collectionscanada.ca/obj/s4/f2/dsk2/ftp03/NQ64687.pdf.

Macarthur, Melvyn John. "From Armageddon to Babylon: A sociological religious studies analysis of the decline of the Protestant prison chaplain as an institution with particular reference to the British and New South Wales prisons from the penitentiary to the present time." Thesis, The University of Sydney, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/675.

Wighton, Susan Joyce. "Factors affecting the transmission of hepatitis C in British prisons." Thesis, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (University of London), 2013. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.590544.

Clark, Joannah Kate. "Prison Reform in Nineteenth-Century British-India." Thesis, University of Canterbury. History, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/10695.

Malpass, Alan Patrick. "British attitudes towards German prisoners of war and their treatment, 1939-48." Thesis, Sheffield Hallam University, 2016. http://shura.shu.ac.uk/18156/.

Wilkinson, Oliver. "Challenging captivity : British prisoners of war in Germany during the First World War." Thesis, Lancaster University, 2012. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.616571.

Vourkoutiotis, Vasilis. "Prisoners of war and the German high command : the British and American experience /." Basingstoke ; New York : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb39004889c.

Murakami, Kyoko. "Revisiting the past : social organisation of remembering and reconciliation." Thesis, Loughborough University, 2001. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/33625.

Macarthur, Melvyn John. "From Armageddon to Babylon a sociological-religious studies analysis of the decline of the Protestant prison chaplain as an institution with particular reference to the British and New South Wales prisons from the penitentiary to the present time /." Connect to full text, 2003. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/675.

Macarthur, Melvyn John. "From Armageddon to Babylon: A sociological religious studies analysis of the decline of the Protestant prison chaplain as an institution with particular reference to the British and New South Wales prisons from the penitentiary to the present time." University of Sydney. Society, Culture and Performance, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/675.

Danylyszyn, John William. "'Prisoners of peace' : British policy towards displaced persons and political refugees within occupied Germany 1945-1951." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.394842.

Duche, Elodie. "A passage to imprisonment : the British prisoners of war in Verdun under the First French Empire." Thesis, University of Warwick, 2014. http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/66883/.

Feltman, Brian K. "The Culture of Captivity: German Prisoners, British Captors, and Manhood in the Great War, 1914-1920." The Ohio State University, 2010. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=osu1274323994.

French, Larry T. "POW/MIC: Prisoners of Words/Missing in Canon: Liberating the Neglected British War Poets of The Great War." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2009. https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1857.

Murphy, Mahon. "Prisoners of war and civilian internees captured by British and Dominion forces from the German colonies during the First World War." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 2014. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3072/.

Swift, Richard Anthony. "Academic secondary education in the federal prisons of British Columbia : the guidelines for an alternative program to the general equivalency diploma program." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1986. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/26613.

Hughes, Emma Jane. "Thinking inside the box : British prisoner-students' experiences of distance learning." Thesis, Birmingham City University, 2007. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.445645.

Byrne, Karen Lynn. "Danville's Civil War prisons, 1863-1865." Thesis, This resource online, 1993. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/theses/available/etd-02092007-102016/.

Heitmann, Erin E. "Finding pseudo families in women's prisons fact and fantasy /." Diss., Columbia, Mo. : University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/10355/4940.

Hately-Broad, Barbara. "Prisoner of war families and the British Government during the Second World War." Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2002. http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/3416/.

Dietz, Erik Faust. "Defining 'too close for comfort' environmental and individual determinants of perceived crowding among a federal inmate population /." Access to citation, abstract and download form provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company; downloadable PDF file 0.99 Mb., 180 p, 2006. http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3205428.

Sim, Joe. "Ordering for care and caring for order : medical power in English prisons." Thesis, n.p, 1989. http://oro.open.ac.uk/18914.

Haslam, Jason W. (Jason William) 1971. "Writing from the pen : a study of selected works from American prisons." Thesis, McGill University, 1996. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=23842.

Baucom, Tracy R. "Evaluation of the day treatment program at Brown Creek Correctional Institution : a follow-up study /." Electronic version (PDF), 2004. http://dl.uncw.edu/etd/2004/baucomt/tracybaucom.html.

Lucko, Paul Michael. "Prison farms, walls, and society : punishment and politics in Texas, 1848-1910 /." Digital version accessible at:, 1999. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/utexas/main.

Smith, Juliana Jamel. "The cultural dynamic of the prison industrial complex a critique of political rhetoric and popular film during the 1980's /." Diss., Connect to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2008. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p1450190.

Lazarus, Liora. "Prisoners' rights in Germany and England : a comparative examination." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2001. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:44104e48-0c7e-4fbc-bb77-87dbe37a3e88.

Al, Zamil Khalid M. Z. "The legal status of prisoners of war in Islamic law : assessment of its compatibility with the 1949 Geneva Convention relative to the treatment of prisoners of war." Thesis, University of Hull, 2002. http://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:3568.

Völker, Faye Tameryn. "Psychological therapy in prisons : professionals' perceptions." Thesis, University of Wolverhampton, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/2436/621869.

Whitfield, Joseph Michael. "Punitive cultures of Latin America : power, resistance, and the state in representations of the prison." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2015. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.708874.

Janssen, Volker. "Convict labor, civic welfare rehabilitation in California's prisons, 1941-1971 /." Diss., Connected to a 24 p. preview or request complete full text in PDF format. Access restricted to UC campuses, 2005. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/ucsd/fullcit?p3179290.

DuBois, Kate J. "Bidding at the prison auction house an exchange of prisoners' and university students' perceptions of crime and punishment /." Morgantown, W. Va. : [West Virginia University Libraries], 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10450/10070.

Goldingay, Sophie Jennifer Elizabeth. "Separation or mixing: issues for young women prisoners in Aotearoa New Zealand prisons." Thesis, University of Canterbury. Social Work and Human Services, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10092/3740.

Barkworth, Julie. "Prisons, procedural justice and motivational posturing: Examining prisoners' well-being and compliance behaviour." Thesis, Griffith University, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10072/380563.

Chinnery, Laura. "Threatened lives and fragile relations : the struggle for a valuable existence in two Salvadoran prisons." Thesis, University of Cambridge, 2014. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.708156.

Borrey, Anne. "Ol kalabus meri a study of female prisoners in Papua New Guinea /." Boroko, Papua New Guinea : Papua New Guinea Law Reform Commission, 1992. http://books.google.com/books?id=SpXaAAAAMAAJ.

Polonio, Jeffery Nelson. "Assessing the effectiveness of the California Department of Correction vocational education programs." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 1995. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1085.

Williams, Edward. "Vocational training & recidivism in Missouri state prisons : a social learning theory examination /." free to MU campus, to others for purchase, 2002. http://wwwlib.umi.com/cr/mo/fullcit?p3052232.

King, Susan Therese, and sue king@unisa edu au. "The Changing of the Guard: conceptualisations of prison officers' work in three South Australian prisons." Flinders University. Flinders Institute of Public Policy and Management, 2007. http://catalogue.flinders.edu.au./local/adt/public/adt-SFU20070313.175216.

Schlosser, Jennifer A. "Assessing prisoner identity and redefining victimless crimes an analysis of prisoners at Boonville Corrections Center /." Diss., Columbia, Mo. : University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/10355/4527.

Clarke, Grant Stewart. "Breaking with tradition : role development in a prison-based baccalaureate program." Thesis, University of British Columbia, 1987. http://hdl.handle.net/2429/27661.

Thirumalai, Dhanalakshmi. "Religion and Crime: A Study of Inmates in State and Federal Prisons in the United States." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2004. http://etd-submit.etsu.edu/etd/theses/available/etd-1223103-235401/unrestricted/ThirumalaiD020403f.pdf.

Hulvey, Melinda DeAnn. "Banning Correctional Facility: Residential substance abuse treatment program process survey." CSUSB ScholarWorks, 2000. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/1617.

Kotova, Anna. "'He's got a life sentence,but I have a life sentence to cope with as well' : the experiences of long-term prisoners' partners." Thesis, University of Oxford, 2016. https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:f0112637-cc52-44f5-a979-e205652694b7.

Alms, Maurice H. "Jesus is the key to freedom "so if the Son (Jesus Christ) sets you free, you are free indeed" John 8:36 : (a manual for training clergy and lay volunteers for ministry in correctional settings) /." Theological Research Exchange Network (TREN), 1992. http://www.tren.com.

Morales, Gomez Ana Ivon. "Individual and structural factors affecting recidivism : the role of prisoners, prisons and place in the Chilean context." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2018. https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/individual-and-structural-factors-affecting-recidivism-the-role-of-prisoners-prisons-and-place-in-the-chilean-context(8edcc030-ce5d-4497-acac-3e4d56ed4421).html.

Custodis, Johann. "Employing the enemy : the economics of German and Italian prisoner of war employment in the British Commonwealth during and after the Second World War." Thesis, London School of Economics and Political Science (University of London), 2010. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.599936.

Cooke, Cheryl L. "(Re)presenting African-American men : analyzing discourses on manhood, prison, and relationships /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/7333.

Kenning, Cassandra. "Adapting and assessing the feasibility of a brief psychological intervention for women prisoners who self-harm : a pilot study." Thesis, University of Manchester, 2011. https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/adapting-and-assessing-the-feasibility-of-a-brief-psychological-intervention-for-women-prisoners-who-selfharm-a-pilot-study(ffa42536-680b-4297-99e3-17635ac44238).html.

BU Social Science Students to Headline TedxBU 2024

By: Deborah Carr
April 17, 2024

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Two UGA juniors named 2024 Goldwater Scholars

The designation is the highest undergraduate award of its type for the fields of mathematics, engineering and natural sciences

University of Georgia juniors Elaine “Lainey” Gammon and Sara Logsdon are among 438 undergraduates across the nation to be recognized as Barry Goldwater Scholars in 2024, earning the highest undergraduate award of its type for the fields of mathematics, engineering and natural sciences.

Gammon is from Reno, Nevada, and is majoring in astrophysics. Logsdon is a Foundation Fellow from Potomac, Maryland, and is majoring in mathematics. Both recipients are students in the Morehead Honors College and the Franklin College of Arts and Sciences, and both have received funding from the UGA Center for Undergraduate Research Opportunities.

Lainey Gammon (Photo by Stephanie Schupska)

Since 1995, 67 students at the University of Georgia have received the Goldwater Scholarship, which recognizes exceptional sophomores and juniors across the United States.

“The University of Georgia is proud of Lainey and Sara for their impressive achievements,” said President Jere W. Morehead. “I am pleased that the significant investments UGA has made, and continues to make, in STEM education are paying dividends for our students and our society.”

This year’s Goldwater winners include 57 scholars who intend to pursue research careers in mathematics and computer science, 237 scholars in the sciences, 80 in medicine and 64 in engineering and materials research. Thirteen scholars are from Georgia institutions.

“Lainey and Sara represent the best of undergraduate research at UGA, and we are thrilled that they have been chosen as Goldwater Scholars,” said Meg Amstutz, dean of the Morehead Honors College. “They have had wonderful mentorship from our faculty and staff, whose support helped make this possible. We are excited to see where their research takes them in the future.”

Gammon plans to pursue a doctorate in astrophysics. Her goal is to study galaxy evolution in the early universe and teach at the university level.

“In the field of astrophysics, where the unknown is vast and discoveries require decades of dedication, I believe instilling a sense of curiosity in younger generations is especially crucial,” she said. “Being part of the new generation of astrophysicists is thrilling as each technological leap propels our understanding of the universe.”

As an undergraduate researcher, Gammon worked with Loris Magnani, professor of astronomy at the University of Georgia, looking at a high-latitude galactic cloud using archival data from the Arecibo Observatory.

She also conducted research with Jed McKinney at the University of Texas at Austin through a National Science Foundation REU, or research experience for undergraduates. Her goal was to determine how many dusty star-forming galaxies in the early universe can be identified with the James Webb Space Telescope and estimate their physical properties. She presented her research on dusty galaxies at three national conferences, and the project is expected to be published in Research Notes of the AAS (American Astronomical Society) in May.

In addition to research, Gammon has tutored math and science for six years, worked as an educator at a science museum, played with the UGA Redcoat Marching Band, provided GED tutoring with Athens Prison Tutorial and organized educational outreach events for the Small Satellite Research Lab at UGA.

This summer, she will study abroad in Indonesia with funding from the Honors International Scholars Program and will conduct research as an intern at the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy in Heidelberg, Germany.

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The designation is the highest undergraduate award of its type for the fields of mathematics, engineering and natural sciences University of Georgia juniors Elaine "Lainey" Gammon and Sara Logsdon are among 438 undergraduates across the nation to be recognized as Barry Goldwater Scholars in 2024, earning the highest undergraduate award of its type for the fields of mathematics, engineering ...

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