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Introduction to Technical Communication

The nature of technical communication.

Did you know that you probably read or create technical communication every day without even realizing it? If you notice signs on your way to work, check the calories on the cereal box, email your professor to request a recommendation, or follow instructions to make a withdrawal from an ATM; you are involved with technical, workplace, or professional communication.

So what? Today, writing skills are more important for professionals than ever before. The National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges (2004) declares that writing today is not a frill for the few, but an essential skill for the many. They go on to state that much of what is important in American public and economic life depends on strong written and oral communication skills. A survey by the Workforce Solutions Group at St. Louis Community College asserts many employers are concerned at the large number of college graduates applying for jobs who lack communication skills (White, 2013).

Good communication skills, particularly in writing, are essential for your success in the workplace and in your personal life. The working world depends on written communication because, within modern organizations, almost every action is documented in writing. Furthermore, many kinds of writing, including correspondence and presentations using visuals like PowerPoint, technical reports, and formal reports are prevalent in most workplaces. And the writing must be good, accurate, clear, and grammatically correct. Kyle Wiens (2012) writes in an article in the Harvard Business Review: “If you think an apostrophe was one of the 12 disciples of Jesus, you will never work for me. . . I have a zero-tolerance to grammar mistakes that make people look stupid.”

Check out this video for more ideas about the kinds of writing that will be expected of you, especially if you are in a STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) field.

So How Do we Define this Kind of Writing?

In this text, the word “document” refers to any of the many forms of technical writing, whether it be a webpage, an instruction manual, a lab report, or a travel brochure.

Technical communication is the process of making and sharing ideas and information in the workplace as well as the set of genres such as letters, emails, instructions, reports, proposals, websites, and blogs, which comprise the documents you write. The Society of Technical Communications (STC) defines technical communication as a broad field that includes any form of communication that is about technical or specialized topics, uses technology such as web pages or help files, or provides instruction about how to do something.

Specifically, technical writing involves communicating complex information to a specific audience who will use it to accomplish some goal or task in a manner that is accurate, useful, and clear. Whether you write an email to your professor or supervisor, develop a presentation or report, design a sales flyer, or create a webpage, you are a technical communicator.

Where does it come from? According to the Society of Technical Communication, technical communications origins have actually been attributed to various eras dating back to Ancient Greece (think Rhetoric!) and to the Renaissance. However, we can date writing that communicates technology back to the earliest civilizations, as they documented weather patterns, tool creation and usage, and livestock numbers, but what we know today as the professional field of technical writing began during World War I. The occupation of technical communicator stemmed from the need for technology-based documentation for military and manufacturing industries. As technology grew, and organizations became more global, the relevance of and need for technical communication emerged. In 2009, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics recognized Technical Writer as a profession (STC).

What does technical communication or workplace writing look like? For an example, check out this page from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency about climate change. As you look over this document, consider the following questions.

  • Who is the target audience?
  • What information does this document provide?
  • What task or goal will it help to accomplish?
  • What elements of this document do you think make it useful?
  • Does it solve a problem?
  • What about the style of the writing in this government document?
  • Is it concise and accurate?
  • Notice the annotations in the margins of the document. Based on these notes and your answers to the questions above, would you say that this is an effective document?

This is just one example of the many kinds of technical documents you will work with in this course. Read on for further discussion about the characteristics of technical writing.

Characteristics of Technical Writing

Mike Markell (2015), Sidney Dobrin (2010), Sam Dragga (2012), and others all identify similar characteristics of technical writing and emphasize that it must adhere to the highest standards.

Focused on audience : Technical and workplace documents address a specific audience. The audience may be an individual or a group, and they may or may not be known to the writer. While there is always a primary audience addressed, there may be a secondary audience. Thus, an understanding of the reader or user of a technical document is important.

Rhetorical, persuasive, purposeful, and problem-oriented : Technical communication is all about helping the reader or user of a document solve a problem or compel others to act. For example, the syllabus of your calculus class informs students what is expected of them; the university’s website provides information to potential students and current students about educational, financial, and personal resources. Identification of a specific purpose and audience are the first two steps of technical writing.

Professional : Technical communication reflects the values, goals, and culture of the organization and as such, creates and maintains the public image of the organization. Look back at your university’s website to see what public image it conveys. To better understand this, consider this example from the United States Government:

On October 13, 2010, President Obama signed into law the Plain Writing Act of 2010 (the Act) which is designed to promote clear government communication that the public can understand and use. The Act calls for writing that is clear, concise, and well-organized. Check out this resource on Plain Language .

Design centered : Technical communication uses elements of document design such as visuals, graphics, typography, color, and spacing to make a document interesting, attractive, usable, and comprehensible. While some documents may be solely in print, many more use images such as charts, photographs, and illustrations to enhance readability and understanding and simplify complex information.

Research and technology oriented:  Workplace demands often require technical and workplace writing to be created in collaboration with others through a network of experts and designers.  This teamwork depends on sound research practices to ensure that information provided is correct, accurate, and complete.

Ethical : Technical communication is ethical. All workplace writers have ethical obligations, many of which are closely linked to legal obligations that include liability laws, copyright laws, contract laws, and trademark laws. You’ll learn more about these in the next chapter, “Ethics in Technical Communication.”

Socially just : Finally, technical communication should consider social impact and perspective. Since technical communication is used to convey technical ideas and influences the way in which people communicate through and about technical media, it is hard to deny that our work is not a form of social justice. We are presenting ideas to a myriad of audiences, many of whom are not subject matter experts, which means that we do not always know the resources, education, and ability that our readers can access and understand, to assume their background and knowledge are unethical. Technical communicators have the opportunity to make information and knowledge accessible and understandable, and to choose not to do so is not only oppressive but also prevents unheard voices from taking our progress a step further.

Accessible:  A foundational exigent for technical communication practices is to create access to information and instruction for all users. We use our document design expertise such as word choice and organization as well as our knowledge of software tools to develop avenues that make information easier to understand and use. However, historically this work has been targeted to audiences of the dominant population. With the move to digital communication formats, technical communication practices have had the increased opportunity to consider the access needs of all users across the ability and identity spectrum. Technical communicators are uniquely positioned to use their tools and expertise to continue to develop inclusive environments.

What Standards Should We Observe to Make Writing Successful?

As a member of an organization or team, even as a student, you want to produce the absolute best writing you can. Here are the standards you must follow and some tips to help you. You will also have a tremendous advantage in the workplace if your communication and design skills meet these standards.

  • First and most important, your writing must be honest. Your trustworthiness in communication reflects not only on you personally but on your organization or discipline.
  • Your writing must be clear so that your reader can get from it the information you intended. Strive to make sure that you have expressed exactly what you mean and have not left room for incorrect interpretations.
  • Next, good writing is accurate. Do your homework and make sure you have your facts right. There is no excuse for presenting incorrect information.
  • Also make sure you have all the facts, as your writing must also be complete. Have you included everything that your reader needs? Are you addressing all their potential comments, concerns, and access needs?
  • Your audience has neither time nor patience for excessive verbiage, so simplify and cut any clutter. Good writing is always concise writing.
  • Your document should be attractive and pleasing to look at. Just as you wouldn’t eat a hamburger from a dirty plate, your reader will not be moved by a document that is not carefully designed and professional.
  • Finally, your document should be considerate of all your possible audiences. Clear, well-researched, just, and thoughtful writing is the best way to reach anyone who might come across your document.

In professional contexts, grammar, spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure must be correct in order to be respected. It is also important to recognize these grammar expectations are not stagnant nor inclusive to all writing situations. As with any writing element, grammar, spelling, and punctuations are part of the design choices technical communicators make to develop effective and equitable access to information. Therefore, depending on the context, a single grammatical or spelling error can cause your reader to dismiss you as not professional, as not caring enough to edit carefully.

What’s next? Let’s get started!

Technical or workplace writing is intended to solve problems, seek solutions, and provide necessary information that workers find usable. And to do those things well, you, as the writer, must do several things well.

How do you ensure that your document will be useful to your readers? Of course, you will make sure that it adheres to the standards of excellence suggested in this chapter. But for now, let’s get started with some strategies to make your writing accessible, useful, and excellent!

Here are a few simple things to practice right now. Jakob Nielsen (1997) observes that readers, or users, won’t read content unless it is clear, simple, and easy to understand. The late William Zinsser (2006), author of On Writing Well, emphasizes the same points when he states, “Good writing has an aliveness that keeps the reader reading from one paragraph to the next, and it’s not a question of gimmick to personalize the author. It’s a question of using the English language in a way that will achieve the greatest clarity and strength.” (Zinsser, 2006). As you write, consider the language you are using. Could someone outside of your field understand this wording? Are you providing enough context?

First, make sure your writing is legible. Is the font large enough to be read by a variety of audiences? Is it an easy to read font style that is appropriate for the content? If you are writing for digital distribution such as through email or on a website, these considerations are especially significant including considerations of access to assistive technology such as screen reading devices. If there are problems with legibility or accessibility in your document, it will be of little use to your reader.

Then, make sure your writing is readable. If you have identified and analyzed your audience, you are off to a good start. Readable means your document can be easily understood by your target audience, and refers to the formula whereby words, sentence length, and sentence complexity determine how hard or easy your sentences are to read. If your readability is too high for the audience, then they will either take more time getting what they need from your writing, or it won’t be of any use to them at all. If the readability is too low, you may come across as condescending, if not a lousy writer.

Your writing may be legible and readable, but how well can your audience comprehend, or understand it in the way you intended? Is the reader able to use the document in the manner you meant? To enhance the reader’s comprehension, use language and terminology familiar to the reader, and limit paragraphs to one main idea. Strive for brevity if your users will be reading on tablets or mobile devices. Use visuals such as charts or diagrams to present a lot of information in a graphic format. You can evaluate how easy your document is to comprehend by getting another set of eyes on it.

Regardless of how legible, readable and understandable your writing may be, if your reader cannot access it, it doesn’t matter what you create. Accessibility is a major element of the document design process. Whether you plan to distribute your writing through print or digital avenues, the way your reader will access your writing must be a consideration throughout the writing and designing process. Although accessibility is often discussed in terms of guidelines and checklists attached to compliance with legal policies such as the ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act), or Section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act, accessibility means ensuring all users have an equal opportunity to engage with your writing. As you write and design your documents you need to consider not just the words but how your reader may engage with your writing. For example, a reader may use their eyes to read your writing or they may use a screen reading device. Your reader may need to use a translation device to access your writing.

The tips and standards of excellence detailed in this chapter merely skim the surface of what it takes to be an effective technical communicator. Throughout this text, you will be introduced to strategies and tools to help you write and design documents that are available to a wide spectrum of diverse users and encourage these users to act Your work as a technical communicator has already begun, so let’s build the skills you already have and learn new ones that will make your work easier and more effective!

Activities for Students

Here are a few questions for you to reflect on after reading this chapter:

  • What are some ways you use technical communication every day? In your personal life? In the workplace? In school?
  • What writing skills do you hope to practice in your technical writing course? What skills do you have confidence in?
  • In your future job, how might you use technical communication?

Is there anything in this chapter that didn’t make sense to you? What would you like to know more about?

Adams’ S. (2014).The 10 skills employers want most in 2015 graduates. Forbes. Retrieved from http://forbes.com/sites/susanadams/2014

College Board. (2004). Writing: A ticket to work…or a ticket out. A Report of the National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges. Retrieved from http://www.collegeboard.com/prod-downloads/writingcom/writing-ticket-to-work.pdf

Defining technical communication. (n.d.). Society for Technical Communication.  Retrieved from http://stc.org/about-stc/the-profession-all-about-technical-communication/defining-tc

Dobrin, S., Keller, C.,Weisser, C. (2010). Technical communication in the twenty first century (2nd. ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Markell, M. (2015). Technical communication (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford/St.Martins.

Nielsen, J. (1997). How users read on the web. NN/g Nielsen Norman Group. Retrieved from http://www.nngroup.com

United States Department of Labor: Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2016). Technical writers. Occupational outlook handbook. Retrieved from www.bls.gov/ooh/media-and-communications/technical-writers.htm

What is technical writing? (2016). Techwhirl.  Retrieved from http://Techwhirl.com/what-is-technical-writing/

White, M. (2013). The real reason new college grads can’t get hired. TIME.com. Retrieved from http://business.time.com/2013/11/10/the-real-reason-college-grads-can’t-get-hired.

Wiens, K. (2012). I won’t hire people who use poor grammar: Here’s why. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/2012/07/i-won’t-hire-people-who-use-poor-grammar

Zinsser, W. (2006). On writing well. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers.

An Introduction to Technical Communication Copyright © by sherenahuntsman is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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  • Defining Technical Communication

Technical communication involves the delivery of clear, consistent, and factual information—often stemming from complex concepts—for safe and efficient use and effective comprehension by users. Technical communication is a user-centered approach for providing the right information, in the right way, at the right time so that the user’s life is more productive. The value that technical communicators deliver is twofold: They make information more usable and accessible to those who need that information, and they advance the goals of the companies and organizations that employ them.

The following examples show the value of technical communication with respect to the products and services that technical communicators provide:

  • Technical procedures and illustrations that clarify steps and identify parts of a product allow users to focus on getting tasks done efficiently, accurately, and safely.
  • Training and instructional materials that teach people new skills make them more employable and productive in their organizations.
  • Medical instructions that are informative and comprehensive ensure regulatory compliance and help patients and care providers manage treatment, improve health, and reduce the costs and risks associated with care.
  • Well-designed websites that are user-focused make it easier to find information and increase user traffic and satisfaction.

Disciplines

Information delivery involves multiple disciplines (for example, writing, editing, graphic design, indexing, instructional design, video scripting, production, etc.) and a variety of media (for example, paper documents, web pages, online help, computer-based training, digitally stored text, audio, video, etc.).

Users and Industries

Technical communication applies to a wide variety of audiences in any industry (for example, business, engineering, healthcare, manufacturing, medicine, professional services, technology, etc.).

Additional information:

Industries that employ technical writers

Professions

Different jobs in the field of technical communication include:

  • Business analysts
  • Content strategists
  • Globalization and localization specialists
  • Information architects
  • Instructional designers
  • Technical communication teachers and researchers
  • Technical illustrators
  • Technical writers and editors
  • Trainers and eLearning developers
  • Usability and human factors professionals
  • User experience professionals
  • Visual designers
  • Web designers and developers

Deliverables

Technical communication deliverables include:

  • How-to guides
  • Illustrations
  • Instructions for use (IFU)
  • Instructor-led and eLearning training materials
  • Journal articles
  • Online help
  • Quick references and job aids
  • Technical, training, and reference manuals
  • User interface text
  • Web-based product support
  • Webpages/sites

Job Outlook and Pay

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, technical communication employment is projected to grow 11 percent from 2016 to 2026, faster than the average for all occupations. Employment growth will be driven by the continuing expansion of scientific and technical products. The median annual wage is posted on the  Bureau of Labor Statistics  website.

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essay about technical communication

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Technical Communication, Rhetoric, and Social Justice

Brigitte Mussack

Our sites of work, often mundane and driven by minutiae, remain sites of injustice. –Walton, Moore, & Jones, 2019, p. 1

Social justice benefits everyone. Working to achieve or restore equity for one population or community does not require anyone with access to those rights to relinquish them–quite the opposite, actually. For technical communication, specifically, equity means fair and just access to and representation in scientific and technical communication for all stakeholders. –Haas & Eble, 2018, p. 11

Language is important; how we use language directly shapes how we interact with the world. Language not only reflects, but actively constructs, our values, worldview, lenses, and frameworks. In other words, each time we communicate, we shape and construct the world around us.

This text frames communication, and technical communication in particular, as actively engaged in shaping our values and our world views. Throughout this text, you will be introduced to the various ways in which technical communication intersects with issues of social justice and with diversity, equity, and inclusion. When technical communicators make decisions about communicating with a specific audience, they must make choices related to social justice and equity. This text specifically approaches technical communication as audience-focused, and frames technical communication as always concerned with access and inclusion.

Over the last several years especially, we have seen how language impacts the world around us. Consider how you interact with language, especially writing, on a daily basis. How does that language shape your worldview? How has it moved you to do some of your own research, or to change the way that you do something? Can you think of an instance when language–how something is expressed using text and images–impacted the way you interact with the world? Can you think of a time when language has impacted the way that you understand the world and your relationship to it?

This image demonstrates the intersection of technical communication and social justice in a yard sign that informs readers where and when they can vote in a local election

As folks interested in technical communication, we know the importance of language. What is not always so apparent is the idea that language is never neutral . In this text, we examine the ways that technical communication, which is often understood as “objective,” “straightforward,” or “neutral,” is still wrapped up in and impacted by things like bias, politics, and individual experiences and beliefs. The language we use is always steeped in ideologies (how we make sense of information or how we order our worldviews) and shaped by our own narratives, experiences, and beliefs. Even when you are creating, or using, a set of instructions that show you how to retile your bathroom floor, the language used to communicate these steps is impacted by the cultural context of the communicator and the audience.

Technical communicators explain things, but how do they do this work? How do they make choices about the language they use so that they are always conscious of the ways in which they not only report but shape the material world? How, as technical communicators, can we work towards social justice, knowing the importance of language and words and communication as things that move people to action ?

This text approaches technical communication with two key concepts and frameworks in mind:

  • Language is a powerful tool that is always inherently involved in shaping and framing the way that people interact with the world and
  • Technical communication is rhetorical.

While technical communication is sometimes framed as a straightforward, objective way to use language, this text positions technical communicators as engaged in social justice every time they engage language . This text focuses on this intersection between technical communication and social justice as it moves through key theoretical frameworks and genres in the field. It curates recent articles and texts that examine what it means to engage social justice in technical communication and emphasizes the importance of always understanding how language shapes worldviews. Technical communicators are often curators, as well; as they make choices about what things to explain, how to explain them, and which voices are elevated and valued, they engage in action related to social justice.

Understanding the connection between social justice and technical communication is tied to understanding technical communication as rhetorical . In what follows, we explore what it means to take a rhetorical approach to technical communication. Then, we define the field and describe its important link to social justice. Finally, we explore key genres in the field of technical communication and dissect each genre with the rhetorical situation and concerns about social justice in mind.

Important texts, sources, and background

This text is rooted in the experience of technical communication instructors who have taught this course and who recognize the importance of centering social justice in an approach to learning technical communication. It is also based in the work of researchers and educators who have been calling for increased attention to how technical communication intersects with social justice, and whose work emphasizes the need for technical communicators to reflect on a history of exclusionary practice and to work towards diversity, equity, and inclusion in the field.

In particular, this text is based in the work of Rebecca Walton, Kristen R. Moore, and Natasha N. Jones, whose text Technical Communication After the Social Justice Turn  is an important read for any technical communicators, students, teachers, and researchers. [1] The opening quote comes from the introduction of that text, in which they position technical communicators, and the field of technical communication, in relation to justice and injustice. They emphasize the need for increased reflection on current and historical practices that ask whose voices have been included, and whose voices have been excluded or silenced. They also explain the importance of developing coalitions: in order to be more inclusive, it’s important to work collaboratively and to actively seek out other viewpoints. This text also discusses the importance of collaboration among technical communicators and provides some strategies for collaborating on projects and student work. Collaboration means listening  to other voices and other experiences, and the model of  coalitions  means recognizing when we can step in as experts and when we can turn to other experts. In short, it is important to continually learn from each other and work together.

The second quote at the beginning of this text comes from The Social Justice Turn  by Haas and Eble (2018), which likewise positions technical communication as always engaged with matters of justice. [2] Technical communicators, they argue, must be aware of the ways that their work either perpetuates systems of injustice or dismantles such systems and works towards equity and inclusion. In this text, we describe how rhetorical approaches to technical communication can frame each new instance of communication as an opportunity to work towards social justice by focusing on inclusion and equity and through centering a specific audience.

Along with such foundational texts, this book is a collaborative effort among instructors and a result of many formal and informal communications, many teaching and professional development meetings, and the shared efforts of WRIT 3562W instructors past and present at the University of Minnesota Department of Writing Studies who work to make social justice an important part of their introduction to technical communication courses through their selection of readings and creative activities and assignments.

Finally, this open text is not meant to replace any other articles or readings on social justice and the field of technical communication, but rather to act as a companion text that is intentionally practical, straightforward, and tailored specifically to undergraduate students enrolled in WRIT 3562W at the University of Minnesota. If you come across this text outside of this course, please feel free to use and remix what you find useful.

How to read this text

As mentioned above, you may be reading this text as part of your introduction to technical and professional communication course. Or, you may have come across this text because you are interested in better understanding the work of technical communicators and the relationship between technical communication and social justice. In either case, this text need not be read strictly from beginning to end. The various sections of this text reference each other, and you may find yourself moving back and forth among them. However, if you start at the beginning and work your way to the end, you will notice that concepts build off earlier concepts from this text.

If you do not read the text from beginning to end, you may choose the specific sections that interest you. You can just read about genres, for example, or about defining the field. You could start by reading about technical descriptions and then read about diversity, equity, and inclusion. Your instructor may assign certain sections to go along with other course readings and texts. While some of the organization is a bit “messy” and many of the concepts are repeated, the basic structure of the text is sketched out below.

This text is divided into four main sections:

Section 1: Taking a Rhetorical Approach 

Section 2: Technical Communication, Social Justice, and Collective Access

Section 3: Defining the Field of Technical Communication 

Section 4: Common Genres in Technical Communication 

Each section begins with the title, followed by a brief interlude called “voices from the field.” In “voices from the field,” you’ll read quotes from practitioners and professionals regarding the core concept or topic of each section. These brief paragraphs are meant to tie what you’re learning from this text (which is often somewhat theoretical) to the practices of working technical communicators. They offer a glimpse into how professionals make sense of the rhetorical situation or how they encounter social justice in their work. This text attempts to bridge current academic research and theory with working technical communicators, and to make connections between academia and current practices. As a student of technical communication, it is useful to understand how theory and practice intersect.

Each major section is further divided into  clusters  of information. These  clusters  are labeled 1.1, 1.2, etc., followed by a heading title that describes what information you’ll find. Just like with each major section, you’ll find some overlap and repetition among the information clusters. This grouping of information is meant to help organize the concepts and approaches in each section.

While the sections are labeled 1 through 4, you may read them in a different order. Section 4, especially, tends to stand on its own, since it addresses common genres in the field of technical communication. Of course this section does approach genres as both rhetorical and as engaged in social justice, and if these concepts are unclear it would be helpful to go back and read sections 1 and 2. Because some people may read this text out of order, you’ll find certain concepts repeated throughout. The concept of the rhetorical situation, for example, is an important one, and it comes up in each section (not just section 1).

Finally, because this is an electronic text, you will find links to other useful texts and resources. Such links and references provide more information and do the work of expressing the same information in different ways (since we each tend to learn differently). Each included link is useful and helps to give a fuller “picture” or understanding of a concept, so do take the time to explore them as you read! If you are enrolled in WRIT 3562W, some of these readings may also be available through the University of Minnesota libraries or through your course Canvas site.

Throughout these sections, you will also find other suggested readings, discussion questions, and activities. This text includes citations for additional readings and direct links, when possible.

The following describes, briefly, what you’ll find in each major section and cluster .

Section 1 describes what it means to take a rhetorical approach to technical communication. This section covers the following clusters:

  • 1.1 Understanding rhetoric. In this first cluster, you learn what a rhetorical approach “looks like,” about the rhetorical situation, and about the rhetorical appeals. This cluster also focuses on the importance of audience, which you will see mentioned throughout this entire text.
  • 1.2 Communication as process; writing as action. This cluster frames communication as action, and focuses on writing as a process (rather than as a final product). What this means for technical communicators is that their work is ongoing, always in process, and that it is frequently tied to their audience taking some specific action.
  • 1.3 Collaboration. Technical communication is most often collaborative: in this cluster you find steps for developing a collaborative process and various strategies that make it easier to work with a team. This cluster also describes the various benefits of collaboration and provides some collaborative frameworks.
  • 1.4 Editing and revising. This cluster again describes the process of communication, focusing specifically on revising and editing. It provides some strategies and examples for revising a text, and emphasizes revision as an iterative, rather than a linear, process.
  • 1.5 The rhetorical work of research and citation. Finally, this cluster discusses the importance of research and frames citation as rhetorical and as related to diversity, equity, and inclusion. This cluster provides links to other readings and resources for APA citation style.

Throughout section 1, you’ll find the reasons behind approaching technical communication using a rhetorical framework. The concepts in this section will carry over into the others. While section 1 focuses on technical communication and rhetoric, it also emphasizes how taking a rhetorical approach also allows us to understand the relationship between technical communication and social justice. This section emphasizes the importance of audience and context and of approaching each communication situation in a way that considers diversity, equity, and inclusion. 

Section 2 focuses on how technical communication intersects with social justice and collective access. This section includes the following clusters:

  • 2.1 Diversity, equity, and inclusion. This first cluster briefly defines the terms diversity, equity, and inclusion. It provides a foundation for understanding how technical communication is concerned with these concepts, and why it is so important for technical communicators to always consider them.
  • 2.2 Social justice, technical communication, action and community. This cluster describes how diversity, equity, and inclusion are related to the concept of social justice. It articulates the role that technical communication plays in the work towards social justice.
  • 2.3 Audience and access. This cluster examines the importance of focusing on your audience when you approach each new instance of technical communication. It also introduces accessibility and document design as a part of accessibility.
  • 2.4 Intercultural communication. This cluster discusses intercultural communication and introduces the practice of localization, which helps technical communicators adapt or create content for specific audiences.

Each of these areas of focus within section two are meant to serve as a starting point for your inquiry into social justice and technical communication. These concepts are introduced in this section, but there is much more to research and read when it comes to how technical communication works towards diversity, equity, and inclusion! Focusing on your audience, for example, is an ongoing process for technical communicators, who must continually work to seek out and incorporate new ways of understanding and communicating. 

Section 3 articulates how the field of technical communication creates its borders and how we define technical communication. This section is the shortest of the four major sections and helps to explain the boundaries and parameters of the field. This section covers the following clusters:

  • 3.1 Defining technical communication. This cluster works to define technical communication and also explains why that definition is fluid. It also explains some distinctions between using the terms technical communication and technical writing and discusses professional communication.
  • 3.2 Technical communication and technology. This cluster focuses on the relationship between technical communication and technology. It ends with an activity to help you develop your own definition and understanding of technical communication.
  • 3.3 Technical communication and relaying information.   In this cluster, you’ll read about technical communication as “explaining things” to a target audience. This cluster emphasizes that, while technical communicators are working to relay information, they are still making rhetorical choices about how to best explain things.

Section 4 focuses on common genres of technical communication, and introduces the concept of genre as fluid, socially defined categories. This section includes the following clusters:

  • 4.1 Genre, social action, and access. In this first cluster, you’ll be introduced to the idea of genre as social action. You will read about why it’s useful to learn specific genre conventions while still taking a rhetorical, audience focused approach to technical communication.
  • 4.2 Technical descriptions. In this cluster, you’ll learn about the genres of technical definitions and descriptions. This cluster describes where you may find this common genre, and why it’s so important to consider your specific audience when creating a product or process description.
  • 4.3 Instructions. This cluster describes the genre of instructions, which you have likely already interacted with. You’ll find resources on creating effective instructions, and learn about the importance of usability testing.
  • 4.4 Proposals. This cluster covers the genre of research proposals, which is similar to but distinct from something like a business proposal or plan. The proposals described in this cluster articulate a researchable problem and discuss a plan for researching that problem.
  • 4 .5 Reports. This cluster discusses the genre of a formal report, which follows a fairly standardized format. You’ll learn about the IMRD structure and find resources for developing a persuasive, informative report that ethically and accurately provides data or research results.
  • 4.6 Presentations. In this final cluster, you will read about technical presentations, which is yet another way to deliver information to a specific audience. This cluster focuses on using text, images, and audio to deliver information. It also provides links to other resources for creating an effective presentation.

Keep in mind, as you read, that the concepts introduced in each section may well fit in other areas: there is so much overlap among each concept and approach, and the organization of the four main sections and each subsequent cluster is just one of many possible ways to group such information. This text makes connections among concepts and approaches, and you should work to make such connections as you read.

The intersection between technical communication and social justice is complex and dynamic. Consider this text, and its organization, a useful place to begin your inquiry, and let it lead you to other important readings and research. In other words, you can think of this text as a useful starting point to understand technical communication and social justice, but keep in mind that the work towards diversity, equity, and inclusion is ongoing, and that the field of technical communication is continually adapting and evolving to the needs of its audiences. 

  • Walton, R., Moore, K., & Jones, N. (2019). Technical communication after the social justice turn : Building coalitions for action (ATTW book series in technical and professional communication). New York: Routledge. https://doi-org.ezp1.lib.umn.edu/10.4324/9780429198748 ↵
  • Haas, A., & Eble, M. (2018). Introduction: THE SOCIAL JUSTICE TURN. In HAAS A. & EBLE M. (Eds.), Key Theoretical Frameworks: Teaching Technical Communication in the Twenty-First Century (pp. 3-20). Louisville, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv7tq4mx.6 ↵

Introduction to Technical and Professional Communication Copyright © 2021 by Brigitte Mussack is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Table of Contents

Collaboration, information literacy, writing process, professional and technical communication: an overview.

  • CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 by Julie Gerdes - Virginia Tech

Learning Outcomes:

  • distinguish between technical and professional communication and writing
  • understand the role of a technical communicator
  • know how ethics, collaboration, context awareness, research, writing, and design connect in the creation of documentation
  • Identify three artifacts of technical communication in the room. What do they have in common? What differs?
  • Do a job search on a popular outlet (monster.com, local newspaper sites, stc.org, etc.) for technical writers. Trade out the term “technical” for “professional” and “writer” for “communicator.” Make a chart and list the differences between each of these four possible terms. Then, based on the qualifications and tasks listed with jobs under each title, write a definition of each.

Professional and technical writers generally fall under two categories: writers whose focus is in “technical” areas and professionals who write as part of their jobs. While many professionals do not see themselves as writers, their jobs require that they read and write quite often.

What’s in a name?

The terms “professional” and “technical” as well as “writing” and “communication” are used fairly interchangeably in the field. While there are some differences highlighted below, generally understand that any of these combinations refers to presenting information to audiences with the ultimate purpose of getting work done. This is a pretty broad definition, and in fact, the field is pretty broad itself.

Technical communication is all around. It’s not limited to instructions to which you occasionally refer or to pamphlets that come with new technology. If you consider technology as anything that applies scientific findings, then you will start seeing it everywhere. While high technology like smart phones and wifi is becoming ubiquitous, low technology has been around since humans began crafting utensils. Because technologies are created in certain contexts and often distributed to much wider contexts, it is important for their creators and advocates to communicate a product’s intended use to prevent mishandling and also to promote ethical distribution. Technical writing might be the prescription written on the inside of frame of your eyewear, the label inside your shirt, or the caution sign outside of a construction site.

Meanwhile, the umbrella term “professional communication” envelops all workplace writing, from internal memos and policies to external press releases and marketing for relevant publics. This kind of communication occurs constantly across institutions, including government sectors, hospitals, businesses, corporations, universities, etc. Unlike academic papers in which the goal is generally to develop an idea, make a theoretical argument, or demonstrate competence, professional texts aim to persuade people with power to take a specific action.

What kinds of texts are there in “professional and technical communication”?

Basically, any text that is intended to communicate information about how to use technology is considered “technical communication.” Meanwhile any text circulating in a professional setting for the purpose of getting work done is considered professional communication. These texts can be written, visual, or oral and print or electronic.

Texts are often called “deliverables” because they deliver the research and information in tangible artifacts (and usually in common genres) such as internal memos, reports, proposals, presentations, etc. To understand which text is most appropriate for a certain task, writers need to consider concepts of rhetoric like audience and contextual analysis as well as design principles.

What is Rhetoric?

This is a contested question in the field. The most basic definition of rhetoric might be reduced to the study of persuasion, or how words do things. In the media, the term “rhetoric” often gets a bad rap as a tool for politicians to manipulate others with empty words, but this isn’t exactly the role of rhetoric. In fact, Plato condemned the sophists for being deceitful rhetors (Gorgias claimed that he could make any seemingly ridiculous argument seem sound). Quintilian overtly defended the necessity of ethics in rhetoric when he said successful rhetoric is “the good man speaking well.” So to argue that rhetoric is inherently deceitful is to mistake the art for manipulation, ignoring the moral basis that supports a civil society.

While the study of argumentation may seem like an abstract and often philosophical debate, rhetorical moves can be observed in almost any interaction. Think of how you were persuaded to read this text, or the various factors that went into your decision about what to eat (or not eat) for breakfast this morning. Persuasion involves cultural studies, psychological considerations, language and much more, and it’s at the core of communication.

Any writing that aims to persuade one to believe something, whether it’s the best suited person to serve as President or the best way to resolve a computer error, relies on rhetoric. The art also considers elements like invention and delivery, which acknowledge all aspects of the writing process. From developing the idea for a project to publishing reports, professionals use rhetoric both deliberately and unconsciously. Four terms you’ll read more about in this book are ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos. The first three are rhetorical appeals that Aristotle distinguished, and kairos is an idea of opportune time and place that was central to the sophistic school of thought. Analyzing how these appeals function in texts can improve your ability to use them coherently to accomplish your purpose for your intended audience.

Learn more about rhetoric by watching the video “In Defense of Rhetoric,” created by graduate students in the MA in Professional Communication program at Clemson University:

Don’t PTC (Professional and Technical Communication) texts just deliver straightforward information?

Yes and no. On the one hand, the distinction of PTC  as workplace writing as opposed to other genres of communication helps to define the field. However, all communication is inherently biased and situated in some way. You might not tell your parents about a new tattoo the same way you would tell your friends. Similarly, you would not tell a colleague or professor in biomedical engineering how a new pacemaker works the same way that you would tell a surgeon or a patient. In addition to considerations of usability and functionality, it’s important to remember the ethics that undergird PTC texts. In making decisions about how to communicate information, writers must think about how their choices affect their audience. Who is cut off from access to information? How does one choice privilege certain a demographic, a way of understanding, or one culture over another?  Does the publication or dissemination of texts unethically exclude certain people, preventing them from receiving information that would help them advance their careers or complete a task?

Other, more basic questions about functionality rely on rhetorical choices: Does the text communicate adequate amounts of information without overwhelming the audience? Is it produced in a meaningful and useful way or will it go on to sit on a shelf and rarely be read? These are all questions that influence the field and are important to people writing in professional roles.

What Does a Technical Communication Work Environment Look Like?

Technical writing takes place in collaborative environments. In organizational settings, documents, particularly for external audiences, are produced and/or approved by a team. Multiple moving parts means that learning skills in working within groups and staying organized are important for getting and maintaining a career within an organization. Whether you are an academic scientist, a business consultant, a mechanical engineer, or a patient care provider, you will need to understand good communication practices. These environments often include people from all sorts of different backgrounds, cultures, and ideas about what’s right. Avoid unnecessary and time-consuming conflict by approaching projects with an open mind and with an awareness of your own biases, which might be different from not only those of your readers but also of your colleagues.

Collaboration tactics like project management will also benefit you in individual tasks. Currently, much technical writing happens through remote work, and as such, professional writers often work for multiple clients concurrently. In fact, one can make a pretty good living by working from home on a number of contracted or part-time jobs, but to be successful means to constantly balance tasks by developing a system for organizing them. Gaining multitasking capabilities will transfer to any job where you’re required to report to different stakeholders about the same or similar projects.

Because of the collaborative nature of this work as well as the natural process of writing, document review and revision are integral parts of producing written communication.

Do Professional and Technical Writers Just Write?

While a large part of the field is writing, there are numerous other tasks associated with creating and distributing tasks. Because their goal is often to create texts that help users complete tasks, technical writing professionals perform usability tests to determine how successful their text was and how to improve it before publication. Other elements of developing texts are graphic design, data visualization, and remediation (recreating texts in various mediums for different audiences or purposes).

Role of Technology

PTC professionals generally stay ahead of the curve when it comes to new technologies. Because technology is constantly evolving and new tools emerge daily, it would be impossible to master every relevant tool. Instead, technical communicators master the analytic skills and foundations of systems in order to adapt to the changing environment of the field. Professionals who master skills in their own contexts, whether it is a hospital setting or a large corporation, will become familiar with certain procedures; for writing professionals, this means that they have preferred design and editing software for both print and electronic publishing, and knowing them well means that they can pick up client-preferred tools quite easily.

Should I Start with Design or Writing First?

Both/And/Neither. Design and content are complementary considerations. Sometimes, space limitations will mean that the writing needs to be extremely concise and stripped of all detail. On the other hand, sometimes it’s important for legal or other reasons to include a lot of information, no matter how much space it takes up. In either case, writers must consider their goals first and foremost. If you know that you’re writing in the second situation, in which space isn’t a concern, the length might mean putting the most important information on the first page, or it might mean incorporating pull-outs or images in the design to keep the reader’s interest through the last page. Conversely, space constraints might require writers to rethink sentence structure and voice.

Space isn’t the only limitation that determines design and content. Writers have to consider audience values, the rhetorical situation they are in, and institutional constraints like cost and formatting, as well as accessibility. Different audiences will have different interpretations of texts based on their culture, priorities, and relationship to the topic. Therefore, before beginning the task of writing, the composition process requires writers to consider for whom they are writing. In the workplace, there are often two audiences: internal, or inter-organizational, and external, which is often the public. Sometimes, internal documents end up in external venues (and vice-versa), particularly with the proliferation of social media, so it’s important for professional communicators to consider potential secondary audiences.

List of Key Definitions

  • Accessibility– the readability of a text for diverse users with diverse capabilities which may be physical, cognitive, monetary, cultural, etc.
  • Artifact– in technical communication, generally anything that counts as a final product, from a text document to an instructional audio clip to a website. As opposed to a deliverable, an artifact is most often defined from a reader or public point of view, and it carries with it the element of chronos, or time, as something that is final and consumed at the time it is being referenced.
  • Audience Analysis– the process of researching the primary and secondary audiences in order to tailor deliverables to their needs and values.
  • Deliverable– the final product that is ready to be published, or the text that a writer plans to deliver to their client. This is usually a term used in the context of production and finalization; after publication, a deliverable might be considered an artifact but you might find these terms somewhat interchangeable.
  • Repurposing– the process of taking an original text and developing new (sometimes multimodal or mixed media) deliverables for different audiences or purposes.
  • Rhetorical Situation– the occasion, audience and constraints in which one is writing.
  • Usability Testing– in technical communication, the act of bringing in users to try out tasks outlined in a text with the goal of discovering issues with the text before publishing it to the intended audience.

Brevity – Say More with Less

Brevity – Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence – How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Coherence – How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Diction

Flow – How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity – Inclusive Language

Inclusivity – Inclusive Language

Simplicity

The Elements of Style – The DNA of Powerful Writing

Unity

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Chapter 3. Writing in a Technical Communications Style

In this chapter.

  • Understanding writing style and recognizing the importance of writing in a style that meets readers’ expectations
  • Discussion of effective technical communications style that is defined as concise , precise , direct , and well organized
  • Recognizing and using meaningful, precise language

3.1 Voice and tone

  • Understanding and using appropriate language, voice, and perspective in engineering communications
  • Addressing common issues with writing in the discipline—active vs. passive voice, nominalization, personal vs. impersonal tone

3.2 Mechanics and grammar

  • Learning to recognize and address habits and errors in your writing
  • Reviewing common grammatical issues that affect students in FE and FEH

3.3 Citations and citation styles

  • Recognizing the role of citing sources in written documents
  • Reviewing the basics components of citations in IEEE and APA style

A technical communications writing style is (almost always) concise, precise, direct, and well organized . The following sections outline useful tips and best practices, but know that these are only a starting point. Writing style is something you must be aware of and continually work to refine as you develop your communication skills.

A technical communications writing style prioritizes the efficient transfer of information —this may be a change from the types of writing you have done in the past. “High school writing” is more typically descriptive expository essays with a length requirement. Technical communication asks you to document information and communicate it in a concise, precise, and professional way. The focus tends to be more on how well the writing achieves that goal rather than on proving that you read or understand something.

Writing assignments often provide specific structures or lists of required elements; however, simply fulfilling these guidelines is rarely enough to create a cohesive, clear document. To be a successful writer not just in first year engineering, but in your major courses and career, you must be attentive to the ways your writing style needs to vary from one situation to the next.

Understanding “Writing Style”

To understand what “writing style” is, think about all the different ways people talk. With their tone of voice, volume, and speed of delivery, they are able to project different moods, personalities, and purposes. Think about how a person sounds while they’re telling a funny story. Then think about how a person sounds while telling you about their problems.

You might also intuitively know that certain ways of speaking are appropriate for some situations, but not for others. If you wanted to deliver a passionate speech to persuade your audience to vote for you, you certainly wouldn’t want to sound like you were delivering a eulogy at a funeral (or vice versa).

Those same concepts apply to your writing. How you deliver information—the voice, tone, mood of your writing—is the “style.” It affects how well your audience will understand and respond to the information you are trying to communicate. Since writing style affects how your reader responds, be aware of and use it to help you achieve your purpose.

In most situations, you must also communicate in the style your reader expects. This is often driven by genre (type of document) and context. If you are asked to produce a lab report, your reader will have certain expectations about what goes in it, and if you don’t meet those expectations, it will reflect poorly on you as a communicator and make it less likely that your message is delivered.

Since writing style affects how your reader responds, be aware of and use it to help you achieve your purpose.

Audience and purpose, then, will always affect your writing style, as discussed in Understanding Your Audience . In this chapter, you will find guidance for developing a general technical communications writing style for documents common to First Year Engineering.

Sentences should be clear and simple, communicating one concept per sentence. In situations where you want your message to be unambiguous, simple, short, direct sentences are best.

Avoid “filler” or “fluff” that clutters up your writing and does not provide useful information. Here are some common types of “filler” to be aware of:

Examples of editing for concision

Keep in mind, however, that shorter is not always better. For example, there may be times when you might sacrifice concision for the sake of sounding more personable, friendly or conversational. If you have to deliver bad news, a two-sentence email might come across as rude or uncaring, while writing a longer email that builds rapport and includes more qualitative, personable touches might soften the blow. This approach could have a positive impact on a team dynamic or a client relationship so that, even with a slightly higher word count, the final outcome is better.

Practice & Application: Exercise D – Software Design Pitch Video Prep

Precise wording avoids ambiguity and ensures the correct information is conveyed to your reader. This is obviously essential to engineering settings, where highly technical information is being communicated.

Precise writing will generally meet the following criteria:

  • Statements are verifiable. Ambiguity might provide a sense of security, but leads to documents that, at best, need to be further investigated. Imprecise language in the workplace can lead to dangerous misapplication of results.
  • Statements are specific and meaningful. Phrases or descriptors that are used in everyday life are often not appropriate in a technical document. Words like “cold” or “best” are meaningless unless a standard of comparison is established. What is considered “cold” for a metal? For organic material?
  • Descriptors are quantified whenever possible. If exact data is not known, it should be replaced with objective observations, e.g., “The water began to boil.” When making quality determinations like “better” or “best,” determine what criteria you are using and instead of making a subjective statement, share that criteria with your reader.
  • Word choice accurately represents the level of certainty. Words like “prove,” “guarantee,” or “certainty,” communicate a finality that rarely exists in science and engineering. You will often draw conclusions based on evidence, but it is unlikely that you will ever prove or guarantee the results of your experiment or design. Use words that are accurate and still allow for uncertainty, such as: “indicate,” “suggest,” “highly likely,” “reduce,” “decrease” or “increase”

Application: Addressing error in lab documentation

In lab documentation, systematic and random error should be addressed. The report should address both the potential errors that could have occurred and the effect those errors would have on the results.

Systematic error is an error that cannot be lessened through continued trials. These errors often occur when tools are not sufficiently accurate or a model is used that does not fully explain the system being studied. Address inaccurate simplifying assumptions made in the experimental design or analysis. For example, many experiments assume that there are no frictional losses in a system. This may significantly impact the results of an experiment testing the performance of a motor. Results should acknowledge that additional losses due to friction were not considered.

Random errors are unpredictable factors that affect the data gathered from the experiment. The effects of random errors can be minimized through repeated trials. For example, if a beaker should be filled to exactly 20ml, it is approximately equally likely that the researcher would fill the beaker slightly above or below that level. After multiple trials, the average level should be close to 20ml. If it is not, there are likely systematic errors also affecting the experiment.

Practice & Application: Exercise E – Making Data Meaningful

Technical communication should get to the point quickly—readers need to know right away what to expect and if the document will meet their needs.

A key aspect of directness in writing style is vocabulary. The most direct approach will use vocabulary that is right for the situation and doesn’t use “fancy” or “flowery” words in an attempt to sound “smart” or impressive.

It is tempting to write unnecessarily complex sentences in an attempt to elevate the perception of your expertise, but this can obscure the message being communicated…  Wait, let’s try that again…

Writing unnecessarily complex sentences is tempting when you are trying to seem smart, but this can make your message less clear. Better!

In most professional communications, the goal is to sound knowledgeable, yet unpretentious and natural for the situation and audience . Use jargon only if it improves the quality of the communication. See Understanding Your Audience  for a discussion of appropriate levels of technicality based on audience type.

Some examples of “flowery” language (and more direct replacements):

  • ascertain (determine, learn)
  • terminate (end)
  • utilize (use)
  • employ (use)
  • endeavor (try)
  • herein (here)
  • procure (get)
  • rendered inoperative (failed)

Here are some additional practical ways to ensure directness in technical and professional writing:

  • When possible, put the most important information near the beginning—stating a request in the first lines an email or making a recommendation in the opening of a report are both examples of being direct in the ideas/information.
  • Some types of documents, like memos, will require a specific purpose statement, but any communication should clearly tell the reader what they can expect to find, similar to the “In this Chapter” call-outs used in this guide.
  • Use concise, meaningful subject lines for professional emails. Include specific keywords and indicate the purpose of the communication (words like “request,” “scheduling,” or “update” help the reader identify the purpose).

This is important for communicators in many contexts, and the policy of Plain Language is a useful example of a real-world application of “directness” in communication.

Plain Language as an example of “Direct” communication

In 2010, the U.S. Congress passed the Plain Writing Act, which established that government documents issued to the public must be written clearly. Guidelines for plain language have been developed around the world to enhance the public’s access to information. The U.S. guidelines state that users should be able to find what they need, understand what they find, and use what they find to meet their needs.

Plain language is a method of communicating information that focuses on the reader’s experience. How can the information be presented in a way that is useful to the reader? Different types of communication will require different levels of background information, but the important information should always be easy to access.

Well Organized

The order in which  information is presented affects how easily it will be understood. As a communicator, you will need to make sure that any document, email, or presentation you create has an intentional, logical, and consistent organization.

To be successful as a communicator, you must first understand the organization of the communication and then project that to your audience. Having a “big picture view” of the document’s purpose and structure early in the writing process  is key—it is difficult to impose good organization on a piece of writing unless you have carefully considered organization from the start.

Here are some practical ways to make a document clearly well organized:

  • Outline the document during the “Represent & Plan” stage of the writing process. This is especially useful when writing as part of a team because it ensures that each team member has a shared understanding of how each section “fits” into the larger document.
  • “This report outlines the need for this program and then offers specific evidence to support the proposed plan.”
  • “In the following sections, we provide an overview of the experimental methodology, present the findings, analyze the data, and offer our conclusions and recommendations.”
  • Divide longer documents with headings and subheadings so your reader can navigate easily; give presentation slides meaningful titles, section headings, and slide titles. These types of cues will make your organizational patterns visible to your audience.
  • Addition or connection: also, first/second/third, in addition to, moreover
  • Result: as a result, and so, therefore, because, as a consequence
  • Comparison: similarly, likewise, in the same way
  • Contrast or alternative: however, yet, still, otherwise, on the other hand, on the contrary, nevertheless, notwithstanding
  • Example or explanation: for instance, for example, specifically, in fact, in other words
  • Summary or conclusion: finally, in conclusion, in closing
  • Use simple, direct topic sentences to open paragraphs (BLUF) and then support them with more detailed information. See Paragraphs for more information.

There are several models that technical communications often follow to present information.

While your reader should be able to find specific information easily, they should also see a clear direction for your document as a whole. Consider your reader’s experience empathetically. If you were reading this document, where would you expect to find certain information? Will your reader gain a clear understanding of your process from reading the document from start to finish?

A Note About Lab Report Organization

A Lab Report contains sections for Results and Discussion. Students often present the data from a specific portion of the lab, then immediately discuss the meaning of that data within the Results section before moving on to the results of the next portion.

From a chronological perspective that seems logical, but that is not the structure of a lab report. Switching back and forth from results to interpretation is awkward and may leave your reader looking for data interpretation in the Discussion section that is not there.

See Lab Report Content Guide for more information.

Practice & Application: Exercise F – Precision and Paragraph Organization

Key Takeaways

  • Meaningful?
  • Verifiable?
  • Useful information for my reader?

Additional Resources

The Basics of Scientific Writing (University of Nebraska)

Fundamentals of Engineering Technical Communications Copyright © by Leah Wahlin is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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1.3 Ethics in Technical Communication

essay about technical communication

Ethics is one of the most important topics in technical communication. When you can communicate clearly and effectively, and when it is your task to help others to understand an object, a process, or a procedure, it is your responsibility to do so in an ethical fashion.

Ethics refers to the choices we make that affect others for good or ill . Ethics can also be defined as a set of agreed upon rules (sometimes explicit but often implied) put forth by a company or organization.

As technical communicators, we’re sometimes forced to make difficult ethical choices—from something as seemingly innocuous as “borrowing” another writer’s or researcher’s language or findings and not giving them proper credit (we call that plagiarism), to leaving out crucial findings in a study that shows the harmful effects a household cleaning product can have on small children. And while we’d like to think that we would make the right decision when faced with an ethical dilemma, it isn’t always that simple.

At some point we may be asked to write or communicate something that isn’t exactly or completely true, or we may be asked to not say something that we know is true. What do we do in those situations? Should I write what my supervisor wants me to write even though I know it’s wrong? What if someone gets hurt because of something we’ve done or not done, and where do I draw the line?

Ultimately, we must think about our audience and ask whether we are truly acting in their best interest. Also, ask yourself if you’re willing to take responsibility, both publicly and privately, for what you have written or said? Will you stand behind your message?

As technical communicators, we should always strive to:

  • Not falsify data or state as truth something we know to be false
  • Not deliberately misrepresent facts or information
  • Distinguish between fact and opinion (this is especially important in today’s world)
  • Not assume that what an “expert” has said is the truth (experts can make mistakes too—and some even lie!)
  • Avoid language that attempts to evade responsibility (using passive voice , for example: “Mistakes were made.”)
  • Avoid using language that misleads readers (avoid abstract wording, euphemisms, or jargon, such as legal, technical, and/or bureaucratic)
  • Use layout/design/visuals to help readers better understand the message (rather than to mislead, deceive, or distract readers)
  • Not violate anyone’s rights
  • Act in our audience’s best interest.

As with any ethical issue or moral dilemma, there is usually a variety of opinions based upon people’s politics, personalities, and purposes. From a rhetorical perspective, as with any other technical document, keeping your communications ethical can be achieved by assessing your purpose and considering your audience , language, evidence, and structure (see P.A.L.E.S ).

Ethics for Technical Writers

It is useful to think of ethics as the “appropriate” methods for actions and relating to others in a given environment. As a technical communicator, you will create many documents throughout your professional career. Some may be simple and straightforward, while others may be difficult and involve questionable objectives. Overall, there are a few basic tenets to adhere to whenever you are writing a professional document:

  • DON’T MISLEAD : Do not write something that could cause the reader to believe something that isn’t true. This can be done by lying, misrepresenting facts, or manipulating numbers to favor your opinion and objectives. You cannot leave out numbers that show you’re behind or over-budget on a project, no matter how well it may work once it is completed. Facts are facts, and they must be represented as such. Be cautious when using figures, charts and tables, making sure they are not misleading. While this may seem obvious, when the pressure is on and there are deadlines to meet, taking shortcuts and stretching the truth are all-too common.

Plagiarism is a form of misleading readers. Plagiarizing is misrepresenting the source or facts, most commonly when you claim the ideas you are writing about are yours. When you are writing and performing research, make sure you are citing the sources of your information and giving credit to all the necessary researchers. At no time is it acceptable to rearrange information in order to attempt to indicate that the writer is the source of someone else’s idea or to indicate that the writer read a report that included information he/she cited, when the primary source of the information was cited in another report.  All sources must be referenced accurately in the text and cited on a reference page.This rule also extends beyond writing to what is referred to as intellectual property. Intellectual property includes the following:

  • Patents – Items whose credit for creation is protected
  • Trademarks – Company names (WalMart), logos (the McDonald’s M ), or slogans (“Melts in your mouth, not in your hands”)
  • Copyright law – Items whose distribution is protected by law (books, movies, or software)

None of the above items can be used without proper recognition of or approval from the appropriate company or individual involved.

  • DON’T MANIPULATE : If you are a professional communicator, it is understood that you have at least a decent ability to write persuasively, even if your first persuasive document was your resume. You have an ethical obligation to not use your ability to persuade people to do what is not in their best interest. It is unethical to persuade readers to make a decision that benefits yourself or your company and not them. Most times, people try to manipulate others to receive some type of reward or gain.To avoid using misleading or manipulating words and phrases, it is important to be open to alternative viewpoints. In preparing any type of persuasive writing, you will come across conflicting viewpoints, so being aware of other views should not be hard. Keep your readers’ ideas and goals in mind and consider what may lie behind their concerns. Discussing several opinions and ideas on a given subject will make you appear more persuasive (and more credible!) and prevent you from appearing biased.
  • DON’T STEREOTYPE : M ost stereotyping takes place subconsciously now since workplaces are careful to not openly discriminate. It is something we may not even be aware we are doing, so it is always a good idea to have a peer or coworker proofread your documents to make sure you have not made any assumptions or included anything that may be discriminatory. For more information, check out the article from the Purdue OWL on “ Stereotypes and Biased Language s .” For more information on avoiding stereotypes and using gender-inclusive language, see the Tech Whirl article “ Gender-neutral Technical Writing .”

As you put together professional documents and begin writing in the workplace, it is important to understand your ethical responsibilities as a technical communicator. Technical writers have a responsibility to their readers and their employers to follow ethics when writing reports. Technical writers must use words that demonstrate valid appeals to reason and avoid emotional words and phrases that appeal to basic emotion instead of justifiable reasoning. In addition, technical writers must use valid references to support ideas and strategies. Technical writers must also use accurate numbers to report data, avoiding charts and tables that skew data. Using any type of fallacies in technical writing is unethical and could result in dire consequences (see the “ Space Shuttle Challenger “and the “ Behind the Lion Air Crash ” articles as examples).

Ethics of Language

Sometimes the very words and phrasing technical communicators choose can result in unethical practices. Consider the following sentence:

The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide. 

How might this sentence be considered unethical? If we look at it carefully, we see that the main point (or main clause) is simply: The prosecutor argued that the defendant… was guilty of homicide . Rather than starting the paragraph with that sentence, note how the writer has chosen instead to break it up by using a list of parenthetical points about the defendant (he was at the scene of the crime, he had a strong revenge motive, and he had access to the murder weapon), which in this case works to subordinate (or de-emphasize) the main point. By the time the reader reaches the sentence’s point, which is only that the prosecutor argued that the defendant was guilty of homicide, they have likely formed an impression of the defendant’s assumed guilt.

We can make this sentence more ethically responsible by simply putting the main clause up front and then following it with the three supporting points:

The prosecutor argued that the defendant was guilty of homicide. According to the prosecutor, the defendant was at the scene of the crime, had a strong revenge motive, and had access to the murder weapon.

Even though it essentially says the same thing, the arrangement of information in this example creates a more ethical approach to the sentence: it allows readers to draw their own conclusions about the defendant’s alleged guilt. It also follows a logical and recognizable structure of stating the main point first and then following it with reasons, examples, and/or other forms of evidence.

*To see an example of this lesson in the classroom, watch Will Fleming’s video on ethics :

* While this is just a brief introduction to the much wider and more complex field of ethics, as a technical communicator you should remember that what we write and say affects others; therefore, we have a responsibility to our audience, to ourselves, and to the companies and organizations we represent to be honest, fair and ethical.

Watch the following video, “ Appropriate Language in Technical Writin g ” from Tamara Powell, who explains, among other things, how language becomes an ethical concern if it is imprecise or disrespectful:

Additional Resources

  • “ Research Ethics ” from WritingCommons.org
  • “ Introduction to Ethics .”  Open Technical Communication

1.3 Ethics in Technical Communication Copyright © 2020 by Will Fleming is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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What Is Technical Communication? Essay

What is Technical Communication? Technical communication is the dispersal of information that would aid in the way people interact with technology. In addition, it allows people to work with technology in their daily lives. The spread of information, through technical communication, is given more accurately and is made easier for the reader to understand. The different methods of communication help in performing a task, answering questions, or making decisions. That being the case, it helps people easily solve questions that are difficult to answer. Technical Communication Is a Digital and a Human Activity There is a myriad of ways to communicate, whether it be via text, social networks, research, or news information. Since there are a multitude of ways to connect, there are different tones that the message is capable of conveying. There is the possibility that one’s communication is informal for their professional workplace since people are unaware of the tone that their message contains. When a message is inappropriate for professionals, it can cause confusion or a waste of time that could be spent on the project. When creating the communication, it is best to ask questions regarding the situation. This would help convey the message that the writer wants, accurately and appropriately. Technical Communication Reaches a Global Audience A benefit of technical communication is its ability to communicate globally. This benefits large corporations in becoming more

National Honor Society Personal Statement

As a freshman at the University of Maryland, I am pursuing a Masters degree in Computer Science with a specialization in Cyber Security. I formerly attended the Academy of Health Sciences at Prince George’s Community College, a dual enrollment program in which I graduated with my High school diploma and an Associates of Arts degree in General Studies. Having a unique experience by attending these different school has allowed me to become familiar with technical communication in a multitude of ways, whether it is in the work place or school related. Being vice president of the national honor society, being a barista at Peet’s coffee shop, and with being fluent in multiple languages I have used technical communication to encourage people to “take action” in a multitude of ways. Whether it was influencing people to join the national honors society or trying to get customers to buy a new coffee drink, I have consistently been able to encourage others to “take action” with whatever it may be. Over time I have learned the do’s and don’ts of being a technical communicator, and I now understand what must be done to accomplish a task through technical communication.

P1 – Explain the Role of Effective Communication and Interpersonal Interaction in a Health and Social Care Context

Communication between professionals – communication between professionals is often informal however at the same time they must still demonstrate respect for each other and use formal language where necessary. To avoid barriers, formal communication is usually planned to make sure the speech is clear and understandable ensuring no harm is done to the service users.

Use and promote systems that develop communication

Communication is a fundamental relationship building skill in the workplace. If people don’t communicate well they limit their ability to connect on any meaningful level. It’s important that I show respect to those I work with. Communications should be conducted in an appropriate, open, accurate and straightforward way. Workplace relationships become a lot stronger when people can clearly and effectively communicate what they need and allow others to do the same. There are many barriers to effective communication, the first barriers to check out are:

Communicating Well With Adults, Children And Young People

When in a professional setting, a more formal approach will be necessary; efficient planning and preparing of the way in which we wish to communicate, be it directly in person or in writing, will ensure there is less opportunities for misunderstandings. All forms of bias and prejudgements should be set aside, language used or spoken should be wisely predetermined. Body language and

Relevance Of The Communication Cycle For Effective Communication In Management EM

In conclusion, managing communication in the organisation is important so as to perform basic functions. Managers should be effective communicators with high levels of fluency and professionalism and must be aware of the communication cycle to achieve team goals. Effective communication within the workplace like in the company’s technical office keeps the team involved in the delivery of customer focus which increases commitment to the organisation and make for a better relationship and understanding within the team. An effective communicator understands the communication process using the appropriate communication channel such as verbal, non-verbal or written communication. The correct use of the process helps to uncover barriers and determine effective preventive steps to avoid those barriers. Furthermore, within the communication cycle, it is essential to get regular feedback, which also helps evaluate and improve the communication process which in turn can be used as a basis to develop personal development plans, identify communication strength and weaknesses

Mock Request for Proposal

Dobrin, S. I., Keller, C. J., & Weisser, C. R. (2010). Technical Communication in the Twenty First Century (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

601 Little Things Research Paper

We are living in an era of constant change. Because businesses are becoming less dictatorial and more social, the understanding and value of communication are growing daily. We must consider the little things often underrated because they are small; the fine points on how to communicate and interact with others on a professional level, regardless of our position or occupation.

Tech Writing Essay

If you have any questions in regard to the corporate safety program as it affects our branch or about the suggestion program that is being implemented here at the Denver office at M-Global, please do not hesitate to make your comments known either in memorandum form or by way of telephone response to this

Business Communication Today Session 5 : Final Paper Essay

Effective Business Communication requires order, accuracy, organization, and significance. When the Business Communication class began, I felt that I communicate effectively in my current job. I learned some new ideas and practices that I will incorporate into my work. I also discovered some new ideas that I will use in future positions I hope to attain. “No matter what job you have in life, your success will be determined 5% by your academic credentials, 15% by your professional experiences, and 80% by your communication skills.” -Author Unknown

Cross-Cultural Communication Essay

  • 4 Works Cited

Communication is such an important part of everyone’s daily life, not only in one’s personal life but also in organizations. Also now a day, we are becoming every year more and more global and working with different countries and cultures around the world. Henceforward, globalization is increasing, which makes communication a very important part of doing business internationally.

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Communication is an area that all companies must value. If a customer has a need or want they must be able to communicate that to the company. This will allow the company to achieve optimal satisfaction with their customers. This will be beneficial to the company because with optimal customer satisfaction

Communication Theory and Theory Application Example Essay

Fill out the different cells with regard to each theory definition. You are to identify the theory the example represents, who developed the theory (theorist), explain the relevance of the theory, and then provide your own personal or professional application example of the theory.

Reflection On Business Communication

Business communication can be defined as the process of sharing information among business professionals, prospective customers, and affiliates who are associated with an organization. The essential skills of business communications are currently in demand and highly required for the workforce for the modern workforce. To be an effective communicator is to have the ability to respond with skill, confidence, and assertiveness and is pertinent to the quality and expertise business professionals considered for employment. Hence, knowing how to communicate properly in an organizational structure requires the skill of communication necessary to interact with different levels of management. In a world

Challenges in Communication

Communication can be conveyed in a plethora of different ways, whether it is a debatable topic between individuals a group of individuals, a problem or issue discussed in a relationship, or every day conversation between friends. Regardless of the situation, the information must be communicated, and perceived, accurately in order for the discussion to yield the intended result. According to “What is Communication?” (2013), “the discipline of communication focuses on how people use messages to generate meanings within and across various contexts, cultures, channels, and media” (para 1). Information can be transferred by using numerous different communication methods such as verbal communication, written

Interpersonal And Organizational Communication Essay

Communication should be clear, concise, and succinct to avoid any room for misinterpretation; Negative nonverbal cues such as, facial expressions, hand gestures, and body language, could discredit the person-to-person conversation. Communication scholars argue that one should not assume that more communication is equated with better communication (Keyton, 2013, p. 154), especially with the added use of nonverbal cues. It is understood that interpersonal communication is important, but whether it changes the landscape of a business for the better is another question, altogether. There are both formal and informal communications in the workplace; Formal, dealing with work decisions and the latter, dealing with friendships and non-work-related banter.

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Technical Communication, Essay Example

Pages: 2

Words: 574

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You are free to use it as an inspiration or a source for your own work.

The image contains a lot of information, so it is hard to detect the data trends right away. This information would be better displayed as a line graph, in which each profession listed is represented by a different color, because it would allow the viewer to instantly detect the majors that have increased in popularity since 2009, the ones that decreased in popularity, and the ones that show no trend. Furthermore, the information posted in this graph may be more valuable if information about major popularity was summarized for a span of about ten years, which would provide more accurate information about the increases and decreases illustrated.

Rather than using a soldier figure to represent the number of members of the various branches of the U.S. armed forces, a simple bar should be use. While the artist is trying to be creative, it’s difficult to detect the value that is supposed to be represented by the coast guard. Furthermore, the y axis represents the number of members in thousands. Instead of stating it like this, it would be beneficial to write out these numbers to represent their true values so this chart is easier to interpret instantly.

It is difficult to determine the values that are represented by the pie chart. Therefore, the percentage that each pie slice represents should be written on it. Otherwise, these values should appear next to the key. It would also be essential to include information that will allow the viewer to interpret the monetary value of each percentage, so the chart title should include information revealing the total expenses of the company.

Since the y axis isn’t labelled, it is unclear what the numbers listed represent. This could be in dollars, thousands of dollars, or cents. In addition, a line graph is not adequate to represent this type of information because PC components are not a trend. Therefore, a bar graph should be used instead. The x axis should also be labelled “PC Components” because although this information can be inferred, it isn’t clear.

The amount of damage done by hurricanes can be measured in terms of homes damaged or destroyed, property damage, and deaths. Compared to the other major hurricanes in U.S. history, Hurricane Katrina has resulted in the most homes damaged or destroyed and property damaged, but not in deaths. Hurricane San Felipe, which occurred in 1928 resulted in the greatest amount of deaths compared to Hurricane’s Katrina, Ivan, Andrew, and Camille. Although it was reported that San Felipe resulted in less than one billion dollars of property damage, the number of homes destroyed or damaged has not been reported, which prevents us from making a clear comparison of this measurement between San Felipe and Katrina. An important note is that Hurricane San Felipe occurred 77 years before Hurricane Sandy and this graph does not state whether inflation was accounted for. Therefore, even though Hurricane San Felipe appears to have cause less than one billion dollars worth of damage, we cannot reasonably make this comparison unless there is confirmation that the difference between the value of the dollar in 1928 and 2005 has been accounted for. In fact, mathematicians have determined that one dollar in 1928 is worth $13.7 today. Therefore, it is possible that Hurricane San Felipe was more monetarily damaging than Sandy, but the exact 1928 dollar value was reported, so this cannot be accounted for in data analysis.

Market M. (2012) Technical Communication 10th ed. Bedford St. Martin’s.

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Essay on Importance of Communication for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of communication:.

Communication is one of the important tools that aid us to connect with people. Either you are a student or a working professional, good communication is something that will connect you far ahead. Proper communication can help you to solve a number of issues and resolve problems. This is the reason that one must know how to communicate well. The skills of communication essential to be developed so that you are able to interact with people. And able to share your thoughts and reach out to them. All this needs the correct guidance and self-analysis as well.

essay on importance of communication

Meaning of Communication

The word communication is basically a process of interaction with the people and their environment . Through such type of interactions, two or more individuals influence the ideas, beliefs, and attitudes of each other.

Such interactions happen through the exchange of information through words, gestures, signs, symbols, and expressions. In organizations, communication is an endless process of giving and receiving information and to build social relationships.

Importance of Communication

Communication is not merely essential but the need of the hour. It allows you to get the trust of the people and at the same time carry better opportunities before you. Some important points are as follows –

Help to Build Relationships 

No matter either you are studying or working, communication can aid you to build a relationship with the people. If you are studying you communicate with classmates and teachers to build a relationship with them. Likewise in offices and organizations too, you make relationships with the staff, your boss and other people around.

Improve the Working Environment 

There are a number of issues which can be handled through the right and effective communication. Even planning needs communication both written as well as verbal. Hence it is essential to be good in them so as to fill in the communication gap.

Foster strong team

Communication helps to build a strong team environment in the office and other places. Any work which requires to be done in a team. It is only possible if the head communicates everything well and in the right direction.

Find the right solutions

Through communication, anyone can find solutions to even serious problems. When we talk, we get ideas from people that aid us to solve the issues. This is where communication comes into play. Powerful communication is the strength of any organization and can help it in many ways.

Earns more respect

If your communication skills are admirable, people will love and give you respect. If there is any problem, you will be the first person to be contacted. Thus it will increase your importance. Hence you can say that communications skills can make a big change to your reputation in society.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Don’t Go Overboard With Your Point

The conversation is about to express your thoughts. And to let the other person know what you feel. It is not mean to prove that your point is correct and the other person is wrong. Don’t Overboard other With Your Point.

Watch Your Words

Before you say something to Watch Your Words. At times, out of anger or anxiousness, we say somethings that we must not say. Whenever you are in a professional meeting or in some formal place, where there is a necessity of communicating about your product or work then it is advised to practice the same beforehand

Communication is the greatest importance. It is important to sharing out one’s thoughts and feelings to live a fuller and happier life. The more we communicate the less we suffer and the better we feel about everything around. However, it is all the more necessary to learn the art of effective communication to put across ones point well.

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Tech paper: communication ports used by citrix technologies.

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This article provides an overview of common ports that are used by Citrix components and must be considered as part of networking architecture, especially if communication traffic traverses network components such as firewalls or proxy servers where ports must be opened to ensure communication flow.

Not all ports need to be open, depending on your deployment and requirements.

NetScaler SDX

Note: Depending on the NetScaler configuration, network traffic can originate from SNIP, MIP, or NSIP interfaces. If you have configured NetScalers in High Availability mode, NetScaler ADM uses the NetScaler subnet IP (Management SNIP) address to communicate with NetScaler. Link to application firewall signatures Link to bot management signatures

NetScaler ADM

Note: If you have configured NetScalers in High Availability mode, NetScaler ADM uses the NetScaler subnet IP (Management SNIP) address to communicate with NetScaler. CTX124386 describes how to change the source, to communicate syslog messages to ADM, from the NSIP to the SNIP
  • Citrix Cloud

The only Citrix component needed to serve as a channel for communication between Citrix Cloud and your resource locations is a connector. This connector might be a Connector Appliance or a Cloud Connector depending on your use case. For more information on which connector you require, see Resource types .

Connector Appliance

Once installed, the Connector Appliance initiates communication with Citrix Cloud through an outbound connection. All connections are established from the Connector Appliance to the cloud using the standard HTTPS port (443) and the TCP protocol. No incoming connections are allowed.

This is a list of ports that the Connector Appliance requires access to:

To configure the Connector Appliance, IT admins must be able to access the admin interface on port 443 (HTTPS) of the Connector Appliance.

Note: You must include https:// at the start of the IP address.

Connector Appliance with Active Directory

Additional ports are required to use Active Directory with Connector Appliance. The Connector Appliance requires an outbound connection to the Active Directory domain via the following ports:

Cloud Connector

All connections are established from the Cloud Connector to the cloud using the standard HTTPS port (443) and the TCP protocol. No incoming connections are accepted.

Cloud Connectors must be able to connect to Digicert for certificate revocation checks.

To find the list of addresses that are common to most Citrix Cloud services and their function, refer to product documentation .

Read more about Citrix License Server integration here .

Read more about Citrix Provisioning Server integration here .

Read more about the Citrix DaaS Remote PowerShell SDK here

Citrix Gateway Service

By default, the Gateway Service will proxy HDX connections via the Citrix Cloud Connectors, however Rendezvous Protocol changes the flow of HDX connections in an attempt to directly connect the Virtual Delivery Agent to the Gateway Service bypassing the Citrix Cloud Connectors

Rendezvous Protocol and HDX Enlightened Data Transport Protocol (EDT)

The Virtual Delivery Agents must have access to https://*.nssvc.net , including all subdomains. Or https://*.c.nssvc.net and https://*.g.nssvc.net .

Note: If using EDT in Microsoft Azure, UDP must be defined on the Azure Network Security Group (NSG) protecting the Virtual Delivery Agent

Read more about Rendezvous Protocol and HDX Enlightened Data Transport Protocol (EDT) requirements here .

Citrix Session Recording Service

Refer to the following link for Citrix Session Recording Service ports - Connectivity Requirements

Refer to the following link for Citrix Endpoint Management (XenMobile) Ports - Port Requirements .

NetScaler Gateway

For more information about required ports for NetScaler Gateway in DMZ setup, refer to CTX113250 .

Note: All the above ports are not mandatory, depending on your own configuration.

Secure Private Access for on-premises (Secure Private Access plugin)

Read more about Citrix License Server requirements here .

Note: If FQDN is used instead of IP as resource, then make sure it is resolvable.

Citrix License Server

Citrix app layering.

Refer to the following link for Citrix App Layering ports - Firewall Ports .

Federated Authentication Service

Provisioning services, universal print server, remote pc access.

Note: Remote PC Access is using the same Virtual Delivery Agent ports as regular virtual desktops

Session Recording

Use the following information for configuration of firewalls when you place StoreFront in its own network:

Locate the config files:

  • C:\Program Files\Citrix\Receiver StoreFront\Services\SubscriptionsStoreService\Citrix.DeliveryServices.SubscriptionsStore.ServiceHost.exe.config
  • C:\Program Files\Citrix\Receiver StoreFront\Services\CredentialWallet\Citrix.DeliveryServices.CredentialWallet.ServiceHost.exe.config

Edit both the config files changing the values for endpoint URIs.

For example - <endpoint uri="net.p2p://CitrixCredentialWalletReplication"> so any address that starts with net.p2p:// includes the port. You should end up with <endpoint uri="net.p2p://CitrixCredentialWalletReplication:93"> and <endpoint uri="net.p2p://Citrix-Subscriptions-1__Citrix_Store"> becomes <endpoint uri="net.p2p://Citrix-Subscriptions-1__Citrix_Store:93"> and so on for all other net.p2p addresses.

Restart the subscriptions store and credential wallet.

The local firewall includes rules for allowing per application access, so it is not locked down by port.

Workspace Environment Management

Read more about Citrix Workspace Environment Management requirements here .

Microsoft Teams Optimization

We would like to provide you with a csv file of the Citrix Communication Ports that you can use for your own needs.

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Technical Communication: Co-Education Argumentative Essay

Introduction, arguments against coeducation, arguments for coeducation, discussion and conclusion.

Coeducation refers to the education system in which students of both sexes are put together in the same educational institution unlike in singe sex schools. This paper seeks to make an argument in favor of coeducation as opposed to single sex schools. The paper will look into the arguments against coeducation and those in favor of the system with the aim of establishing an opinion in support of coeducation.

There are arguments that single sex schools are better than coeducational schools. Proponents of single sex schools, for example, highlight the fact that every student will perform better in academics in a singe sex school as compared to a coeducational one. This claim is particularly raised with respect to girls (Boarding, 2008).

There are also arguments that students can learn more efficiently in the absence of their opposite sex which is viewed as a distraction. It is claimed that boys and girls learn in different ways thus the need for segregation (Lind & Brzuzy, 2008). Reported cases of sexual harassment by boys over girls in coeducational set ups also triggers arguments against coeducation (Chrisler & McCreary, 2010).

Research results and expertise arguments have favored coeducation. A number of opinions have at the same time been raised in support of argument that coeducation is the best for children as compared to single sex education.

Proponents of coeducation argue that it develops a level of confidence among the children especially with respect to expressions in the presence of peers of the opposite sex. According to a research that was conducted in schools in Canada, it was revealed that children who attended institutions of coeducation could comfortably express themselves in the presence of the opposite sexes.

This establishes a foundation for development of children of both sexes as their needs in life, whether academic or in work places in future, will require inter-sex relations. A developed confidence and relations with people of the opposite sex is, for instance, a tool to interpersonal relations that helps to eliminate discrimination among individuals.

There is also a recognized level of respect among the sexes in coeducation. This also lays foundations for respect of either sex as the children grow up. Again, this respect will contribute to cohesion between the sexes leading to increased understanding and subsequently reduced conflicts.

The availed opportunity for social interactions between the two sexes in their educational set ups also promotes developments of ability of individuals to easily integrate and make relations with individuals of the opposite sex. This promotes constructive relations such as friendships among individuals of opposite sex. Eventually, these individuals will develop an environment in which girls and boys, men and women can freely solicit for help from one another (Ridley, n.d.).

There are also mutual benefits that both sexes derive from each other as they interact in a coeducational set up. Girls are, for example, identified to be standard setters. Their nature to have the best has been identified to be a source inspiration or motivation that encourages boys to work hard to attain these standards.

Coeducation will with this respect be seen as a tool for shaping the boy child into a focused individual. Girls similarly learn from boys. Their careful nature often limits their explorations into new ventures whereas this is like a hobby to the boys. As a result of the interactions in coeducation set ups, the girls learn the boys’ moves of explorations into problem solving. The tendency to specialization in some subjects by gender also makes coeducational set ups beneficial to both sexes.

Girls are, for instance, identified to be efficient in organization for instance in time management. Though boys are adventurous into problem solving, they are poor in organization and may not work out their problems in time. Interactions between the two groups can thus be a learning avenue for both parties into success (Pomerantz et al ., 2002).

Bernal (2006) argued that coeducation system had the impact of increasing the number of registrations in a particular institution. The diversification attracts both sexes thus increasing diversity into social learning. Respect and appreciation for one another is thus developed for better social interactions in the society (Bernal, 2006).

Apart from the mutual motivational aspects that are beneficial to both sexes, there is a provocative motivation that is induced by females into males. An achievement of a female in a mixed sex set up is for instance identified to force men into extra effort to attain that particular achievement (Bank, 2011).

Though there are arguments on either side of coeducation, the critics do not have a strong basis for rejecting coeducation. Sexual harassment that is claimed to take place in coeducational setups can still be experienced outside the schools. Besides, there is notable evidence that both boys and girls develop friendly interactions in coeducational set ups. Coeducation is thus better in that it also helps to develop students psychologically into social interactions.

Bank, B. (2011). Gender and Higher Education . Baltimore: JHU Press.

Bernal, L. (2006). Challenged by coeducation: women’s colleges since the 1960s . Cork, Ireland: Vanderbilt University Press.

Boarding. (2008). Advantages of single sex schools . Web.

Chrisler, J & McCreary, D. (2010). Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology, Volume 1 . New York, NY: Springer.

Lind, A & Brzuzy, S. (2008). Battleground: M-Z . Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Pomerantz et al . (2002). Benefits of coeducation in the early years of learning . Web.

Ridley, A. (n.d.). The benefits of coeducational environment . Web.

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