types of faults powerpoint presentation

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Types of Faults and seismic waves - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Types of Faults and seismic waves

Types of faults and seismic waves what is a fault a fault is a break in the rocks that make up the earth s crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earths crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past each other.
• The direction of movement along the fault plane determines the fault type.
• An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's crust and cause the shaking that we feel.
• Slippage along fault initiates seismic waves in all directions radiating from the focus.
• Seismic waves are vibrations that travel through the Earth carrying the energy released during earthquakes
• There are two categories of seismic waves
• Body Waves Can travel through Earths inner layers (core, mantle, crust)-
• Primary and Secondary waves
• Surface Waves Can only travel through the surface layers (crust)
• Love and Rayleigh
• P waves- are the first waves to arrive at a seismograph station.
• -fastest form of wave, sometimes called compression waves.
• Can move through both liquids and solids.
• These waves cause rock particles to move back and forth in the same direction as the wave is traveling (push-pull).
• S-Waves- arrive after the primary waves at the seismograph station.
• -Can travel through solids only.
• -Cause particles to move back and forth at right angles to the line of wave movement
• Rayleigh wave-surface wave causing the ground to shake in an elliptical motion
• Because of its motion, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving
• Most of EQ shaking is due to this type of wave
• Love wave- produce entirely horizontal motion
• Moves the ground side-to-side
• Named after A.E.H. Love a British mathematician
• Magnitude- the amount of energy released during an EQ
• Richter Scale- based on the largest seismic waves generated by the EQ on a factor of 10.
• Moment Magnitude Scale- considers the size of the fault rupture, the amount of movement, and rocks stiffness
• Measures the intensity of the EQ using a rating system of the damage
• Scientists compile information from various observers within different zip codes to get a better understanding of the devastation caused by an EQ to determine its intensity.

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Faults and Earthquakes

Mar 16, 2012

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Faults and Earthquakes . Take-Away Points. Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along faults Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings kill people Magnitude and Intensity

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Take-Away Points • Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth • Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along faults • Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them • Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings kill people • Magnitude and Intensity • Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior • Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible

Some Important Earthquakes 1755 - Lisbon, Portugal • Killed 70,000, Raised Waves in Lakes all over Europe • First Scientifically Studied Earthquake 1811-1812 - New Madrid, Missouri • Felt over 2/3 of the U.S. • Few Casualties 1886 - Charleston, South Carolina • Felt All over East Coast, Killed Several Hundred. • First Widely-known U.S. Earthquake

Some Important Earthquakes 1906 - San Francisco • Killed 500 (later studies, possibly 2,500) • First Revealed Importance of Faults 1923 – Tokyo - Killed 140,000 in firestorm 1964 - Alaska • Killed about 200 • Wrecked Anchorage. • Tsunamis on West Coast. 1976 - Tangshan, China • Hit an Urban Area of Ten Million People • Killed 650,000

How Seismographs Work 1. Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth

Seismic Waves 1. Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth

Locating Earthquakes 1. Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth

Locating Earthquakes - Depth 1. Earthquakes generate waves that travel through the earth

Elastic Rebound 2. Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along faults

Epicenter and Focus Focus • Location within the earth where fault rupture actually occurs Epicenter • Location on the surface above the focus 2. Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along faults

Types of Faults Faults Are Classified According to the Kind of Motion That Occurs on Them • Joints - No Movement • Strike-Slip - Horizontal Motion • Dip-Slip - Vertical Motion 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Strike-Slip Fault – Left Lateral 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Strike-Slip Fault – Right Lateral 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Dip-Slip Fault - Normal 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Dip-Slip Fault - Reverse 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Dip-Slip Faults • Normal Faults: Extension • Reverse Faults: Compression • Reverse Faults are often called Thrust Faults 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Normal Fault Structures 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Reverse Fault Structures 3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement that occur along them

Major Hazards of Earthquakes • Building Collapse • Landslides • Fire • Tsunamis (Not Tidal Waves!) 4. Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings kill people

Safest & Most Dangerous Buildings • Small, Wood-frame House - Safest • Steel-Frame • Reinforced Concrete • Unreinforced Masonry • Adobe - Most Dangerous 4. Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings kill people

Tsunamis Probably Caused by Submarine Landslides Travel about 400 M.p.h. Pass Unnoticed at Sea, Cause Damage on Shore Warning Network Around Pacific Can Forecast Arrival Whether or Not Damage Occurs Depends on: • Direction of Travel • Harbor Shape • Bottom • Tide & Weather 4. Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings kill people

Magnitude and Intensity Intensity • How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer Magnitude • Related to Energy Release • Determined from Seismic Records • Rough correlation between the two for shallow earthquakes 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Intensity How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer Depends On: • Distance to Quake • Geology • Type of Building • Observer! Varies from Place to Place • Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Isoseismals from the 1906 San Francisco Earthquake 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Intensity and Geology in San Francisco, 1906 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Intensity and Bedrock Depth in San Francisco, 1906 5. Magnitude and Intensity

San Francisco and New Madrid Compared 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Magnitude - Determined from Seismic Records Richter Scale: • Related to Energy Release • Exponential • No Upper or Lower Bounds • Largest Quakes about Mag. 8.7 • Magnitude-Energy Relation • 4 - 1 • 5 - 30 • 6 - 900: • 1 Megaton = about 7 • 7 - 27,000 • 8 - 810,000 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Seismic - Moment Magnitude A Seismograph Measures Ground Motion at One Instant But -- • A Really Great Earthquake Lasts Minutes • Releases Energy over Hundreds of Kilometers • Need to Sum Energy of Entire Record • Modifies Richter Scale, doesn't replace it • Adds about 1 Mag. To 8+ Quakes 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Magnitude and Energy 5. Magnitude and Intensity

Seismology and Earth's Interior Successive Approximation in Action 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

1. Assume the Earth is uniform. • We know it isn't, but it's a useful place to start. It's a simple matter to predict when a seismic signal will travel any given distance. 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

2. Actual seismic signals don't match the predictions • If we match the arrival times of nearby signals, distant signals arrive too soon • If we match the arrival times of distant signals, nearby signals arrive too late. • Signals are interrupted beyond about 109 degrees 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

3. We conclude: • Distant signals travel through deeper parts of the Earth, therefore .. • Seismic waves travel faster through deeper parts of the Earth, therefore …. • They travel curving paths (refract) • Also, there is an obstacle in the center (the core). 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

Why Refraction Occurs 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

Waves Travel The Fastest Path 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

Seismic Waves in the Earth 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

Inner Structure of the Earth 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

The overall structure of the Earth 6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s interior

Strategies of Earthquake Prediction Lengthen Historical Data Base • Historical Records • Paleoseismology Short-term Prediction • Precursors Long-term Prediction • Seismic Gaps • Risk Levels Modeling • Dilatancy - Diffusion • Stick - Slip • Asperities (kinks) • Crack Propagation 7. Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible

Seismic Gaps 7. Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible

Are Earthquakes Getting More Frequent? 7. Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible

Earthquake Fatalities Since 1800 7. Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible

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