speech terms meaning

Speech Therapy Terms Dictionary

 21 min read

A glossary of definitions for adult speech-language pathology & technology

Quick links: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z.

Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)  – Any brain damage that occurs after birth, in contrast to genetic brain disorders or damage to the brain in the womb or during birth. Typically refers to head injury, stroke, brain tumors, and lack of oxygen to the brain, but excludes degenerative brain conditions, such as dementia. Find out  more about brain injury  on our  Brain Injury Resources page.

Acquired Communication Disorder  – A problem with speech, language, voice, pragmatics, or fluency that develops after a person has developed language. Contrasted with a  developmental  communication disorder. Typically refers to aphasia, dysarthria, apraxia of speech, cognitive-communication disorders that occur after an acquired brain injury.  Learn the difference  between these types of communication disorders.

Alphabet Supplementation  – A technique of pointing to the first letter of each word as it is said. Use the letter board in  AlphaTopics AAC  to practice alphabet (and topic) supplementation to improve speech intelligibility for people with dysarthria. Learn  10 ways alphabet supplementation can help .

Alveolar  – A class of sounds made when the tongue touches or is close to the bumpy front part of the roof of the mouth, called the alveolar ridge. English alveolar consonants include /n, t, d, s, z, ch, l, r/.

Alzheimer’s Disease  – The most common type of dementia, often recognized by declining short-term memory in the early stages. Like all dementias, people with Alzheimer’s get worse over time as it is a degenerative condition.  Spaced Retrieval Therapy  is an app designed to be used during therapy with people with Alzheimer’s Disease to help with memory of specific facts and procedures.

Android  – A mobile operating system developed by Google, run by several brands of smartphones and tablet computers such as Nexus, Samsung, Kindle, LG, Sony, and Motorola. Apps are sold on the  Google Play store . Apps for Android devices are not compatible with Apple devices (iPad, iPhone) running iOS. Most of Tactus Therapy’s most popular apps are now available for Android on Google Play.

Anomia  – An expressive language impairment that makes it difficult to recall words and names. Anomia is a common and frustrating part of most types of aphasia. Anomic aphasia is a specific subtype of aphasia with anomia as the primary symptom.  Naming Therapy  and  Advanced Naming Therapy  are apps designed to work on improving word retrieval for people with anomia.

Aphasia  – An acquired language disorder caused by damage to the language centers of the brain. Aphasia can impact auditory comprehension, verbal expression, reading, writing, and use of symbols. It does not affect intelligence. Read  “What is Aphasia?”  for more information.

App  – Short for “software application.” An app requires an operating system to run on. In mobile devices, an app can be downloaded from an app store and launched by touching the icon. See all the Tactus Therapy apps on this  list .

App Store  – An online store that sells apps for Apple devices running iOS. The App Store is part of iTunes on a computer, or can be found as an app pre-installed on an iPad or iPhone. All Tactus Therapy apps for Apple devices are purchased directly through the  App Store , not through our website.

Apraxia of Speech (AOS)  – An acquired motor speech disorder that impairs the ability to form and execute the motor plans for speech. Read  “What is Apraxia?”  for more information.  Speech FlipBook  is an app designed to help with apraxia of speech by presenting sounds in a hierarchy of complexity.  Apraxia Therapy  is an app to help people with AOS speak in time with a video.

Articulation  – The movement of the tongue, lips, and jaw to make speech sounds. Articulation is one part of the whole speech process that includes respiration, phonation, articulation, resonance, and prosody. Articulation problems are common after a stroke or brain injury as part of dysarthria.  Speech FilpBook  is our app for articulation.

ASHA  – The  American Speech-Language-Hearing Association  is the organization that certifies Speech-Language Pathologists in the United States. The annual ASHA convention is held every year in November in various locations around the country, featuring continuing education and an exhibit hall  for 10,000-14,000 attending speech pathologists, audiologists, and students.

Assessment  – The evaluation phase of therapy in which a speech therapist determines whether an impairment exists, the degree and nature of the impairment, and sets the direction for therapy, usually with a written report summarizing the findings. Assessments may include formal or standardized tests or may be informal, consisting of an interview or a variety of non-standardized tasks. Many assessments include a combination of formal and informal measures.

Attention  – A cognitive process of allocating processing resources to certain information. Attention is addressed in a hierarchy of focused, sustained, selective, and alternating. Attention is required for memory, and is frequently impaired after brain injury.  Visual Attention Therapy  is an app designed to work on attention to both sides of personal space.

Auditory Comprehension  – Understanding words through listening. Auditory comprehension is often impaired in aphasia. It can be relatively in-tact for single words or simple sentences, but impaired for complex sentences, grammatical words, or when there are background distractions.  Comprehension Therapy  is an app that addresses auditory comprehension of single words, and Advanced Comprehension Therapy addresses auditory comprehension of sentences and directions.

Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)  – Communication methods used by a person with a communication disorder. to enhance or replace spoken or written communication. AAC can be  unaided  or  aided  by a device or communication tool, and can be  low-tech  (paper or equivalent) or  high-tech  (computer, smartphone, or dedicated device).  AlphaTopics  is an AAC app for dysarthria and aphasia.

Autism (ASD)  – A neurodevelopmental disorder that often involves impaired social interaction, decreased communication skills, and repetitive behaviors. Read why Tactus Therapy apps work well for  children with autism .

Bilabial  – A class of sounds made with both lips. In English, the bilabial consonant sounds are /m, b, p/.

Brain Injury  – See also  Acquired Brain Injury  or  Traumatic Brain Injury . Learn more about the types of brain injuries and what to expect in “ What is Brain Injury? ”

Broca’s Aphasia  – See also  Expressive Aphasia .  Language Therapy  is an app developed for people with Broca’s aphasia to improve naming, listening, reading, and writing skills.  See a video of a man with Broca’s aphasia here.

Bundle  – An app bundle is a set of paid apps that can be purchased together on the App Store at a discount over buying each app separately. Tactus Therapy offers three  app bundles  to save you money: Tactus Aphasia Essentials, Tactus Aphasia Elements, & Tactus Clinical Tools.  Learn more  about how you can save when you stock up on great apps for therapy.

Caregiver  – A person who provides care for a person with a disability. A caregiver can be a spouse, sibling, parent, or friend as well as a paid caregiver hired to care for a person. Also called a carer or care partner.

Category  – A class of things sharing a similar attribute. Read more about the  Importance of Categories  in speech therapy.  Category Therapy  is an app designed to work on understanding and organizing categories.

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)  – The medical term for a stroke. A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is blocked (ischemic stroke) or ruptures (hemorrhagic). Read  What is a Stroke?  for more information or find  resources for stroke .

Circumlocution  – Literally talking around a word, a method of describing a concept. Circumlocution is a  strategy  used by people with anomia, as well as a common characteristic of aphasic speech.  This approach is used in  Naming Therapy  in the  Describe  activity. See also Semantic Feature Analysis.

Cognition  – The mental processes related to knowledge, including awareness, attention, perception, reasoning, memory, language, and judgement.

Cognitive-Communication  – Cognition as it relates to communication. Disorders of cognition often have a negative effect on communication. Read more about  cognitive-communication disorders  and see how  apps can help treat cognitive-communication .

Communication  – The transmission of  a message from a sender to a recipient through a medium (e.g. verbal, non-verbal, written).

Communication Disorder  – Any disorder that impairs communication. Communication disorders may affect speech (speech-sound disorder, articulation disorder, motor speech disorder, apraxia of speech), language (aphasia, expressive language disorder), pragmatics (autism, frontal head injury), fluency (stuttering), literacy (dyslexia, agraphia, alexia), cognition (dyscalculia, dementia),  or voice. Learn more about  communication disorders acquired after stroke .

Compensatory Strategy  – A method of carrying out a task when the easiest or most direct method of achieving the goal is impaired. Example: Describing a word is a compensatory  word-finding strategy  that can be used when a person cannot think of the exact word; using this strategy may result in the listener guessing the word, thereby compensating for the word finding deficit. A person must remember to use the strategy for it to work. Compensatory strategies used for cognition, language, speech, and swallowing and are frequently taught in speech therapy.

Comprehension  – Understanding. Auditory comprehension is understanding through listening. Reading comprehension is understanding written words.  Comprehension Therapy  is an app designed to work on auditory and reading comprehension of single words.  Reading Therapy  is an app meant to be used for reading comprehension at the phrase and sentence levels. Advanced Language Therapy contains both Advanced Comprehension Therapy for working on understanding sentences, and Advanced Reading Therapy for working on understanding paragraphs.

Confrontation Naming  – Saying the name of an object that is presented. Objects may be real or pictured. This ability is frequently impaired in aphasia and dementia.  Naming Therapy  is an app designed to practice confrontation naming.

Consonant  – A speech sound in which the air is partially obstructed. Consonants combine with vowels to make syllables or with other consonants to form clusters. All of the consonants and most clusters in English are featured in  Speech FlipBook .

Convergent Naming  – Stating the category that certain words have in common. Given “apple, banana, pomegranate,” the category is “fruit.” Categories may be concrete or abstract.  Category Therapy  is an app that works on convergent naming of categories in the  Classify  and  Add One  activities.

Conversation  – The exchange of ideas through language. The end goal of speech therapy in many cases.  Conversation Therapy  is an app designed to encourage conversation in therapy.

Cue  – An auditory, visual, or tactile message that prompts a person to say or do something. Cues are given in speech therapy to help a person find a word, produce a sound, remember something, or use a compensatory strategy. Also referred to as a hint or prompt, and included in  Language  Therapy and Number Therapy .

Cueing Hierarchy  – A set of cues arranged in an order from most helpful to least helpful. The cues in  Naming Therapy  in the  Practice  mode and  Number Therapy  in the  Speak  activity form a cueing hierarchy for word retrieval. Learn more about  how to use a cueing hierarchy .

Customization  – Adapting something to personal preference or needs. In apps, this can be achieved by changing settings to make the app work in a custom way, or through adding your own words, pictures, or exercises to make the app personally relevant.  Language Therapy and  AlphaTopics  are highly customizable apps, allowing you to add own words, questions, and pictures.

Degenerative Disease  – A medical condition that gets worse, or progresses, over time. Often speech therapy for people with degenerative disorders will focus on teaching strategies that can be used by the person or family as skills deteriorate. Dementia, Parkinson’s, ALS, cancer, and PPA are  progressive conditions  that can affect communication.

Deglutition  – A scientific word for swallowing, or passing something from the mouth into the stomach via the throat and esophagus. Disorders of deglutition are called  dysphagia . Treatment for dysphagia can be found in our  Dysphagia Therapy app .

Dementia  – An umbrella term for a set of degenerative brain disorders that often affect memory and thinking skills first, before impacting language, emotions, and motivation. Alzheimer’s, Lewy body, frontotemporal, and primary progressive aphasia are all types of dementia. See also  Alzheimer’s .

Divergent Naming  – Listing items in a given category. For example, “name 5 types of fruit” is a task for divergent naming. Often clients in speech therapy are asked to name items within a semantic category or that start with a common sound or letter. These exercises can test and strengthen networks in the brain and highlight organizational difficulties. Find over 200 divergent naming tasks in  Advanced Naming Therapy .

Dysarthria  –  A motor-speech disorder that results in unclear speech, often due to stroke, TBI, Parkinson’s, ALS, or cerebral palsy. This inability to speak clearly is because of weakness, slowness, or lack of coordination in the muscles of the mouth, voice, and lungs. There are several different types of dysarthria. Read “ What is dysarthria? “, then learn how using an app like  AlphaTopics AAC  can help  improve speech intelligibility .

Dysphagia  – Impaired swallowing. Dysphagia is common after a stroke, but also occurs from other neurological conditions or physical damage to the mouth, throat, or esophagus. Speech-language pathologists are experts in the diagnosis and treatment of oral and pharyngeal dysphagia. Exercises, modified diets, and strategies may be recommended after a clinical/bedside or instrumental assessment. Find out more by reading “ What is Dysphagia? “. Clinicians can find information about dysphagia assessment and treatment in the  Dysphagia Therapy app .

Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)  – An approach to clinical practice that values research and evidence of efficacy above tradition when making treatment decisions. Evidence exists along a hierarchy of strength, from clinical expertise and case studies to randomized controlled trials and meta-analyses. Read “ Is this app evidence-based? ” for more information, or find out  the evidence for using Language Therapy .

Executive Functioning  – The term for the overall management of tasks, including planning, reasoning, monitoring, adjusting, problem solving, and evaluating. This is the highest level of cognitive functioning and often impaired in brain injury survivors.

Expressive Aphasia  – A type of aphasia characterized by effortful, non-fluent (fewer than 5 words per utterance), and agrammatic (omitting function words) speech with relatively good auditory comprehension. Syntax and grammar are often impaired for both verbal expression and auditory comprehension. Writing is frequently more impacted than reading, though both are likely to be decreased from previous abilities.  Read more about this type of aphasia, also known as  Broca’s Aphasia .

Fluent Aphasia  –  A type of aphasia in which words, or non-words/jargon, are produced largely without effort in longer bursts. Comprehension is often impaired. Wernicke’s aphasia is a type of fluent aphasia. See a  video of a person with fluent aphasia  to learn more about it.

Frontal Lobe  – One of the four lobes of the brain, located at the front of the skull behind the forehead. The frontal lobe is associated with executive functioning, decision making, self control, and problem solving. It is frequently damaged in brain injuries caused by motor vehicle collisions.

Generalization  – The process of a skill learned in therapy being used in a broader context. Also known as  carry-over  or  transfer .

Hierarchy  – An order of cues, tasks, or stimuli ranked according to difficulty or helpfulness. The cues presented in the  Naming Practice  portion of  Naming Therapy  are arranged in a hierarchy of helpfulness. The levels in  Visual Attention Therapy  are arranged in a hierarchy of difficulty.  Apraxia Therapy  takes users through a hierarchy of repetitions from the most support to the most independence. See also  cueing hierarchy .

In-App Purchase  – An app feature that can be purchased from within the app, after the app is downloaded. This can be a consumable or non-consumable purchase.

Intensive Therapy  – A schedule of delivering speech therapy, usually for aphasia or stuttering, that provides many hours of therapy in a short period of time with the aim of seeing faster and better results. Using apps as part of a home program can help to give people with aphasia more practice to intensify the therapy experience.

International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)  – The set of symbols to represent all the sounds in the world’s languages. 

Intonation  – The rise and fall of pitch in the voice during speech. A component of  prosody .

iOS  – The operating system of Apple’s mobile touch-screen devices: iPad, iPhone, and iPod touch.

iPad  – A touch-screen tablet made by Apple. All  Tactus Therapy apps  can run on an iPad.

Jargon  – Non-words produced by a person with aphasia, usually fluent aphasia, that sound like real words and are produced with appropriate intonation. Also, terminology specific to a profession, like most words on this list.

Language  – A system for communicating. The words and rules for combining them understood by a community; can be spoken or written. English, Spanish, and American Sign Language are three examples of languages.  Language Therapy  is an app that covers the 4 basic domains of language: verbal expression, auditory comprehension, written expression, and reading comprehension. Advanced Language Therapy covers these skills at the sentence and paragraph levels.

Left Neglect  – see  Neglect

Letter Supplementation  – A method of pointing at the first letter of each word spoken to give the listener a clue to the word being said and slow down the speaker.  Read how  this strategy can help speakers with unclear speech.

Life Participation Approach to Aphasia (LPAA)  – A philosophy or model of service delivery for aphasia therapy that expands the focus from only addressing the language impairment to also include the person, their environment, and their participation in activities to more fully impact quality of life. Find out  5 things often misunderstood about LPAA .

Memory  – The cognitive process of storing (or encoding) and recalling (or retrieving) information in the brain. There are many types of memory: short-term, long-term, procedural, declarative, semantic, and episodic. Memory can be impaired through an acquired or degenerative brain condition, such as a TBI or dementia.  Spaced Retrieval Therapy  is an app that uses an evidence-based approach to help people remember facts, procedures, or names when memory is impaired.

Motor Speech Disorder  – A problem producing speech, typically a type of  dysarthria  or  apraxia . Results from neurological, neuromuscular, or musculoskeletal problems with respiration, phonation, articulation, resonance, or prosody.

Naming  – The process of saying what you see. The ability to name objects or actions is frequently impaired in people with aphasia and dementia. The  Naming Therapy  app can help practice the ability to name using a cueing hierarchy, semantic feature analysis, phonological component analysis, and picture description – all  evidence-based naming treatments . The Advanced Naming Therapy app uses more complex exercises to improve generative naming and word finding.

Neglect  – A neurological condition that results in a person being unaware of things that appear on one side of their visual field, even though their eyes are fine. Left neglect is more common than right neglect, though both are possible. Read more  about neglect and how to treat it .

Neurologist  – A medical doctor specialized in disorders of the nervous system (brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves).

Neuroplasticity  – The principle that the brain can change, even in adulthood, based on experience. Discover the  10 principles of neuroplasticity  to know which types of treatment are likely to help.

Neuropsychologist  – A psychologist specialized in behaviour as it relates to disorders of the brain. In a stroke or brain injury rehabilitation team, the neuropsychologist will often administer tests of cognitive function.

Numbers  – A special type of language that communicates quantity. The  communication of numbers  is frequently impaired in people with aphasia.  Number Therapy  is an app that works on the transcoding of numbers in speech, listening, and typing activities.

Occupational Therapy (OT)  – A field of therapy that rehabilitates people with physical or mental illness through the performance of everyday tasks. Occupational Therapists often focus on the upper extremity (arm and hand), wheelchair mobility, activities of daily living, and visual-spatial skills in the rehab setting.

Operating System (OS)  – The software that runs the basic functions of a computer, tablet, or smartphone that allows it to launch other software applications. Windows, OS X, Linux, iOS, and Android are some common operating systems. When purchasing apps or software, it is important to ensure they are compatible with the OS of your computer, tablet, or smartphone. For example, an app designed for iOS will not work on your Windows computer or Android tablet.

Parkinson’s Disease  – A progressive or degenerative medical condition that affects movement by impacting the dopamine systems in the brain.  People with Parkinson’s Disease, or Parkinsonian symptoms, can have speech and swallowing problems that can be helped by speech therapy.

Phonation  – Sound made when air vibrates the vocal folds in the larynx to produce speech. In some motor speech disorders, phonation is absent, impaired, or mis-timed.

Phonemes  – The sounds that are distinct in a language. The word “cat” has 3 phonemes: k + æ + t. Phonemes can be written using the International Phonetic Alphabet, or IPA. The  Speech FlipBook  app allows you to create words with specific sets of phonemes.

Phonological Awareness  – A set of skills that allow a person to hear and manipulate the sounds in words regardless of the meaning. Rhyming, alliteration, segmenting, and blending are all phonological awareness skills.

Phonological Components Analysis (PCA)  – An evidence-based therapy technique for aphasia focusing on phonological awareness skills, such as identifying the first and last sounds in a word, generating rhymes of a given word, and counting the syllables in a word.  Naming Therapy  incorporates PCA into the  Describe  activity when the  Sound  cues are turned on in the  Settings . Learn more about  how to do PCA .

Physical Therapy (PT)  – A field of therapy that rehabilitates people with physical impairments through exercise, massage, heat, or other treatments that are not surgery or medication. Physical Therapists often focus on transfer skills (e.g. moving from bed to chair), walking, and climbing stairs in a rehabilitation setting.

Pragmatics  – The social use of language, including tone of voice, taking turns in a  conversation , providing context to a story, and using words appropriate to the audience or situation. Pragmatic skills are often impaired after a brain injury or a stroke on the right side of the brain.

Primary Progressive Aphasia (PPA)  – A rare type of frontotemporal dementia that starts with a gradual loss of language. Speech therapy can help to provide strategies for communication or exercises to strengthen language skills to slow the decline. Read “ What is PPA? ” for more information.

Privacy  – Tactus Therapy values your privacy. We never collect any names, personal data, or email addresses through our apps. Healthcare providers can easily keep patient data private using Tactus Therapy apps. See our  privacy policy  for more information.

Prosody  – The melody of speech, including suprasegmental features such as rate, rhythm, intonation, volume, stress, and pitch. Prosody can convey emotion, sarcasm, a question vs a statement, and energy. Damage to the brain can impair a person’s ability to produce or understand prosody. People with Broca’s aphasia or apraxia are often dysprosodic. Those with right-hemisphere damage may not understand the intent of the speaker if sarcasm is used, called sensory or receptive aprosodia.

Question  – A sentence meant to elicit information from someone. A query or interrogative. 

Receptive Aphasia  – Another name for  fluent aphasia  or  Wernicke’s aphasia , used because of the marked difficulty with comprehension.  Read more and see a video  of this type of aphasia.

Recovery  – The process of restoring function after a loss. Recovery from a brain injury or stroke can take years, and may never be a full recovery to previous levels of functioning. However, recovery is always possible to some extent. Read  5 factors you can control in stroke recovery .

Remediation  – Improving the problem. One of 4 approaches used in speech-language therapy. Read  more about remediation  and the other 3 approaches.

Resonance  – The flow of air through the nose or mouth during speech. The velum prevents air from going through the nose in all but the nasal sounds (m, n, ng) in normal speech. Cleft palate, stroke, and progressive diseases can cause disorders in resonance in speech.

Respiration  – Breathing, and the first component of speech production.

Responsive Naming  – Generating the name of an object or idea when given attributes about it. For example, “what do you use to tell time?” could be a question meant to elicit the names “clock” or “watch.” To practice responsive naming, use the  Naming Practice  part of the  Naming Therapy  app and listen to the first definition cue without looking at the picture.

Semantic Feature Analysis (SFA)  – An evidence-based method of naming therapy that entails describing something in a systematic way. Detailing the color, size, shape, function, category, smell, taste, feeling, etc of an object or action is a communication strategy, a prompt to retrieve the word, and a restorative exercise.  Naming Therapy  uses SFA in the Describe activity. Read more about  how to do SFA .

Semantics  -The meaning of language.

Smartphone  – A touch-screen phone that serves as a phone and a mini-computer. It can run apps, browse the web, send text messages, take photos, and handle e-mail. The iPhone is Apple’s smartphone.

Spaced Retrieval  – A scientifically proven method to help people with dementia or other memory impairments actively train to recall important information. Recalling an answer over multiplying intervals of time helps to cement the information in memory.  Spaced Retrieval Therapy  is an enhanced interval timer app with independent data tracking and prompts. Read more about how to do it in our  How To: SRT  guide.

Speech  – The expression of language through articulated sounds. Speech consists of respiration, phonation, articulation, resonance, and prosody. Disorders of speech may include problems with any of these areas, including fluency (stuttering or stammering) and voice.

Speech and Language Therapist (SLT or SALT)  – The same as a Speech-Language Pathologist. This title is used for professionals who are trained to evaluate and treat communication and swallowing disorders in many countries such as the UK.

Speech Therapy  – The treatment of communication and swallowing disorders.

Speech-Language Pathologist (SLP)  – The official title given to professionals who are trained to evaluate and treat communication and swallowing disorders.  The term ‘Speech-Language Pathologist’ is meant to better reflect the scope of practice of professionals commonly referred to as ‘speech therapists.’ In the US and Canada, entry-level education to qualify to be a SLP is a Master’s degree.

Strategy  – A plan for achieving a goal. People with communication and swallowing disorders may benefit from using strategies to do the tasks that have become difficult for them. See also  Compensatory Strategy .

Stroke  – An event inside the brain in which there is a sudden loss of function, also known as a  brain attack  or  cerebrovascular attack (CVA) . A stroke occurs when a part of the brain is deprived of the oxygen it needs to function properly. Learn more by reading  What is a Stroke?  and watching the helpful video.

Subscription  – An ongoing monthly or annual expense to use an app or service. When you stop paying for your subscription, you have no access to the app or service anymore. At Tactus Therapy, we don’t believe in charging you for a subscription. When you purchase our apps, you own them for good. We even give you free updates. Don’t worry about our servers going down or using our apps when you don’t have WiFi. They’ll always work.

Syntax  – The rules for combining words in a language. Syntax is often impaired in non-fluent aphasia.

Tablet  – The generic name for a touch-screen computer or device roughly the size of a pad of paper. The iPad and iPad mini are tablets made by Apple. There are also tablets that run on the Android and Windows operating systems.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)  –  A jolt or blow to the head or a penetrating head injury that disrupts the normal functioning of the brain. Learn more about  brain injury in this post .

Velar  – A class of sounds produced at the back of the mouth by approximating the base of the tongue to the velum, or soft palate. /k/, /g/, and /ng/ are velar consonant sounds in English.

Visual Scanning  – A treatment for visual attention deficits, or neglect, that can be done with our  Visual Attention Therapy  app. Learn more about how visual scanning works as a treatment in this  How To: Visual Scanning  post.

VNeST  – Verb Network Strengthening Treatment. Learn more about this effective therapy protocol for improving word finding in aphasia in our step-by-step guide on  How To Do VNeST .

Vowel  – Sounds made with an open vocal tract that form the nucleus of a syllable. You can create words lists with any English vowel in  Speech FlipBook .

Wernicke’s Aphasia  – A type of fluent aphasia with poor auditory comprehension and jargon speech. See  Fluent Aphasia  for more or read  this story  about a couple dealing with Wernicke’s aphasia.

Wh Question  – A type of question that starts with one of these words that starts with “wh”: who, what, where, when, why, which, whose. “How” is also often considered a wh question. 

Yes/No Question  – A type of question that can be answered with “yes” or “no.”

Want to learn more about speech and language disorders in adults? Visit our Learn pages to discover other helpful resources. We also have a wide variety of  apps for speech therapy  you can download to get started on improving communication today.  

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Megan S. Sutton , MS, CCC-SLP is a speech-language pathologist and co-founder of Tactus Therapy. She is an international speaker, writer, and educator on the use of technology in adult medical speech therapy. Megan believes that technology plays a critical role in improving aphasia outcomes and humanizing clinical services.

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Definition of speech

• declamation

Examples of speech in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'speech.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English speche , from Old English sprǣc, spǣc ; akin to Old English sprecan to speak — more at speak

before the 12th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

Phrases Containing speech

• acceptance speech
• figure of speech
• freedom of speech
• free speech
• hate speech
• part of speech
• polite speech

speech community

• speech form
• speech impediment
• speech therapy
• stump speech
• visible speech

Dictionary Entries Near speech

Cite this entry.

“Speech.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/speech. Accessed 23 May. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of speech, medical definition, medical definition of speech, legal definition, legal definition of speech, more from merriam-webster on speech.

Nglish: Translation of speech for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of speech for Arabic Speakers

Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article about speech

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Losing her speech made her feel isolated from humanity.

Synonyms: communication , conversation , parley , parlance

He expresses himself better in speech than in writing.

We waited for some speech that would indicate her true feelings.

Synonyms: talk , mention , comment , asseveration , assertion , observation

a fiery speech.

Synonyms: discourse , talk

• any single utterance of an actor in the course of a play, motion picture, etc.

Synonyms: patois , tongue

Your slovenly speech is holding back your career.

• a field of study devoted to the theory and practice of oral communication.
• Archaic. rumor .

to have speech with somebody

speech therapy

• that which is spoken; utterance
• a talk or address delivered to an audience
• a person's characteristic manner of speaking
• a national or regional language or dialect
• linguistics another word for parole

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Other words from.

• self-speech noun

Word History and Origins

Origin of speech 1

Synonym Study

Example sentences.

Kids are interacting with Alexas that can record their voice data and influence their speech and social development.

The attorney general delivered a controversial speech Wednesday.

For example, my company, Teknicks, is working with an online K-12 speech and occupational therapy provider.

Instead, it would give tech companies a powerful incentive to limit Brazilians’ freedom of speech at a time of political unrest.

However, the president did give a speech in Suresnes, France, the next day during a ceremony hosted by the American Battle Monuments Commission.

Those are troubling numbers, for unfettered speech is not incidental to a flourishing society.

There is no such thing as speech so hateful or offensive it somehow “justifies” or “legitimizes” the use of violence.

We need to recover and grow the idea that the proper answer to bad speech is more and better speech.

Tend to your own garden, to quote the great sage of free speech, Voltaire, and invite people to follow your example.

The simple, awful truth is that free speech has never been particularly popular in America.

Alessandro turned a grateful look on Ramona as he translated this speech, so in unison with Indian modes of thought and feeling.

And so this is why the clever performer cannot reproduce the effect of a speech of Demosthenes or Daniel Webster.

He said no more in words, but his little blue eyes had an eloquence that left nothing to mere speech.

After pondering over Mr. Blackbird's speech for a few moments he raised his head.

Albinia, I have refrained from speech as long as possible; but this is really too much!

Related Words

More about speech, what is speech .

Speech is the ability to express thoughts and emotions through vocal sounds and gestures. The act of doing this is also known as speech .

Speech is something only humans are capable of doing and this ability has contributed greatly to humanity’s ability to develop civilization. Speech allows humans to communicate much more complex information than animals are able to.

Almost all animals make sounds or noises with the intent to communicate with each other, such as mating calls and yelps of danger. However, animals aren’t actually talking to each other. That is, they aren’t forming sentences or sharing complicated information. Instead, they are making simple noises that trigger another animal’s natural instincts.

While speech does involve making noises, there is a lot more going on than simple grunts and growls. First, humans’ vocal machinery, such as our lungs, throat, vocal chords, and tongue, allows for a wide range of intricate sounds. Second, the human brain is incredibly complex, allowing humans to process vocal sounds and understand combinations of them as words and oral communication. The human brain is essential for speech . While chimpanzees and other apes have vocal organs similar to humans’, their brains are much less advanced and they are unable to learn speech .

Why is speech important?

The first records of the word speech come from before the year 900. It ultimately comes from the Old English word sprecan , meaning “to speak.” Scientists debate on the exact date that humanity first learned to speak, with estimates ranging from 50,000 to 2 million years ago.

Related to the concept of speech is the idea of language . A language is the collection of symbols, sounds, gestures, and anything else that a group of people use to communicate with each other, such as English, Swahili, and American Sign Language . Speech is actually using those things to orally communicate with someone else.

Did you know … ?

But what about birds that “talk”? Parrots in particular are famous for their ability to say human words and sentences. Birds are incapable of speech . What they are actually doing is learning common sounds that humans make and mimicking them. They don’t actually understand what anything they are repeating actually means.

What are real-life examples of speech ?

Speech is essential to human communication.

Dutch is just enough like German that I can read text on signs and screens, but not enough that I can understand speech. — Clark Smith Cox III (@clarkcox) September 8, 2009

I can make squirrels so excited, I could almost swear they understand human speech! — Neil Oliver (@thecoastguy) July 20, 2020

What other words are related to speech ?

• communication
• information

Quiz yourself!

True or False?

Humans are the only animals capable of speech .

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Definition of speech noun from the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary

• speaker noun
• speech noun
• spoken adjective (≠ unspoken)
• Several people made speeches at the wedding.
• She gave a rousing speech to the crowd.
• speech on something to deliver a speech on human rights
• speech about something He inspired everyone with a moving speech about tolerance and respect.
• in a speech In his acceptance speech , the actor thanked his family.
• a lecture on the Roman army
• a course/​series of lectures
• a televised presidential address
• She gave an interesting talk on her visit to China.
• to preach a sermon
• a long/​short speech/​lecture/​address/​talk/​sermon
• a keynote speech/​lecture/​address
• to write/​prepare/​give/​deliver/​hear a(n) speech/​lecture/​address/​talk/​sermon
• to attend/​go to a lecture/​talk
• George Washington's inaugural speech
• He made a speech about workers of the world uniting.
• In a speech given last month, she hinted she would run for office.
• She delivered the keynote speech (= main general speech) at the conference.
• He wrote her party conference speech.
• His 20-minute speech was interrupted several times by booing.
• Her comments came ahead of a speech she will deliver on Thursday to business leaders.
• She concluded her speech by thanking the audience.
• He gave an impassioned speech broadcast nationwide.
• We heard a speech by the author.
• This is very unexpected—I haven't prepared a speech.
• The guest speaker is ill so I have to do the opening speech.
• He read his speech from a prompter.
• the farewell speech given by George Washington
• He made the comments in a nationally televised speech.
• During his victory speech the President paid tribute to his defeated opponent.
• In his concession speech, he urged his supporters to try to work with Republicans.
• The Prime Minister addressed the nation in a televised speech.
• He delivered his final speech to Congress.
• He delivered the commencement speech at Notre Dame University.
• His speech was broadcast on national radio.
• In her speech to the House of Commons, she outlined her vision of Britain in the 21st century.
• President Bush delivered his 2004 State of the Union speech.
• She gave a speech on the economy.
• She made a stirring campaign speech on improving the lot of the unemployed.
• The President will deliver a major foreign-policy speech to the United Nations.
• The candidates gave their standard stump speeches (= political campaign speeches) .
• The prizewinner gave an emotional acceptance speech.
• a Senate floor speech
• her maiden speech (= her first) in the House of Commons
• the Chancellor's Budget speech
• the Prime Minister's speech-writers
• She's been asked to give the after-dinner speech.
• You will need to prepare an acceptance speech.
• a political speech writer
• in a/​the speech
• speech about

Want to learn more?

Find out which words work together and produce more natural-sounding English with the Oxford Collocations Dictionary app. Try it for free as part of the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary app.

A manuscript page from President George W. Bush’s address to the nation on the day of the 9/11 attacks in 2001.

A manuscript speech is when the speaker writes down every word they will speak during the speech. When they deliver the speech, they have each word planned and in front of them on the page, much like a newscaster who reads from a teleprompter.

The advantage of using a manuscript is that the speaker has access to every word they’ve prepared in advance. There is no guesswork or memorization needed. This method comforts some speakers’ nerves as they don’t have to worry about that moment where they might freeze and forget what they’ve planned to say. They also are able to make exact quotes from their source material.

When the exact wording of an idea is crucial, speakers often read from a manuscript, for instance in communicating public statements from a company.

However, the disadvantage with a manuscript is that the speakers have MANY words in front of them on the page. This prohibits one of the most important aspects of delivery, eye contact. When many words are on the page, the speakers will find themselves looking down at those words more frequently because they will need the help. If they do look up at the audience, they often cannot find their place when the eye returns to the page. Also, when nerves come into play, speakers with manuscripts often default to reading from the page and forget that they are not making eye contact or engaging their audience. Therefore, manuscript is a very difficult delivery method and not ideal.  Above all, the speakers should remember to rehearse with the script so that they practice looking up often.

Public Speaking in History

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, owed in large part to a momentary error made by an East German government spokesperson. At a live press conference, Günter Schabowski tried to explain new rules relaxing East Germany’s severe travel restrictions. A reporter asked, “when do these new rules go into effect?” Visibly flustered, Schabowski said, “As far as I know, it takes effect immediately, without delay.” In fact, the new visa application procedure was supposed to begin the following day, and with a lot of bureaucracy and red tape. Instead, thousands of East Berliners arrived within minutes at the border crossings, demanding to pass through immediately. The rest is history.

The outcome of this particular public-relations blunder was welcomed by the vast majority of East and West German citizens, and hastened the collapse of communism in Eastern and Central Europe. It’s probably good, then, that Schabowski ran this particular press conference extemporaneously, rather than reading from a manuscript.

You can view the transcript for “The mistake that toppled the Berlin Wall” here (opens in new window) .

A memorized speech is also fully prepared in advance and one in which the speaker does not use any notes. In the case of an occasion speech like a quick toast, a brief dedication, or a short eulogy, word-for-word memorization might make sense. Usually, though, it doesn’t involve committing each and every word to memory, Memorizing a speech isn’t like memorizing a poem where you need to remember every word exactly as written. Don’t memorize a manuscript! Work with your outline instead. Practice with the outline until you can recall the content and order of your main points without effort. Then it’s just a matter of practicing until you’re able to elaborate on your key points in a natural and seamless manner. Ideally, a memorized speech will sound like an off-the-cuff statement by someone who is a really eloquent speaker and an exceptionally organized thinker!

The advantage of a memorized speech is that the speaker can fully face their audience and make lots of eye contact. The problem with a memorized speech is that speakers may get nervous and forget the parts they’ve memorized. Without any notes to lean on, the speaker may hesitate and leave lots of dead air in the room while trying to recall what was planned. Sometimes, the speaker can’t remember or find his or her place in the speech and are forced to go get the notes or go back to the PowerPoint in some capacity to try to trigger his or her memory. This can be an embarrassing and uncomfortable moment for the speaker and the audience, and is a moment which could be easily avoided by using a different speaking method.

How to: memorize a speech

There are lots of tips out there about how to memorize speeches. Here’s one that loosely follows an ancient memorization strategy called the method of loci or “memory palace,” which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information.

You can view the transcript for “How to Memorize a Speech” here (opens in new window) .

An impromptu speech is one for which there is little to no preparation. There is often not a warning even that the person may be asked to speak. For example, your speech teacher may ask you to deliver a speech on your worst pet peeve. You may or may not be given a few minutes to organize your thoughts. What should you do? DO NOT PANIC. Even under pressure, you can create a basic speech that follows the formula of an introduction, body, and conclusion. If you have a few minutes, jot down some notes that fit into each part of the speech. (In fact, the phrase “speaking off the cuff,” which means speaking without preparation, probably refers to the idea that one would jot a few notes on one’s shirt cuff before speaking impromptu.) [1] ) An introduction should include an attention getter, introduction of the topic, speaker credibility, and forecasting of main points. The body should have two or three main points. The conclusion should have a summary, call to action, and final thought. If you can organize your thoughts into those three parts, you will sound like a polished speaker. Even if you only hit two of them, it will still help you to think about the speech in those parts. For example, if a speech is being given on a pet peeve of chewed gum being left under desks in classrooms, it might be organized like this.

• Introduction : Speaker chews gum loudly and then puts it under a desk (attention getter, demonstration). Speaker introduces themselves and the topic and why they’re qualified to speak on it (topic introduction and credibility). “I’m Katie Smith and I’ve been a student at this school for three years and witnessed this gum problem the entire time.”
• Body : Speaker states three main points of why we shouldn’t leave gum on desks: it’s rude, it makes custodians have to work harder, it affects the next student who gets nastiness on their seat (forecast of order). Speaker then discusses those three points
• Conclusion : Speaker summarizes those three points (summary, part 1 of conclusion), calls on the audience to pledge to never do this again (call to action), and gives a quote from Michael Jordan about respecting property (final thought).

While an impromptu speech can be challenging, the advantage is that it can also be thrilling as the speaker thinks off the cuff and says what they’re most passionate about in the moment. A speaker should not be afraid to use notes during an impromptu speech if they were given any time to organize their thoughts.

The disadvantage is that there is no time for preparation, so finding research to support claims such as quotes or facts cannot be included. The lack of preparation makes some speakers more nervous and they may struggle to engage the audience due to their nerves.

Extemporaneous

The last method of delivery we’ll look at is extemporaneous. When speaking extemporaneously, speakers prepare some notes in advance that help trigger their memory of what they planned to say. These notes are often placed on notecards. A 4”x6” notecard or 5”x7” size card works well. This size of notecards can be purchased at any office supply store. Speakers should determine what needs to go on each card by reading through their speech notes and giving themselves phrases to say out loud. These notes are not full sentences, but help the speakers, who turn them into a full sentence when spoken aloud. Note that if a quote is being used, listing that quote verbatim is fine.

The advantage of extemporaneous speaking is that the speakers are able to speak in a more conversational tone by letting the cards guide them, but not dictate every word they say. This method allows for the speakers to make more eye contact with the audience. The shorter note forms also prevent speakers from getting lost in their words. Numbering these cards also helps if one gets out of order. Also, these notes are not ones the teacher sees or collects. While you may be required to turn in your speech outline, your extemporaneous notecards are not seen by anyone but you. Therefore, you can also write yourself notes to speak up, slow down, emphasize a point, go to the next slide, etc.

The disadvantage to extemporaneous is the speakers may forget what else was planned to say or find a card to be out of order. This problem can be avoided through rehearsal and double-checking the note order before speaking.

Many speakers consider the extemporaneous method to be the ideal speaking method because it allows them to be prepared, keeps the audience engaged, and makes the speakers more natural in their delivery. In your public speaking class, most of your speeches will probably be delivered extemporaneously.

• As per the Oxford English Dictionary' s entry for "Off the Cuff." See an extensive discussion at Mark Liberman's Language Log here: https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4130 ↵
• Method of loci definition. Provided by : Wikipedia. Located at : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Method_of_loci . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• The mistake that toppled the Berlin Wall. Provided by : Vox. Located at : https://youtu.be/Mn4VDwaV-oo . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• How to Memorize a Speech. Authored by : Memorize Academy. Located at : https://youtu.be/rvBw__VNrsc . License : Other . License Terms : Standard YouTube License
• Address to the Nation. Provided by : U.S. National Archives. Located at : https://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2011/09/06/911-an-address-to-the-nation/ . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright
• Methods of Speech Delivery. Authored by : Misti Wills with Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution

Definition of 'speech'

speech in British English

Speech in american english, examples of 'speech' in a sentence speech, cobuild collocations speech, trends of speech.

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Informative Speeches — Types, Topics, and Examples

What is an informative speech?

An informative speech uses descriptions, demonstrations, and strong detail to explain a person, place, or subject. An informative speech makes a complex topic easier to understand and focuses on delivering information, rather than providing a persuasive argument.

Types of informative speeches

The most common types of informative speeches are definition, explanation, description, and demonstration.

A definition speech explains a concept, theory, or philosophy about which the audience knows little. The purpose of the speech is to inform the audience so they understand the main aspects of the subject matter.

An explanatory speech presents information on the state of a given topic. The purpose is to provide a specific viewpoint on the chosen subject. Speakers typically incorporate a visual of data and/or statistics.

The speaker of a descriptive speech provides audiences with a detailed and vivid description of an activity, person, place, or object using elaborate imagery to make the subject matter memorable.

A demonstrative speech explains how to perform a particular task or carry out a process. These speeches often demonstrate the following:

How to do something

How to make something

How to fix something

How something works

How to write an informative speech

Regardless of the type, every informative speech should include an introduction, a hook, background information, a thesis, the main points, and a conclusion.

Introduction

An attention grabber or hook draws in the audience and sets the tone for the speech. The technique the speaker uses should reflect the subject matter in some way (i.e., if the topic is serious in nature, do not open with a joke). Therefore, when choosing an attention grabber, consider the following:

What’s the topic of the speech?

What’s the occasion?

Who’s the audience?

What’s the purpose of the speech?

Common Attention Grabbers (Hooks)

Ask a question that allows the audience to respond in a non-verbal way (e.g., a poll question where they can simply raise their hands) or ask a rhetorical question that makes the audience think of the topic in a certain way yet requires no response.

Incorporate a well-known quote that introduces the topic. Using the words of a celebrated individual gives credibility and authority to the information in the speech.

Offer a startling statement or information about the topic, which is typically done using data or statistics. The statement should surprise the audience in some way.

Provide a brief anecdote that relates to the topic in some way.

Present a “what if” scenario that connects to the subject matter of the speech.

Identify the importance of the speech’s topic.

Starting a speech with a humorous statement often makes the audience more comfortable with the speaker.

Include any background information pertinent to the topic that the audience needs to know to understand the speech in its entirety.

The thesis statement shares the central purpose of the speech.

Demonstrate

Preview the main ideas that will help accomplish the central purpose. Typically, informational speeches will have an average of three main ideas.

Body paragraphs

Apply the following to each main idea (body) :

Identify the main idea ( NOTE: The main points of a demonstration speech would be the individual steps.)

Provide evidence to support the main idea

Explain how the evidence supports the main idea/central purpose

Transition to the next main idea

Review or restate the thesis and the main points presented throughout the speech.

Much like the attention grabber, the closing statement should interest the audience. Some of the more common techniques include a challenge, a rhetorical question, or restating relevant information:

Provide the audience with a challenge or call to action to apply the presented information to real life.

Detail the benefit of the information.

Close with an anecdote or brief story that illustrates the main points.

Leave the audience with a rhetorical question to ponder after the speech has concluded.

Detail the relevance of the presented information.

Before speech writing, brainstorm a list of informative speech topic ideas. The right topic depends on the type of speech, but good topics can range from video games to disabilities and electric cars to healthcare and mental health.

Informative speech topics

Some common informative essay topics for each type of informational speech include the following:

Informative speech examples

The following list identifies famous informational speeches:

“Duties of American Citizenship” by Theodore Roosevelt

“Duty, Honor, Country” by General Douglas MacArthur

“Strength and Dignity” by Theodore Roosevelt

Explanation

“Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death” by Patrick Henry

“The Decision to Go to the Moon” by John F. Kennedy

“We Shall Fight on the Beaches” by Winston Churchill

Description

“I Have a Dream” by Martin Luther King, Jr.

“Pearl Harbor Address” by Franklin Delano Roosevelt

“Luckiest Man” by Lou Gehrig

Demonstration

The Way to Cook with Julia Child

This Old House with Bob Vila

Bill Nye the Science Guy with Bill Nye

The 9 Parts of Speech: Definitions and Examples

• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

A part of speech is a term used in traditional grammar for one of the nine main categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences, such as nouns or verbs. Also known as word classes, these are the building blocks of grammar.

Every sentence you write or speak in English includes words that fall into some of the nine parts of speech. These include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and interjections. (Some sources include only eight parts of speech and leave interjections in their own category.)

Parts of Speech

• Word types can be divided into nine parts of speech:
• prepositions
• conjunctions
• articles/determiners
• interjections
• Some words can be considered more than one part of speech, depending on context and usage.
• Interjections can form complete sentences on their own.

Learning the names of the parts of speech probably won't make you witty, healthy, wealthy, or wise. In fact, learning just the names of the parts of speech won't even make you a better writer. However, you will gain a basic understanding of sentence structure  and the  English language by familiarizing yourself with these labels.

Open and Closed Word Classes

The parts of speech are commonly divided into  open classes  (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and  closed classes  (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and interjections). Open classes can be altered and added to as language develops, and closed classes are pretty much set in stone. For example, new nouns are created every day, but conjunctions never change.

In contemporary linguistics , parts of speech are generally referred to as word classes or syntactic categories. The main difference is that word classes are classified according to more strict linguistic criteria. Within word classes, there is the lexical, or open class, and the function, or closed class.

The 9 Parts of Speech

Read about each part of speech below, and practice identifying each.

Nouns are a person, place, thing, or idea. They can take on a myriad of roles in a sentence, from the subject of it all to the object of an action. They are capitalized when they're the official name of something or someone, and they're called proper nouns in these cases. Examples: pirate, Caribbean, ship, freedom, Captain Jack Sparrow.

Pronouns stand in for nouns in a sentence . They are more generic versions of nouns that refer only to people. Examples:​  I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, which, anybody, ourselves.

Verbs are action words that tell what happens in a sentence. They can also show a sentence subject's state of being ( is , was ). Verbs change form based on tense (present, past) and count distinction (singular or plural). Examples:  sing, dance, believes, seemed, finish, eat, drink, be, became.

Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, how much, what kind, and more. Adjectives allow readers and listeners to use their senses to imagine something more clearly. Examples:  hot, lazy, funny, unique, bright, beautiful, poor, smooth.

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. They specify when, where, how, and why something happened and to what extent or how often. Many adjectives can be turned into adjectives by adding the suffix - ly . Examples:  softly, quickly, lazily, often, only, hopefully, sometimes.

Preposition

Prepositions  show spatial, temporal, and role relations between a noun or pronoun and the other words in a sentence. They come at the start of a prepositional phrase , which contains a preposition and its object. Examples:  up, over, against, by, for, into, close to, out of, apart from.

Conjunction

Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. There are coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions. Examples:  and, but, or, so, yet.

Articles and Determiners

Articles and determiners function like adjectives by modifying nouns, but they are different than adjectives in that they are necessary for a sentence to have proper syntax. Articles and determiners specify and identify nouns, and there are indefinite and definite articles. Examples of articles:  a, an, the ; examples of determiners:  these, that, those, enough, much, few, which, what.

Some traditional grammars have treated articles  as a distinct part of speech. Modern grammars, however, more often include articles in the category of determiners , which identify or quantify a noun. Even though they modify nouns like adjectives, articles are different in that they are essential to the proper syntax of a sentence, just as determiners are necessary to convey the meaning of a sentence, while adjectives are optional.

Interjection

Interjections are expressions that can stand on their own or be contained within sentences. These words and phrases often carry strong emotions and convey reactions. Examples:  ah, whoops, ouch, yabba dabba do!

How to Determine the Part of Speech

Only interjections ( Hooray! ) have a habit of standing alone; every other part of speech must be contained within a sentence and some are even required in sentences (nouns and verbs). Other parts of speech come in many varieties and may appear just about anywhere in a sentence.

To know for sure what part of speech a word falls into, look not only at the word itself but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence.

For example, in the first sentence below,  work  functions as a noun; in the second sentence, a verb; and in the third sentence, an adjective:

• Bosco showed up for  work  two hours late.
• The noun  work  is the thing Bosco shows up for.
• He will have to  work  until midnight.
• The verb  work  is the action he must perform.
• His  work  permit expires next month.
• The  attributive noun  (or converted adjective) work  modifies the noun  permit .

Learning the names and uses of the basic parts of speech is just one way to understand how sentences are constructed.

Dissecting Basic Sentences

To form a basic complete sentence, you only need two elements: a noun (or pronoun standing in for a noun) and a verb. The noun acts as a subject, and the verb, by telling what action the subject is taking, acts as the predicate. 

In the short sentence above,  birds  is the noun and  fly  is the verb. The sentence makes sense and gets the point across.

You can have a sentence with just one word without breaking any sentence formation rules. The short sentence below is complete because it's a verb command with an understood "you" noun.

Here, the pronoun, standing in for a noun, is implied and acts as the subject. The sentence is really saying, "(You) go!"

Constructing More Complex Sentences

Use more parts of speech to add additional information about what's happening in a sentence to make it more complex. Take the first sentence from above, for example, and incorporate more information about how and why birds fly.

• Birds fly when migrating before winter.

Birds and fly remain the noun and the verb, but now there is more description. 

When  is an adverb that modifies the verb fly.  The word before  is a little tricky because it can be either a conjunction, preposition, or adverb depending on the context. In this case, it's a preposition because it's followed by a noun. This preposition begins an adverbial phrase of time ( before winter ) that answers the question of when the birds migrate . Before is not a conjunction because it does not connect two clauses.

• A List of Exclamations and Interjections in English
• Sentence Parts and Sentence Structures
• 100 Key Terms Used in the Study of Grammar
• Closed Class Words
• Word Class in English Grammar
• Prepositional Phrases in English Grammar
• Foundations of Grammar in Italian
• The Top 25 Grammatical Terms
• What Are the Parts of a Prepositional Phrase?
• Open Class Words in English Grammar
• What Is an Adverb in English Grammar?
• Definition and Examples of Function Words in English
• Telegraphic Speech
• Sentence Patterns
• Pronoun Definition and Examples
• Lesson Plan: Label Sentences with Parts of Speech

• Health Conditions
• Health Products

What are speech disorders?

A speech disorder is any condition that affects a person’s ability to produce sounds that create words. Damage to muscles, nerves, and vocal structures can cause it. Examples include stuttering and ataxia.

Speech is one of the main ways in which people communicate their thoughts, feelings, and ideas with others. The act of speaking requires the precise coordination of multiple body parts, including the head, neck, chest, and abdomen.

In this article, we explore what speech disorders are and the different types. We also cover the symptoms, causes, diagnosis, and treatment of speech disorders.

What is a speech disorder?

Speech disorders affect a person’s ability to form the sounds that allow them to communicate with other people. They are not the same as language disorders.

Speech disorders prevent people from forming correct speech sounds, while language disorders affect a person’s ability to learn words or understand what others say to them.

However, both speech and language disorders can make it more difficult for a person to express their thoughts and feelings to others.

Speech disorders can affect people of all ages.

Some types of speech disorder include stuttering, apraxia, and dysarthria. We discuss each of these types below:

Stuttering refers to a speech disorder that interrupts the flow of speech. People who stutter can experience the following types of disruption:

• Repetitions occur when people involuntarily repeat sounds, vowels, or words.
• Blocks happen when people know what they want to say but have difficulty making the necessary speech sounds. Blocks may cause someone to feel as though their words are stuck.
• Prolongations refer to the stretching or drawing out of particular sounds or words.

The symptoms of stuttering can vary depending on the situation. Stress , excitement, or frustration can cause stuttering to become more severe. Some people may also find that certain words or sounds can make a stutter more pronounced.

Stuttering can cause both behavioral and physical symptoms that occur at the same time. These can include:

• tension in the face and shoulders
• rapid blinking
• lip tremors
• clenched fists
• sudden head movements

There are two main types of stuttering:

• Developmental stuttering affects young children who are still learning speech and language skills. Genetic factors significantly increase a person’s likelihood of developing this type of stutter.
• Neurogenic stuttering occurs when damage to the brain prevents proper coordination between the different regions of the brain that play a role in speech.

The brain controls every single action that people make, including speaking. Most of the brain’s involvement in speech is unconscious and automatic.

When someone decides to speak, the brain sends signals to the different structures of the body that work together to produce speech. The brain instructs these structures how and when to move to form the appropriate sounds.

For example, these speech signals open or close the vocal cords, move the tongue and shape the lips, and control the movement of air through the throat and mouth.

Apraxia is a general term referring to brain damage that impairs a person’s motor skills, and it can affect any part of the body. Apraxia of speech, or verbal apraxia, refers specifically to the impairment of motor skills that affect an individual’s ability to form the sounds of speech correctly, even when they know which words they want to say.

Dysarthria occurs when damage to the brain causes muscle weakness in a person’s face, lips, tongue, throat, or chest. Muscle weakness in these parts of the body can make speaking very difficult.

People who have dysarthria may experience the following symptoms:

• slurred speech
• speaking too slowly or too quickly
• soft or quiet speech
• difficulty moving the mouth or tongue

The symptoms of speech disorders vary widely depending on the cause and severity of the disorder. People can develop multiple speech disorders with different symptoms.

People with one or more speech disorders may experience the following symptoms:

• repeating or prolonging sounds
• distorting sounds
• adding sounds or syllables to words
• rearranging syllables
• having difficulty pronouncing words correctly
• struggling to say the correct word or sound
• speaking with a hoarse or raspy voice
• speaking very softly

Causes of speech disorders can include:

• brain damage due to a stroke or head injury
• muscle weakness
• damaged vocal cords
• a degenerative disease, such as Huntington’s disease , Parkinson’s disease , or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
• cancer that affects the mouth or throat
• Down syndrome
• hearing loss

Risk factors that can increase the likelihood of a person developing a speech disorder include :

• being born prematurely
• having a low weight at birth
• having a family history of speech disorders
• experiencing problems that affect the ears, nose, or throat

A speech-language pathologist (SLP) is a healthcare professional who specializes in speech and language disorders.

An SLP will evaluate a person for groups of symptoms that indicate one type of speech disorder. To make an accurate diagnosis, SLPs need to rule out other speech and language disorders and medical conditions.

An SLP will review a person’s medical and family history. They will also examine how a person moves their lips, jaw, and tongue and may inspect the muscles of the mouth and throat.

Other methods of evaluating speech disorders include:

• Denver articulation screening examination . This test evaluates the clarity of a person’s pronunciation.
• Prosody-voice screening profile . SLPs use this test to examine multiple aspects of a person’s speech, including pitch, phrasing, speech patterns, and speaking volume.
• Dynamic evaluation of motor speech skills (DEMSS) manual . The DEMSS is a comprehensive guide for helping SLPs diagnose speech disorders.

The type of treatment will typically depend on the severity of the speech disorder and its underlying cause.

Treatment options can include:

• speech therapy exercises that focus on building familiarity with certain words or sounds
• physical exercises that focus on strengthening the muscles that produce speech sounds

We discuss some of the treatment options for speech disorders below:

Target selection

Target selection involves a person practicing specific sounds or words to familiarize themselves with particular speech patterns. Examples of therapy targets may include difficult words or sounds that trigger speech disruptions.

Contextual utilization

For this approach, SLPs teach people to recognize speech sounds in different syllable-based contexts.

Contrast therapy

Contrast therapy involves saying word pairs that contain one or more different speech sounds. An example word pair might be “beat” and “feet” or “dough” and “show.”

Oral-motor therapy

The oral-motor therapy approach focuses on improving muscle strength, motor control, and breath control. These exercises can help people develop fluency, which produces smoother speech that sounds more natural.

Ear devices are small electronic aids that fit inside the ear canal. These devices can help improve fluency in people who have a stutter.

Some ear devices replay altered versions of the wearer’s voice to make it seem as though someone else is speaking with them. Other ear devices produce a noise that helps control stuttering.

Some speech disorders can cause people to develop anxiety disorders. Stressful situations can trigger anxiety, resulting in more pronounced speech disorder symptoms. Anxiety medications may help reduce symptoms of speech disorders in some people.

Speech disorders affect a person’s ability to produce sounds that create words. They are not the same as language disorders, which make it more difficult for people to learn words or understand what others are saying to them.

Types of speech disorder include stuttering, apraxia, and dysarthria. There are many possible causes of speech disorders, including muscles weakness, brain injuries, degenerative diseases, autism, and hearing loss.

Speech disorders can affect a person’s self-esteem and their overall quality of life. However, speech therapy, breathing exercises, and, sometimes, anti-anxiety medications can help improve speech and reduce symptoms.

• Anxiety / Stress
• Ear, Nose, and Throat
• Neurology / Neuroscience
• Rehabilitation / Physical Therapy

How we reviewed this article:

• Hearnshaw, S., et al. (2018). The speech perception skills of children with and without speech sound disorder [Abstract]. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0021992417300679
• Language and speech disorders in children. (2019). https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/language-disorders.html#problems
• Speech sound disorders — articulation and phonology. (n.d.). https://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folderid=8589935321&section=Treatment
• Statistics on voice, speech, and language. (2016). https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/statistics/statistics-voice-speech-and-language#2
• Stuttering. (2017). https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/stuttering

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, understanding the 8 parts of speech: definitions and examples.

General Education

If you’re trying to learn the grammatical rules of English, you’ve probably been asked to learn the parts of speech. But what are parts of speech and how many are there? How do you know which words are classified in each part of speech?

The answers to these questions can be a bit complicated—English is a difficult language to learn and understand. Don’t fret, though! We’re going to answer each of these questions for you with a full guide to the parts of speech that explains the following:

• What the parts of speech are, including a comprehensive parts of speech list
• Parts of speech definitions for the individual parts of speech. (If you’re looking for information on a specific part of speech, you can search for it by pressing Command + F, then typing in the part of speech you’re interested in.) 
• Parts of speech examples
• A ten question quiz covering parts of speech definitions and parts of speech examples

We’ve got a lot to cover, so let’s begin!

Feature Image: (Gavina S / Wikimedia Commons)

What Are Parts of Speech? 

The parts of speech definitions in English can vary, but here’s a widely accepted one: a part of speech is a category of words that serve a similar grammatical purpose in sentences.  

To make that definition even simpler, a part of speech is just a category for similar types of words . All of the types of words included under a single part of speech function in similar ways when they’re used properly in sentences.

In the English language, it’s commonly accepted that there are 8 parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections, and prepositions. Each of these categories plays a different role in communicating meaning in the English language. Each of the eight parts of speech—which we might also call the “main classes” of speech—also have subclasses. In other words, we can think of each of the eight parts of speech as being general categories for different types within their part of speech . There are different types of nouns, different types of verbs, different types of adjectives, adverbs, pronouns...you get the idea. 

And that’s an overview of what a part of speech is! Next, we’ll explain each of the 8 parts of speech—definitions and examples included for each category. 

There are tons of nouns in this picture. Can you find them all? 

Nouns are a class of words that refer, generally, to people and living creatures, objects, events, ideas, states of being, places, and actions. You’ve probably heard English nouns referred to as “persons, places, or things.” That definition is a little simplistic, though—while nouns do include people, places, and things, “things” is kind of a vague term. I t’s important to recognize that “things” can include physical things—like objects or belongings—and nonphysical, abstract things—like ideas, states of existence, and actions. 

Since there are many different types of nouns, we’ll include several examples of nouns used in a sentence while we break down the subclasses of nouns next!

Subclasses of Nouns, Including Examples

As an open class of words, the category of “nouns” has a lot of subclasses. The most common and important subclasses of nouns are common nouns, proper nouns, concrete nouns, abstract nouns, collective nouns, and count and mass nouns. Let’s break down each of these subclasses!

Common Nouns and Proper Nouns

Common nouns are generic nouns—they don’t name specific items. They refer to people (the man, the woman), living creatures (cat, bird), objects (pen, computer, car), events (party, work), ideas (culture, freedom), states of being (beauty, integrity), and places (home, neighborhood, country) in a general way. 

Proper nouns are sort of the counterpart to common nouns. Proper nouns refer to specific people, places, events, or ideas. Names are the most obvious example of proper nouns, like in these two examples: 

Common noun: What state are you from?

Proper noun: I’m from Arizona .

Whereas “state” is a common noun, Arizona is a proper noun since it refers to a specific state. Whereas “the election” is a common noun, “Election Day” is a proper noun. Another way to pick out proper nouns: the first letter is often capitalized. If you’d capitalize the word in a sentence, it’s almost always a proper noun. 

Concrete Nouns and Abstract Nouns

Concrete nouns are nouns that can be identified through the five senses. Concrete nouns include people, living creatures, objects, and places, since these things can be sensed in the physical world. In contrast to concrete nouns, abstract nouns are nouns that identify ideas, qualities, concepts, experiences, or states of being. Abstract nouns cannot be detected by the five senses. Here’s an example of concrete and abstract nouns used in a sentence: 

Concrete noun: Could you please fix the weedeater and mow the lawn ?

Abstract noun: Aliyah was delighted to have the freedom to enjoy the art show in peace .

See the difference? A weedeater and the lawn are physical objects or things, and freedom and peace are not physical objects, though they’re “things” people experience! Despite those differences, they all count as nouns. 

Collective Nouns, Count Nouns, and Mass Nouns

Nouns are often categorized based on number and amount. Collective nouns are nouns that refer to a group of something—often groups of people or a type of animal. Team , crowd , and herd are all examples of collective nouns. 

Count nouns are nouns that can appear in the singular or plural form, can be modified by numbers, and can be described by quantifying determiners (e.g. many, most, more, several). For example, “bug” is a count noun. It can occur in singular form if you say, “There is a bug in the kitchen,” but it can also occur in the plural form if you say, “There are many bugs in the kitchen.” (In the case of the latter, you’d call an exterminator...which is an example of a common noun!) Any noun that can accurately occur in one of these singular or plural forms is a count noun. 

Mass nouns are another type of noun that involve numbers and amount. Mass nouns are nouns that usually can’t be pluralized, counted, or quantified and still make sense grammatically. “Charisma” is an example of a mass noun (and an abstract noun!). For example, you could say, “They’ve got charisma, ” which doesn’t imply a specific amount. You couldn’t say, “They’ve got six charismas, ” or, “They’ve got several charismas .” It just doesn’t make sense! 

Verbs are all about action...just like these runners. 

A verb is a part of speech that, when used in a sentence, communicates an action, an occurrence, or a state of being . In sentences, verbs are the most important part of the predicate, which explains or describes what the subject of the sentence is doing or how they are being. And, guess what? All sentences contain verbs!

There are many words in the English language that are classified as verbs. A few common verbs include the words run, sing, cook, talk, and clean. These words are all verbs because they communicate an action performed by a living being. We’ll look at more specific examples of verbs as we discuss the subclasses of verbs next!

Subclasses of Verbs, Including Examples

Like nouns, verbs have several subclasses. The subclasses of verbs include copular or linking verbs, intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, and ditransitive or double transitive verbs. Let’s dive into these subclasses of verbs!

Copular or Linking Verbs

Copular verbs, or linking verbs, are verbs that link a subject with its complement in a sentence. The most familiar linking verb is probably be. Here’s a list of other common copular verbs in English: act, be, become, feel, grow, seem, smell, and taste. 

So how do copular verbs work? Well, in a sentence, if we said, “Michi is ,” and left it at that, it wouldn’t make any sense. “Michi,” the subject, needs to be connected to a complement by the copular verb “is.” Instead, we could say, “Michi is leaving.” In that instance, is links the subject of the sentence to its complement. 

Transitive Verbs, Intransitive Verbs, and Ditransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs are verbs that affect or act upon an object. When unattached to an object in a sentence, a transitive verb does not make sense. Here’s an example of a transitive verb attached to (and appearing before) an object in a sentence: 

Please take the clothes to the dry cleaners.

In this example, “take” is a transitive verb because it requires an object—”the clothes”—to make sense. “The clothes” are the objects being taken. “Please take” wouldn’t make sense by itself, would it? That’s because the transitive verb “take,” like all transitive verbs, transfers its action onto another being or object. 

Conversely, intransitive verbs don’t require an object to act upon in order to make sense in a sentence. These verbs make sense all on their own! For instance, “They ran ,” “We arrived ,” and, “The car stopped ” are all examples of sentences that contain intransitive verbs. 

Finally, ditransitive verbs, or double transitive verbs, are a bit more complicated. Ditransitive verbs are verbs that are followed by two objects in a sentence . One of the objects has the action of the ditransitive verb done to it, and the other object has the action of the ditransitive verb directed towards it. Here’s an example of what that means in a sentence: 

I cooked Nathan a meal.

In this example, “cooked” is a ditransitive verb because it modifies two objects: Nathan and meal . The meal has the action of “cooked” done to it, and “Nathan” has the action of the verb directed towards him. 

Adjectives are descriptors that help us better understand a sentence. A common adjective type is color.

#3: Adjectives

Here’s the simplest definition of adjectives: adjectives are words that describe other words . Specifically, adjectives modify nouns and noun phrases. In sentences, adjectives appear before nouns and pronouns (they have to appear before the words they describe!). 

Adjectives give more detail to nouns and pronouns by describing how a noun looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels, or its state of being or existence. . For example, you could say, “The girl rode her bike.” That sentence doesn’t have any adjectives in it, but you could add an adjective before both of the nouns in the sentence—”girl” and “bike”—to give more detail to the sentence. It might read like this: “The young girl rode her red bike.”   You can pick out adjectives in a sentence by asking the following questions: 

• Which one? 
• What kind? 
• How many? 
• Whose’s? 

We’ll look at more examples of adjectives as we explore the subclasses of adjectives next!

Subclasses of Adjectives, Including Examples

Subclasses of adjectives include adjective phrases, comparative adjectives, superlative adjectives, and determiners (which include articles, possessive adjectives, and demonstratives). 

Adjective Phrases

An adjective phrase is a group of words that describe a noun or noun phrase in a sentence. Adjective phrases can appear before the noun or noun phrase in a sentence, like in this example: 

The extremely fragile vase somehow did not break during the move.

In this case, extremely fragile describes the vase. On the other hand, adjective phrases can appear after the noun or noun phrase in a sentence as well: 

The museum was somewhat boring. 

Again, the phrase somewhat boring describes the museum. The takeaway is this: adjective phrases describe the subject of a sentence with greater detail than an individual adjective. 

Comparative Adjectives and Superlative Adjectives

Comparative adjectives are used in sentences where two nouns are compared. They function to compare the differences between the two nouns that they modify. In sentences, comparative adjectives often appear in this pattern and typically end with -er. If we were to describe how comparative adjectives function as a formula, it might look something like this: 

Noun (subject) + verb + comparative adjective + than + noun (object).

Here’s an example of how a comparative adjective would work in that type of sentence: 

The horse was faster than the dog.

The adjective faster compares the speed of the horse to the speed of the dog. Other common comparative adjectives include words that compare distance ( higher, lower, farther ), age ( younger, older ), size and dimensions ( bigger, smaller, wider, taller, shorter ), and quality or feeling ( better, cleaner, happier, angrier ). 

Superlative adjectives are adjectives that describe the extremes of a quality that applies to a subject being compared to a group of objects . Put more simply, superlative adjectives help show how extreme something is. In sentences, superlative adjectives usually appear in this structure and end in -est : 

Noun (subject) + verb + the + superlative adjective + noun (object).

Here’s an example of a superlative adjective that appears in that type of sentence: 

Their story was the funniest story. 

In this example, the subject— story —is being compared to a group of objects—other stories. The superlative adjective “funniest” implies that this particular story is the funniest out of all the stories ever, period. Other common superlative adjectives are best, worst, craziest, and happiest... though there are many more than that! 

It’s also important to know that you can often omit the object from the end of the sentence when using superlative adjectives, like this: “Their story was the funniest.” We still know that “their story” is being compared to other stories without the object at the end of the sentence.

Determiners

The last subclass of adjectives we want to look at are determiners. Determiners are words that determine what kind of reference a noun or noun phrase makes. These words are placed in front of nouns to make it clear what the noun is referring to. Determiners are an example of a part of speech subclass that contains a lot of subclasses of its own. Here is a list of the different types of determiners: 

• Definite article: the
• Indefinite articles : a, an 
• Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
• Pronouns and possessive determiners: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
• Quantifiers : a little, a few, many, much, most, some, any, enough
• Numbers: one, twenty, fifty
• Distributives: all, both, half, either, neither, each, every
• Difference words : other, another
• Pre-determiners: such, what, rather, quite

Here are some examples of how determiners can be used in sentences: 

Definite article: Get in the car.  

Demonstrative: Could you hand me that magazine?  

Possessive determiner: Please put away your clothes. 

Distributive: He ate all of the pie. 

Though some of the words above might not seem descriptive, they actually do describe the specificity and definiteness, relationship, and quantity or amount of a noun or noun phrase. For example, the definite article “the” (a type of determiner) indicates that a noun refers to a specific thing or entity. The indefinite article “an,” on the other hand, indicates that a noun refers to a nonspecific entity. 

One quick note, since English is always more complicated than it seems: while articles are most commonly classified as adjectives, they can also function as adverbs in specific situations, too. Not only that, some people are taught that determiners are their own part of speech...which means that some people are taught there are 9 parts of speech instead of 8! 

It can be a little confusing, which is why we have a whole article explaining how articles function as a part of speech to help clear things up . 

Adverbs can be used to answer questions like "when?" and "how long?"

Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives (including determiners), clauses, prepositions, and sentences. Adverbs typically answer the questions how?, in what way?, when?, where?, and to what extent? In answering these questions, adverbs function to express frequency, degree, manner, time, place, and level of certainty . Adverbs can answer these questions in the form of single words, or in the form of adverbial phrases or adverbial clauses. 

Adverbs are commonly known for being words that end in -ly, but there’s actually a bit more to adverbs than that, which we’ll dive into while we look at the subclasses of adverbs!

Subclasses Of Adverbs, Including Examples

There are many types of adverbs, but the main subclasses we’ll look at are conjunctive adverbs, and adverbs of place, time, manner, degree, and frequency. 

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs look like coordinating conjunctions (which we’ll talk about later!), but they are actually their own category: conjunctive adverbs are words that connect independent clauses into a single sentence . These adverbs appear after a semicolon and before a comma in sentences, like in these two examples: 

She was exhausted; nevertheless , she went for a five mile run. 

They didn’t call; instead , they texted.  

Though conjunctive adverbs are frequently used to create shorter sentences using a semicolon and comma, they can also appear at the beginning of sentences, like this: 

He chopped the vegetables. Meanwhile, I boiled the pasta.  

One thing to keep in mind is that conjunctive adverbs come with a comma. When you use them, be sure to include a comma afterward! 

There are a lot of conjunctive adverbs, but some common ones include also, anyway, besides, finally, further, however, indeed, instead, meanwhile, nevertheless, next, nonetheless, now, otherwise, similarly, then, therefore, and thus.  

Adverbs of Place, Time, Manner, Degree, and Frequency

There are also adverbs of place, time, manner, degree, and frequency. Each of these types of adverbs express a different kind of meaning. 

Adverbs of place express where an action is done or where an event occurs. These are used after the verb, direct object, or at the end of a sentence. A sentence like “She walked outside to watch the sunset” uses outside as an adverb of place. 

Adverbs of time explain when something happens. These adverbs are used at the beginning or at the end of sentences. In a sentence like “The game should be over soon,” soon functions as an adverb of time. 

Adverbs of manner describe the way in which something is done or how something happens. These are the adverbs that usually end in the familiar -ly.  If we were to write “She quickly finished her homework,” quickly is an adverb of manner. 

Adverbs of degree tell us the extent to which something happens or occurs. If we were to say “The play was quite interesting,” quite tells us the extent of how interesting the play was. Thus, quite is an adverb of degree.  

Finally, adverbs of frequency express how often something happens . In a sentence like “They never know what to do with themselves,” never is an adverb of frequency. 

Five subclasses of adverbs is a lot, so we’ve organized the words that fall under each category in a nifty table for you here: 

It’s important to know about these subclasses of adverbs because many of them don’t follow the old adage that adverbs end in -ly. 

Here's a helpful list of pronouns. (Attanata / Flickr )

#5: Pronouns

Pronouns are words that can be substituted for a noun or noun phrase in a sentence . Pronouns function to make sentences less clunky by allowing people to avoid repeating nouns over and over. For example, if you were telling someone a story about your friend Destiny, you wouldn’t keep repeating their name over and over again every time you referred to them. Instead, you’d use a pronoun—like they or them—to refer to Destiny throughout the story. 

Pronouns are typically short words, often only two or three letters long. The most familiar pronouns in the English language are they, she, and he. But these aren’t the only pronouns. There are many more pronouns in English that fall under different subclasses!

Subclasses of Pronouns, Including Examples

There are many subclasses of pronouns, but the most commonly used subclasses are personal pronouns, possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, indefinite pronouns, and interrogative pronouns. 

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns are probably the most familiar type of pronoun. Personal pronouns include I, me, you, she, her, him, he, we, us, they, and them. These are called personal pronouns because they refer to a person! Personal pronouns can replace specific nouns in sentences, like a person’s name, or refer to specific groups of people, like in these examples: 

Did you see Gia pole vault at the track meet? Her form was incredible!

The Cycling Club is meeting up at six. They said they would be at the park. 

In both of the examples above, a pronoun stands in for a proper noun to avoid repetitiveness. Her replaces Gia in the first example, and they replaces the Cycling Club in the second example. 

(It’s also worth noting that personal pronouns are one of the easiest ways to determine what point of view a writer is using.) 

Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns are used to indicate that something belongs to or is the possession of someone. The possessive pronouns fall into two categories: limiting and absolute. In a sentence, absolute possessive pronouns can be substituted for the thing that belongs to a person, and limiting pronouns cannot. 

The limiting pronouns are my, your, its, his, her, our, their, and whose, and the absolute pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs . Here are examples of a limiting possessive pronoun and absolute possessive pronoun used in a sentence: 

Limiting possessive pronoun: Juan is fixing his car. 

In the example above, the car belongs to Juan, and his is the limiting possessive pronoun that shows the car belongs to Juan. Now, here’s an example of an absolute pronoun in a sentence: 

Absolute possessive pronoun: Did you buy your tickets ? We already bought ours . 

In this example, the tickets belong to whoever we is, and in the second sentence, ours is the absolute possessive pronoun standing in for the thing that “we” possess—the tickets. 

Demonstrative Pronouns, Interrogative Pronouns, and Indefinite Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns include the words that, this, these, and those. These pronouns stand in for a noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned in a sentence or conversation. This and these are typically used to refer to objects or entities that are nearby distance-wise, and that and those usually refer to objects or entities that are farther away. Here’s an example of a demonstrative pronoun used in a sentence: 

The books are stacked up in the garage. Can you put those away? 

The books have already been mentioned, and those is the demonstrative pronoun that stands in to refer to them in the second sentence above. The use of those indicates that the books aren’t nearby—they’re out in the garage. Here’s another example: 

Do you need shoes? Here...you can borrow these. 

In this sentence, these refers to the noun shoes. Using the word these tells readers that the shoes are nearby...maybe even on the speaker’s feet! 

Indefinite pronouns are used when it isn’t necessary to identify a specific person or thing . The indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one. Here’s one example of an indefinite pronoun used in a sentence: 

Promise you can keep a secret? 

Of course. I won’t tell anyone. 

In this example, the person speaking in the second two sentences isn’t referring to any particular people who they won’t tell the secret to. They’re saying that, in general, they won’t tell anyone . That doesn’t specify a specific number, type, or category of people who they won’t tell the secret to, which is what makes the pronoun indefinite. 

Finally, interrogative pronouns are used in questions, and these pronouns include who, what, which, and whose. These pronouns are simply used to gather information about specific nouns—persons, places, and ideas. Let’s look at two examples of interrogative pronouns used in sentences: 

Do you remember which glass was mine? 

What time are they arriving? 

In the first glass, the speaker wants to know more about which glass belongs to whom. In the second sentence, the speaker is asking for more clarity about a specific time. 

Conjunctions hook phrases and clauses together so they fit like pieces of a puzzle.

#6: Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that are used to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences in the English language. This function allows conjunctions to connect actions, ideas, and thoughts as well. Conjunctions are also used to make lists within sentences. (Conjunctions are also probably the most famous part of speech, since they were immortalized in the famous “Conjunction Junction” song from Schoolhouse Rock .) 

You’re probably familiar with and, but, and or as conjunctions, but let’s look into some subclasses of conjunctions so you can learn about the array of conjunctions that are out there!

Subclasses of Conjunctions, Including Examples

Coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, and correlative conjunctions are three subclasses of conjunctions. Each of these types of conjunctions functions in a different way in sentences!

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions are probably the most familiar type of conjunction. These conjunctions include the words for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (people often recommend using the acronym FANBOYS to remember the seven coordinating conjunctions!). 

Coordinating conjunctions are responsible for connecting two independent clauses in sentences, but can also be used to connect two words in a sentence. Here are two examples of coordinating conjunctions that connect two independent clauses in a sentence: 

He wanted to go to the movies, but he couldn’t find his car keys. 

They put on sunscreen, and they went to the beach. 

Next, here are two examples of coordinating conjunctions that connect two words: 

Would you like to cook or order in for dinner? 

The storm was loud yet refreshing. 

The two examples above show that coordinating conjunctions can connect different types of words as well. In the first example, the coordinating conjunction “or” connects two verbs; in the second example, the coordinating conjunction “yet” connects two adjectives. 

But wait! Why does the first set of sentences have commas while the second set of sentences doesn’t? When using a coordinating conjunction, put a comma before the conjunction when it’s connecting two complete sentences . Otherwise, there’s no comma necessary. 

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are used to link an independent clause to a dependent clause in a sentence. This type of conjunction always appears at the beginning of a dependent clause, which means that subordinating conjunctions can appear at the beginning of a sentence or in the middle of a sentence following an independent clause. (If you’re unsure about what independent and dependent clauses are, be sure to check out our guide to compound sentences.) 

Here is an example of a subordinating conjunction that appears at the beginning of a sentence: 

Because we were hungry, we ordered way too much food. 

Now, here’s an example of a subordinating conjunction that appears in the middle of a sentence, following an independent clause and a comma: 

Rakim was scared after the power went out. 

See? In the example above, the subordinating conjunction after connects the independent clause Rakim was scared to the dependent clause after the power went out. Subordinating conjunctions include (but are not limited to!) the following words: after, as, because, before, even though, one, since, unless, until, whenever, and while. 

Correlative Conjunctions

Finally, correlative conjunctions are conjunctions that come in pairs, like both/and, either/or, and neither/nor. The two correlative conjunctions that come in a pair must appear in different parts of a sentence to make sense— they correlate the meaning in one part of the sentence with the meaning in another part of the sentence . Makes sense, right? 

Here are two examples of correlative conjunctions used in a sentence: 

We’re either going to the Farmer’s Market or the Natural Grocer’s for our shopping today. 

They’re going to have to get dog treats for both Piper and Fudge. 

Other pairs of correlative conjunctions include as many/as, not/but, not only/but also, rather/than, such/that, and whether/or. 

Interjections are single words that express emotions that end in an exclamation point. Cool!

#7: Interjections 

Interjections are words that often appear at the beginning of sentences or between sentences to express emotions or sentiments such as excitement, surprise, joy, disgust, anger, or even pain. Commonly used interjections include wow!, yikes!, ouch!, or ugh! One clue that an interjection is being used is when an exclamation point appears after a single word (but interjections don’t have to be followed by an exclamation point). And, since interjections usually express emotion or feeling, they’re often referred to as being exclamatory. Wow! 

Interjections don’t come together with other parts of speech to form bigger grammatical units, like phrases or clauses. There also aren’t strict rules about where interjections should appear in relation to other sentences . While it’s common for interjections to appear before sentences that describe an action or event that the interjection helps explain, interjections can appear after sentences that contain the action they’re describing as well. 

Subclasses of Interjections, Including Examples

There are two main subclasses of interjections: primary interjections and secondary interjections. Let’s take a look at these two types of interjections!

Primary Interjections  

Primary interjections are single words, like oh!, wow!, or ouch! that don’t enter into the actual structure of a sentence but add to the meaning of a sentence. Here’s an example of how a primary interjection can be used before a sentence to add to the meaning of the sentence that follows it: 

Ouch ! I just burned myself on that pan!

While someone who hears, I just burned myself on that pan might assume that the person who said that is now in pain, the interjection Ouch! makes it clear that burning oneself on the pan definitely was painful. 

Secondary Interjections

Secondary interjections are words that have other meanings but have evolved to be used like interjections in the English language and are often exclamatory. Secondary interjections can be mixed with greetings, oaths, or swear words. In many cases, the use of secondary interjections negates the original meaning of the word that is being used as an interjection. Let’s look at a couple of examples of secondary interjections here: 

Well , look what the cat dragged in!

Heck, I’d help if I could, but I’ve got to get to work. 

You probably know that the words well and heck weren’t originally used as interjections in the English language. Well originally meant that something was done in a good or satisfactory way, or that a person was in good health. Over time and through repeated usage, it’s come to be used as a way to express emotion, such as surprise, anger, relief, or resignation, like in the example above. 

This is a handy list of common prepositional phrases. (attanatta / Flickr) 

#8: Prepositions

The last part of speech we’re going to define is the preposition. Prepositions are words that are used to connect other words in a sentence—typically nouns and verbs—and show the relationship between those words. Prepositions convey concepts such as comparison, position, place, direction, movement, time, possession, and how an action is completed. 

Subclasses of Prepositions, Including Examples

The subclasses of prepositions are simple prepositions, double prepositions, participle prepositions, and prepositional phrases. 

Simple Prepositions

Simple prepositions appear before and between nouns, adjectives, or adverbs in sentences to convey relationships between people, living creatures, things, or places . Here are a couple of examples of simple prepositions used in sentences: 

I’ll order more ink before we run out. 

Your phone was beside your wallet. 

In the first example, the preposition before appears between the noun ink and the personal pronoun we to convey a relationship. In the second example, the preposition beside appears between the verb was and the possessive pronoun your.

In both examples, though, the prepositions help us understand how elements in the sentence are related to one another. In the first sentence, we know that the speaker currently has ink but needs more before it’s gone. In the second sentence, the preposition beside helps us understand how the wallet and the phone are positioned relative to one another! 

Double Prepositions

Double prepositions are exactly what they sound like: two prepositions joined together into one unit to connect phrases, nouns, and pronouns with other words in a sentence. Common examples of double prepositions include outside of, because of, according to, next to, across from, and on top of. Here is an example of a double preposition in a sentence: 

I thought you were sitting across from me. 

You see? Across and from both function as prepositions individually. When combined together in a sentence, they create a double preposition. (Also note that the prepositions help us understand how two people— you and I— are positioned with one another through spacial relationship.)  

Prepositional Phrases

Finally, prepositional phrases are groups of words that include a preposition and a noun or pronoun. Typically, the noun or pronoun that appears after the preposition in a prepositional phrase is called the object of the preposition. The object always appears at the end of the prepositional phrase. Additionally, prepositional phrases never include a verb or a subject. Here are two examples of prepositional phrases: 

The cat sat under the chair . 

In the example above, “under” is the preposition, and “the chair” is the noun, which functions as the object of the preposition. Here’s one more example: 

We walked through the overgrown field . 

Now, this example demonstrates one more thing you need to know about prepositional phrases: they can include an adjective before the object. In this example, “through” is the preposition, and “field” is the object. “Overgrown” is an adjective that modifies “the field,” and it’s quite common for adjectives to appear in prepositional phrases like the one above. 

While that might sound confusing, don’t worry: the key is identifying the preposition in the first place! Once you can find the preposition, you can start looking at the words around it to see if it forms a compound preposition, a double preposition of a prepositional phrase. 

10 Question Quiz: Test Your Knowledge of Parts of Speech Definitions and Examples

Since we’ve covered a lot of material about the 8 parts of speech with examples ( a lot of them!), we want to give you an opportunity to review and see what you’ve learned! While it might seem easier to just use a parts of speech finder instead of learning all this stuff, our parts of speech quiz can help you continue building your knowledge of the 8 parts of speech and master each one. 

Are you ready? Here we go:  

1) What are the 8 parts of speech? 

a) Noun, article, adverb, antecedent, verb, adjective, conjunction, interjection b) Noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, determiner, clause, adjective, preposition c) Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, preposition

2) Which parts of speech have subclasses?

a) Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs b) Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions c) All of them! There are many types of words within each part of speech.

3) What is the difference between common nouns and proper nouns?

a) Common nouns don’t refer to specific people, places, or entities, but proper nouns do refer to specific people, places, or entities.  b) Common nouns refer to regular, everyday people, places, or entities, but proper nouns refer to famous people, places, or entities.  c) Common nouns refer to physical entities, like people, places, and objects, but proper nouns refer to nonphysical entities, like feelings, ideas, and experiences.

4) In which of the following sentences is the emboldened word a verb?

a) He was frightened by the horror film .   b) He adjusted his expectations after the first plan fell through.  c) She walked briskly to get there on time.

5) Which of the following is a correct definition of adjectives, and what other part of speech do adjectives modify?

a) Adjectives are describing words, and they modify nouns and noun phrases.  b) Adjectives are describing words, and they modify verbs and adverbs.  c) Adjectives are describing words, and they modify nouns, verbs, and adverbs.

6) Which of the following describes the function of adverbs in sentences?

a) Adverbs express frequency, degree, manner, time, place, and level of certainty. b) Adverbs express an action performed by a subject.  c) Adverbs describe nouns and noun phrases.

7) Which of the following answers contains a list of personal pronouns?

a) This, that, these, those b) I, you, me, we, he, she, him, her, they, them c) Who, what, which, whose

8) Where do interjections typically appear in a sentence?

a) Interjections can appear at the beginning of or in between sentences. b) Interjections appear at the end of sentences.  c) Interjections appear in prepositional phrases.

9) Which of the following sentences contains a prepositional phrase?

a) The dog happily wagged his tail.  b) The cow jumped over the moon.  c) She glared, angry that he forgot the flowers.

10) Which of the following is an accurate definition of a “part of speech”?

a) A category of words that serve a similar grammatical purpose in sentences. b) A category of words that are of similar length and spelling. c) A category of words that mean the same thing.

So, how did you do? If you got 1C, 2C, 3A, 4B, 5A, 6A, 7B, 8A, 9B, and 10A, you came out on top! There’s a lot to remember where the parts of speech are concerned, and if you’re looking for more practice like our quiz, try looking around for parts of speech games or parts of speech worksheets online!

What’s Next?

You might be brushing up on your grammar so you can ace the verbal portions of the SAT or ACT. Be sure you check out our guides to the grammar you need to know before you tackle those tests! Here’s our expert guide to the grammar rules you need to know for the SAT , and this article teaches you the 14 grammar rules you’ll definitely see on the ACT.

When you have a good handle on parts of speech, it can make writing essays tons easier. Learn how knowing parts of speech can help you get a perfect 12 on the ACT Essay (or an 8/8/8 on the SAT Essay ).

While we’re on the topic of grammar: keep in mind that knowing grammar rules is only part of the battle when it comes to the verbal and written portions of the SAT and ACT. Having a good vocabulary is also important to making the perfect score ! Here are 262 vocabulary words you need to know before you tackle your standardized tests.

Ashley Sufflé Robinson has a Ph.D. in 19th Century English Literature. As a content writer for PrepScholar, Ashley is passionate about giving college-bound students the in-depth information they need to get into the school of their dreams.

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Disorganized Speech: Signs, Causes, and How to Cope

Communication can be a window into your thoughts, making it an important clue in understanding possible mental health conditions.

Almost everyone experiences moments of confusion. You might have a word on the tip of your tongue and you just can’t get it out, or maybe you’ve forgotten where you’re going with a conversation.

Many things can impact thought clarity, but disorganized speech that prevents you from daily communication may be a sign of something more than forgetfulness.

Disorganized speech is also known as “formal thought disorder” since language is the primary way to detect changes in your thought patterns.

What is disorganized speech?

Disorganized speech is any interruption that makes communication difficult — and sometimes impossible — to understand.

Brief disorganized speech can be common and nonspecific, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) .

But if it becomes severe enough to prevent effective communication, you may be experiencing formal thought disorder.

What’s formal thought disorder?

Disorganized speech is used interchangeably with “formal thought disorder.” This is because scattered communication is one of the primary ways disorganized thinking is identified.

Simply put, if your thoughts aren’t clear, your words may not be either.

Types and examples of disorganized speech

There are many ways your speech might be considered disorganized, but symptoms often fall into categories:

• Symbolism: pairing of thoughts with the correct meaning
• Tempo: the fluidity of words and conversation
• Processing: quality of thought content
• Continuity: direction of thought and conversation

Examples of specific types of disorganized speech may include:

• Paralogism: unusual word choice
• Verbal paraphasia: incorrect word usage
• Literal paraphasia: disordered sounds or sound sequence in words
• Neologism: creation of new words
• Displacement: citing a similar idea but not the correct one
• Contamination: fusing ideas into one another
• Accelerated thinking: rapid flow and increased volume of speech
• Flight of ideas: losing track of where a thought is going
• Inhibited thinking: slow processing of ideas
• Alogia: restricted speech and/or inadequate relay of information
• Circumstantial thinking: inability to determine essential information from unessential
• Desultory thinking: random topic jumps during conversation
• Derailment: sudden drop in train of thought
• Omission: inability to recall a main thought point
• Overinclusive thinking: conversation limits are never identified
• Echolalia: repetition of words or phrases
• Palilalia: fast repetition of words or phrases with decreasing audibility
• Thought blocking: Sudden gaps in thought for no obvious reason
• Verbigeration: nonsensical repetition of words
• Incoherence: complete speech disorganization; “word salad”

Signs of disorganized speech patterns

There’s no “one size fits all” way to describe disorganized speech. At its core, it can be any language-focused symptom that impairs communication.

If you’re experiencing disorganized speech, you may notice speech patterns related to:

• unexpected pauses
• incorrect words
• unusual pronunciation
• loss of thought placement
• lack of words
• excess of words
• slow or absent word processing

Possible causes

The exact cause of disorganized speech is still being investigated.

As a symptom closely associated with mental health conditions, disorganized speech may be partially due to differences in the central nervous system.

Language and words are skills you learn. They’re stored in your memories.

Many of the mental health conditions that feature symptoms of disorganized speech involve changes in regions of the brain related to memory, speech, and language.

Some 2017 research suggests changes in neural connectivity in these areas could affect communication.

If you’re unable to form the proper connections in the part of the brain that grants access to language memories, you may not be able to organize your thoughts into words.

Other factors may also influence disorganized speech. Times of extreme stress , anxiety, or fear could cause an interruption in your natural speech patterns.

Related mental health conditions

Disorganized speech is most commonly linked to schizophrenia — particularly disorganized schizophrenia .

But experiencing disorganized speech doesn’t necessarily point to schizophrenia in all cases.

Schizophrenia is a diagnosable mental health condition in the DSM-5. Disorganized speech is a symptom but not a disorder on its own.

In addition to schizophrenia, other mental health conditions that may present with symptoms of disorganized speech include:

• dementia (neurocognitive disorder)
• schizoaffective disorder
• bipolar disorder
• delusional disorder
• traumatic brain injury
• schizotypal personality disorder
• schizophreniform disorder
• some types of depression
• psychotic disorder
• Alzheimer’s disease
• attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
• attenuated psychosis syndrome

Social anxiety

Living with disorganized speech can affect how you interact with those around you and may cause social problems for some.

Dealing with disorganized speech might generate feelings of frustration and irritation — for you and those who don’t understand that you’re experiencing something out of your control.

Over time, you may develop a tendency to isolate yourself. Worry and anxiety over when disorganized speech may happen next can keep you at home.

Treatment and management

Seeking professional treatment can be one of the best ways to learn to manage disorganized speech and see an improvement.

Treatment largely depends on addressing the underlying condition causing disorganized speech as a symptom.

Seeking treatment for a traumatic brain injury, for example, may be significantly different than treatment for bipolar disorder .

Your physician or therapist can help identify why you’re experiencing disorganized speech. If a mental health condition is contributing, successful treatment may involve:

• medications
• psychotherapy
• self-care or lifestyle changes

The medication you’re prescribed and the type of therapy recommended will depend on the condition your physician and therapist feel is at the heart of your symptoms.

Coping with disorganized speech

Aside from medications and therapy , there are many other strategies for coping with disorganized speech.

Self-care and simple lifestyle changes that can help you manage disorganized speech include:

• Social support: building a supportive network of understanding family and friends, joining support groups
• Building communication skills: participating in discussion groups around building social skills, developing alternative communication options with your therapist or counselor
• Medical self-care: staying on track with taking medications as directed, attending appointments regularly for the entire treatment protocol
• Lifestyle changes: developing stress-relief options and relaxation techniques, trying to eat a nutritious diet, focusing on sleep hygiene, exercising regularly, spending time outside

Disorganized speech can present in many different ways and may even prevent effective communication if it progresses. And while it can be a symptom of many mental health conditions, disorganized speech is not a diagnosis in itself.

Living with disorganized speech can be frustrating and may even cause social anxiety, stress, and isolation in some people.

However, disorganized speech can be managed with the proper treatment, which often involves addressing conditions causing this symptom.

Working with your doctor or physician to tailor a treatment plan to you is often the best first step. Depending on any underlying conditions, treatment plans for disorganized speech commonly involve a combination of:

• self-care and lifestyle changes

It’s not always easy to reach out for help with mental health conditions. If you’re ready to seek support but don’t know where to start, check out Psych Central’s guide to mental health help.

Last medically reviewed on February 11, 2022

10 sources collapsed

• American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
• Ban T. (n.d.). Glossary: Formal disorders of thought. https://inhn.org/archives/ban-collection/glossary-formal-disorders-of-thoughts.html
• Cokal D, et al. (2018). The language profile of formal thought disorder. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41537-018-0061-9
• Disorganized speech. (n.d.). https://dictionary.apa.org/disorganized-speech
• Disorganized symptoms of psychosis. (n.d.). https://www.thenationalcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Disorganized-Symptoms-of-Psychosis-Slides.pdf?daf=375ateTbd56
• Hart M, et al. (2017). Rethinking thought disorder. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5464106/
• Jeronimo J, et al. (2018). Formal thought disorders — historical roots. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00572/full
• Nordgaard J, et al. (2021). Formal thought disorder and self-disorder: An empirical study. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.640921/full
• Solomon M, et al. (2008). Formal thought disorder and the autism spectrum: relationship with symptoms, executive control, and anxiety. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5519298/
• Wensing T, et al. (2017). Neural correlates of formal thought disorder: An activation likelihood estimation meta-analysis. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5685170/

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What is Natural Language Processing? Definition and Examples

Natural language processing ensures that AI can understand the natural human languages we speak everyday. Learn more about this impactful AI subfield.

Natural language processing (NLP) is a form of artificial intelligence ( AI ) that allows computers to understand human language, whether it be written, spoken, or even scribbled. As AI-powered devices and services become increasingly more intertwined with our daily lives and world, so too does the impact that NLP has on ensuring a seamless human-computer experience.

In this article, you’ll learn more about what NLP is, the techniques used to do it, and some of the benefits it provides consumers and businesses. At the end, you’ll also learn about common NLP tools and explore some online, cost-effective courses that can introduce you to the field’s most fundamental concepts. 

Natural language processing definition

Natural language processing (NLP) is a subset of artificial intelligence, computer science , and linguistics focused on making human communication, such as speech and text, comprehensible to computers. 

NLP is used in a wide variety of everyday products and services. Some of the most common ways NLP is used are through voice-activated digital assistants on smartphones, email-scanning programs used to identify spam, and translation apps that decipher foreign languages.

Natural language techniques 

NLP encompasses a wide range of techniques to analyze human language. Some of the most common techniques you will likely encounter in the field include:

Sentiment analysis: An NLP technique that analyzes text to identify its sentiments, such as “positive,” “negative,” or “neutral.” Sentiment analysis is commonly used by businesses to better understand customer feedback. 

Summarization: An NLP technique that summarizes a longer text, in order to make it more manageable for time-sensitive readers. Some common texts that are summarized include reports and articles. 

Keyword extraction: An NLP technique that analyzes a text to identify the most important keywords or phrases. Keyword extraction is commonly used for search engine optimization (SEO) , social media monitoring, and business intelligence purposes. 

Tokenization: The process of breaking characters, words, or subwords down into “tokens” that can be analyzed by a program. Tokenization undergirds common NLP tasks like word modeling, vocabulary building, and frequent word occurrence. 

NLP benefits 

Whether it’s being used to quickly translate a text from one language to another or producing business insights by running a sentiment analysis on hundreds of reviews, NLP provides both businesses and consumers with a variety of benefits. 

Unsurprisingly, then, we can expect to see more of it in the coming years. According to research by Fortune Business Insights, the North American market for NLP is projected to grow from $26.42 billion in 2022 to $161.81 billion in 2029 [ 1 ]. 

Some common benefits of NLP include:

The ability to analyze both structured and unstructured data, such as speech, text messages, and social media posts. 

Improving customer satisfaction and experience by identifying insights using sentiment analysis. 

Reducing costs by employing NLP-enabled AI to perform specific tasks, such as chatting with customers via chatbots or analyzing large amounts of text data. 

Better understanding a target market or brand by conducting NLP analysis on relevant data like social media posts, focus group surveys, and reviews. 

NLP limitations

NLP can be used for a wide variety of applications but it's far from perfect. In fact, many NLP tools struggle to interpret sarcasm, emotion, slang, context, errors, and other types of ambiguous statements. This means that NLP is mostly limited to unambiguous situations that don't require a significant amount of interpretation.

Natural language processing examples

Although natural language processing might sound like something out of a science fiction novel, the truth is that people already interact with countless NLP-powered devices and services every day. 

Online chatbots, for example, use NLP to engage with consumers and direct them toward appropriate resources or products. While chat bots can’t answer every question that customers may have, businesses like them because they offer cost-effective ways to troubleshoot common problems or questions that consumers have about their products. 

Another common use of NLP is for text prediction and autocorrect, which you’ve likely encountered many times before while messaging a friend or drafting a document. This technology allows texters and writers alike to speed-up their writing process and correct common typos. 

What about ChatGPT?

ChatGPT is a chatbot powered by AI and natural language processing that produces unusually human-like responses. Recently, it has dominated headlines due to its ability to produce responses that far outperform what was previously commercially possible.

If you'd like to learn more, the University of Michigan's ChatGPT Teach Out brings together experts on communication technology, the economy, artificial intelligence, natural language processing, healthcare delivery, and law to discuss the impacts of the technology now and into the future.

Read more: ChatGPT 101: What Is Generative AI (and How to Use It)

Natural language processing tools

There are numerous natural language processing tools and services available to help you get started today. Some of the most common tools and services you might encounter include the following: 

Google Cloud NLP API

IBM Watson 

Amazon Comprehend 

Natural language processing with Python 

Python is a programming language well-suited to NLP. Some common Python libraries and toolkits you can use to start exploring NLP include NLTK, Stanford CoreNLP, and Genism. 

Read more: What Is Python Used For? A Beginner’s Guide

Learn more with Coursera

Natural language processing helps computers understand human language in all its forms, from handwritten notes to typed snippets of text and spoken instructions. Start exploring the field in greater depth by taking a cost-effective, flexible specialization on Coursera. 

DeepLearning.AI’s Natural Language Processing Specialization will prepare you to design NLP applications that perform question-answering and sentiment analysis, create tools to translate languages and summarize text, and even build chatbots. In DeepLearning.AI’s Machine Learning Specialization , meanwhile, you’ll master fundamental AI concepts and develop practical machine learning skills in the beginner-friendly, three-course program by AI visionary (and Coursera co-founder) Andrew Ng.

Article sources

Business Fortune Insights. “ The global natural language processing (NLP) market… ,  https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/natural-language-processing-nlp-market-101933.” Accessed March 28, 2023. 

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

What to Know About US 'Antisemitism Awareness Act'

The bill received support and criticism from both parties as it headed to the u.s. senate., published may 13, 2024.

On May 1, 2024, the U.S. House of Representatives passed H.R. 6090 , the "Antisemitism Awareness Act of 2023." If passed by the Senate and signed into law by President Joe Biden, it adopts a definition of antisemitism created in 2016 by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance and directs the Department of Education to use that definition when "reviewing or investigating complaints of discrimination based on race, color, or national origin in programs or activities that receive federal financial assistance."

It's essentially the congressional response to pro-Palestinian demonstrations and allegations of antisemitism on college campuses across the U.S. But the bill, which passed the House 320-91, faced criticism from various groups.

Some pro-Palestine social media users claimed that the language in the IHRA definition of antisemitism would ban people comparing Israeli policy and actions to those of Nazi Germany, a comparison sometimes drawn to highlight the Israeli invasion of Gaza in late 2023 :

Some Christians claimed the language in the IRHA definition of antisemitism would criminalize the Bible because mentioning the fact that " Jews killed Jesus " would be considered antisemitic.

Some of these claims are true and some are exaggerated. It's especially important to remember that, as of the writing of this article, the Senate had not passed the bill. We will update this story with more information as new events occur. But here's what you need to know about the IRHA definition of antisemitism and H.R. 6090:

The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance consists of 35 countries , including the U.S. and Israel. In 2016, its delegates met and created the following definition of antisemitism : " Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities."

But what critics worry about is the list of examples the IHRA provides under its definition:

Calling for, aiding, or justifying the killing or harming of Jews in the name of a radical ideology or an extremist view of religion. Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews as such or the power of Jews as collective — such as, especially but not exclusively, the myth about a world Jewish conspiracy or of Jews controlling the media, economy, government or other societal institutions. Accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group, or even for acts committed by non-Jews. Denying the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust). Accusing the Jews as a people, or Israel as a state, of inventing or exaggerating the Holocaust. Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. Denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g., by claiming that the existence of a State of Israel is a racist endeavor. Applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation. Using the symbols and images associated with classic antisemitism (e.g., claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis. Drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis. Holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the state of Israel.

Critics mentioned items 9 and 10 in particular.

Christian critics wished to protect their right to claim that the "Jews killed Jesus," which they say is in the Bible. The Bible does contain a line or two that blames the death of Jesus on Jewish people. But that line is often used to blame all Jewish people as a group and has been used as justification for antisemitic violence for a long time. The Catholic Church has repeatedly stressed that Jesus Christ's death cannot be attributed to Jewish people as a whole, neither at the time of Jesus's death nor today.

Considering that the item specifically mentions using these ideas to criticize the state of Israel, we conclude that saying "Jews killed Jesus" with no other context would not necessarily be restricted speech under the bill.

Some pro-Palestine advocates have made a comparison between "contemporary Israeli policy" and Nazi Germany, or something close to it, which is the 10th item on the IHRA's list of examples. In their critiques of the bill, those advocates seem to imply that the comparison is not antisemitic and would also restrict freedom of speech under the First Amendment.

However, under the text of the bill, neither of these things would be "banned" or "made illegal" in the U.S., as both parties have maintained. As previously mentioned, a complete ban would likely be in violation of the First Amendment, which protects controversial expressions of speech unless it can be proven that there was a direct intent of harm.

Instead, the bill requires only the Department of Education, which is in charge of federal grants for financial aid and funding of schools, to consider the definition of antisemitism when investigating programs that receive federal funding. Essentially, it gives the Education Department the ability to pull funding if it finds discrimination "based on race, color, or national origin," something known as a Title VI investigation.

Here's the relevant text of the bill , along with the roll-call vote by member :

SEC. 3. Findings . Congress finds the following: (1) Antisemitism is on the rise in the United States and is impacting Jewish students in K–12 schools, colleges, and universities. (2) The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (referred to in this Act as the "IHRA") Working Definition of Antisemitism is a vital tool which helps individuals understand and identify the various manifestations of antisemitism. (3) On December 11, 2019, Executive Order 13899 extended protections against discrimination under the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to individuals subjected to antisemitism on college and university campuses and tasked Federal agencies to consider the IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism when enforcing title VI of such Act. (4) Since 2018, the Department of Education has used the IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism when investigating violations of that title VI. (5) The use of alternative definitions of antisemitism impairs enforcement efforts by adding multiple standards and may fail to identify many of the modern manifestations of antisemitism. (6) The White House released the first-ever United States National Strategy to Counter Antisemitism on May 25, 2023, making clear that the fight against this hate is a national, bipartisan priority that must be successfully conducted through a whole-of-government-and-society approach. SEC. 4. Definitions . For purposes of this Act, the term "definition of antisemitism"— (1) means the definition of antisemitism adopted on May 26, 2016, by the IHRA, of which the United States is a member, which definition has been adopted by the Department of State; and (2) includes the "[c]ontemporary examples of antisemitism" identified in the IHRA definition. SEC. 5. Rule of construction for title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . In reviewing, investigating, or deciding whether there has been a violation of title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (42 U.S.C. 2000d et seq.) on the basis of race, color, or national origin, based on an individual's actual or perceived shared Jewish ancestry or Jewish ethnic characteristics, the Department of Education shall take into consideration the definition of antisemitism as part of the Department's assessment of whether the practice was motivated by antisemitic intent.

What Problem Is the Bill Attempting to Address?

It is clear that antisemitism in the United States on college campuses is, as the bill puts it, "on the rise." What critics have vigorously debated is whether pro-Palestinian demonstrations on university campuses across the U.S. in spring 2024 fall under that umbrella.

Advocates for the bill called it long overdue. Rep. Mike Lawler, a Republican from New York who co-sponsored the bill, called the demonstrations on college campuses "reprehensible and alarming," and listed examples at Yale, UCLA and The Cooper Union that he said placed Jewish students in danger.

"When people engage in harassment or bullying of Jewish individuals where they justify the killing of Jews or use blood libel or hold Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the Israeli government — that is antisemitic. It's unfortunate that needs to be clarified, but that's why this bill is necessary," he said in a news release .

But Rep. Jerry Nadler, a Jewish Democrat from New York, released a transcript of his speech opposing the bill on the House floor because he felt it was a violation of the First Amendment:

"Speech that is critical of Israel — alone — does not constitute unlawful discrimination. By encompassing purely political speech about Israel into Title VI's ambit, the bill sweeps too broadly. As the ACLU notes, if this legislation were to become law, colleges and universities that want to avoid Title VI investigations, or the potential loss of federal funding, could end up suppressing protected speech criticizing Israel or supporting Palestinians. Moreover, it could result in students and faculty self-censoring their political speech. Even the IHRA definition's lead author, Kenneth Stern, opposes codifying this definition for this reason. Vigorous enforcement of federal civil rights law does not depend on defining terms like "antisemitism" or "racism." In fact, codifying one definition of antisemitism, to the exclusion of all other possible definitions, could actually undermine federal civil rights law because antisemitism, like other forms of bigotry, evolves over time, and future conduct that comes to be widely understood as antisemitic may no longer meet the statutory definition."

It's unclear whether the Senate will try to pass the bill. If none of the 100 senators objects ( unanimous consent ), the bill can be fast-tracked without a roll-call vote. According to reporting from Politico , however, the bill faces likely objections from both sides of the political aisle.

By Jack Izzo

Jack Izzo is a Chicago-based journalist and two-time "Jeopardy!" alumnus.

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Biden delivers Morehouse commencement speech as some on campus express pro-Palestinian messages

ATLANTA — President Joe Biden delivered the commencement address at Morehouse College on Sunday morning, his most direct engagement with college students since the start of the Israel-Hamas war and a key opportunity for him to engage with a group of voters that data suggests is softening on him: young, Black men.

In his remarks, Biden ticked through his administration's policies that he said have aided Black Americans, including a record $16 billion in new aid for historically Black colleges and universities.

And, in a nod to the pro-Palestinian sentiment among Morehouse students and faculty, Biden reiterated his calls for an immediate cease-fire in Gaza, more humanitarian aid in the region and support for a two-state solution that would lead to the creation of a Palestinian state.

“We’ve been working on a deal as we speak. Working around the clock to lead an international effort to get more aid into Gaza, rebuild Gaza. I’m also working around the clock for more than just one cease-fire. I’m working to bring the region together. Working to build a lasting, durable peace,” he said.

As Biden spoke, roughly six students in the crowd sat turned away from him. Though Biden did not reference the action directly, his remarks touched on the “anger and frustration” felt by many Americans over the war, including by members of his own family.

“I know it breaks your heart. It breaks mine as well,” Biden said. “Leadership is about fighting through the most intractable problems. It’s about challenging anger, frustration and heartbreak. To find a solution. It’s about doing what you believe is right, even when it’s hard and lonely.”

Following the speech, Morehouse President David Thomas praised Biden for a “thought-provoking speech” he said was reflective of the president “listening.”

“You spoke to the hard issues confronting our nation and the world at this moment,” Thomas said before conferring an honorary doctorate degree onto Biden.

No significant, disruptive protests materialized, but some students and faculty members still expressed their support for Gaza during the ceremony.

Pro-Palestinian demonstrations began even before Biden took the stage Sunday morning. As graduates and faculty entered the ceremony, at least eight students and three staff members wore pro-Palestinian garb, some adorned in Palestinian flags and others wearing keffiyeh scarves.

An opening prayer by the Rev. Claybon Lea Jr. urged those in power to be “accountable for valuing human life” across the globe.

“Whether they live in Israel or Palestine, Ukraine or Russia, the Congo or Haiti, God give us men that will value life and call us to accountability. Give us men who require all of us to live the golden rule and even follow the edicts of that Palestinian Jew named Jesus,” Lea said as Biden sat inches behind him.

In the most direct call to action of the ceremony, valedictorian DeAngelo Jeremiah Fletcher concluded his remarks by calling for an immediate cease-fire in Gaza, framing his decision to speak on the conflict as a moral duty in line with the legacy of fellow Morehouse alumnus Martin Luther King Jr.

“It is important to recognize that both sides have suffered heavy casualties in the wake of Oct. 7,” Fletcher said. “From the comfort of our homes, we watch an unprecedented number of civilians mourn the loss of men, women and children while calling for a release of all hostages. For the first time in our lives, we’ve heard the global community sing one harmonious song that transcends language and culture. It is my stance as a Morehouse man named as a human being to call for an immediate and a permanent cease-fire in the Gaza Strip.”

As Biden took the stage, graduating students remained seated and silent, even as older alumni nearby cheered.

And during his remarks, faculty member Samuel Livingston held up the flag of the Democratic Republic of Congo, in an effort to bring attention to ongoing conflict in the region.

Sebastian Gordon, a graduating senior from Washington, D.C., was satisfied with Biden's remarks. “I know one concern that my class had was actions and words didn’t line up,” Gordon told NBC News. “I’m happy with his words that he said. I’m just going to continue to watch to make sure his actions line up with that.”

The protests during the commencement were largely peaceful, following instructions Thomas, the school president, gave to faculty and students across at least three meetings: The right to protest would be honored as long as they’re not disruptive.

Ahead of the commencement, Thomas told CNN that though he would not ask police to intervene should protests occur during Biden’s remarks, he would immediately bring the commencement to a halt.

“I have also made a decision that we will also not ask police to take individuals out of commencement in zip ties. If faced with the choice, I will cease the ceremonies on the spot if we were to reach that position,” Thomas said.

Even the most vocal student protesters at Morehouse predicted that protests during the commencement ceremony would likely not be disruptive, partially due to the volatility a police response would likely incite.

“I think that whatever happens on Sunday on the part of the people and the people who want to see some change is going to be peaceful,” sophomore Anwar Karim said. “I don’t see it erupting like it has at some of the other campuses, because we at HBCUs here are also just mindful of the fact of how interactions with police often go.”

White House press secretary Karine Jean-Pierre said Friday that Biden spent several days working on the speech, tapping into a brain trust of senior advisers, including some Morehouse alums, to craft his message to the 415 Black men graduating from the school.

Biden previewed the tone of his remarks during a speech Thursday to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the Supreme Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision.

“Morehouse was founded after our nation’s Civil War to help prepare Black Americans who were formerly enslaved to enter the ministry, earn an education and usher them from slavery to freedom,” Biden said before announcing $16 billion in new investments for historically Black colleges and universities. “The founders of Morehouse understood something fundamental. Education is linked to freedom. Because to be free means to have something that no one can ever take away from you.”

Biden’s speech at Morehouse came against the backdrop of protests on college campuses nationwide over his handling over the war in Gaza, with many students and faculty members voicing opposition to the White House’s continued financial and military support for Israel. Some at Morehouse hoped Biden would speak directly to those concerns during his commencement remarks.

“I hope that we don’t get boilerplate language. I hope that we get something we haven’t heard before. I hope that his ethical, moral conscience trump any politics,” Morehouse professor Stephane Dunn said at a protest Friday.

Morehouse has also had pro-Palestinian protests on campus, though the HBCU did not see the same scale or escalation of demonstrations as some larger universities.

The school’s decision to host Biden as commencement speaker and award him an honorary doctorate degree almost immediately sparked protests among faculty and students, some continuing into the days leading up to the commencement ceremony.

“This is one big distraction on a day to celebrate the class of 2024 following Covid-19, but this is also an opportunity for students to make their voices heard during a time of increasing war and genocide in the Middle East,” Morehouse senior Calvin Bell said in reaction to Biden’s visit.

“We as students, faculty and alums who are standing on the right side of history do not stand with Biden,” Karim said. “We do not align ourselves with all of the clear and avid support that he’s had for a genocidal campaign on the part of the Israelis for the last over 200-plus days.”

Most recently, Morehouse faculty were split over the decision to award Biden an honorary doctorate degree at the ceremony. A letter circulated among staff members in protest of the decision got more that two dozen signatures in support, and the vote to award the degree passed 50-38, with roughly 12 faculty members abstaining.

The White House deployed its allies to Morehouse, both formally and informally, to assuage concerns and lower tensions over Biden’s visit.

Steve Benjamin, who heads the White House Office of Public Engagement, met with a small group of Morehouse students and faculty this month following a push from the school’s leadership for “direct engagement” from the White House.

During the meeting, some students expressed concerns about Biden overshadowing their graduation, while others implored Benjamin to ensure Biden’s speech doesn’t double as a campaign stump speech — frustrated with the idea of the commencement address being a vehicle for Biden to bolster support among Black voters.

That sentiment was shared by other Morehouse students critical of Biden’s visit.

“I don’t think it’s a coincidence that he only accepted the invitation after Trump was already in [Atlanta’s] West End, trying to make gains and failing to make gains with our students here,” Morehouse student Malik Poole said at a campus protest ahead of Biden’s visit. “And this is coming at a time where voters of color are fleeing from Biden at record pace.”

But still, Biden’s Morehouse visit came amid a concerted effort by his administration and campaign in the past week to sharpen his message to Black voters .

On Thursday, Biden met with plaintiffs and their family members from the historic Brown v. Board of Education case. The following day, he met with leaders of the Divine Nine, a group of historically Black sororities and fraternities, alongside Vice President Kamala Harris, a member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority herself. During his trip to Georgia, Biden attended an event Saturday focused on engaging Black voters. And following his commencement address, Biden will close out the weekend by delivering the keynote address at the NAACP Freedom Fund dinner in Detroit, where he plans to tout his administration’s accomplishments for Black Americans.

As data suggests that Black voters — particularly young Black voters — are souring on Biden, some at Morehouse recognized the “opportunity” Biden had to make his case to members of that voting bloc during his address.

“If you want ... these students to vote in the fall for you, you have to give them something that shows that you are hearing them,” Dunn said. “That you are trying to do something we haven’t heard about. This is the opportunity.”

Nnamdi Egwuonwu is a 2024 NBC News campaign embed.

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Meaning of speech in English

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speech noun ( SAY WORDS )

• She suffers from a speech defect .
• From her slow , deliberate speech I guessed she must be drunk .
• Freedom of speech and freedom of thought were both denied under the dictatorship .
• As a child , she had some speech problems .
• We use these aids to develop speech in small children .
• a problem shared is a problem halved idiom
• banteringly
• bull session
• chew the fat idiom
• conversation
• conversational
• put the world to rights idiom
• take/lead someone on/to one side idiom
• tête-à-tête

You can also find related words, phrases, and synonyms in the topics:

speech noun ( FORMAL TALK )

• talk She will give a talk on keeping kids safe on the internet.
• lecture The lecture is entitled "War and the Modern American Presidency."
• presentation We were given a presentation of progress made to date.
• speech You might have to make a speech when you accept the award.
• address He took the oath of office then delivered his inaugural address.
• oration It was to become one of the most famous orations in American history.
• Her speech was received with cheers and a standing ovation .
• She closed the meeting with a short speech.
• The vicar's forgetting his lines in the middle of the speech provided some good comedy .
• Her speech caused outrage among the gay community .
• She concluded the speech by reminding us of our responsibility .
• call for papers
• extemporize
• maiden speech
• presentation
• talk at someone

speech | Intermediate English

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an occasion when a driver in a motor race stops in the pits (= area where cars are repaired)

Apples and oranges (Talking about differences, Part 2)

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Breaking Down Harrison Butker's Speech: Read the Chiefs Player's Most Controversial Comments

Fans are calling for Harrison Butker to be removed from the Chiefs' roster for the upcoming NFL season after his 20-minute commencement speech at Benedictine College

Kansas City Chiefs kicker Harrison Butker 's commencement speech at Benedictine College, a Catholic school, continues to cause outrage.

The NFL player's 20-minute address included attacks on working women, the LBGTQ+ community and families who utilize surrogacy and in vitro fertilization (IVF).

Butker and the Chiefs did not immediately return PEOPLE's requests for comment. In a statement, the NFL’s Chief Diversity Officer Jonathan Beane says, "Harrison Butker gave a speech in his personal capacity. His views are not those of the NFL as an organization. The NFL is steadfast in our commitment to inclusion, which only makes our league stronger.”

Former Kansas City commissioner Justice Horn went further, slamming Butker in a post on X (formerly known as Twitter). "Harrison Butker doesn’t represent Kansas City nor has he ever," he wrote . "Kansas City has always been a place that welcomes, affirms, and embraces our LGBTQ+ community members."

Rapper Flavor Flav chimed in, "Sounds like some players 'need to stay in their lanes' and shouldn’t be giving commencement speeches."

Cooper Neill/Getty

Writer Cyd Zeigler wrote , "Pretty awful to hear an NFL player so proudly tell women to 'stay in their lane,' serve their man and make babies. Not to mention comparing Pride month to a 'deadly sin' and lobbing bombs at the trans community. Not a fan."

Amid the backlash, below is a breakdown of Butker's most controversial comments from the speech.

On Taylor Swift's Lyric

A portion of the outrage against Butker came from supporters of Taylor Swift after he shared one of her lyrics, which fans noticed he misinterpreted.

Butker quoted a lyric from Swift's 2022 song "Bejeweled," and referred to her as his teammate, Travis Kelce 's girlfriend.

"As my teammate's girlfriend would say, familiarity breeds contempt," Butker said when discussing the values of the Catholic Church.

What seemed to have been lost on Butker, however, is that the song's message is about Swift embracing her independence away from a former boyfriend.

On the Covid-19 Pandemic and President Joe Biden

At the start of his speech, Butker addressed how the class of 2024 was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic at the start of their college careers. The subject quickly transitioned into attacks on President Joe Biden and topics such as abortion, IVF, surrogacy and euthanasia.

"I'm sure your high school graduation was not what you had imagined and most likely neither was your first couple years of college. By making it to this moment through all the adversity thrown your way from COVID, I hope you learned the important lesson that suffering in this life is only temporary," he said. "As a group, you witnessed firsthand how bad leaders who don't stay in their lane can have a negative impact on society."

Butker went on: "Bad policies and poor leadership have negatively impacted major life issues. Things like abortion, IVF, surrogacy, euthanasia, as well as a growing support for degenerate cultural values in media, all stem from the pervasiveness of disorder. Our own nation is led by a man who publicly and proudly proclaims his Catholic faith, but at the same time is delusional enough to make the sign of the cross."

The Chiefs kicker continued his verbal attack on Biden, saying, "During a pro-abortion rally, he has been so vocal in his support for the murder of innocent babies that I'm sure to many people it appears that you can be both Catholic and pro-choice."

"This is an important reminder that being Catholic alone doesn't cut it. These are the sorts of things we're told in polite society to not bring up. The difficult and unpleasant things. But if we are going to be men and women for this time in history, we need to stop pretending that the 'Church of Nice' is a winning proposition. We must always speak and act in charity, but never mistake charity for cowardice."

He continued: "As members of the church founded by Jesus Christ, it is our duty and ultimately privilege to be authentically and unapologetically Catholic."

Carmen Mandato/Getty 

On LGBTQ+ Pride

Butker then turned the focus of his speech to the Catholic values at Benedictine College. However, his sentiments attacked the LGBTQ+ and trans communities.

Butker said, "Benedictine has gone from just another liberal arts school with nothing to set it apart to a thriving beacon of light ... I'm certain the reporters at the AP could not have imagined that their attempt to rebuke and embarrass places and people like those here at Benedictine wouldn't be met with anger, but instead met with excitement and pride, not the deadly sin sort of pride that has an entire month dedicated to it, but the true God-centered pride that is cooperating with the Holy Ghost to glorify him."

On IVF and Surrogacy

Butker later attacked families who utilize IVF and surrogacy to have children, saying, "It is imperative that this class, this generation, in this time in our society must stop pretending that the things we see around us are normal."

"Heterodox ideas abound, even within Catholic circles. Let's be honest, there is nothing good about playing God with having children, whether that be your ideal number or the perfect time to conceive. No matter how you spin it, there is nothing natural about Catholic birth control. It is only in the past few years that I have grown encouraged to speak more boldly and directly because as I mentioned earlier, I have leaned into my vocation as a husband and father and as a man."

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On Working Women

In a direct address to the female graduates at Benedictine, Butker said, "For the ladies present today, congratulations on an amazing accomplishment. I want to speak directly to you briefly because I think it is you, the women, who have had the most diabolical lies told to you."

"Some of you may go on to lead successful careers in the world, but I would venture to guess that the majority of you are most excited about your marriage and the children you will bring into this world."

Of his spouse, Butker said, "I can tell you that my beautiful wife, Isabelle, would be the first to say that her life truly started when she began living her vocation as a wife and as a mother. I'm on this stage today and able to be the man I am because I have a wife who leans into her vocation. I'm beyond blessed with the many talents God has given me, but it cannot be overstated that all of my success is made possible because a girl I met in band class back in middle school, who would convert to the faith, become my wife and embrace one of the most important titles of all: homemaker."

Jamie Squire/Getty

He continued, "I say all of this to you because I have seen firsthand how much happier someone can be when they disregard the outside noise and move closer and closer to God's will in their life. Isabelle's dream of having a career might not have come true, but if you asked her today if she has any regrets on her decision, she would laugh out loud without hesitation and say, heck no."

Several users on social media have pointed out , however, that Butker's mother, Elizabeth Butker, is a successful physicist at Emory University's Department of Radiation Oncology.

On Masculinity

Moving his focus to the male graduates in the room, Butker said, "To the gentlemen here today, part of what plagues our society is this lie that has been told to you that men are not necessary in the home or in our communities. As men, we set the tone of the culture. And when that is absent, disorder, dysfunction and chaos set in ..."

"Other countries do not have nearly the same absentee father rates as we find here in the U.S., and a correlation could be made in their drastically lower violence rates as well. Be unapologetic in your masculinity. Fight against the cultural emasculation of men. Do hard things. Never settle for what is easy. You might have a talent that you don't necessarily enjoy, but if it glorifies God, maybe you should lean into that over something that you might think suits you better."

Concluding his speech, Butker said, "I know that my message today had a little less fluff than is expected for these speeches, but I believe that this audience and this venue is the best place to speak openly and honestly about who we are and where we all want to go, which is heaven. I thank God for Benedictine College and for the example it provides to the world."

"Make no mistake, you are entering into mission territory in a post God world, but you are made for this and with God by your side and a constant striving for virtue within your vocation, you too can be a saint. Christ is king to the heights."

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Trump’s Truth Social account shares video referencing ‘unified Reich’

The Biden campaign said text in the video foreshadowing a Trump victory echoes Nazi Germany. The Trump campaign said this was not a campaign video.

A video posted to a Donald Trump social media account featured references to “the creation of a unified Reich” along with hypothetical news headlines should the former president win the election in 2024.

In the 30-second video posted Monday, which was deleted from Trump’s Truth Social account Tuesday morning, mock-up headlines and newspaper clippings envisioned media coverage after a potential Trump victory.

Under a black-and-white photo of Trump, one all-caps headline states: “What’s next for America?” with text underneath that reads: “Strength significantly increased by the creation of a unified Reich.”

The term “reich” — meaning empire in German — is associated with Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, who designated his Nazi regime as the “Third Reich.” Mentions of a “unified Reich” in the video appear to refer to the formation of the German empire in 1871 by unifying several smaller states.

In a statement, Trump campaign spokeswoman Karoline Leavitt said the video was not produced by the campaign and that it was posted while Trump was in court in New York on Monday for his ongoing hush money trial. The video, she said, “was created by a random account online and reposted by a staffer who clearly did not see the word.”

Based on the time stamp on Truth Social, the video appears to have been posted toward the end of a lunch break Monday in the trial.

The video appears to feature parts of a sentence referring to a “unified Reich” three times alongside text saying Trump “puts America first” or “Law & order restored.” One such reference said: “German industrial strength and production had significantly increased after 1871, driven by the creation of a unified Reich.”

As the Associated Press first reported, the line appears verbatim in a Wikipedia entry on World War I, which resulted in the collapse of the German empire.

Other fictional headlines include “It’s a landslide” and “Economy booms,” envisioning that the “border is closed” and 15 million migrants deported during a second Trump term.

President Biden’s campaign team seized on the video, writing on X: “Trump posts a new ad foreshadowing a second Trump term that says he will create a ‘UNIFIED REICH,’ echoing Nazi Germany.”

“Donald Trump is not playing games; he is telling America exactly what he intends to do if he regains power: rule as a dictator over a ‘unified reich,’” Biden spokesman James Singer said .

In a statement later Tuesday, the Biden campaign criticized Trump for taking 19 hours to delete the video.

“He’s a threat to our democracy, and Americans must reject him and stand up for our democracy this November,” Singer said.

Trump has faced criticism for using language echoing Hitler before.

On Veterans Day last November, for instance, the former president called his domestic opponents and critics “vermin,” language that drew rebukes from historians who said it echoed Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini.

In December, Trump said that undocumented immigrants are “poisoning the blood of our country” — a phrase that immigrant groups say echoed Hitler’s characterization of Jews and other minorities.

Monday’s video was posted as Trump accused Biden of having a weak response to antisemitism.

Election 2024

Get the latest news on the 2024 election from our reporters on the campaign trail and in Washington.

Who is running? President Biden and Donald Trump secured their parties’ nominations for the presidency . Here’s how we ended up with a Trump-Biden rematch again.

Key dates and events: From January to June, voters in all states and U.S. territories will pick their party’s nominee for president ahead of the summer conventions. Here are key dates and events on the 2024 election calendar .

Abortion and the election: Voters in about a dozen states could decide the fate of abortion rights with constitutional amendments on the ballot in a pivotal election year. Biden supports legal access to abortion , and he has encouraged Congress to pass a law that would codify abortion rights nationwide. After months of mixed signals about his position, Trump said the issue should be left to states . Here’s how Biden’s and Trump’s abortion stances have shifted over the years.

Trump posts video referencing ‘unified Reich’ if reelected

F ormer President Donald Trump posted a video on Monday showing images of a fake newspaper article that references a “unified Reich” if he’s reelected in 2024.

The video details “what happens after Donald Trump wins” with a narrator reading hypothetical headlines like “Economy Booms!” and “Border is closed,” styled as World War I-era newspaper clippings. Under one headline that reads “What’s next for America?” is a reference to the “creation of a unified Reich.”

Another headline in the video states “15 Million Illegal Aliens Deported” next to the start and end days of World War I.

The term “reich” is often associated Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler, who designated Germany a “Third Reich” from 1933 to 1945.

The video was removed from Trump’s Truth Social account Tuesday morning.

Karoline Leavitt, a Trump campaign spokesperson, said in a statement that the video was not created by the campaign and was “reposted by a staffer who clearly did not see the word, while the President was in court.”

President Joe Biden and his allies, meanwhile, swiftly and emphatically condemned Trump over the video, with both his campaign and the White House denouncing what it said was flagrant antisemitism.

“This is the same guy that uses Hitler’s language, not America’s,” Biden told donors in Boston on Tuesday, according to reporters traveling with the president.

“Trump says if he loses again in November there be a blood bath,” he added later.

“It is abhorrent, sickening, and disgraceful for anyone to promote content associated with Germany’s Nazi government under Adolf Hitler,” White House spokesperson Andrew Bates added in a statement.

Trump is “not playing games; he is telling America exactly what he intends to do if he regains power: rule as a dictator over a ‘unified reich,” Biden campaign spokesperson James Singer said.

Trump has previously played into antisemitic tropes, drawing broad condemnation for lashing out at Jewish Americans he says don’t support him and Israel enough. His rhetoric – including claiming undocumented migrants are “poisoning the blood of our country” and referring to his political opponents as “vermin” – have drawn comparison to the language used by Hitler.

At a rally in December, Trump pushed back on criticism that his rhetoric has echoed Hitler, telling a crowd in Iowa that he’s never read “Mein Kampf.”

This story has been updated with additional information.

CNN’s Kevin Liptak contributed to this report.

For more CNN news and newsletters create an account at CNN.com

Sorry, Harrison Butker, the Benedictine College nuns reject your "narrow definition" of Catholicism

The nuns who co-founded the college didn't hold back about how the kicker's views did not reflect their core values, by gabriella ferrigine.

The religious sisterhood order that co-founded Benedictine College, the small academic institution in Atchinson, Kansas, has disavowed the 2024 commencement speech by Kansas City Chiefs kicker Harrison Butker, which has been widely panned as misogynistic and homophobic. 

The Sisters of Mt. Scholastica issued a statement declaring their shared sentiment that Butker's speech does not "represent the Catholic, Benedictine, liberal arts college that our founders envisioned and in which we have been so invested.

"Instead of promoting unity in our church, our nation, and the world, his comments seem to have fostered division," the statement continued. "One of our concerns was the assertion that being a homemaker is the highest calling for a woman. We sisters have dedicated our lives to God and God’s people, including the many women whom we have taught and influenced during the past 160 years. These women have made a tremendous difference in the world in their roles as wives and mothers and through their God-given gifts in leadership, scholarship, and their careers.

"Our community has taught young women and men not just how to be 'homemakers' in a limited sense, but rather how to make a Gospel-centered, compassionate home within themselves where they can welcome others as Christ, empowering them to be the best versions of themselves," the sisterhood added. "We reject a narrow definition of what it means to be Catholic. We are faithful members of the Catholic Church who embrace and promote the values of the Gospel, St. Benedict, and Vatican II and the teachings of Pope Francis."

They concluded, "We want to be known as an inclusive, welcoming community, embracing Benedictine values that have endured for more than 1,500 years and have spread through every continent and nation. We believe those values are the core of Benedictine College."

Following Butker's speech, NFL senior Vice President Jonathan Beane, the league’s chief diversity and inclusion officer, stated that “Harrison Butker gave a speech in his personal capacity. His views are not those of the NFL as an organization. The NFL is steadfast in our commitment to inclusion, which only makes our league stronger."

The story behind biggest gaffe in European rugby history: So bad it is now a dictionary definition

Men behind famous victory – minus Clément Poitrenaud – on the try that sealed a memorable Heineken Cup triumph for Wasps

When Wasps arrived at Twickenham on Sunday May 23, 2004, for their maiden European Cup final , they were only just getting started. Warren Gatland ’s side had clinched their first Premiership trophy a season earlier but by the time this dynasty had finished, Wasps had won four domestic titles in six seasons and two Heineken Cups.

But at Twickenham in May 2004, Wasps had the chance to prove that they were no one-hit wonders, that they had the potential to become juggernauts on the European rugby scene. The club that is sadly no more, then based in High Wycombe, ran out for their first Heineken Cup final, against Toulouse – the reigning European champions – as underdogs. 

It was not that Wasps did not possess world-class players – Josh Lewsey, Stuart Abbott, Lawrence Dallaglio, Joe Worsley and Simon Shaw had all recently returned from winning the World Cup with England – but Toulouse matched them. Barely a name in the French aristocrats’ starting XV was not an international, and it boasted some of the most skilful and iconic players of the era; the likes of Frédéric Michalak, Yannick Jauzion and Cédric Heymans in their pomp.

In the end, it was another of one of the most-gifted French players of the noughties, Clément Poitrenaud, who as good as decided the fate of the match – but for the most disastrous of reasons .

After the match, Poitrenaud said: “I think I gave one of my best performances for two seasons. Unfortunately, we will only remember this great act of stupidity. I feel especially sorry for my team-mates who had put in a great deal of effort to get back into the match. Now it’s just another day.”

His captain, the great Fabien Pelous, added: “I don’t really want to speak to Clément right now as... I would say something that I would later regret.”

That great act of stupidity has gone down in European and French folklore, even spawning its own noun in Poitrenaud’s mother tongue. Of a “Poitrenade” the dictionary reads: “[Rugby] Clumsiness with disastrous consequences.”

With the game locked at 20-20 and extra time beckoning, Rob Howley threaded an innocuous-looking grubber down the left touchline. The Wasps scrum-half chased valiantly, but it seemed for all the money in the world that, as the ball trickled into the Toulouse in-goal area, Poitrenaud would touch down for a 22-drop-out. The French full-back, then just 22 years old, dithered, waiting for the ball to sit perfectly. During that procrastination, Howley pounced, and the TMO awarded the try. In an instant, Wasps were champions.

A week later, bleary-eyed from their European celebrations, Gatland’s side also defeated Bath at Twickenham in the Premiership final to secure their first double. With the help of Gatland, Howley, Worsley and Trevor Leota, Telegraph Sport tells Wasps’ tale.

‘The semi-final against Munster on its own was incredible’

Gatland : Europe was a massive goal for us in 2004. We did it the hard way by losing that home game to Celtic Warriors and having to win away in Perpignan – that game was huge for us. They hadn’t lost at home for 18 months and we played exceptionally well. Then, the Munster semi-final, only about 2,000 Wasps supporters managed to get tickets – the old Lansdowne Road was packed with Munster fans. Started really well, dominated most of the first half, then Munster came back and got in front and we had to dig deep to win it.

Howley: That loss to Celtic Warriors was a bit of a reality check and a kick up the backside for us. That provoked a response to us to go onto the final. Warren said it was no good being English champions – which we had been the year before – but that we had to be European champions. Obviously there’s the individual try for me in the final but the Munster semi-final at Lansdowne Road is one of the best games I’ve been involved in. It was a magical game, great to be a part of.

Leota: I definitely remember that Munster game. An unforgettable one. I scored the winner! One of the highlights of my career.

Worsley: The whole campaign was pretty epic. The semi-final on its own was incredible, the drama; an amazing day at Lansdowne Road.

The final was an incredibly difficult and tiring game – but good fun! One of those which went so quickly where you’re just holding on, fitness-wise. I was blowing but somehow kept going. It was one of the most tiring matches I’d ever played in.

‘Every time we had a chance we took our points’

Gatland: It was a game that I remember by thinking about how we dealt with their offloading game. But we just took our chances. They’d create chances but then they’d drop the last pass or make a mistake once they were in behind and offloading. We were pretty accurate that day. Every time we had a chance we took our points.

Howley: Toulouse were the better team on the day; their ability to offload, get in behind us, their physicality and their power. But we took our tries! We weren’t really in the game, down in territory, down in possession. When Toulouse went 20-11 down, their experienced internationals didn’t panic. They were able to find a way back to 20-20.

Worsley : The squad we had was pretty incredible. Some aspects of our game plan were quite advanced for that period and those two things coupled up to make us pretty competitive. Still, in that final, we weren’t lucky but... we knew that we had to find a tiny advantage, physically and organisationally, to win that game. Toulouse were pretty good that day.

Gatland: Joe was amazing . We tasked him with looking after Finau Maka, stopping him. I think he made an unbelievable number of tackles.

Worsley: Thirty-three! Several on Maka. It took me a few days to recover from that.

Gatland: It was a sensational performance. Any time Maka got the ball, Joe chopped him straightaway. Maka was so important for them, in terms of getting on the front foot. You couldn’t have picked a better person than Joe to be tasked with that job.

Worsley: The one try they scored was from a poor kick. That was the one opportunity we gave them. We were a very controlled team who could suffocate sides and give them no hope. In attack, Toulouse created chances, but we knew they would create a lot less if we neutralised their powerful runners. That’s something which, tactically, we did.

Howley: One of the most underrated players – I thought he was world class – was Fraser Waters. He and Stuart Abbott operated our blitz defence, coached by Shaun Edwards, and teams were not so used to our line speed.

Leota: The boys... we were so close. We were like a family, putting bodies on the line for everyone. It was just nuts. We were under so much pressure. I remember the crowd and the supporters getting behind us. The match was so intense, mate.

‘He was dumbfounded, I wasn’t sure I had got the ball down’

With the scores locked at 20-20 and the clock ticking, Wasps kicked the ball dead, opting for territory. Michalak drops out and the ball heads in Howley’s direction. The rest is the stuff of dreams – or nightmares, for a certain Toulousain No 15.

Howley: It was not great rugby between myself and Tom Voyce – we let the ball bounce. Then I kicked the ball off my right foot rather than the more sensible left, and I’ve never known a ball bounce as straight or as long as that in my whole rugby career. It arched then kept dead straight. You wouldn’t expect that to happen with the oval ball.

But I never really thought I was in. There was a moment where I thought I might have a slight chance, and I accelerated. The ball took a wicked bounce and Poitrenaud should have dived on it but he’s allowed it to bounce up, thinking it would go perfectly into his hands, but that allowed me to get between his legs and arms to touch down. We all make mistakes but it is seen as the error which has cost them. If it had gone to extra time, who knows? He was dumbfounded. And I wasn’t 100 per cent sure that I’d got the ball down.

Leota: We were just crossing our fingers and hoping.

Howley: After waiting for the TMO, it was total exhilaration. I have dined out on that try many times, which is always nice. The try was just about not giving up. Poitrenaud made a horrendous mistake; you don’t see too many full-backs making those.

Worsley: I saw Poitrenaud a few weeks ago, actually – I didn’t bring it up! He’s not ever going to want to talk about it.

Howley: For me, it was a shake of the hand and a tap on the back afterwards.

Gatland: I haven’t ever bumped into him. He probably still gets stick to this day! Everyone talks about the winning try, but it’s sometimes forgotten that the scores were 20-20 at that stage. We hadn’t used any replacements. Not because I wasn’t thinking about it but because at 20-20 I thought it was going to extra time – and they’d used all their subs. I was thinking: ‘If we can put all these fresh legs on in extra time then it’s going to make a difference.’ Obviously, a brain-freeze from Poitrenaud meant there was no need.

‘We had four days on the p--- and we still beat you’

Howley: The celebrations went on into the early hours. We not only partied well on Sunday night but Monday and Tuesday, too. We had a bit of a team run on Thursday and we turned up and still beat Bath the following weekend in the Premiership final.

I still take the mick out of Jonathan Humphreys [former Wales hooker] who was playing for Bath at the time. ‘You couldn’t have been that good – we’d had four days on the p--- and we still beat you!’ We trained on the Thursday before Bath but after the Sunday final the celebration spilled into the week. It was worth celebrating.

Gatland: Having the emotion of winning the Heineken Cup – and the celebrations and hype that goes with that – and then regrouping and being good enough to win the following week; it was a pretty special six days. I’m very proud of that.

Worsley: I didn’t go out – didn’t drink a drop! Not after the Toulouse game. I was so tired that I couldn’t do it. I knew there was a game a week later. I always prefer waiting for the right moment before cutting loose. That was after the Bath game. I was knackered – it wouldn’t have been any fun.

All of us are very proud of doing the double. It’s very hard to do – especially with a small squad and a lower budget than other sides. There are strange emotions, though, with what happened to Wasps. Immensely proud: of the club and players. But now the club is dead. It’s a strange feeling .

Howley: My father had been diagnosed with pancreatic cancer the previous October. I was just grateful and proud that my mum, dad and sister were able to watch that match. He died five months later, in October 2004.

Leota: People say [I’m a cult hero] but I just thank the man upstairs. I got the chance to play with some great people, great team-mates. I definitely didn’t expect any of it as a young boy going over to England, trying to make my mark and get something out of it. Winning all the titles was a bonus.

Gatland: We had some great fans, too. There was no better feeling than going into the West car park after the game – my wife was there, all the sponsors, some supporters, and the staff with their partners – with the trophy to have a few drinks. They were always special times for us as a group.

Howley: It’s something you’ll never forget.

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