essay about the benefits of sports

Essay on Importance of Sports for Students and Children

500+ words essay on importance of sports.

First of all, Sport refers to an activity involving physical activity and skill . Here, two or more parties compete against each other. Sports are an integral part of human life and there is great importance of sports in all spheres of life. Furthermore, Sports help build the character and personality of a person. It certainly is an excellent tool to keep the body physically fit. Most noteworthy, the benefits of Sports are so many that books can be written.  Sports have a massive positive effect on both the mind and body.

Physical Benefits of Sports

First of all, Sports strengthen the heart. Regular Sports certainly make the heart stronger. Hence, Sport is an excellent preventive measure against heart diseases . This certainly increases the life expectancy of individuals. Furthermore, a healthy heart means a healthy blood pressure.

Sports involve physical activity of the body. Due to this physical activity, blood vessels remain clean. Sports reduces the amount of cholesterol and fats in the body. This happens because of the increase of flexibility of the wall of the blood vessels. The flexibility increases due to physical exertion, which is the result of Sports.

Furthermore, the sugar level in blood also gets lower thanks to Sports. The sugar certainly does not accumulate in the blood due to physical activity.

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A person experiences a good quality of breathing because of Sports. Sports strengthen the lungs of the body. Sports certainly escalate the lung capacity and efficiency of the body. Hence, more oxygen enters the blood which is extremely beneficial. Furthermore, there are fewer chances of developing lung diseases due to Sports.

Appropriate body weight is easy to maintain because of sports. A Sports playing person probably does not suffer from obesity or underweight problems. Sports certainly help the body remain fit and slim.

Furthermore, Sports also improves the quality of bones. A person who plays sports will have strong bones even in old age. Several scientific research reports that Sports prevent many diseases. For example, many researchers conclude that Sports prevent the development of cancer.

Other Benefits of Sports

Sport is certainly an excellent tool to build self-confidence . Playing Sports increases confidence to talk properly. A sport certainly improves the skills of communicating with others. Furthermore, the person experiences confidence in sitting, standing, and walking properly. Hence, Sports enriches the social life of an individual.

Sports bring discipline in life. It certainly teaches the values of dedication and patience. Sports also teach people how to handle failure. Furthermore, the importance of following a time schedule is also present in Sports.

Above all, Sports improves the thinking ability of individuals. Sports certainly sharpen the mind. Children who play Sports probably perform better at exams than those who don’t.

Finally, Sports reduces the stress of mind . A Sports playing person would certainly experience less depression. Sports ensure the peace of mind of those playing it. Most noteworthy, Sports brings happiness and joy in the life of individuals.

A sport is an aspect of human life that is of paramount importance. It certainly increases the quality of human life. Sports must be made mandatory in schools. This is because it is as important as education. Everyone must perform at least one Sport activity on a regular basis.

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• Importance of Sports Essay for Students in English

Essay on Importance of Sports

Sports are very essential for every human life which keeps them fit and fine and physical strength. It has great importance in each stage of life. It also improves the personality of people. Sports keep our all organs alert and our hearts become stronger by regularly playing some kind of sports. sports has always given priority from old ages and nowadays it has become more fascinating. Due to the physical activity blood pressure also remains healthy, and blood vessels remain clean. Sugar level also reduces and cholesterol comes down by daily activity. Different people have different interests in sports but the action is the same in all sports. Sports are becoming big channels to make more capital/money day by day and the number of people is also increasing. By playing sports even at a young age you can also be better and free from some diseases. By playing sports lung function also improves and becomes healthy because more oxygen is supplied. Sports also improves bone strength even in old age.

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Significance of Sports in Student’s Life

Just like a diet of healthy nutrients is needed for nourishing the body, playing sports holds a great significance in enhancing our lives, especially for growing children. As a student, one has to face many challenges, and playing sports helps them cope with the exam pressure and prepare them for further challenges by providing them with physical and mental strength. 

Children who are indulged in physical activities sustain good values of mutual respect and cooperation. Playing sports teaches them skills such as accountability, leadership, and learning to work with a sense of responsibility and confidence.

Sports help in maintaining Good Health

In today’s era of excessive competition and changing environment, people barely care about our health and have to face its consequences in the later stages of their life. They easily become prey to many life-threatening health issues. Those who are indulged in regular physical activities can easily defend themselves from such diseases. Therefore, playing sports can resolve this concern.

Playing regular sports can help maintain diabetes, improve heart function, and reduce stress and tension in an individual. 

Get rid of Excess Weight

Most of the world’s population is obese, and as a result, many other health issues also arise. Hence, playing sports is one of the most recreational and helpful ways of burning calories. All you have to do is follow a healthy diet and play your favourite sport. You can be saved from exhausting workout routines in the gym by playing sports. 

Playing your favourite sports and shedding kilos, isn’t it like killing two birds with one stone!

Guard Your Heart

The heart is the most important organ of our body. With changing lifestyles, people are facing heart-related problems these days. The life of heart patients becomes difficult with lots of heavy medications and restrictions. Therefore, people need to indulge in outdoor games. Playing for even 30 minutes a day can do wonders for your life. The heart pumps better, and blood circulation improves whenever we play sports. Heart muscles get stronger, and hence it starts functioning at a better rate. 

Enhance Your Immunity

The immune system is the major player of the body in fighting infections. Those who easily catch infections and fall sick frequently can easily get healthier by working on their immune system. 

It becomes really difficult to live with poor immunity, take heavy medications frequently, and spend most of your time indoors just to prevent yourself from the effects of changing environments. Getting indulged in regular sports activities can help build your immunity greatly, and the most amazing part with it is that you can do it by just playing your favourite sport. 

Impact of Sports on an Individual’s Personality

Playing sports builds your personality and teaches you to live life in a better way. Getting involved in such activities teaches good values, ethics, and skills in your life. The person starts to have a positive outlook towards life and can easily deal with obstacles in their life. Not only this, but it also reduces the stress level in the person as such people start taking challenges with positivity. Their efficiency increases, so they can easily take up challenges confidently.

People can learn lots of important skills through their sports. Every sport teaches us the skills of handling difficult situations, quick- decisions making and problem-solving. By playing sports, one can learn the art of living and managing things and taking leads. 

Therefore, if you play sports, you are not just enjoying it; you are also learning many significant life lessons.

Nation’s Pride

All the good values and skills one learns by playing sports can prepare them to conquer any battle-fields. Many eminent sports personalities have brought laurels to our country by proving their mettle on different sports grounds. Some of them are; Sachin Tendulkar, Saina Nehwal, Mary Kom, Sardar Singh, Sania Mirza and many more.

These personalities are inspirations for all those who are passionate about playing sports. Hard work and dedication can help them reach their goals and can become inspirations for others one day.

Common Sports

There are varieties of sports activities you can choose from. Some of the most common sports are; Tennis, Badminton, Volleyball, Cricket, and Basketball.

Learning from Sports:

Sports bring discipline in life. It teaches the way of sitting, talking, walking etc. Without sports in human life it seems too boring, sports activate all the cells and keep the body active, fit and slim. Sports improve thinking ability and reduce the stress of the mind. Those people with not so much interest in sports are less active and also have chances of getting a disease in the early stage of life and also show lethargy in work. Sports should be made mandatory in school, so that at an early age they can know the benefits of sports. People also select their favourite sports players on their more interest in which sports, if we take cricket because in our country India cricket is played more and shown interest by many peoples, many players came but still name like Kapil dev, Sachin Tendulkar, M.S.Dhoni, Virat Kohli will be always favourite for their fans. If we take football players like Messi, Ronaldo and many others, they are an idol for many people who have an interest in football. Sports is generally recognized as a system of activities which are based in athletics such as Olympic games. Sports are always played under government rules which helps to serve fair competition, sports having following criteria like, it should be fair competition, giving no harm to any person, and the winner should be nominated by superior or from the best. In sports like chess improves the mind and thinking capacity. Since from the 21st century, there has been increased in a debate that whether transgender should be able to participate in any sports events.

Benefit of Technology in Sports: 

Nowadays technology also plays an important role in sports to judge the fair game for winners. It helps to judge a car racer by seeing properly on the screen, also in cricket like sometimes when it becomes difficult to make the decision again technology is used. In every sport, it has been utilised for fair play and to announce the winners. Research suggests that sports have the capacity to connect youth with positive thinking and provide positive development. For any sportsman, high education is not mandatory but required to be the best sportsman. It is his interest, strength and skills. We have seen in the last two decades women are also showing more interest in sports and for them also proper matches are arranged by the government. Sports give the feeling of living with a positive attitude. sports can be played in both indoor and outdoor, many indoor games like chess, carrom board, helps to improve the thinking power but the sports which are played in outdoor like football, cricket, Rugby, kabaddi etc helps to improve physical strength, thus the person who does more outdoor games should be more fit and slim. 3-4 decades ago the opportunity in sports was not much-showed interest which is shown by the present youth generation. Sports secure life and give a standard lifestyle. The 10 most popular sports played in the World are Soccer, Cricket, Basketball, Hockey, Tennis, Volleyball, Table Tennis and Baseball where Hockey was first played in India and became our national games. There are also some sports which are shown less interest like Kabaddi, Polo, Archery, Weightlifting etc. Swimming is known as the safest sport. So sports should be played by everyone because it helps our body in movement and gives good health. The study has proved that sports have better well controlled many diseases like heart attack, lung function, obesity, and thinking power. Ice hockey, soccer are the games which have the highest paid sportsmen. Also some sports can be played in small places and also some sports require large places. Sports keep us active and energetic, even in some treatment to recover from the disease sports are advised by the doctors. play sports on a regular basis and keep our self-fit, sports should not be neglected but it should be mandatory for everyone.

FAQs on Importance of Sports Essay for Students in English

1. Why Sports are Important?

Any sports makes you physically fit, increase your immune level and even encourage socialism among different people.

2. What are the Common Sports Played in India?

Cricket and Football are major sports played in India.

3. What is the National Sport of India?

Field Hockey has been considered as the national sport of India.Though it has some historical connect as well as popularity too.

 4. Which sports are the best for students to become more active?

Sports that require them to move about, such as Football and Basketball can be beneficial. Apart from them, students can also engage in Tennis and Martial Arts can also be good options.

5. How can students manage their study and sports times effectively?

Even when studies seem the most important, engaging in active sports is necessary to maintain overall health. So, students can set aside a few hours everyday in the evening to engage in the sports of their choice. This can help them take rest from studies and work towards maintaining their physical health as well.

6. Which home exercises are equally as effective?

When students do not have time to spare to play extensive sports, then home training can be a beneficial tool. Home-based exercises, such as skipping, running on the treadmill, yoga and pilates can be good substitutes for active sports.

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Argumentative Essay: The Importance of Sports

Participation in sports is extremely important, and should be encouraged much more. Children and young people in particular need to do sport so that they develop good habits that they can continue into adulthood. The main benefits of sport are improved health and fitness, and the development of social and communication skills.

With more than a third of adults in the USA being classed as obese, and many more being overweight, it has never been more important to participate in sports. People that do sport on a regular basis are burning more calories than those that don’t, and are therefore less likely to end up overweight. Being a healthy weight means that you will be less likely to die young and suffer from heart disease, strokes, high blood pressure, diabetes and a range of other conditions, and if you already eat well, it can give you an extra calorie allowance so you can treat yourself without feeling guilty about it.

As well as improving cardiovascular health and fitness, exercising is also good for the musculoskeletal system, making muscles more supple and toned, and improving the strength of bones and joints. People who do sports will be stronger and more able to lift and carry heavy things, which is also always useful, and they are less likely to become really weak and frail as they get older because their bodies are strong. Furthermore, doing sports can improve mental health as well as physical health, with exercise being helpful for people with depression and a range of other mental health issues, because it releases good chemicals into our brains. It also makes people feel better about their bodies, which can make them happier, and reduces the risk of eating disorders and crash dieting, as people make more sensible, healthy changes to their lifestyle.

Sports also allow people to develop personally. Social and communication skills can be learned and developed through sport. Teamwork, for example, is naturally learned through participating in team sports and games. Communication skills can really be honed, as they are at the center of any team’s success, and a lack of them leads to failure. Many people will also develop leadership skills through sport, often discovering abilities that they never knew they even had.

Many people’s self-esteem improves through sport as they discover things that they are good at and improve their body. Participating in any competitive sport also improves our ability to handle pressure and still perform well, as well as teaching us how to win and lose graciously. All in all, the fact that playing sport is good for us is completely undeniable, because it helps our minds and bodies, and ultimately means that we will be living longer, happier lives.

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• Essay On Importance Of Sports

Essay on Sports

500+ word essay on the importance of sports.

Sports keep us healthy and active. We can have a healthy mind only when we have a healthy body. We can achieve anything in our lives if we have a healthy body and a peaceful mind. Physical and mental well-being comes naturally when we involve ourselves in sports activities. Sports help in improving our overall personality and make us more active and attentive. Here, students can find a 500+ Words Essay on the Importance of Sports where we will be discussing how important a role sports plays in our life.

Essay on the Importance of Sports

The topic of sports is very broad. It can serve as a form of therapy and a tool in different aspects of life, which can help change the world. Through sports, children develop physical skills, exercise, be team players, and improve their self-esteem. Sports play a significant role in advancing education and in enhancing knowledge.

Playing sports means regular exercising, jogging, going to the fitness centres or playing any game. There are different types of games involved in sports activities. Each game has its own specific rules. These sports activities are done either by individuals or teams for leisure, and entertainment as well as to compete against one another. Playing sports improves the physiological functions of the body organs and improves the functionality of the entire body system. Through sports, we learn different skills like leadership, patience, coordination, motivation, and team effort.

Sport has great importance in building personality, too. For some people, it is not only the body movement or playing strategy, but it’s a life philosophy. In the modern world, a positive attitude to sports is becoming a trend and style. Young people try to look sporty, fit and full of energy. A sports career in India was considered less lucrative in the past. However, now it has become one of the gainful professional options for students. Sometimes students take an interest in sports merely for adventure and a tension-free life. Now, sports games are gaining popularity. Various sports competitions are played at the international level, such as the Olympics. Apart from it, multiple matches and inter-city competitions are organised to promote the field of sports.

Benefits of Sports and Games

Nowadays, we can see problems related to unhealthy lifestyles. We sit more and more on the couch, surrounded by modern technologies. We don’t realise the importance and benefits of sports and physical activities. The lack of physical activity in our body leads to obesity and many other health problems such as heart disease and so. It has become a necessity of today’s world that all of us do daily physical activities or play any sports for a minimum of 30 minutes.

Regular physical activity benefits health in many ways. It helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints, controls weight, reduces fat, and prevents high blood pressure. Children who participate in physical activities such as sports, experience positive health benefits. These health benefits include a decreased risk of high blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, diabetes and cancer. Also, these children are less likely to smoke or use drugs and alcohol than children who don’t participate in sports.

Keep learning and stay tuned with BYJU’S for the latest update on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams. Also, download the BYJU’S App for interactive study videos.

Frequently asked Questions on the Importance of Sports Essay

Why is playing sports important for us.

Playing sports not only helps in the active functioning of our body but also helps in flexibility and reduces the chances of falling sick.

Which was the first sport to be played in the world?

Wrestling is said to have been the first sport played in the world, depictions of the same can be found in the caves of France.

Which is the most famous sport in the world?

Football is ranked as the top sport with 3.5 billion followers, seconded by Cricket.

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• School Education /

Essay on Importance of Sports

• Updated on  
• Oct 7, 2023

Sports are an integral part of life. Sports are exciting activities which are not only fun to play but also promote physical fitness. But do you know the benefits of playing sports both mentally and physically? Well, we have come to your rescue. In this blog, you will read about the importance of sports and how it can help one learn several new qualities. These qualities will help one to be ahead in their life. We will also be discussing more on this topic through essays. 

Table of Contents

• 1.1 Physical Benefits
• 1.2 Mental Benefits
• 2 Essay on Importance of Sports in 200 Words
• 3 Essay on Importance of Sports in 300 Words
• 4 Essay on Importance of Sports in 400 Words

Importance of Sports 

Sports are essential to every student’s life. Almost every parent believes their child should be involved in sports during their growing years. Moreover, playing sports keeps us fit, healthy and active. Sports teach essential life skills such as discipline, perseverance, teamwork, and time management. Here are all the benefits one gets by playing sports. 

Physical Benefits

• By playing sports, one gets to be physically active and at the same time maintain discipline. 
• By involving oneself in sports, it reduces the risk of obesity and other chronic health issues. 
• Playing sports leads to muscle development, promotes strong bones and lastly reduces the risk of osteoporosis.

Mental Benefits

The benefits of sports are not limited to physical enhancement, they also help in brain functioning and mental activities.

• Playing in team sports, helps one to learn to work together leading to achieving a common goal – leadership skills, teamwork and several other qualities. 
• Sports also improve one’s decision-making skills and boost self-confidence.
• Lastly, sports help one to reduce stress, depression and other mental issues.

Also Read: Essay on My Aim in Life

Essay on Importance of Sports in 200 Words

Sports are essential because they promote social, mental, and physical well-being. They are not only a source of amusement but also play a huge role in many facets of life.

To begin with, sports encourage physical fitness. Sports participation helps people maintain a healthy lifestyle by enhancing their stamina, strength, and cardiovascular fitness. The risk of obesity, diabetes, and other lifestyle-related disorders is reduced by regular exercise in sports.

Secondly, sports improve mental health. It encourages self-control, tenacity, and goal-setting. At the same time, athletes gain the ability to manage stress, develop resilience, and cultivate a solid work ethic. While team sports can foster interpersonal, communication, and teamwork skills.

Sports also help to maintain societal harmony. They give people from various backgrounds a place to interact, fostering friendship and harmony. Sporting events frequently foster a sense of belonging and pride among viewers.

Sports in the classroom impart important life lessons including cooperation, initiative, and sportsmanship. For gifted athletes, they can also result in scholarships and educational possibilities.

Also Read: Essay on Waste Management

Essay on Importance of Sports in 300 Words

The development of the body, mind and social structure are all considerably aided by sports in human society. They have a special and complex significance that goes much beyond simple competition or entertainment.

Sports are crucial for physical health in the first place. People who participate in sports and physical activity can keep up a healthy lifestyle. Sporting activity regularly enhances physical endurance, muscular strength, and cardiovascular health. It works well to combat the rising obesity pandemic, lower the likelihood of developing chronic illnesses like diabetes, and improve general health.

Sports are essential for mental health in addition to physical health. Athletes learn to be disciplined, determined, and have a strong work ethic. They get knowledge on how to set and accomplish goals, manage stress, and develop resilience. These life skills learned via sports are transferable to many facets of success on both a personal and professional level.

Sports also encourage social growth. They give people from various backgrounds a place to interact, fostering social cohesiveness and harmony. Sporting activities foster a sense of community by inspiring people to interact, find common ground, and form enduring friendships.

Sports in education provide a distinctive learning opportunity. They impart characteristics like leadership, sportsmanship, and teamwork, which are crucial in both academic and professional environments. Many students find that participating in athletics paves the way for scholarships and other educational opportunities that might not otherwise be possible.

Sports are economically significant as well. They open up positions in the sports sector for everyone from athletes and coaches to event planners and sports medical specialists. Major athletic events can promote local economies, increase income, and create jobs by boosting tourism.

In conclusion, sports are more than just amusement; they are essential to leading a balanced existence. Sports have an enormous value that goes well beyond the pitch or court, making them an essential component of human society.

Essay on Importance of Sports in 400 Words

Sports plays a crucial role in our lives, promoting our physical and mental health as well as our social and economic development. Sports provide entertainment and recreation for both participants and spectators. They offer an escape from daily routines, a source of excitement, and a sense of shared experience.

First off, sports are essential for fostering physical wellness. People can keep up an active lifestyle by participating in sports. It improves muscle strength, total physical endurance, and cardiovascular health. Regular exercise dramatically lowers the risk of lifestyle disorders like diabetes, obesity, and heart problems. These health advantages help people live longer and with higher quality.

Second, engaging in athletics is crucial for mental health. Athletes learn valuable life lessons including self-control, tenacity, and goal-setting. They gain skills for dealing with stress, developing resilience, and upholding a solid work ethic. These mental skills developed via sports are transferable to many facets of life and can promote success and overall well-being.

Additionally, sports encourage social growth and unity. They bridge gaps in class, age, gender, and ethnicity by bringing people together. Sporting occasions foster a sense of belonging and camaraderie, inspiring people to interact, discover similar interests, and form enduring connections. This social component of sport fosters harmony and understanding between various groups.

Sports offer a special educational opportunity. They provide characteristics like leadership, sportsmanship, and teamwork, which are crucial in both academic and professional situations. Sports are given a high priority in the curriculum of many educational institutions, which recognise the benefits they provide for students’ all-around growth.

Sports are economically significant as well. They open up positions in the sports sector for everyone from athletes and coaches to event planners and sports medical specialists. Major athletic events have the potential to increase tourism, fire up local economies, bring in money, and provide jobs.

Sports also support a sense of national identity and pride. International sporting success may bring a nation together by fostering a sense of achievement and patriotism. Athletes serve as ambassadors for their nations, representing the commitment and labour of the populace.

To conclude, sports are more than just amusement; they provide the basis of a full existence. They encourage mental toughness, social harmony, physical fitness, and practical life skills. Sports participation should be promoted as a top priority by everyone—individuals, educational institutions, and governments. Sports are important for reasons that go beyond the physical, contributing to human society as a whole.

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Sports teaches one several values. These include discipline, elegance, sacrifice, instills leadership qualities which help people to lead a successful life.

When people participate together in a sport, they know that they competing against each other. This helps them to come together as a team.

As they keep kids physically fit and engaged, sports have a direct link to a healthy physique.

For more information related to such interesting topics, visit our essay-writing page and make sure to follow Leverage Edu . 

Malvika Chawla

Malvika is a content writer cum news freak who comes with a strong background in Journalism and has worked with renowned news websites such as News 9 and The Financial Express to name a few. When not writing, she can be found bringing life to the canvasses by painting on them.

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Essay on Importance of Sports in Students Life

Students are often asked to write an essay on Importance of Sports in Students Life in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Importance of Sports in Students Life

Introduction.

Sports play a significant role in a student’s life. They serve as a break from academic stress and develop physical strength and mental agility.

Physical Health

Sports encourage physical activity, helping students stay fit and healthy. Regular exercise boosts immunity and prevents obesity.

Mental Well-being

Engaging in sports improves mental health by reducing stress and anxiety. It also enhances mood and fosters a positive attitude.

Life Skills

Sports teach teamwork, leadership, and discipline. These skills are crucial for personal and professional success.

In conclusion, sports are essential for students’ holistic development. They promote health, happiness, and life skills.

250 Words Essay on Importance of Sports in Students Life

The integral role of sports in student life.

Sports play a pivotal role in shaping the character and overall development of students. They not only contribute to physical fitness but also provide a platform for social interaction and emotional growth.

Physical and Mental Well-being

Engaging in sports activities helps students stay active, fit, and healthy. Regular physical activity boosts immunity and reduces the risk of chronic diseases. Additionally, sports also foster mental health by alleviating stress and anxiety. They stimulate the release of endorphins, the body’s natural mood elevators, promoting a sense of happiness and well-being.

Social Skills and Teamwork

Sports are a microcosm of society, teaching students essential social skills like communication, cooperation, and leadership. Being part of a team, students learn to respect different perspectives, work collaboratively, and handle conflict constructively. These skills are critical for their future careers and personal relationships.

Character Building and Resilience

Sports instill discipline, responsibility, and a strong work ethic in students. They learn to set goals, strategize, and persevere despite failures, fostering resilience. Sports also promote honesty, integrity, and fair play, shaping students into responsible citizens.

Academic Performance

Contrary to popular belief, sports can enhance academic performance. They improve concentration, memory, and learning capabilities, thus aiding in academic success.

In conclusion, the importance of sports in students’ lives is multifaceted, contributing to their physical, emotional, and social development. Therefore, it’s essential to encourage sports participation alongside academic pursuits for a holistic education.

500 Words Essay on Importance of Sports in Students Life

Sports have always been a crucial part of our lives, offering numerous benefits that extend beyond the realm of physical fitness. In the context of student life, sports play an indispensable role in shaping their overall development. The significance of sports in student life can be observed in the areas of character building, enhancing academic performance, and promoting overall health.

Character Building

Sports serve as an excellent platform for character building. Participating in sports instills a sense of discipline, responsibility, and commitment in students. It teaches them the importance of teamwork, cooperation, and respect for others. In the competitive world of sports, students learn to handle success with humility and failure with resilience, equipping them with the emotional strength to face real-world challenges.

Enhancing Academic Performance

Contrary to the common misconception that sports can distract students from their academics, research suggests that sports can enhance academic performance. Sports require strategic thinking, concentration, and problem-solving skills, which are directly applicable to academic pursuits. Moreover, regular physical activity boosts brain function, improving memory, creativity, and mental agility, thereby facilitating better academic performance.

Promoting Overall Health

The importance of sports in promoting physical health is undeniable. Regular involvement in sports activities helps students maintain a healthy weight, boosts their immunity, and promotes overall physical well-being. Besides, sports also contribute to mental health by reducing stress, anxiety, and depression. It serves as a healthy outlet for students to vent their frustrations and manage their emotions effectively.

Developing Social Skills

Sports provide ample opportunities for social interaction, helping students develop essential social skills. They learn to communicate effectively, negotiate, and resolve conflicts, which are crucial for maintaining healthy relationships. The shared experiences and camaraderie developed on the sports field often translate into lifelong friendships and valuable networking opportunities.

Preparing for Future

In the rapidly changing world, the skills learned through sports are becoming increasingly relevant. Employers value traits like teamwork, leadership, and problem-solving skills, which are fostered through sports participation. Moreover, sports can open up numerous career opportunities, not just in the field of professional sports, but also in related areas like sports management, coaching, and sports journalism.

In summary, the importance of sports in students’ life is multifaceted, contributing to their physical, mental, and emotional well-being while fostering essential life skills. Schools and colleges should therefore strive to promote sports participation among students, not just as an extracurricular activity, but as an integral part of their holistic development.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

• Essay on Importance of Moral Values in Our Life
• Essay on Importance of Animals in Our Life
• Essay on Best Day of My Life

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How to Write a Non-Cliche College Essay About Sports + Examples

What’s covered:, what makes a sports essay cliche.

• How To Make Your Sports Essay Unique

Great Examples of College Essays About Sports

Where to get your college essay edited for free, or by an expert.

You’ve been brainstorming essay topics for your college applications, and you think you’ve finally found the right one: an extended metaphor likening your experience on the field with overcoming personal struggles. The problem: many other students have this same thought. 

The purpose of a college essay is to make yourself stand out as a unique individual, but when students write about sports, they often blend in. Because of that, students are usually advised to pick a different topic.

That being said, it is possible to write a non-cliche college essay about sports if you put in a little extra effort. Read along to learn how to make your sports essay different from all the other sports essays.

Sports essays are cliche when they follow a standard trajectory. Some of these trajectories include writing a story about:

• An agonizing defeat
• Forging bonds with teammates
• Overcoming adversity
• Overcoming an injury
• Refusing to quit
• Victory during a big game

Because sports essays have very similar themes and “lessons learned,” it can be difficult to make your story stand out. These trajectories also often focus too much on the sport or storyline, and not enough on the writer’s reflections and personality.

As you write your essay, try to think about what your experience says about you rather than what you learned from your experience. You are more than just one lesson you learned!

(Keep in mind that the sports essay is not the only college essay cliche. Learn about other essay cliches and how to fix them in our complete guide).

How to Make Your Sports Essay Unique

1. focus on a specific moment or reflection..

The college essay is a way for students to humanize themselves to admissions officers. You do not feel human if you are describing yourself as just another player on the field!

One important way to make your essay about you (not just about sports) is by focusing on a specific moment in time and inviting the reader to join you in that moment. Explain to the reader what it would be like to be sitting in that locker room as you questioned the values of the other players on your team. Ask your reader to sit with you on the cot in the trainer’s room as your identity was stripped away from you when they said “your body can’t take this anymore.” Bring your reader to the dinner table and involve them in your family’s conversation about how sports were affecting your mental health and your treatment of those around you.

Intense descriptions of a specific experience will evoke emotions in your reader and allow them to connect with you and feel for you.

When in doubt, avoid anything that can be covered by ESPN. On ESPN, we see the games, we see the benches, we even see the locker rooms and training rooms. Take your reader somewhere different and show them something unique.

2. Use sports to point out broader themes in your life.

The main risk when writing about sports is neglecting to write about yourself. Before you get started, think about the main values that you want to express in your sports essay. Sports are simply your avenue for telling the reader what makes you unique. 

As a test, imagine if you were a pianist. Would you be able to talk about these same values? What if you were a writer? Or a chemist? Articulating your values is the end, and sports should simply be your means.

Some values that you might want to focus on:

• Autonomy (you want to be able to set your mind to anything and achieve it on your own)
• Growth (you seek improvement constantly)
• Curiosity (you are willing to try anything once)
• Vulnerability (you aren’t afraid to fail, as long as you give it your all)
• Community (you value the feedback of others and need camaraderie to succeed)
• Craft (you think that with deliberate care, anything can be perfected)
• Responsibility (you believe that you owe something to those around you and perhaps they also owe something to you)

You can use the ESPN check again to make sure that you are using sports as an avenue to show your depth.

Things ESPN covers: how a player reacts to defeat, how injuries affect a player’s gameplay/attitude, how players who don’t normally work well together are working together on their new team.

Things ESPN doesn’t cover: the conversation that a player had with their mother about fear of death before going into a big surgery (value: family and connection), the ways that the intense pressure to succeed consumed a player to the point they couldn’t be there for the people in their life (value: supporting others and community), the body image issues that weigh on a player’s mind when playing their sport and how they overcame those (value: health and growth).

3. Turn a cliche storyline on its head.

There’s no getting around the fact that sports essays are often cliche. But there is a way to confront the cliche head-on. For example, lots of people write essays about the lessons they learned from an injury, victory, and so on, but fewer students explain how they are embracing those lessons. 

Perhaps you learned that competition is overwhelming for you and you prefer teamwork, so you switched from playing basketball to playing Dungeons & Dragons. Maybe, when your softball career ended abruptly, you had to find a new identity and that’s when you became obsessed with your flower garden and decided to pursue botany. Or maybe, you have stuck with football through it all, but your junior-year mental health struggle showed you that football should be fun and you have since started a nonprofit for local children to healthily engage with sports.

If your story itself is more cliche, try bringing readers to the present moment with you and show why the cliche matters and what it did for you. This requires a fair amount of creativity. Ensure you’re not parroting a frequently used topic by really thinking deeply to find your own unique spin.

Night had robbed the academy of its daytime colors, yet there was comfort in the dim lights that cast shadows of our advances against the bare studio walls. Silhouettes of roundhouse kicks, spin crescent kicks, uppercuts and the occasional butterfly kick danced while we sparred. She approached me, eyes narrowed with the trace of a smirk challenging me. “Ready spar!” Her arm began an upward trajectory targeting my shoulder, a common first move. I sidestepped — only to almost collide with another flying fist. Pivoting my right foot, I snapped my left leg, aiming my heel at her midsection. The center judge raised one finger. 

There was no time to celebrate, not in the traditional sense at least. Master Pollard gave a brief command greeted with a unanimous “Yes, sir” and the thud of 20 hands dropping-down-and-giving-him-30, while the “winners” celebrated their victory with laps as usual. 

Three years ago, seven-thirty in the evening meant I was a warrior. It meant standing up straighter, pushing a little harder, “Yes, sir” and “Yes, ma’am”, celebrating birthdays by breaking boards, never pointing your toes, and familiarity. Three years later, seven-thirty in the morning meant I was nervous. 

The room is uncomfortably large. The sprung floor soaks up the checkerboard of sunlight piercing through the colonial windows. The mirrored walls further illuminate the studio and I feel the light scrutinizing my sorry attempts at a pas de bourrée, while capturing the organic fluidity of the dancers around me. “Chassé en croix, grand battement, pique, pirouette.” I follow the graceful limbs of the woman in front of me, her legs floating ribbons, as she executes what seems to be a perfect ronds de jambes. Each movement remains a negotiation. With admirable patience, Ms. Tan casts me a sympathetic glance.   

There is no time to wallow in the misery that is my right foot. Taekwondo calls for dorsiflexion; pointed toes are synonymous with broken toes. My thoughts drag me into a flashback of the usual response to this painful mistake: “You might as well grab a tutu and head to the ballet studio next door.” Well, here I am Master Pollard, unfortunately still following your orders to never point my toes, but no longer feeling the satisfaction that comes with being a third degree black belt with 5 years of experience quite literally under her belt. It’s like being a white belt again — just in a leotard and ballet slippers. 

But the appetite for new beginnings that brought me here doesn’t falter. It is only reinforced by the classical rendition of “Dancing Queen” that floods the room and the ghost of familiarity that reassures me that this new beginning does not and will not erase the past. After years spent at the top, it’s hard to start over. But surrendering what you are only leads you to what you may become. In Taekwondo, we started each class reciting the tenets: honor, courtesy, integrity, perseverance, self-control, courage, humility, and knowledge, and I have never felt that I embodied those traits more so than when I started ballet. 

The thing about change is that it eventually stops making things so different. After nine different schools, four different countries, three different continents, fluency in Tamil, Norwegian, and English, there are more blurred lines than there are clear fragments. My life has not been a tactfully executed, gold medal-worthy Taekwondo form with each movement defined, nor has it been a series of frappés performed by a prima ballerina with each extension identical and precise, but thankfully it has been like the dynamics of a spinning back kick, fluid, and like my chances of landing a pirouette, unpredictable. 

Why it works:

What’s especially powerful about this essay is that the author uses detailed imagery to convey a picture of what they’re experiencing, so much so that the reader is along for the ride. This works as a sports essay not only because of the language and sensory details, but also because the writer focuses on a specific moment in time, while at the same time exploring why Taekwondo is such an important part of their life.

After the emotional image is created, the student finishes their essay with valuable reflection. With the reflection, they show admissions officers that they are mature and self-aware. Self-awareness comes through with statements like “surrendering what you are only leads you to what you may become” and maturity can be seen through the student’s discussion of values “honor, courtesy, integrity, perseverance, self-control, courage, humility, and knowledge, and I have never felt that I embodied those traits more so than when I started ballet.” These are the kinds of comments that should find their way into a sports essay!

“Advanced females ages 13 to 14 please proceed to staging with your coaches at this time.” Skittering around the room, eyes wide and pleading, I frantically explained my situation to nearby coaches. The seconds ticked away in my head; every polite refusal increased my desperation.

Despair weighed me down. I sank to my knees as a stream of competitors, coaches, and officials flowed around me. My dojang had no coach, and the tournament rules prohibited me from competing without one.

Although I wanted to remain strong, doubts began to cloud my mind. I could not help wondering: what was the point of perfecting my skills if I would never even compete? The other members of my team, who had found coaches minutes earlier, attempted to comfort me, but I barely heard their words. They couldn’t understand my despair at being left on the outside, and I never wanted them to understand.

Since my first lesson 12 years ago, the members of my dojang have become family. I have watched them grow up, finding my own happiness in theirs. Together, we have honed our kicks, blocks, and strikes. We have pushed one another to aim higher and become better martial artists. Although my dojang had searched for a reliable coach for years, we had not found one. When we attended competitions in the past, my teammates and I had always gotten lucky and found a sympathetic coach. Now, I knew this practice was unsustainable. It would devastate me to see the other members of my dojang in my situation, unable to compete and losing hope as a result. My dojang needed a coach, and I decided it was up to me to find one. 

I first approached the adults in the dojang – both instructors and members’ parents. However, these attempts only reacquainted me with polite refusals. Everyone I asked told me they couldn’t devote multiple weekends per year to competitions. I soon realized that I would have become the coach myself.

At first, the inner workings of tournaments were a mystery to me. To prepare myself for success as a coach, I spent the next year as an official and took coaching classes on the side. I learned everything from motivational strategies to technical, behind-the-scenes components of Taekwondo competitions. Though I emerged with new knowledge and confidence in my capabilities, others did not share this faith.

Parents threw me disbelieving looks when they learned that their children’s coach was only a child herself. My self-confidence was my armor, deflecting their surly glances. Every armor is penetrable, however, and as the relentless barrage of doubts pounded my resilience, it began to wear down. I grew unsure of my own abilities.

Despite the attack, I refused to give up. When I saw the shining eyes of the youngest students preparing for their first competition, I knew I couldn’t let them down. To quit would be to set them up to be barred from competing like I was. The knowledge that I could solve my dojang’s longtime problem motivated me to overcome my apprehension.

Now that my dojang flourishes at competitions, the attacks on me have weakened, but not ended. I may never win the approval of every parent; at times, I am still tormented by doubts, but I find solace in the fact that members of my dojang now only worry about competing to the best of their abilities.

Now, as I arrive at a tournament with my students, I close my eyes and remember the past. I visualize the frantic search for a coach and the chaos amongst my teammates as we compete with one another to find coaches before the staging calls for our respective divisions. I open my eyes to the exact opposite scene. Lacking a coach hurt my ability to compete, but I am proud to know that no member of my dojang will have to face that problem again.

In the beginning, you might think this is another cliche sports essay about overcoming adversity. But instead, it becomes a unique statement and coming-of-age tale that reads as a suspenseful narrative. 

The author connects their experience with martial arts to larger themes in their life but manages to do so without riffing off of tried-and-true themes. Through statements like “I knew I couldn’t let them down. To quit would be to set them up to be barred from competing like I was” we learn about the students values and their desire to be there for those who depend on them. 

The student also brings it full circle, demonstrating their true transformation. By using the “Same, but Different” ending technique , the student places themself in the same environment that we saw in the intro, but experiences it differently due to their actions throughout the narrative. This is very compelling!

“1…2…3…4 pirouettes! New record!” My friends cheered as I landed my turns. Pleased with my progress, I gazed down at my worn-out pointe shoes. The sweltering blisters, numbing ice-baths, and draining late-night practices did not seem so bad after all. Next goal: five turns.

For as long as I can remember, ballet, in all its finesse and glamor, had kept me driven day to day. As a child, the lithe ballerinas, donning ethereal costumes as they floated across the stage, were my motivation. While others admired Messi and Adele, I idolized Carlos Acosta, principal dancer of the Royal Ballet. 

As I devoted more time and energy towards my craft, I became obsessed with improving my technique. I would stretch for hours after class, forcing my leg one inch higher in an effort to mirror the Dance Magazine cover girls. I injured my feet and ruined pair after pair of pointe shoes, turning on wood, cement, and even grass to improve my balance as I spun. At competitions, the dancers with the 180-degree leg extensions, endless turns, and soaring leaps—the ones who received “Bravos!” from the roaring audience—further pushed me to refine my skills and perfect my form. I believed that, with enough determination, I would one day attain their level of perfection. Reaching the quadruple-pirouette milestone only intensified my desire to accomplish even more. 

My efforts seemed to have come to fruition two summers ago when I was accepted to dance with Moscow’s Bolshoi Ballet at their renowned New York City summer intensive. I walked into my first session eager to learn from distinguished ballet masters and worldly dancers, already anticipating my improvement. Yet, as I danced alongside the accomplished ballerinas, I felt out of place. Despite their clean technique and professional training, they did not aim for glorious leg extensions or prodigious leaps. When they performed their turn combinations, most of them only executed two turns as I attempted four. 

“Dancers, double-pirouettes only.” 

Taken aback and confused, I wondered why our teacher expected so little from us. The other ballerinas seemed content, gracing the studio with their simple movements. 

As I grew closer with my Moscow roommates, I gradually learned that their training emphasized the history of the art form instead of stylistic tricks. Rather than show off their physical ability, their performances aimed to convey a story, one that embodied the rich culture of ballet and captured both the legacy of the dancers before them and their own artistry. As I observed my friends more intently in repertoire class, I felt the pain of the grief-stricken white swan from Swan Lake, the sass of the flirtatious Kitri from Don Quijote, and I gradually saw what I had overlooked before. My definition of talent had been molded by crowd-pleasing elements—whirring pirouettes, gravity-defying leaps, and mind-blowing leg extensions. This mindset slowly stripped me from the roots of my passion and my personal connection with ballet. 

With the Bolshoi, I learned to step back and explore the meaning behind each step and the people behind the scenes. Ballet carries history in its movements, from the societal values of the era to each choreographer’s unique flair. As I uncovered the messages behind each pirouette, kick, and jump, my appreciation for ballet grew beyond my obsession with raw athleticism and developed into a love for the art form’s emotive abilities in bridging the dancers with the audience. My journey as an artist has allowed me to see how technical execution is only the means to a greater understanding between dancer and spectator, between storyteller and listener. The elegance and complexity of ballet does not revolve around astonishing stunts but rather the evocative strength and artistry manifested in the dancer, in me. It is the combination of sentiments, history, tradition, and passion that has allowed ballet and its lessons of human connection to become my lifestyle both on and off stage.

This essay is about lessons. While the author is a dancer, this narrative isn’t really about ballet, per se — it’s about the author’s personal growth. It is purposefully reflective as the student shows a nice character arc that begins with an eager young ballerina and ends with a reflection on their past. The primary strength of this essay is the honesty and authenticity that the student approaches it with.

In the end, the student turns a cliche on its head as they embrace the idea of overcoming adversity and demonstrate how the adversity, in this case, was their own stereotypes about their art. It’s beautiful!

“Getting beat is one thing – it’s part of competing – but I want no part in losing.” Coach Rob Stark’s motto never fails to remind me of his encouragement on early-morning bus rides to track meets around the state. I’ve always appreciated the phrase, but an experience last June helped me understand its more profound, universal meaning.

Stark, as we affectionately call him, has coached track at my high school for 25 years. His care, dedication, and emphasis on developing good character has left an enduring impact on me and hundreds of other students. Not only did he help me discover my talent and love for running, but he also taught me the importance of commitment and discipline and to approach every endeavor with the passion and intensity that I bring to running. When I learned a neighboring high school had dedicated their track to a longtime coach, I felt that Stark deserved similar honors.

Our school district’s board of education indicated they would only dedicate our track to Stark if I could demonstrate that he was extraordinary. I took charge and mobilized my teammates to distribute petitions, reach out to alumni, and compile statistics on the many team and individual champions Stark had coached over the years. We received astounding support, collecting almost 3,000 signatures and pages of endorsements from across the community. With help from my teammates, I presented this evidence to the board.

They didn’t bite. 

Most members argued that dedicating the track was a low priority. Knowing that we had to act quickly to convince them of its importance, I called a team meeting where we drafted a rebuttal for the next board meeting. To my surprise, they chose me to deliver it. I was far from the best public speaker in the group, and I felt nervous about going before the unsympathetic board again. However, at that second meeting, I discovered that I enjoy articulating and arguing for something that I’m passionate about.

Public speaking resembles a cross country race. Walking to the starting line, you have to trust your training and quell your last minute doubts. When the gun fires, you can’t think too hard about anything; your performance has to be instinctual, natural, even relaxed. At the next board meeting, the podium was my starting line. As I walked up to it, familiar butterflies fluttered in my stomach. Instead of the track stretching out in front of me, I faced the vast audience of teachers, board members, and my teammates. I felt my adrenaline build, and reassured myself: I’ve put in the work, my argument is powerful and sound. As the board president told me to introduce myself, I heard, “runners set” in the back of my mind. She finished speaking, and Bang! The brief silence was the gunshot for me to begin. 

The next few minutes blurred together, but when the dust settled, I knew from the board members’ expressions and the audience’s thunderous approval that I had run quite a race. Unfortunately, it wasn’t enough; the board voted down our proposal. I was disappointed, but proud of myself, my team, and our collaboration off the track. We stood up for a cause we believed in, and I overcame my worries about being a leader. Although I discovered that changing the status quo through an elected body can be a painstakingly difficult process and requires perseverance, I learned that I enjoy the challenges this effort offers. Last month, one of the school board members joked that I had become a “regular” – I now often show up to meetings to advocate for a variety of causes, including better environmental practices in cafeterias and safer equipment for athletes.

Just as Stark taught me, I worked passionately to achieve my goal. I may have been beaten when I appealed to the board, but I certainly didn’t lose, and that would have made Stark proud.

This essay uses the idea of sports to explore a more profound topic—growing through relationships. They really embrace using sports as an avenue to tell the reader about a specific experience that changed the way they approach the world. 

The emphasis on relationships is why this essay works well and doesn’t fall into a cliche. The narrator grows not because of their experience with track but because of their relationship with their coach, who inspired them to evolve and become a leader.

Have a draft of your college essay? We’re here to help you polish it. Students can participate in a free Peer Review, or they can sign up for a paid review by CollegeVine’s experts. Sign up for your free CollegeVine account today to start improving your essay and your chances of acceptance!

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How sport can have a positive impact on mental and physical health

It’s not always easy to start a workout, but research shows that sport and exercise are beneficial not only for your physical health, but your mental well-being, too. Let us help!

Health experts and Olympic athletes agree: Your mental and physical health benefit when you get active and participate in sport – whatever that means for you.

From daily exercise to choosing a sport to practice or play, the body and mind are worked in new and different ways each time you move your body.

On June 23rd every year we come together to celebrate that, as part of Olympic Day.

For the 2020 edition, we connected with Olympians around the world for Olympic Day 2020 at-home workouts – and a reminder: We’re stronger together, especially when we stay active!

And those are still available online to help inspire you today.

Sport benefits: Both the physical and mental

While the physical benefits are numerous (more on that below), the UK's National Health Service (NHS) report that people who take part in regular physical activity have up to a 30 percent lower risk of depression.

Additionally, exercise can help lower anxiety, reduce the risk of illness and increase energy levels. Want better sleep? Work up a good sweat!

Exercise can help you fall asleep faster and sleep for longer, research says.

It was in June 2020 that the IOC partnered with the World Health Organization and United Nations to promote the #HEALTHYTogether campaign , which highlights the benefits of physical activity in the face of the pandemic.

Over 50 at-home workouts are searchable across Olympics.com for you, each which help further the idea that moving and challenging the body can only prove beneficial for your physical and mental well-being.

The athletes' perspective: 'I used this strength to survive'

“If I had sat doing nothing, I would have gone crazy,” says Syria's Sanda Aldass , who fled the trauma of civil war in her country, leaving behind her husband and infant child.

Instead, she had judo - and has been selected for the IOC Refugee Olympic Team Tokyo 2020 for the Games in 2021.

“Running around and doing some exercises filled up my time and also kept me in good mental health,” Sanda said of the impact of sport on her life during nine months spent in a refugee camp in the Netherlands in 2015.

The same power of sport goes for Iranian taekwondo athlete Ali Noghandoost.

"When I had to leave my family and my home in Iran, the first things I packed in my bag were my belt, my dobok, my shoes and my mitt for taekwondo," Noghandoost said . "I took some documents that said I was a champion in Iran and in a national team, so I could prove I was a fighter and continue to train in any city I went to."

"Taekwondo did not only help me physically; mentally, it stopped me from thinking about giving up and that we wouldn’t make it. I used this strength to survive," he added.

Noghandoost has worked as a coach for refugees in Croatia, where he has tried to pass the power of sport on to the next generation.

"When you’re living in a refugee camp, it’s a really hard situation, but when you play sport, you can release any negative energy and feel free. It’s a space – a paradise – for them to be themselves."

A member of the IOC Refugee Olympic Team Rio 2016, Yiech Pur Biel says that the team provided a message of hope for those watching around the world.

"We were ambassadors for a message of hope, that anything is possible," Biel said . "A good thing had come out of our situations. The world understood. I am called a refugee, but you never know when someone else might become a refugee, through war or persecution. We wanted to show that we responded positively. So that made me very happy. Through sport, we can unite and make the world better."

Sport as a tool for much - including mental health

Sport is a powerful tool no matter from what angle you look at it, including mental health. The Olympic Refugee Foundation (ORF) has recently launched two different programs that are aimed at helping young refugees dream of a brighter future - through sport.

One of those programs, Game Connect, is a three-year initiative that was launched in August 2020 and aims to "improve the mental health and psychosocial wellbeing of young refugees by improving their access to safe sport," as explained on Olympics.com last year.

We are "embarking on a three-year project to improve the psychosocial wellbeing and mental health of young refugees, working together with well-trained community-based coaches to deliver a Sport for Protection program and activities," explained Karen Mukiibi of Youth Sport Uganda, which has partnered with the ORF.

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Essays About Sports: Top 5 Examples and 9 Prompts

Almost nothing compares to the thrill of sports; discover our guide with helpful tips for writing essays about sports through essay examples and prompts. 

Most people would agree on the importance of sports for a well-balanced life. Sports provides us with a multitude of benefits, both physically and mentally. But more than this, sports provide people with fun, even in the darkest times. The thrills of sports games and competitions are almost unmatched in the joy it brings others. 

It is important to keep in mind several risks of playing sports. First, the competitive mindset may consume you, as some of the best books about rugby show, and you are susceptible to various injuries, depending on the sport. However, a healthy love of sports often does not involve these risks.

5 Examples of Essays About Sports

1. importance and benefits of sports by melih sozdinler, 2. the importance of sports in empowering women by jo ousterhout, 3. the fastest growing sport in the world by sean monaghan.

• 4.  Extreme Sports by Archie Simmons
• 5. ​​The Mental Health Awakening Has Reached the Sports World  — Now What? by Maggie Ryan

1. My Favorite Sport

2. physical benefits of sports, 3. psychological and mental benefits of sports, 4. opinions on sports, 5. comparing and contrasting sports, 6. an unconventional sport, 7. an extreme sport, 8. values needed for sports, 9. sports in the modern world.

“We can conclude that there are several advantages and benefits of sports. First, sports are required by people to be fit, smart, and good looking. Second, sports are entertaining due to many facts. Third, sports are the huge market for countries’ economies. In my opinion, despite sports’ advantages, many people can’t believe that sports are useful and beneficial. I hope that in the future these people will tend to be more optimistically to sports since they are the necessity of our lives.”

Sozdinler writes about why people should play sports, elaborating on several benefits of sports. First, sports help improve coordination, cognition, circulation, and physique. Second, they provide us with entertainment and relief from the stresses of life. Finally, sports competitions are economically beneficial, allowing countries to expose their people and goods to foreigners. 

“Women who participate in sports are more likely to do better in school, attend college and make higher wages. In a survey of 401 female executives, 82 percent reported playing organized sports while growing up. Hillary understands the role sports can play in empowering women. As she has said, “Sports can make you stronger, tougher, more confident, more resilient, and those qualities can stay with you long after you finish the race or the final buzzer sounds.”

In this essay, Ousterhout discusses a speech by Hillary Clinton in which she stressed the importance of empowering women through sports. Clinton recognizes women’s talent in all fields, sports included, and Ousterhout, citing research, discusses how sports can help women succeed academically and otherwise. Finally, she uses this as a basis to support Clinton’s 2016 campaign for the presidency of the United States. 

“From a game played by the Navajo tribe, to a game broadcasted to millions of people each weekend. Having a sport that is fast paced and filled with incredible skill, lacrosse is bound to see even more growth in the future. The PLL, college lacrosse, and social media have all impacted lacrosse and all sports forever, proving that lacrosse is the fastest growing sport in the world.”

Monaghan writes about lacrosse and how it is becoming more popular. He briefly describes its history, dating back to the Navajo tribe. It started being played as an organized sport in the 1900s and has only grown in popularity. Monaghan believes that Lacrosse is the fastest-growing sport in the world, and its popularity is much-deserved. Check out these essays about badminton.

4.   Extreme Sports by Archie Simmons

“Various news stories, movies, and other sources in the media help spread the impression of the risks and dangers of the sports. Although the public hears mostly about all the negative effects of extreme sports, there are a variety of ways to decrease one’s risk of injuries through proper precautions and practice. In saying that, there are also many benefits to extreme sports as seen in Bode Miller’s memoir, as well as interviews with other extreme sport athletes.”

Simmons gives a brief introduction to the world of extreme sports in his essay. Extreme sports require specialized gear and much preparation and has an increased risk of injury. Simmons writes that athletes continue to participate in extreme sports because they know the risks and prepare to avoid them. He cites a memoir by Bode Miller, explaining his methods and training to ski quickly and carefully. 

5. ​​ The Mental Health Awakening Has Reached the Sports World  — Now What? by Maggie Ryan

“Sports can provide community, boost physical and mental health, foster self-confidence, and serve as an escape. Sports can also be the opposite of all those things: isolating, physically and mentally debilitating, or something that athletes can come to dread. The dividing line between the two, Post says, lies in the tools and preventative care that athletes have at their disposal.”

Ryan writes about the effects of competitive sports on athletes’ mental health. Sometimes athletes are pressured into making sports the center of their lives, affecting their mental health and social life to their detriment. Ryan cites several athletes who have been open about their struggles, including Simone Biles and Jasmine Blocker. The industry must work on this issue and break the stigma around mental health. 

9 Prompts for Essays About Sports

All sports enthusiasts follow one particular sport. Whether you play it or not, choose your favorite sport and briefly describe how it is played. Also, explain why it is your favorite; this should be based entirely on your opinion. 

Participating in a sport can make you stronger and healthier. In your essay, write about a few of the many physical benefits playing sports can have. This can include, muscle strengthening, cardio workout, increased stamina, and good mental health. Give examples of specific sports and the body parts they can help you strengthen, such as football increasing leg strength and increasing stamina.

Playing sports can also clear your mind and make you healthier mentally. Discuss how sports can improve your cognition and mental health, such as certain skills, values, and emotions they can promote. Ensure your argument is well-supported and provide research and statistics for a convincing essay.

In your essay, write about your stance on playing sports, specifically whether you like playing them or not. Discuss the pros and cons of playing sports, and include anecdotes of the different kinds of sports you have tried out. Conclude your essay by deciding whether you are a fan of playing sports or not.

This essay topic is simple and straightforward. Choose any two sports and give a short description of each. Organize your essay according to their similarities and differences in gameplay, physical activity required, and training. Be sure to choose sports that are not too different, and make sure they have some similarities. For example, you could compare and contrast American football with Rugby, discuss the similarities and differences for an exciting piece of writing.

Some sports are deemed “unconventional” due to a lack of physical activity or belittlement for their more art-centric practices. These include chess, thumb wrestling, and dance. Choose a more niche sport and write about its mechanics and popularity in the world today. 

Many sports force athletes to risk their lives, such as bungee jumping and paragliding. In your essay, you can write about one of these “extreme sports” and what they entail. Focus on your chosen sport’s health risks and dangers and perhaps explain why people still participate despite the risk. 

To excel in sports, one needs to have values such as commitment, courage, and teamwork. Discuss one or more of these skills and values, giving their definition and usage in sports. Be as detailed as possible for an engaging, well-supported essay.

Like everything else in the 21st century, the sports landscape is changing drastically due to the rise of esports and other developments. Research on the state of sports and sports competitions in the modern world. To you, is this a good thing? Briefly explain your stance in the essay as well. 

For help with this topic, read our guide explaining what is persuasive writing .

If you still need help, our guide to grammar and punctuation explains more.

Martin is an avid writer specializing in editing and proofreading. He also enjoys literary analysis and writing about food and travel.

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Physical Activity Is Good for the Mind and the Body

Health and Well-Being Matter is the monthly blog of the Director of the Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

Everyone has their own way to “recharge” their sense of well-being — something that makes them feel good physically, emotionally, and spiritually even if they aren’t consciously aware of it. Personally, I know that few things can improve my day as quickly as a walk around the block or even just getting up from my desk and doing some push-ups. A hike through the woods is ideal when I can make it happen. But that’s me. It’s not simply that I enjoy these activities but also that they literally make me feel better and clear my mind.

Mental health and physical health are closely connected. No kidding — what’s good for the body is often good for the mind. Knowing what you can do physically that has this effect for you will change your day and your life.

Physical activity has many well-established mental health benefits. These are published in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans and include improved brain health and cognitive function (the ability to think, if you will), a reduced risk of anxiety and depression, and improved sleep and overall quality of life. Although not a cure-all, increasing physical activity directly contributes to improved mental health and better overall health and well-being.

Learning how to routinely manage stress and getting screened for depression are simply good prevention practices. Awareness is especially critical at this time of year when disruptions to healthy habits and choices can be more likely and more jarring. Shorter days and colder temperatures have a way of interrupting routines — as do the holidays, with both their joys and their stresses. When the plentiful sunshine and clear skies of temperate months give way to unpredictable weather, less daylight, and festive gatherings, it may happen unconsciously or seem natural to be distracted from being as physically active. However, that tendency is precisely why it’s so important that we are ever more mindful of our physical and emotional health — and how we can maintain both — during this time of year.

Roughly half of all people in the United States will be diagnosed with a mental health disorder at some point in their lifetime, with anxiety and anxiety disorders being the most common. Major depression, another of the most common mental health disorders, is also a leading cause of disability for middle-aged adults. Compounding all of this, mental health disorders like depression and anxiety can affect people’s ability to take part in health-promoting behaviors, including physical activity. In addition, physical health problems can contribute to mental health problems and make it harder for people to get treatment for mental health disorders.

The COVID-19 pandemic has brought the need to take care of our physical and emotional health to light even more so these past 2 years. Recently, the U.S. Surgeon General highlighted how the pandemic has exacerbated the mental health crisis in youth .

The good news is that even small amounts of physical activity can immediately reduce symptoms of anxiety in adults and older adults. Depression has also shown to be responsive to physical activity. Research suggests that increased physical activity, of any kind, can improve depression symptoms experienced by people across the lifespan. Engaging in regular physical activity has also been shown to reduce the risk of developing depression in children and adults.

Though the seasons and our life circumstances may change, our basic needs do not. Just as we shift from shorts to coats or fresh summer fruits and vegetables to heartier fall food choices, so too must we shift our seasonal approach to how we stay physically active. Some of that is simply adapting to conditions: bundling up for a walk, wearing the appropriate shoes, or playing in the snow with the kids instead of playing soccer in the grass.

Sometimes there’s a bit more creativity involved. Often this means finding ways to simplify activity or make it more accessible. For example, it may not be possible to get to the gym or even take a walk due to weather or any number of reasons. In those instances, other options include adding new types of movement — such as impromptu dance parties at home — or doing a few household chores (yes, it all counts as physical activity).

During the COVID-19 pandemic, I built a makeshift gym in my garage as an alternative to driving back and forth to the gym several miles from home. That has not only saved me time and money but also afforded me the opportunity to get 15 to 45 minutes of muscle-strengthening physical activity in at odd times of the day.

For more ideas on how to get active — on any day — or for help finding the motivation to get started, check out this Move Your Way® video .

The point to remember is that no matter the approach, the Physical Activity Guidelines recommend that adults get at least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity (anything that gets your heart beating faster) each week and at least 2 days per week of muscle-strengthening activity (anything that makes your muscles work harder than usual). Youth need 60 minutes or more of physical activity each day. Preschool-aged children ages 3 to 5 years need to be active throughout the day — with adult caregivers encouraging active play — to enhance growth and development. Striving toward these goals and then continuing to get physical activity, in some shape or form, contributes to better health outcomes both immediately and over the long term.

For youth, sports offer additional avenues to more physical activity and improved mental health. Youth who participate in sports may enjoy psychosocial health benefits beyond the benefits they gain from other forms of leisure-time physical activity. Psychological health benefits include higher levels of perceived competence, confidence, and self-esteem — not to mention the benefits of team building, leadership, and resilience, which are important skills to apply on the field and throughout life. Research has also shown that youth sports participants have a reduced risk of suicide and suicidal thoughts and tendencies. Additionally, team sports participation during adolescence may lead to better mental health outcomes in adulthood (e.g., less anxiety and depression) for people exposed to adverse childhood experiences. In addition to the physical and mental health benefits, sports can be just plain fun.

Physical activity’s implications for significant positive effects on mental health and social well-being are enormous, impacting every facet of life. In fact, because of this national imperative, the presidential executive order that re-established the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition explicitly seeks to “expand national awareness of the importance of mental health as it pertains to physical fitness and nutrition.” While physical activity is not a substitute for mental health treatment when needed and it’s not the answer to certain mental health challenges, it does play a significant role in our emotional and cognitive well-being.

No matter how we choose to be active during the holiday season — or any season — every effort to move counts toward achieving recommended physical activity goals and will have positive impacts on both the mind and the body. Along with preventing diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and the additional risks associated with these comorbidities, physical activity’s positive effect on mental health is yet another important reason to be active and Move Your Way .

As for me… I think it’s time for a walk. Happy and healthy holidays, everyone!

Yours in health, Paul

Paul Reed, MD Rear Admiral, U.S. Public Health Service Deputy Assistant Secretary for Health Director, Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion

The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.

Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by ODPHP or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.

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• Systematic Review
• Open access
• Published: 24 April 2024

Health Benefits of Different Sports: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal and Intervention Studies Including 2.6 Million Adult Participants

• Pekka Oja 1 ,
• Aamir Raoof Memon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3203-418X 2 ,
• Sylvia Titze   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6125-7182 3 ,
• Danijel Jurakic   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4861-4066 4 ,
• Si-Tong Chen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8975-7565 2 ,
• Nipun Shrestha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3542-8130 5 ,
• Sowannry Em 3 ,
• Tena Matolic 4 ,
• Tommi Vasankari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7209-9351 1 , 6 ,
• Ari Heinonen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3681-9953 7 ,
• Jozo Grgic   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6929-2844 2 ,
• Pasi Koski   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5352-3698 8 ,
• Sami Kokko   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9436-5681 7 ,
• Paul Kelly 9 ,
• Charlie Foster   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5041-0601 10 ,
• Hrvoje Podnar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1719-6970 4 &
• Zeljko Pedisic   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2886-3556 2  

Sports Medicine - Open volume  10 , Article number:  46 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Several reviews have examined the health benefits of participation in specific sports, such as baseball, cricket, cross-country skiing, cycling, downhill skiing, football, golf, judo, rugby, running and swimming. However, new primary studies on the topic have recently been published, and the respective meta-analytic evidence needs to be updated.

To systematically review, summarise and appraise evidence on physical health benefits of participation in different recreational sports.

Searches for journal articles were conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, SpoLit, SPORTDiscus, Sports Medicine & Education Index and Web of Science. We included longitudinal and intervention studies investigating physical health outcomes associated with participation in a given sport among generally healthy adults without disability.

A total of 136 papers from 76 studies conducted among 2.6 million participants were included in the review. Our meta-analyses of available evidence found that: (1) cycling reduces the risk of coronary heart disease by 16% (pooled hazard ratio [HR] = 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.80, 0.89), all-cause mortality by 21% (HR = 0.79; 95% CI: 0.73, 0.84), cancer mortality by 10% (HR = 0.90; 95% CI: 0.85, 0.96) and cardiovascular mortality by 20% (HR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.74, 0.86); (2) football has favourable effects on body composition, blood lipids, fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, cardiovascular function at rest, cardiorespiratory fitness and bone strength ( p  < 0.050); (3) handball has favourable effects on body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness ( p  < 0.050); (4) running reduces the risk of all-cause mortality by 23% (HR = 0.77; 95% CI: 0.70, 0.85), cancer mortality by 20% (HR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.72, 0.89) and cardiovascular mortality by 27% (HR = 0.73; 95% CI: 0.57, 0.94) and improves body composition, cardiovascular function at rest and cardiorespiratory fitness ( p  < 0.010); and (5) swimming reduces the risk of all-cause mortality by 24% (HR = 0.76; 95% CI: 0.63, 0.92) and improves body composition and blood lipids ( p  < 0.010).

Conclusions

A range of physical health benefits are associated with participation in recreational cycling, football, handball, running and swimming. More studies are needed to enable meta-analyses of health benefits of participation in other sports.

PROSPERO registration number CRD42021234839.

We found a reduced risk of all-cause mortality associated with cycling (–21%), running (–23%) and swimming (–24%).

Running also improves body composition, cardiovascular function at rest and cardiorespiratory fitness, while swimming also improves body composition and blood lipids.

Football improves body composition, blood lipids, fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, cardiovascular function at rest, cardiorespiratory fitness and bone strength, while handball improves body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness.

Introduction

According to the latest Eurobarometer survey, 55% of European Union citizens participate in sports, usually with the aim to improve health and/or fitness [ 1 ]. A large majority of them do not do it regularly [ 1 ]. Studies have shown that, by participating in sports, adults can reap a range of health benefits, such as reduced risk of premature mortality, type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease and improved lipid profile, body composition, muscle strength and functional capacity [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. Therefore, recreational sports participation has a large potential to improve the health of the population.

Specific types of sport (e.g. endurance sports and strength sports) may have distinct health benefits owing to their differences in biomechanical characteristics and physiological demands [ 6 , 7 ]. For example, while endurance sports are more likely to improve cardiovascular function and aerobic fitness, strength sports are generally more likely to improve muscle function and bone health [ 8 , 9 ]. There may also be differences in health benefits between specific sports disciplines (e.g. tennis and basketball) because each sport entails a unique set of movements that are performed in specific physical, psychological, social and environmental contexts. Therefore, from a public health perspective, it is important to determine health outcomes associated with participation in specific sports. Experts argue that creating ‘health profiles’ of different sports would also facilitate the implementation of health-enhancing programmes in sports clubs [ 8 , 9 ]. Such evidence may also motivate individuals to increase their participation in sports [ 1 ].

Previously, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of health benefits associated with different sports [ 6 ]. The review included 47 cross-sectional, 9 longitudinal and 13 intervention studies covering 26 sports and various health outcomes. However, sufficient data were available only for meta-analyses of the associations of football participation with maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2max ), resting heart rate and fat mass, while evidence for other sports and health outcomes needed to be summarised narratively. The meta-analyses found that football is associated with increased VO 2max and resting heart rate, while its association with fat mass was not found to be significant. More recently, several reviews examined health benefits of sports participation. They have covered a range of sports, such as baseball [ 10 ], cricket [ 11 ], cross-country skiing [ 12 ], cycling [ 13 ], downhill skiing [ 5 ], football [ 14 , 15 ], golf [ 3 ], judo [ 16 ], rugby [ 17 ], running [ 18 ] and swimming [ 19 ], generally suggesting favourable health outcomes associated with recreational sports participation. For example, a narrative review suggested that playing football is associated with improved cardiovascular, metabolic and musculoskeletal fitness [ 14 ], while a systematic review showed that running is associated with 27% lower risk of all-cause mortality [ 18 ].

However, large differences in the methods (e.g. study design, inclusion criteria and data synthesis) used in these reviews make the comparison of their findings challenging. Also, given that most of them were focused on a single sport and that some of them examined only specific outcomes, they could not assess the totality of evidence on health benefits of sports and comprehensively identify research gaps in this area. Importantly, literature searches in most of these reviews were completed several years ago and new primary studies on the health benefits of these sports have since been published. Therefore, the aim of this paper was to systematically review, summarise and appraise the evidence on physical health benefits of participation in different recreational sports.

Search Strategy

The protocol for this systematic review was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database (registration number: CRD42021234839). The review was written according to the updated Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) checklist [ 20 ].

The search for relevant studies was performed in the following databases: PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, SpoLit, SPORTDiscus, Sports Medicine & Education Index and Web of Science. The keyword ‘sport’ was combined with the keywords for ‘health’ and ‘fitness’ and with a range of keywords describing the study design (Additional file 1 ). The initial search was performed on 31 May 2020 and covered peer-reviewed articles published after 2012. The search was updated on 30 May 2022. For studies published before 2013, we referred to our earlier systematic review [ 6 ]. Two authors independently conducted the study selection from the references obtained in the initial (PO and SE) and updated (ARM and STC) searches. We also performed secondary searches by screening the reference lists of all included papers, lists of papers that cited the included papers, relevant review papers on the associations between sport and health and the authors’ personal database. Two authors independently conducted the initial secondary searches (NS and TM) and updated secondary searches (ARM and STC). Any potential disagreements in study selection were resolved by a third author (DJ).

Inclusion Criteria

Studies were considered for inclusion against the following criteria: (i) the study participants were generally healthy adults without disability (18 + years old); (ii) the study design was either longitudinal (cohort and case–control studies) or interventional (randomised controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies); (iii) the study included a group or groups of people participating in a specific sport (or in multiple sports of which each was represented by a separate group of participants in the analysis) and a comparison group of people who did not participate in the given sport; (iv) the study outcomes were related to physical health; and (v) the study was published in English, German or Finnish. We excluded studies in which the participants were top-level/elite/professional athletes and individuals with disability, frailty or chronic illness. We also excluded studies in which the participation in another sport was the only comparison group, and studies in which the outcome variables were injuries or other acute health problems.

Data Extraction

The following data were extracted from the included intervention studies: (1) the type of study design; (2) the number, sex and age of the participants in each comparison group; (3) the type, length, intensity and frequency of all interventions; and (4) the mean and standard deviation of each outcome variable before and after the intervention in the intervention and control groups. The data extraction was performed by one author (PO) and checked for accuracy by another author (ST).

The following data were extracted from the included longitudinal studies: (1) the type of study design; (2) the number, sex and age of the participants; (3) the duration of the follow-up; (4) the type of sports discipline(s) included in the analyses and the definition of the comparison group; (5) the name and measurement units of each outcome variable; (6) the data analysis method(s) and adjustments for confounding; and (7) the effect size (and its statistical significance and/or confidence interval [CI]) of the association between the participation in a specific sport and the outcome variable. The data extraction was performed by one author (ARM) and checked for accuracy by another author (ZP).

Risk of Bias and Certainty of Evidence

The quality of intervention studies was assessed using the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool [ 21 ]. The tool assesses six components of a study: (1) selection bias, (2) study design, (3) confounders, (4) blinding, (5) data collection methods and (6) withdrawals and drop-outs. Two authors (PO and AH) performed this evaluation. Any disagreements were resolved by a third author (SK).

The risk of bias in longitudinal studies was assessed using the Newcastle–Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale (NOS) for cohort studies [ 22 ]. This scale rates the risk of bias across three domains: (1) selection, (2) comparability and (3) outcome. The evaluation was performed by one author (ARM).

The certainty of evidence was assessed according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria [ 23 ]. The evaluation was performed by two authors (NS and ZP) and checked by one author (HP). Given the large number of exposure and outcome variables covered in the meta-analyses, the assessment of certainty of evidence was performed only for cycling, running and swimming participation in relation to all-cause mortality, as a key health indicator.

Statistical Analysis

Random-effects meta-analyses with restricted maximum likelihood estimation were conducted to summarise the effects of participating in a specific sport (compared with no exercise) on a health outcome reported in intervention studies. The effect sizes were presented as the mean difference between the intervention and control group in changes from baseline to follow-up. For studies that did not report Pearson’s correlation between baseline and follow-up scores in the outcome variable, we used a weighted pooled correlation calculated from other studies on the given outcome. In the meta-analyses for which less than two correlation coefficients were reported across studies (i.e. in the analyses with mean arterial pressure, maximal heart rate, VO 2max in L/min and peak ventilation as outcome variables), we replaced the missing correlations with 0.50. We did the same in sensitivity meta-analyses for all the remaining outcomes.

To summarise the adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) from longitudinal studies, we conducted random-effects meta-analyses with restricted maximum likelihood estimation. For longitudinal studies that conducted dose–response analyses (e.g. HRs for specific durations of activity) and did not report HRs for comparisons of ‘any’ versus ‘no’ participation in a given sport, in the meta-analysis we included the HR for the lowest dose of activity. We also conducted sensitivity meta-analyses in which we included HRs for the highest dose of activity.

We used the I 2 , τ 2 , Cochran’s Q test and prediction intervals to assess the heterogeneity of effect sizes. Low, moderate, substantial and high degree of heterogeneity was indicated by I 2 values of 0–40%, 30–60%, 50–90% and 75–100%, respectively [ 24 ]. For the meta-analyses that included 10 or more effect sizes, we assessed the publication bias using the contour-enhanced funnel plot and the Egger’s asymmetry test [ 25 ]. We also calculated the pooled mean differences using the ‘trim and fill’ method and fail-safe N using the ‘general method’ [ 26 ].

The meta-analyses were conducted in R (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria), using the ‘metafor’ package [ 26 ].

Search Results

The database search yielded 27,429 papers and an additional 32,250 papers were identified through secondary searches. Following removal of duplicates, and title and abstract screening, 199 papers were left for full-text screening. A total of 80 papers [ 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 , 103 , 104 , 105 , 106 ] from 46 intervention studies and 56 papers [ 7 , 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 , 115 , 116 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 , 135 , 136 , 137 , 138 , 139 , 140 , 141 , 142 , 143 , 144 , 145 , 146 , 147 , 148 , 149 , 150 , 151 , 152 , 153 , 154 , 155 , 156 , 157 , 158 , 159 , 160 , 161 ] from 30 longitudinal studies were included in the analysis (Fig.  1 ).

Flowchart of the search and study selection process

Study Characteristics

The intervention studies included ~ 2400 participants and covered the following 19 different sport disciplines: football/soccer (hereafter referred to as ‘football’), running, swimming, alpine skiing, handball, cycling, climbing, volleyball, karate, rugby, basketball, floorball, badminton, tennis, table tennis, judo, golf, equestrian sports and taekwondo. In total, 29 papers from intervention studies included men only, 27 included women only and 24 included both men and women. The health outcomes covered in the intervention studies were: (1) cardiovascular function at rest; (2) cardiorespiratory fitness; (3) body composition; (4) metabolic fitness; (5) muscular fitness; (6) bone strength; and (7) physical performance. A descriptive summary of the intervention studies is presented in Additional file 2 .

The longitudinal studies included ~ 2.64 million participants and covered 18 different sport disciplines, including: badminton, basketball, cycling, boxing/karate, football, golf, hockey, ice skating, racquetball, rowing, running, baseball, skiing, swimming, table tennis, tennis and volleyball. In total, 9 papers from the longitudinal studies referred to men only, 5 referred to women only and 42 referred to both men and women. One of the included longitudinal studies was international, with participants from Austria, Belgium, England, Italy, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. Overall, 2 included papers from longitudinal studies were from Australia, 1 from Canada, 4 from China, 13 from Denmark, 6 from Finland, 1 from France, 5 from the Netherlands, 1 from Russia, 5 from Sweden, 6 from the UK and 11 from the USA. The following health outcomes were covered in the included longitudinal studies: (1) all-cause mortality, (2) cardiovascular mortality, (3) respiratory mortality, (4) diabetes mortality, (5) cancer mortality, (6) mortality from other causes, (7) cancer, (8) colon cancer, (9) breast cancer, (10) venous thromboembolism, (11) atrial fibrillation, (12) aortic stiffness, (13) cardiovascular disease, (14) coronary heart disease, (15) ischemic heart disease, (16) myocardial infarction, (17) stroke, (18) hypertension, (19) obesity or change in body composition, (20) hypertriglyceridemia, (21) impaired glucose tolerance, (22) diabetes, (23) respiratory diseases, (24) chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, (25) asthma, (26) joint diseases, (27) eye diseases, (28) chronic kidney disease, (29) allergies, (30) varicose veins and (31) diseases of the urogenital system. A descriptive summary of longitudinal studies is presented in Additional file 3 .

Risk of Bias

The overall methodological quality was rated as moderate for 8 and weak for 72 papers from intervention studies (Additional file 4 ). The overall methodological quality was rated as fair for 15 and good for 41 papers from longitudinal studies (Additional file 5 ).

Meta-Analyses of Intervention Studies

Effects of cycling on health.

We did not find significant effects of cycling on body mass, body mass index (BMI), systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure ( p  > 0.05 for all; Table  1 and Additional file 6 ). There was high heterogeneity between the studies on body mass. We did not find significant heterogeneity among the studies on the remaining health outcomes ( p  > 0.05). The sensitivity analyses confirmed the findings (Additional file 7 ).

Effects of Football on Health

We found favourable effects of football on body mass, BMI, body fat mass, body fat percentage, total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, fasting blood glucose, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, resting heart rate, VO 2max , peak ventilation, absolute measures of bone mineral content (total and in legs) and osteocalcin ( p  < 0.050 for all; Table  2 ). The sensitivity analyses confirmed the findings for all outcomes except for total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol (Additional file 8 ). In the main meta-analyses, we did not find significant effects of football on the remaining seven health outcomes ( p  > 0.05 for all). However, in the sensitivity analysis, we found a favourable effect of football on performance in the countermovement jump test ( p  = 0.031). There was high heterogeneity between the studies on all measures of body composition except for lean mass of legs. High heterogeneity was also found between the studies on high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, VO 2max (ml/kg/min) and countermovement jump. For most of the remaining health outcomes, heterogeneity between the studies was not found to be significant ( p  < 0.05). However, in most of the meta-analyses, prediction intervals were relatively wide.

Effects of Handball on Health

We found favourable effects of handball on body fat mass, body fat percentage and VO 2max ( p  < 0.050 for all; Table  3 ). The sensitivity analyses did not confirm the findings for body fat mass and body fat percentage (Additional file 9 ). We did not find significant effects of handball on the remaining nine health outcomes ( p  > 0.05 for all). There was substantial heterogeneity between the studies on HDL cholesterol and VO 2max and high heterogeneity between the studies on resting heart rate. For the remaining health outcomes, heterogeneity between the studies was not found to be significant ( p  < 0.05).

Effects of Running on Health

We found favourable effects of running on body fat mass, body fat percentage, resting heart rate, VO 2max and peak ventilation ( p  < 0.010 for all; Table  4 ). In the main meta-analyses, we did not find significant effects of running on the remaining nine health outcomes ( p  > 0.05 for all). However, in the sensitivity analysis, we found a favourable effect of running on BMI ( p  = 0.003; Additional file 10 ). There was high heterogeneity between the studies on body mass, BMI, body fat mass, lean body mass and VO 2max . For the remaining health outcomes, heterogeneity between the studies was not found to be significant ( p  < 0.05). However, in most of the meta-analyses, prediction intervals were relatively wide.

Effects of Swimming on Health

We found favourable effects of swimming on body fat percentage, total cholesterol and HDL cholesterol ( p  < 0.010 for all; Table  5 ). The sensitivity analysis did not confirm the findings for body fat mass and total cholesterol (Additional file 11 ). In the main meta-analyses, we did not find significant effects of swimming on LDL cholesterol ( p  = 0.120) and triglycerides ( p  = 0.007). However, in the sensitivity analysis, we found a favourable effect of swimming on LDL cholesterol ( p  = 0.002). There was substantial heterogeneity between the studies on body fat percentage. For the remaining health outcomes, heterogeneity between the studies was not found to be significant ( p  < 0.050).

Meta-Analyses of Longitudinal Studies

Health outcomes associated with cycling.

Cycling was associated with 21%, 10% and 20% lower risk of all-cause, cancer and cardiovascular mortality, respectively, over the follow-up periods ( p  ≤ 0.001 for all; Table  6 ). Cycling was also associated with 16% lower risk of coronary heart disease over the follow-up periods ( p  < 0.001). We did not find a significant association between cycling and the risk of cardiovascular disease ( p  = 0.230). Sensitivity analyses confirmed all the findings (Additional file 12 ). There was substantial heterogeneity between the studies on the risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease. For the remaining health outcomes, heterogeneity between the studies was not found to be significant ( p  < 0.05).

Health Outcomes Associated with Running

Running was associated with 23%, 20% and 27% lower risk of all-cause, cancer and cardiovascular mortality, respectively, over the follow-up periods ( p  < 0.05 for all; Table  6 ). There was substantial heterogeneity between the studies on the risk of all-cause mortality and high heterogeneity between the studies on the risk of cardiovascular mortality. Heterogeneity between the studies on cancer mortality was not found to be significant ( p  = 0.218). However, prediction intervals were relatively wide in all three meta-analyses.

Health Outcomes Associated with Swimming

Swimming was associated with 24% lower risk of all-cause mortality over the follow-up periods ( p  = 0.005; Table  6 ). There was substantial heterogeneity between the studies included in the meta-analysis.

Publication Bias

The Egger’s asymmetry test (Additional files 13 , 14 , 15 and 16 ) did not show significant publication bias for the studies included in the meta-analyses of the effects of football on body mass ( p  = 0.579), body fat percentage ( p  = 0.796), systolic blood pressure ( p  = 0.940) and diastolic blood pressure ( p  = 0.460). In the meta-analyses for body mass and diastolic blood pressure, the pooled mean differences estimated using the ‘trim and fill’ method were the same as the pooled mean differences calculated from the studies included in the original meta-analyses. For body fat percentage and systolic blood pressure, similar results were obtained using the ‘trim and fill’ method when compared with the original meta-analyses (pooled mean difference calculated using the ‘trim and fill’ method [ d tf ] =  –1.69; 95% CI: –2.42, –0.97; p  < 0.001 versus pooled mean difference [ d ] =  –1.98; 95% CI: –2.68, –1.28; p  < 0.001 for body fat percentage and d tf   =  –3.75; 95% CI: –6.29, –1.21; p  = 0.004 versus d  =  –4.44; 95% CI: –6.78, –2.09; p  < 0.001 for systolic blood pressure). The fail-safe N s indicated that the number of potential unpublished studies averaging null results needed to increase the p -value for the pooled effect size to 0.05 (i.e. above the statistical significance threshold) would be 16 for body mass, 37 for body fat percentage, 17 for systolic blood pressure and 10 for diastolic blood pressure. The tests were not performed for other meta-analyses owing to the small number of included studies ( n  < 10).

Certainty of Evidence

The certainty of evidence on the associations of cycling and running with the risk of all-cause mortality was assessed as ‘moderate’, because of substantial heterogeneity between studies (Additional file 17 ). The certainty of evidence on the association between swimming and the risk of all-cause mortality was assessed as ‘low’, because of high heterogeneity between studies.

Key Findings

The key findings of this review are that: (1) cycling is associated with a reduced risk of coronary heart disease and all-cause, cancer and cardiovascular mortality; (2) football has favourable effects on body composition, blood lipids, fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, cardiovascular function at rest, cardiorespiratory fitness and bone strength; (3) handball has favourable effects on body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness; (4) running is associated with a reduced risk of all-cause, cancer and cardiovascular mortality and has favourable effects on body composition, cardiovascular function at rest and cardiorespiratory fitness; and (5) swimming is associated with a reduced risk of all-cause mortality and has favourable effects on body composition and blood lipids.

Comparison with Previous Studies

A previous systematic review [ 162 ] showed a 16% lower risk of cardiovascular disease and a 17% lower risk of cardiovascular mortality associated with cycling. We found a somewhat weaker association between cycling and cardiovascular disease and a somewhat stronger association between cycling and a cardiovascular mortality, probably because of additional studies included in the data synthesis. Another systematic review [ 163 ] indicated a 23% lower all-cause mortality risk and a 24% lower cardiovascular mortality risk associated with cycling. These results are closely comparable with our findings. Unlike in our review, a previous systematic review [ 164 ] found that cycling is associated with lower BMI. This discrepancy between findings may be owing to the fact that our meta-analysis was peformed exclusively on intervention studies in adults, while the previous review also included observational studies and studies conducted among adolescents.

Meta-analyses in our earlier systematic review have shown that football is associated with increased VO 2max and lower resting heart rate [ 6 ]. Previous reviews also found favourable associations of football with physical and cardiorespiratory fitness, body fat mass, blood pressure, LDL cholesterol and indices of bone health [ 165 , 166 ]. In the current review, we confirmed these results and additionally found favourable associations between football and body mass, BMI and fasting blood glucose. Unlike a previous review [ 165 ], we did not find a significant association between football and performance in the countermovement jump test, possibly because the meta-analysis in the previous review included studies conducted among children and prostate cancer patients in addition to studies conducted among healthy adults.

We did not find any previous review on health benefits of handball that could be used for comparative purposes. We expanded the body of evidence on this topic by conducing meta-analyses on the association between handball and 12 health outcomes and finding favourable associations with body fat and VO 2max .

In our previous review [ 6 ], we did not find enough studies to conduct meta-analyses on the health benefits of running. Meta-analyses conducted as part of a more recent systematic review [ 18 ] found that running is associated with 27%, 30% and 23% lower risk of all-cause, cardiovascular and cancer mortality, respectively. In the current review, we conducted the meta-analyses with larger pooled samples and found very similar effect sizes, which confirmed previous results. Additional studies published since our previous review [ 6 ] also enabled us to conduct meta-analyses of the associations of running with 14 other health outcomes and to find that running is beneficial for body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness.

A recent systematic review [ 167 ] found favourable associations of swimming with cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition. Our meta-analyses confirmed the finding for body composition and provided additional evidence on the benefits of swimming for blood lipid profile and all-cause mortality risk.

Implications for Clinicians and Policy Makers

Our findings suggest that sports participation can be promoted as part of ‘lifestyle medicine’, to help prevent a range of chronic diseases. This should be facilitated by policy makers through the development and implementation of adequate sports policies with a focus on ‘sport for all’ [ 8 , 9 ], and by clinicians through direct promotion of sports among their clients.

Previous studies found that the rates of sport related injuries are relatively low but certainly not negligible [ 6 , 168 ]. The benefits of sports found in the current review likely outweigh the risks; however, a formal evaluation of the health benefits/risks would need to be conducted for different sport disciplines to confirm this. Evidence on health risks associated with sports highlights the need for effective injury prevention measures. A summary of preventive solutions is provided in a recent review [ 169 ].

The potential of sports to promote public health remains under-utilised [ 170 ]. A recent paper found that medical representatives of international Olympic sport federations rated the importance of preventing chronic diseases in the general population relatively low compared with other health themes/programmes within their federations [ 171 ]. Evidence presented in the current review suggests that chronic disease prevention through sports participation should receive greater priority on the agenda of sports organisations.

Strengths and Limitations of the Review and Included Studies

The strengths of the current review include: (1) an extensive literature search that included both backward and forward citation tracking, (2) a large number of included studies that covered various sports and health outcomes and (3) a large number of meta-analyses that were conducted.

The current review also has several limitations. First, in the literature search, we did not use keywords for specific sports and health outcomes, as this would have made it unfeasible. Although this was compensated for by comprehensive secondary searches, it is possible that we missed some relevant studies. Second, while the methodological quality of included longitudinal studies was generally good, most of the included intervention studies rated poorly in terms of blinding and selection bias. The selection bias is very common in intervention trials on the effects of sports participation, because participants are often recruited from those who expressed their interest to participate in a given sport. The blinding of participants is highly impractical or impossible in such intervention trials. Hence, the low scores in these two aspects of study quality were expected. Third, we did not perform dose–response analyses. Given that we conducted 68 meta-analyses of overall effects of sports participation, further dose–response analyses were beyond the scope of this review. Dose–response analyses of the associations between sports participation and health outcomes can be found in previous reviews that were focused on a single sport [ 18 , 163 , 172 ]. Fourth, we considered only physical health outcomes of sports participation. Specific sports may also have distinct associations with various economic, environmental, psychological and social outcomes. Finally, the certainty of evidence was assessed only for the associations of cycling, running and swimming participation with the risk of all-cause mortality. However, this is in accordance with the recommendation that in comprehensive systematic reviews that include many outcome variables, certainty of evidence should be assessed for selected outcomes only [ 24 ].

On the basis of the pooled findings from 136 papers, the following can be concluded for recreational sports: (1) cycling reduces the risk of coronary heart disease and all-cause, cancer and cardiovascular mortality; (2) football may help in reducing weight and improving blood lipids, fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, cardiovascular function at rest, cardiorespiratory fitness and bone strength; (3) handball may help in reducing weight and improving cardiorespiratory fitness; (4) running reduces the risk of all-cause, cancer and cardiovascular mortality and may help in reducing weight and improving cardiovascular function at rest and cardiorespiratory fitness; and (5) swimming reduces the risk of risk of all-cause mortality and may help in reducing weight and improving blood lipids.

More studies are needed to enable meta-analyses of physical health benefits of other sports. The quality of future intervention studies in this area could be improved by blinding the assessors, making more appropriate adjustments for confounding, and reducing the drop-out rates.

Availability of Data and Materials

All data relevant to the study are included in the article or uploaded as supplementary information. Further information is available upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation

High-density lipoprotein

Hazard ratio

Low-density lipoprotein

Newcastle–Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale

International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

Maximal oxygen uptake

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Acknowledgements

The European Commission support for the production of this publication does not constitute endorsement of the contents which reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

This manuscript was prepared as part of the “Creating Mechanisms for Continuous Implementation of the Sports Club for Health Guidelines in the European Union” project, funded by the Erasmus + Collaborative Partnerships grant (reference number: 613434-EPP-1-2019-1-HR-SPO-SCP).

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Aamir Raoof Memon, Si-Tong Chen, Jozo Grgic & Zeljko Pedisic

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Contributions

P.O. contributed to study conceptualisation, study selection, data extraction, quality assessment, interpretation of results and write-up of the introduction, results and discussion sections; A.R.M. contributed to study selection, data extraction, quality assessment, interpretation of results and write-up of the introduction and results section; S.T. contributed to study selection, data extraction, quality assessment and write-up of the results section; D.J. contributed to study conceptualisation and study selection; S-T.C. contributed to study selection; N.S. contributed to study selection and certainty of evidence assessment; S.E. contributed to study selection; T.M. contributed to study selection; T.V. contributed to study selection; A.H. contributed to quality assessment; J.G. contributed to the write-up of the methods section; S.K. contributed to quality assessment; P.Ko. contributed to study selection; P.Ke. contributed to literature search and conceptualisation of data analysis; C.F. contributed to conceptualisation of data analysis; H.P. contributed to certainty of evidence assessment; Z.P. conducted data analyses, contributed to study conceptualisation, literature search, data extraction, interpretation of results and write-up of the introduction, methods, results and discussion sections, and led the correspondence with editors and reviewers. All authors contributed to revising the manuscript and read and approved its final version.

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Supplementary Information

Additional file 1:.

Search syntax.

Additional file 2:

Summary of intervention trials on health effects of participation in specific sports.

Additional file 3:

Summary of longitudinal studies on the association between participation in specific sports and health.

Additional file 4:

Methodological quality appraisal of intervention studies using the Effective Public Health Practice Project Quality Assessment Tool.

Additional file 5:

Methodological quality appraisal of longitudinal studies using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale.

Additional file 6:

Forest plots from main meta-analyses.

Additional file 7:

The effects of cycling on health outcomes: results of four sensitivity meta-analyses in which missing correlations were replaced with 0.50.

Additional file 8:

The effects of football on health outcomes: results of 20 sensitivity meta-analyses in which missing correlations were replaced with 0.50

Additional file 9:

The effects of handball on health outcomes: results of 12 sensitivity meta-analyses in which missing correlations were replaced with 0.50.

Additional file 10:

The effects of running on health outcomes: results of 13 sensitivity meta-analyses in which missing correlations were replaced with 0.50.

Additional file 11:

The effects of swimming on health outcomes: results of five sensitivity meta-analyses in which missing correlations were replaced with 0.50.

Additional file 12:

The longitudinal associations between cycling and the risk of mortality and morbidity: results of 5 sensitivity meta-analyses of hazard ratios for any participation or the highest reported dose of activity.

Additional file 13:

Funnel plot for the meta-analysis on the effects of football on body mass.

Additional file 14:

Funnel plot for the meta-analysis on the effects of football on body fat percentage.

Additional file 15:

Funnel plot for the meta-analysis on the effects of football on systolic blood pressure.

Additional file 16:

Funnel plot for the meta-analysis on the effects of football on diastolic blood pressure.

Additional file 17:

Certainty of evidence on the associations of cycling, running, and swimming participation with the risk of all-cause mortality.

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Oja, P., Memon, A.R., Titze, S. et al. Health Benefits of Different Sports: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal and Intervention Studies Including 2.6 Million Adult Participants. Sports Med - Open 10 , 46 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-024-00692-x

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Works Cited

• Coakley, J. (2015). Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies. McGraw-Hill Education.
• Andrews, D. L., & Jackson, S. J. (2014). A call for more nuanced social scientific analyses of sports and social media. Communication & Sport, 2(3), 211-227.
• Dworkin, S. L. (2017). Women's sports: The impact of Title IX. The Journal of Social Issues, 73(2), 219-235.
• Gill, D. L., & Williams, L. (2008). Psychological dynamics of sport and exercise. Human Kinetics.
• Coakley, J. J., & Pike, E. C. (2014). Sports in society: Issues and controversies. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
• Williams, A. M., & Reilly, T. (2000). Talent identification and development in soccer. Journal of sports sciences, 18(9), 657-667.
• Mason, D. S. (2016). The interplay between sport and music in the production and consumption of popular culture. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 33(15), 1688-1698.
• Coakley, J. (2009). Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies (10th ed.). McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
• Wann, D. L., & Grieve, F. G. (2005). Biased evaluations of sports performance : The effects of manipulating identity and level of identification. Journal of sport behavior, 28(2), 111-127.
• Messner, M. A., Duncan, M. C., & Cooky, C. (2003). Silence, sports bras, and wrestling porn: Women in televised sports news and highlights shows. Journal of sport and social issues, 27(1), 38-51.

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The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model

• Narelle Eather   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6320-4540 1 , 2 ,
• Levi Wade   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4007-5336 1 , 3 ,
• Aurélie Pankowiak   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0178-513X 4 &
• Rochelle Eime   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8614-2813 4 , 5  

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Sport is a subset of physical activity that can be particularly beneficial for short-and-long-term physical and mental health, and social outcomes in adults. This study presents the results of an updated systematic review of the mental health and social outcomes of community and elite-level sport participation for adults. The findings have informed the development of the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults.

Nine electronic databases were searched, with studies published between 2012 and March 2020 screened for inclusion. Eligible qualitative and quantitative studies reported on the relationship between sport participation and mental health and/or social outcomes in adult populations. Risk of bias (ROB) was determined using the Quality Assessment Tool (quantitative studies) or Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (qualitative studies).

The search strategy located 8528 articles, of which, 29 involving adults 18–84 years were included for analysis. Data was extracted for demographics, methodology, and study outcomes, and results presented according to study design. The evidence indicates that participation in sport (community and elite) is related to better mental health, including improved psychological well-being (for example, higher self-esteem and life satisfaction) and lower psychological ill-being (for example, reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress), and improved social outcomes (for example, improved self-control, pro-social behavior, interpersonal communication, and fostering a sense of belonging). Overall, adults participating in team sport had more favorable health outcomes than those participating in individual sport, and those participating in sports more often generally report the greatest benefits; however, some evidence suggests that adults in elite sport may experience higher levels of psychological distress. Low ROB was observed for qualitative studies, but quantitative studies demonstrated inconsistencies in methodological quality.

Conclusions

The findings of this review confirm that participation in sport of any form (team or individual) is beneficial for improving mental health and social outcomes amongst adults. Team sports, however, may provide more potent and additional benefits for mental and social outcomes across adulthood. This review also provides preliminary evidence for the Mental Health through Sport model, though further experimental and longitudinal evidence is needed to establish the mechanisms responsible for sports effect on mental health and moderators of intervention effects. Additional qualitative work is also required to gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The organizational structure of sport and the performance demands characteristic of sport training and competition provide a unique opportunity for participants to engage in health-enhancing physical activity of varied intensity, duration, and mode; and the opportunity to do so with other people as part of a team and/or club. Participation in individual and team sports have shown to be beneficial to physical, social, psychological, and cognitive health outcomes [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Often, the social and mental health benefits facilitated through participation in sport exceed those achieved through participation in other leisure-time or recreational activities [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Notably, these benefits are observed across different sports and sub-populations (including youth, adults, older adults, males, and females) [ 11 ]. However, the evidence regarding sports participation at the elite level is limited, with available research indicating that elite athletes may be more susceptible to mental health problems, potentially due to the intense mental and physical demands placed on elite athletes [ 12 ].

Participation in sport varies across the lifespan, with children representing the largest cohort to engage in organized community sport [ 13 ]. Across adolescence and into young adulthood, dropout from organized sport is common, and especially for females [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], and adults are shifting from organized sports towards leisure and fitness activities, where individual activities (including swimming, walking, and cycling) are the most popular [ 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Despite the general decline in sport participation with age [ 13 ], the most recent (pre-COVID) global data highlights that a range of organized team sports (such as, basketball, netball volleyball, and tennis) continue to rank highly amongst adult sport participants, with soccer remaining a popular choice across all regions of the world [ 13 ]. It is encouraging many adults continue to participate in sport and physical activities throughout their lives; however, high rates of dropout in youth sport and non-participation amongst adults means that many individuals may be missing the opportunity to reap the potential health benefits associated with participation in sport.

According to the World Health Organization, mental health refers to a state of well-being and effective functioning in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, is resilient to the stresses of life, and is able to make a positive contribution to his or her community [ 20 ]. Mental health covers three main components, including psychological, emotional and social health [ 21 ]. Further, psychological health has two distinct indicators, psychological well-being (e.g., self-esteem and quality of life) and psychological ill-being (e.g., pre-clinical psychological states such as psychological difficulties and high levels of stress) [ 22 ]. Emotional well-being describes how an individual feels about themselves (including life satisfaction, interest in life, loneliness, and happiness); and social well–being includes an individual’s contribution to, and integration in society [ 23 ].

Mental illnesses are common among adults and incidence rates have remained consistently high over the past 25 years (~ 10% of people affected globally) [ 24 ]. Recent statistics released by the World Health Organization indicate that depression and anxiety are the most common mental disorders, affecting an estimated 264 million people, ranking as one of the main causes of disability worldwide [ 25 , 26 ]. Specific elements of social health, including high levels of isolation and loneliness among adults, are now also considered a serious public health concern due to the strong connections with ill-health [ 27 ]. Participation in sport has shown to positively impact mental and social health status, with a previous systematic review by Eime et al. (2013) indicated that sports participation was associated with lower levels of perceived stress, and improved vitality, social functioning, mental health, and life satisfaction [ 1 ]. Based on their findings, the authors developed a conceptual model (health through sport) depicting the relationship between determinants of adult sports participation and physical, psychological, and social health benefits of participation. In support of Eime’s review findings, Malm and colleagues (2019) recently described how sport aids in preventing or alleviating mental illness, including depressive symptoms and anxiety or stress-related disease [ 7 ]. Andersen (2019) also highlighted that team sports participation is associated with decreased rates of depression and anxiety [ 11 ]. In general, these reviews report stronger effects for sports participation compared to other types of physical activity, and a dose–response relationship between sports participation and mental health outcomes (i.e., higher volume and/or intensity of participation being associated with greater health benefits) when adults participate in sports they enjoy and choose [ 1 , 7 ]. Sport is typically more social than other forms of physical activity, including enhanced social connectedness, social support, peer bonding, and club support, which may provide some explanation as to why sport appears to be especially beneficial to mental and social health [ 28 ].

Thoits (2011) proposed several potential mechanisms through which social relationships and social support improve physical and psychological well-being [ 29 ]; however, these mechanisms have yet to be explored in the context of sports participation at any level in adults. The identification of the mechanisms responsible for such effects may direct future research in this area and help inform future policy and practice in the delivery of sport to enhance mental health and social outcomes amongst adult participants. Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to examine and synthesize all research findings regarding the relationship between sports participation, mental health and social outcomes at the community and elite level in adults. Based on the review findings, the secondary objective was to develop the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model.

This review has been registered in the PROSPERO systematic review database and assigned the identifier: CRD42020185412. The conduct and reporting of this systematic review also follows the Preferred Reporting for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [ 30 ] (PRISMA flow diagram and PRISMA Checklist available in supplementary files ). This review is an update of a previous review of the same topic [ 31 ], published in 2012.

Identification of studies

Nine electronic databases (CINAHL, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, Informit, Medline, PsychINFO, Psychology and Behavioural Sciences Collection, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched for relevant records published from 2012 to March 10, 2020. The following key terms were developed by all members of the research team (and guided by previous reviews) and entered into these databases by author LW: sport* AND health AND value OR benefit* OR effect* OR outcome* OR impact* AND psych* OR depress* OR stress OR anxiety OR happiness OR mood OR ‘quality of life’ OR ‘social health’ OR ‘social relation*’ OR well* OR ‘social connect*’ OR ‘social functioning’ OR ‘life satisfac*’ OR ‘mental health’ OR social OR sociolog* OR affect* OR enjoy* OR fun. Where possible, Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) were also used.

Criteria for inclusion/exclusion

The titles of studies identified using this method were screened by LW. Abstract and full text of the articles were reviewed independently by LW and NE. To be included in the current review, each study needed to meet each of the following criteria: (1) published in English from 2012 to 2020; (2) full-text available online; (3) original research or report published in a peer-reviewed journal; (4) provides data on the psychological or social effects of participation in sport (with sport defined as a subset of exercise that can be undertaken individually or as a part of a team, where participants adhere to a common set of rules or expectations, and a defined goal exists); (5) the population of interest were adults (18 years and older) and were apparently healthy. All papers retrieved in the initial search were assessed for eligibility by title and abstract. In cases where a study could not be included or excluded via their title and abstract, the full text of the article was reviewed independently by two of the authors.

Data extraction

For the included studies, the following data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE using a customized Google Docs spreadsheet: author name, year of publication, country, study design, aim, type of sport (e.g., tennis, hockey, team, individual), study conditions/comparisons, sample size, where participants were recruited from, mean age of participants, measure of sports participation, measure of physical activity, psychological and/or social outcome/s, measure of psychological and/or social outcome/s, statistical method of analysis, changes in physical activity or sports participation, and the psychological and/or social results.

Risk of bias (ROB) assessment

A risk of bias was performed by LW and AP independently using the ‘Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies’ OR the ‘Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies’ for the included quantitative studies, and the ‘Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) Checklist for the included qualitative studies [ 32 , 33 ]. Any discrepancies in the ROB assessments were discussed between the two reviewers, and a consensus reached.

The search yielded 8528 studies, with a total of 29 studies included in the systematic review (Fig.  1 ). Tables  1 and 2 provide a summary of the included studies. The research included adults from 18 to 84 years old, with most of the evidence coming from studies targeting young adults (18–25 years). Study samples ranged from 14 to 131, 962, with the most reported psychological outcomes being self-rated mental health ( n  = 5) and depression ( n  = 5). Most studies did not investigate or report the link between a particular sport and a specific mental health or social outcome; instead, the authors’ focused on comparing the impact of sport to physical activity, and/or individual sports compared to team sports. The results of this review are summarized in the following section, with findings presented by study design (cross-sectional, experimental, and longitudinal).

Flow of studies through the review process

Effects of sports participation on psychological well-being, ill-being, and social outcomes

Cross-sectional evidence.

This review included 14 studies reporting on the cross-sectional relationship between sports participation and psychological and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 414 to n  = 131,962 with a total of n  = 239,394 adults included across the cross-sectional studies.

The cross-sectional evidence generally supports that participation in sport, and especially team sports, is associated with greater mental health and psychological wellbeing in adults compared to non-participants [ 36 , 59 ]; and that higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, are also linked to lower levels of mental distress in adults . This was not the case for one specific study involving ice hockey players aged 35 and over, with Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) Kitchen and Chowhan (2016) reporting no relationship between participation in ice hockey and either mental health, or perceived life stress [ 54 ]. There is also some evidence to support that previous participation in sports (e.g., during childhood or young adulthood) is linked to better mental health outcomes later in life, including improved mental well-being and lower mental distress [ 59 ], even after controlling for age and current physical activity.

Compared to published community data for adults, elite or high-performance adult athletes demonstrated higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction [ 39 ]; and reported reduced tendency to respond to distress with anger and depression. However, rates of psychological distress were higher in the elite sport cohort (compared to community norms), with nearly 1 in 5 athletes reporting ‘high to very high’ distress, and 1 in 3 reporting poor mental health symptoms at a level warranting treatment by a health professional in one study ( n  = 749) [ 39 ].

Four studies focused on the associations between physical activity and sports participation and mental health outcomes in older adults. Physical activity was associated with greater quality of life [ 56 ], with the relationship strongest for those participating in sport in middle age, and for those who cycled in later life (> 65) [ 56 ]. Group physical activities (e.g., walking groups) and sports (e.g., golf) were also significantly related to excellent self-rated health, low depressive symptoms, high health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and a high frequency of laughter in males and females [ 60 , 61 ]. No participation or irregular participation in sport was associated with symptoms of mild to severe depression in older adults [ 62 ].

Several cross-sectional studies examined whether the effects of physical activity varied by type (e.g., total physical activity vs. sports participation). In an analysis of 1446 young adults (mean age = 18), total physical activity, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, and team sport were independently associated with mental health [ 46 ]. Relative to individual physical activity, after adjusting for covariates and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), only team sport was significantly associated with improved mental health. Similarly, in a cross-sectional analysis of Australian women, Eime, Harvey, Payne (2014) reported that women who engaged in club and team-based sports (tennis or netball) reported better mental health and life satisfaction than those who engaged in individual types of physical activity [ 47 ]. Interestingly, there was no relationship between the amount of physical activity and either of these outcomes, suggesting that other qualities of sports participation contribute to its relationship to mental health and life satisfaction. There was also some evidence to support a relationship between exercise type (ball sports, aerobic activity, weightlifting, and dancing), and mental health amongst young adults (mean age 22 years) [ 48 ], with ball sports and dancing related to fewer symptoms of depression in students with high stress; and weightlifting related to fewer depressive symptoms in weightlifters exhibiting low stress.

Longitudinal evidence

Eight studies examined the longitudinal relationship between sports participation and either mental health and/or social outcomes. Sample sizes range from n  = 113 to n  = 1679 with a total of n  = 7022 adults included across the longitudinal studies.

Five of the included longitudinal studies focused on the relationship between sports participation in childhood or adolescence and mental health in young adulthood. There is evidence that participation in sport in high-school is protective of future symptoms of anxiety (including panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social phobia, and agoraphobia) [ 42 ]. Specifically, after controlling for covariates (including current physical activity), the number of years of sports participation in high school was shown to be protective of symptoms of panic and agoraphobia in young adulthood, but not protective of symptoms of social phobia or generalized anxiety disorder [ 42 ]. A comparison of individual or team sports participation also revealed that participation in either context was protective of panic disorder symptoms, while only team sport was protective of agoraphobia symptoms, and only individual sport was protective of social phobia symptoms. Furthermore, current and past sports team participation was shown to negatively relate to adult depressive symptoms [ 43 ]; drop out of sport was linked to higher depressive symptoms in adulthood compared to those with maintained participation [ 9 , 22 , 63 ]; and consistent participation in team sports (but not individual sport) in adolescence was linked to higher self-rated mental health, lower perceived stress and depressive symptoms, and lower depression scores in early adulthood [ 53 , 58 ].

Two longitudinal studies [ 35 , 55 ], also investigated the association between team and individual playing context and mental health. Dore and colleagues [ 35 ] reported that compared to individual activities, being active in informal groups (e.g., yoga, running groups) or team sports was associated with better mental health, fewer depressive symptoms and higher social connectedness – and that involvement in team sports was related to better mental health regardless of physical activity volume. Kim and James [ 55 ] discovered that sports participation led to both short and long-term improvements in positive affect and life satisfaction.

A study on social outcomes related to mixed martial-arts (MMA) and Brazilian jiu-jitsu (BJJ) showed that both sports improved practitioners’ self-control and pro-social behavior, with greater improvements seen in the BJJ group [ 62 ]. Notably, while BJJ reduced participants’ reported aggression, there was a slight increase in MMA practitioners, though it is worth mentioning that individuals who sought out MMA had higher levels of baseline aggression.

Experimental evidence

Six of the included studies were experimental or quasi-experimental. Sample sizes ranged from n  = 28 to n  = 55 with a total of n  = 239 adults included across six longitudinal studies. Three studies involved a form of martial arts (such as judo and karate) [ 45 , 51 , 52 ], one involved a variety of team sports (such as netball, soccer, and cricket) [ 34 ], and the remaining two focused on badminton [ 57 ] and handball [ 49 ].

Brinkley and colleagues [ 34 ] reported significant effects on interpersonal communication (but not vitality, social cohesion, quality of life, stress, or interpersonal relationships) for participants ( n  = 40) engaging in a 12-week workplace team sports intervention. Also using a 12-week intervention, Hornstrup et al. [ 49 ] reported a significant improvement in mental energy (but not well-being or anxiety) in young women (mean age = 24; n  = 28) playing in a handball program. Patterns et al. [ 57 ] showed that in comparison to no exercise, participation in an 8-week badminton or running program had no significant improvement on self-esteem, despite improvements in perceived and actual fitness levels.

Three studies examined the effect of martial arts on the mental health of older adults (mean ages 79 [ 52 ], 64 [ 51 ], and 70 [ 45 ] years). Participation in Karate-Do had positive effects on overall mental health, emotional wellbeing, depression and anxiety when compared to other activities (physical, cognitive, mindfulness) and a control group [ 51 , 52 ]. Ciaccioni et al. [ 45 ] found that a Judo program did not affect either the participants’ mental health or their body satisfaction, citing a small sample size, and the limited length of the intervention as possible contributors to the findings.

Qualitative evidence

Three studies interviewed current or former sports players regarding their experiences with sport. Chinkov and Holt [ 41 ] reported that jiu-jitsu practitioners (mean age 35 years) were more self-confident in their lives outside of the gym, including improved self-confidence in their interactions with others because of their training. McGraw and colleagues [ 37 ] interviewed former and current National Football League (NFL) players and their families about its impact on the emotional and mental health of the players. Most of the players reported that their NFL career provided them with social and emotional benefits, as well as improvements to their self-esteem even after retiring. Though, despite these benefits, almost all the players experienced at least one mental health challenge during their career, including depression, anxiety, or difficulty controlling their temper. Some of the players and their families reported that they felt socially isolated from people outside of the national football league.

Through a series of semi-structured interviews and focus groups, Thorpe, Anders [ 40 ] investigated the impact of an Aboriginal male community sporting team on the health of its players. The players reported they felt a sense of belonging when playing in the team, further noting that the social and community aspects were as important as the physical health benefits. Participating in the club strengthened the cultural identity of the players, enhancing their well-being. The players further noted that participation provided them with enjoyment, stress relief, a sense of purpose, peer support, and improved self-esteem. Though they also noted challenges, including the presence of racism, community conflict, and peer-pressure.

Quality of studies

Full details of our risk of bias (ROB) results are provided in Supplementary Material A . Of the three qualitative studies assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP), all three were deemed to have utilised and reported appropriate methodological standards on at least 8 of the 10 criteria. Twenty studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies, with all studies clearly reporting the research question/s or objective/s and study population. However, only four studies provided a justification for sample size, and less than half of the studies met quality criteria for items 6, 7, 9, or 10 (and items 12 and 13 were largely not applicable). Of concern, only four of the observational or cohort studies were deemed to have used clearly defined, valid, and reliable exposure measures (independent variables) and implemented them consistently across all study participants. Six studies were assessed using the Quality Assessment of Controlled Intervention Studies, with three studies described as a randomized trial (but none of the three reported a suitable method of randomization, concealment of treatment allocation, or blinding to treatment group assignment). Three studies showed evidence that study groups were similar at baseline for important characteristics and an overall drop-out rate from the study < 20%. Four studies reported high adherence to intervention protocols (with two not reporting) and five demonstrated that.study outcomes were assessed using valid and reliable measures and implemented consistently across all study participants. Importantly, researchers did not report or have access to validated instruments for assessing sport participation or physical activity amongst adults, though most studies provided psychometrics for their mental health outcome measure/s. Only one study reported that the sample size was sufficiently powered to detect a difference in the main outcome between groups (with ≥ 80% power) and that all participants were included in the analysis of results (intention-to-treat analysis). In general, the methodological quality of the six randomised studies was deemed low.

Initially, our discussion will focus on the review findings regarding sports participation and well-being, ill-being, and psychological health. However, the heterogeneity and methodological quality of the included research (especially controlled trials) should be considered during the interpretation of our results. Considering our findings, the Mental Health through Sport conceptual model for adults will then be presented and discussed and study limitations outlined.

Sports participation and psychological well-being

In summary, the evidence presented here indicates that for adults, sports participation is associated with better overall mental health [ 36 , 46 , 47 , 59 ], mood [ 56 ], higher life satisfaction [ 39 , 47 ], self-esteem [ 39 ], body satisfaction [ 39 ], HRQoL [ 60 ], self-rated health [ 61 ], and frequency of laughter [ 61 ]. Sports participation has also shown to be predictive of better psychological wellbeing over time [ 35 , 53 ], higher positive affect [ 55 ], and greater life satisfaction [ 55 ]. Furthermore, higher frequency of sports participation and/or sport played at a higher level of competition, have been linked to lower levels of mental distress, higher levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, and overall life satisfaction in adults [ 39 ].

Despite considerable heterogeneity of sports type, cross-sectional and experimental research indicate that team-based sports participation, compared to individual sports and informal group physical activity, has a more positive effect on mental energy [ 49 ], physical self-perception [ 57 ], and overall psychological health and well-being in adults, regardless of physical activity volume [ 35 , 46 , 47 ]. And, karate-do benefits the subjective well-being of elderly practitioners [ 51 , 52 ]. Qualitative research in this area has queried participants’ experiences of jiu-jitsu, Australian football, and former and current American footballers. Participants in these sports reported that their participation was beneficial for psychological well-being [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], improved self-esteem [ 37 , 40 , 41 ], and enjoyment [ 37 ].

Sports participation and psychological ill-being

Of the included studies, n  = 19 examined the relationship between participating in sport and psychological ill-being. In summary, there is consistent evidence that sports participation is related to lower depression scores [ 43 , 48 , 61 , 62 ]. There were mixed findings regarding psychological stress, where participation in childhood (retrospectively assessed) was related to lower stress in young adulthood [ 41 ], but no relationship was identified between recreational hockey in adulthood and stress [ 54 ]. Concerning the potential impact of competing at an elite level, there is evidence of higher stress in elite athletes compared to community norms [ 39 ]. Further, there is qualitative evidence that many current or former national football league players experienced at least one mental health challenge, including depression, anxiety, difficulty controlling their temper, during their career [ 37 ].

Evidence from longitudinal research provided consistent evidence that participating in sport in adolescence is protective of symptoms of depression in young adulthood [ 43 , 53 , 58 , 63 ], and further evidence that participating in young adulthood is related to lower depressive symptoms over time (6 months) [ 35 ]. Participation in adolescence was also protective of manifestations of anxiety (panic disorder and agoraphobia) and stress in young adulthood [ 42 ], though participation in young adulthood was not related to a more general measure of anxiety [ 35 ] nor to changes in negative affect [ 55 ]). The findings from experimental research were mixed. Two studies examined the effect of karate-do on markers of psychological ill-being, demonstrating its capacity to reduce anxiety [ 52 ], with some evidence of its effectiveness on depression [ 51 ]. The other studies examined small-sided team-based games but showed no effect on stress or anxiety [ 34 , 49 ]. Most studies did not differentiate between team and individual sports, though one study found that adolescents who participated in team sports (not individual sports) in secondary school has lower depression scores in young adulthood [ 58 ].

Sports participation and social outcomes

Seven of the included studies examined the relationship between sports participation and social outcomes. However, very few studies examined social outcomes or tested a social outcome as a potential mediator of the relationship between sport and mental health. It should also be noted that this body of evidence comes from a wide range of sport types, including martial arts, professional football, and workplace team-sport, as well as different methodologies. Taken as a whole, the evidence shows that participating in sport is beneficial for several social outcomes, including self-control [ 50 ], pro-social behavior [ 50 ], interpersonal communication [ 34 ], and fostering a sense of belonging [ 40 ]. Further, there is evidence that group activity, for example team sport or informal group activity, is related to higher social connectedness over time, though analyses showed that social connectedness was not a mediator for mental health [ 35 ].

There were conflicting findings regarding social effects at the elite level, with current and former NFL players reporting that they felt socially isolated during their career [ 37 ], whilst another study reported no relationship between participation at the elite level and social dysfunction [ 39 ]. Conversely, interviews with a group of indigenous men revealed that they felt as though participating in an all-indigenous Australian football team provided them with a sense of purpose, and they felt as though the social aspect of the game was as important as the physical benefits it provides [ 40 ].

Mental health through sport conceptual model for adults

The ‘Health through Sport’ model provides a depiction of the determinants and benefits of sports participation [ 31 ]. The model recognises that the physical, mental, and social benefits of sports participation vary by the context of sport (e.g., individual vs. team, organized vs. informal). To identify the elements of sport which contribute to its effect on mental health outcomes, we describe the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ model (Fig.  2 ). The model proposes that the social and physical elements of sport each provide independent, and likely synergistic contributions to its overall influence on mental health.

The Mental Health through Sport conceptual model

The model describes two key pathways through which sport may influence mental health: physical activity, and social relationships and support. Several likely moderators of this effect are also provided, including sport type, intensity, frequency, context (team vs. individual), environment (e.g., indoor vs. outdoor), as well as the level of competition (e.g., elite vs. amateur).

The means by which the physical activity component of sport may influence mental health stems from the work of Lubans et al., who propose three key groups of mechanisms: neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral [ 64 ]. Processes whereby physical activity may enhance psychological outcomes via changes in the structural and functional composition of the brain are referred to as neurobiological mechanisms [ 65 , 66 ]. Processes whereby physical activity provides opportunities for the development of self-efficacy, opportunity for mastery, changes in self-perceptions, the development of independence, and for interaction with the environment are considered psychosocial mechanisms. Lastly, processes by which physical activity may influence behaviors which ultimately affect psychological health, including changes in sleep duration, self-regulation, and coping skills, are described as behavioral mechanisms.

Playing sport offers the opportunity to form relationships and to develop a social support network, both of which are likely to influence mental health. Thoits [ 29 ] describes 7 key mechanisms by which social relationships and support may influence mental health: social influence/social comparison; social control; role-based purpose and meaning (mattering); self-esteem; sense of control; belonging and companionship; and perceived support availability [ 29 ]. These mechanisms and their presence within a sporting context are elaborated below.

Subjective to the attitudes and behaviors of individuals in a group, social influence and comparison may facilitate protective or harmful effects on mental health. Participants in individual or team sport will be influenced and perhaps steered by the behaviors, expectations, and norms of other players and teams. When individual’s compare their capabilities, attitudes, and values to those of other participants, their own behaviors and subsequent health outcomes may be affected. When others attempt to encourage or discourage an individual to adopt or reject certain health practices, social control is displayed [ 29 ]. This may evolve as strategies between players (or between players and coach) are discussion and implemented. Likewise, teammates may try to motivate each another during a match to work harder, or to engage in specific events or routines off-field (fitness programs, after game celebrations, attending club events) which may impact current and future physical and mental health.

Sport may also provide behavioral guidance, purpose, and meaning to its participants. Role identities (positions within a social structure that come with reciprocal obligations), often formed as a consequence of social ties formed through sport. Particularly in team sports, participants come to understand they form an integral part of the larger whole, and consequently, they hold certain responsibility in ensuring the team’s success. They have a commitment to the team to, train and play, communicate with the team and a potential responsibility to maintain a high level of health, perform to their capacity, and support other players. As a source of behavioral guidance and of purpose and meaning in life, these identities are likely to influence mental health outcomes amongst sport participants.

An individual’s level of self-esteem may be affected by the social relationships and social support provided through sport; with improved perceptions of capability (or value within a team) in the sporting domain likely to have positive impact on global self-esteem and sense of worth [ 64 ]. The unique opportunities provided through participation in sport, also allow individuals to develop new skills, overcome challenges, and develop their sense of self-control or mastery . Working towards and finding creative solutions to challenges in sport facilitates a sense of mastery in participants. This sense of mastery may translate to other areas of life, with individual’s developing the confidence to cope with varied life challenges. For example, developing a sense of mastery regarding capacity to formulate new / creative solutions when taking on an opponent in sport may result in greater confidence to be creative at work. Social relationships and social support provided through sport may also provide participants with a source of belonging and companionship. The development of connections (on and off the field) to others who share common interests, can build a sense of belonging that may mediate improvements in mental health outcomes. Social support is often provided emotionally during expressions of trust and care; instrumentally via tangible assistance; through information such as advice and suggestions; or as appraisal such feedback. All forms of social support provided on and off the field contribute to a more generalised sense of perceived support that may mediate the effect of social interaction on mental health outcomes.

Participation in sport may influence mental health via some combination of the social mechanisms identified by Thoits, and the neurobiological, psychosocial, and behavioral mechanisms stemming from physical activity identified by Lubans [ 29 , 64 ]. The exact mechanisms through which sport may confer psychological benefit is likely to vary between sports, as each sport varies in its physical and social requirements. One must also consider the social effects of sports participation both on and off the field. For instance, membership of a sporting team and/or club may provide a sense of identity and belonging—an effect that persists beyond the immediacy of playing the sport and may have a persistent effect on their psychological health. Furthermore, the potential for team-based activity to provide additional benefit to psychological outcomes may not just be attributable to the differences in social interactions, there are also physiological differences in the requirements for sport both within (team vs. team) and between (team vs. individual) categories that may elicit additional improvements in psychological outcomes. For example, evidence supports that exercise intensity moderates the relationship between physical activity and several psychological outcomes—supporting that sports performed at higher intensity will be more beneficial for psychological health.

Limitations and recommendations

There are several limitations of this review worthy of consideration. Firstly, amongst the included studies there was considerable heterogeneity in study outcomes and study methodology, and self-selection bias (especially in non-experimental studies) is likely to influence study findings and reduce the likelihood that study participants and results are representative of the overall population. Secondly, the predominately observational evidence included in this and Eime’s prior review enabled us to identify the positive relationship between sports participation and social and psychological health (and examine directionality)—but more experimental and longitudinal research is required to determine causality and explore potential mechanisms responsible for the effect of sports participation on participant outcomes. Additional qualitative work would also help researchers gain a better understanding of the relationship between specific elements of the sporting environment and mental health and social outcomes in adult participants. Thirdly, there were no studies identified in the literature where sports participation involved animals (such as equestrian sports) or guns (such as shooting sports). Such studies may present novel and important variables in the assessment of mental health benefits for participants when compared to non-participants or participants in sports not involving animals/guns—further research is needed in this area. Our proposed conceptual model also identifies several pathways through which sport may lead to improvements in mental health—but excludes some potentially negative influences (such as poor coaching behaviors and injury). And our model is not designed to capture all possible mechanisms, creating the likelihood that other mechanisms exist but are not included in this review. Additionally, an interrelationship exits between physical activity, mental health, and social relationships, whereby changes in one area may facilitate changes in the other/s; but for the purpose of this study, we have focused on how the physical and social elements of sport may mediate improvements in psychological outcomes. Consequently, our conceptual model is not all-encompassing, but designed to inform and guide future research investigating the impact of sport participation on mental health.

The findings of this review endorse that participation in sport is beneficial for psychological well-being, indicators of psychological ill-being, and social outcomes in adults. Furthermore, participation in team sports is associated with better psychological and social outcomes compared to individual sports or other physical activities. Our findings support and add to previous review findings [ 1 ]; and have informed the development of our ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model for adults which presents the potential mechanisms by which participation in sport may affect mental health.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the work of the original systematic review conducted by Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., and Payne, W. R. (2013).

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All authors contributed to the conducting of this study and reporting the findings. The titles of studies identified were screened by LW, and abstracts and full text articles reviewed independently by LW and NE. For the included studies, data was extracted independently by LW and checked by NE, and the risk of bias assessment was performed by LW and AP independently. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript and agree with the order of presentation of the authors.

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Eather, N., Wade, L., Pankowiak, A. et al. The impact of sports participation on mental health and social outcomes in adults: a systematic review and the ‘Mental Health through Sport’ conceptual model. Syst Rev 12 , 102 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02264-8

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Movement, Play, and Games—An Essay about Youth Sports and Its Benefits for Human Development

Miguel nery.

1 Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Tecnologia, Universidade Europeia, 1500-210 Lisboa, Portugal

Isabel Sequeira

2 Self-Psicologia e Psicoterapia, 1150-278 Lisboa, Portugal

Carlos Neto

3 Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-004 Lisboa, Portugal

António Rosado

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The acknowledgment of the qualities and features of the world is made through the body, movement, and imagination. During their development, children learn new skills, complexify their thoughts, and become more autonomous. The progressive increase in motor repertoire in children reflects a more unified and solid self. Nowadays, there is a generalized restriction of the movement of children. It starts at home when parents establish rigid and/or phobic attachments with their children; it can be also observed at school which is more and more based on rigid learning rhythms and obsessive ideas about students’ performance, and finally in urban areas where free and outdoor play has considerably decreased during recent decades. The current lifestyles in Western societies resulted in a decrease in play among children. The culture influences the dominant types of psychopathology and, during childhood, mental suffering is often expressed with the increase (turmoil) or decrease (inhibition) of the body movement. Sports are underpinned by movement and play; they are a powerful tool in health promotion and an excellent way to assign meaning to movement. This work is an essay about the importance of play and youth sports in child development.

1. Introduction

This essay article addresses the importance of play and youth sports in child development. We focus mostly on early stages of sport engagement, when play should be the core activity of childhood. Different theoretical approaches are considered, including child motor behavior, sports sciences, psychology, and psychoanalysis. The manuscript is divided into three parts, and each one of them is divided into its main topics and sub-topics.

PART I is dedicated to child development, and aims to provide a general framework for the upcoming sections. We start with a brief review of early phases of child development (psychomotor development), before moving forward until the beginning of more structured sport practice. A special attention is provided to the body as a means of self-expression and communication with others, and to different types of play (and its development) during childhood. It includes topics such as body, attachment, motor behavior, and play.

PART II—entitled Actual Constraints on Child Development—focuses on recent issues that constrain child (natural) movement, and have negative impact on their development. Despite the impressive economic development in the last half century in Western societies, with considerable positive impact on child health and education, modern lifestyles face new obstacles. Among these is a severe decrease in physical activity and play among youngsters. We describe how child movement and (free unstructured) play have become less accepted in settings such as home, school, and street. Later, we focus on the analysis of problems that result from it. We do not intend to make an in-depth analysis of child psychopathology; the focus is on the difficulties mostly expressed through the body (although related to overall development). We divided such problems into opposite poles related to a lack or excess of movement.

Finally, in PART III, we focus on the role of sports in child development. Here, we analyze the symbolic meaning of sports, and how it may contribute to fostering healthy development. This final section aims to provide a reflection about the use of sports as a tool to tackle issues. To do so, we start with a brief description of three models that emphasize the role of sports in child development. Although being generally perceived as a social good, engagement in sports is not always positive, and can also become a source of suffering due to different types of abuse existent in this context. We briefly address some types of violence and abuse that may be found in sports, and the increasing importance of safeguarding. We finish with a reflection about the potential of sports as a tool to promote healthy development (when properly conducted).

2. PART I. Child Development. Play and Motor Behavior

Play is a key element in child development. The body, movement, and the imagination are very important means for children to explore and progressively understand their environment. The body includes both “somatic” and “relational” parts, and these are interconnected. The somatic part of the body relates to the maturation process, musculoskeletal system, and physiology, and it is mainly approached by scientific areas such as biology, chemistry, and some disciplines of medicine such as neurology and pediatrics, among others. On the other hand, the relational part of the body relates to attachment (affect, emotions, and feelings) between the child and his/her significant others and environment, and it is mostly approached by scientific areas such as psychology, psychoanalysis, and social sciences.

The body must be understood based on an integrative perspective that considers both somatic and relational parts, their interconnection, and mutual influence. We consider the tangible part of the body, but with extensions that go beyond its physical limits, through the attachment and connections established during the personal history of the individual, and the development of his/her autobiographical memory [ 1 ].

The development of neurosciences shed some light on these topics; it is now widely accepted and more deeply understood that the mind is underpinned by a biological structure that cannot be ignored [ 2 , 3 ]. Considering that both attachment and physical maturation contribute to the development of the individual—and both play an important role in healthy development—we briefly summarize some ideas that underpin the forthcoming reflection.

2.2. Attachment

There is considerable evidence of the influence of attachment on child development, including the styles of attachment and personality development [ 4 ], the negative outcomes of deprivation [ 5 ], healthy and psychopathological development [ 6 ], and mentalization and development of self [ 7 ].

Humans have a long childhood period, and babies are born incredibly dependent on their caregivers (contrary to other species, including several mammals). The British pediatrician and psychoanalyst Donald Winnicott—who dedicated most of his clinical activity to children—once stated that “there is no such thing as the baby”, along with “a baby alone doesn’t exist. What exists is always a nursing couple” [ 8 ]. This iconic sentence of the psychoanalytic field relates to the total dependence of the baby, and alerts us to the need to think about the baby within this relation/attachment (mother–baby dyad). We are born with a considerable potential, but we take much time to become autonomous. The developmental endeavor of becoming autonomous (and the degree of its success) greatly depends on the type (and quality) of the attachment created between the baby and its caregivers.

A mother and child-centered framework is established through the process of the development of the self. The emotional, neurological, and structural puzzle that provides the infant for his future connections is constructed from this plan. Therefore, each person’s attachment style will be determined by the responsiveness, contingency, and persistence of their mother’s replies to their bond requests.

Humans are born with a bonding mechanism that allows them to connect with a caregiver and, from this relationship, develop a connection with the rest of the world. Therefore, the body is the locus of secure bonding expression, the safe place. When a baby feels cherished, he perceives his body as a secure haven. Secure attachment bonds offer emotional support, safety, and availability throughout a human’s developmental history, particularly during trying times and significant moments of change. Infants who are securely attached can anticipate their caregivers’ availability, comprehension, and responsiveness thanks to attachment events. They will consequently feel secure and confident.

According to attachment theory, the stable nature of the attachment bond serves as a vital “emotional buffer” and is essential for completing developmental tasks in adolescence, such as adjusting to bodily changes, developing one’s own identity, or making goals for the future. The baby or toddler can begin to act in ways that involve exploring his environment by feeling secure and confident thanks to the safe bonding response. Initially, the main caregiver figures, followed by additional characters, the world space, and so forth.

The body serves as both the place and the agent of discovery and exploration. The physical body, with its limitations and potential, is a place and agent of pleasure and pain. Bowlby’s initial choice of protection as a “principal” biological function is no longer necessary, as noted in Bowlby’s final collection of lectures from 1988. Instead, the multiple advantages of attachment—such as feeding, learning about the environment, self-regulation, and social interaction—all contribute to its conveying an evolutionary advantage. According to this theory, attachment is not seen as a symptom of immaturity that needs to be overcome, but rather as a normal and healthy trait of individuals throughout the lifespan.

The Attachment Behavioral System

An “attachment behavioral system” is hypothesized to contain attachment behaviors. To characterize a species-specific system of behaviors that result in certain predictable consequences, at least one of which contributes to survival and reproductive fitness, Bowlby [ 9 ] borrowed the behavioral system notion from ethology. Inherent motivation is a part of the behavioral systems idea.

Children are believed to form attachments to others regardless of whether their physiological demands are satisfied, so there is no need to see attachment as the result of any more fundamental processes or “drive”. Evidence demonstrating that attachment is not caused by links with food, as suggested by secondary drive theories (e.g., [ 10 ]), supports this theory, as was already indicated [ 11 , 12 ]. The infant chooses the actions that are most appropriate for that situation and with that caregiver. As they grow, children have access to a wider range of approaches to proximity and learn which ones work best under what conditions. In fact, as Sroufe and Waters [ 13 ] noted, this organizational perspective aids in explaining stability in the face of both developmental and environmental changes.

Murray [ 14 ] established the concept of “affiliation”, according to Bowlby [ 9 ], p. 229: “Under this heading are classified all indications of friendliness and kindness, of the desire to accomplish things in partnership with others”. As a result, it encompasses a far wider range of behaviors than attachment and is not meant to include conduct that is focused on one or a small number of specific figures, which is the characteristic of attachment behavior. Thus, the organization of the biologically driven, survival-promoting desire to be sociable with others is referred to as the social system . The likelihood that people will spend at least some of their time with others is a significant expected result of activating this system.

Whenever it comes to what initiates behavior, what stops behavior, and how behaviors are organized, studies of both humans and other primates clearly demonstrate distinctions between the attachment and sociability systems [ 15 , 16 ].

When a child is secure, they want to play and engage socially, so, when a youngster is happy and certain of his or her attachment-whereabouts, they search for a playmate. Additionally, once they find the playmate, they want to interact with them in a playful manner. So, as a conclusion, a secure attachment allows the toddler to feel secure and to explore and places the body as central. Through the lifespan, it will allow engagement in play and sports. The usage of the body replays the early playful moments with primary caregivers.

2.3. Motor Behavior

The development of motor behavior heavily depends on maturation. The exploration of the surrounding environment by children requires movement, which is a key element in child development. Babies develop within their mother´s uterus for as long as possible; however, when they are born, despite their innate skills, they are still very “incomplete” and totally dependent on external support. From the rudimentary movements and basic skills of the baby, to the possibility to execute more complex and intentional movements (with higher capacity to act on the surrounding environment), children progressively develop (with more or less harmony) their motor skills, cognition, and language. During the early stages, children considerably increase their motor abilities; in a short period of approximately two years, they learn how to reach and grasp, to sit, to stand and walk, and to chew and talk [ 17 ]. Here, the action/movement of the body should be understood as a way of expression (speech), in which an increased physical coordination and motor competency/domain reflect a more unified self.

Through movement, children progress from the total dependency of early childhood to a more active functioning of exploration of the environment. To crawl and, later, to walk are examples of remarkable conquests made by toddlers and allow the first movements away from the secure base (mother). These movements symbolically relate to the earlier essays of autonomy [ 18 ]. The motor development allows new opportunities for children to learn about the surrounding world, and the flourishing motor skills instigate developmental changes in perceptual, cognitive, and social domains [ 19 ].

As described, during the early stages of their lives, children progressively increase their motor repertoire because of both maturational and interactional processes with their environment. The acquisition of these motor skills, along with cognitive development and construction of psychic apparatus, occurs through play activity [ 20 ], which is internally motivated and has a symbolic feature that promotes wellbeing and pleasure.

There are several types of play; these develop and evolve during childhood. The different types of play are not mutually exclusive; actually, they frequently overlap, but one of them tends to be more active/present during a certain period of child development, based on his/her degree of psychic structure. So, different types of play are related to different types of internal functioning. This is the reason why children with different ages tend to choose different types of play which are more in line with their stage of development. During childhood, new types of play overcome the preceding ones, which requires new skills. There are several taxonomies of play; these vary based on different scientific approaches and disciplines. This is a possible definition from developmental psychology:

Play is often defined as activity done for its own sake, characterized by means rather than ends (the process is more important than any end point or goal), flexibility (objects are put in new combinations or roles are acted out in new ways), and positive affect (children often smile, laugh, and say they enjoy it). These criteria contrast play with exploration (focused investigation as a child gets more familiar with a new toy or environment, that may then lead into play), work (which has a definite goal), and games (more organized activities in which there is some goal, typically winning the game). Developmentally, games with rules tend to be common after about 6 years of age, whereas play is very frequent for 2- to 6-year-olds [ 21 ].

According to Pellegrini [ 22 ], play has four domains: social, locomotor, object-directed, and pretend. Games come later and are more demanding from a social point of view.

Play is very important during child and self-development; there is solid scientific evidence corroborating this [ 23 ].

2.4.1. Social Play

Social play is part of the interaction between children and adults (typically parents), and between children and other children. Peek-a-boo play is one of earliest forms of play, in which babies and their parents engage in interactions characterized by some of the hallmarks of play, such as unpredictability, vocalizations, expectations, and positive affect. The quality of the social interaction between children and their parents strongly influences the competence of the children in future interactions with peers and others, due to the social learning and nature of the attachment between parents and children [ 22 ].

From a psychoanalytical standpoint, peek-a-boo is based on presence/absence, and relates to the need to be sought and found, as well as the role of being seen in the development of the self. By playing this, children progressively try to elaborate and symbolize the absence, which is a fundamental acquisition for their future social and academic endeavors [ 24 ]. Toddlers are thrilled when their parents hide behind a sweatshirt and ask aloud where the baby is, and then they put down the sweatshirt and show their happy face for “having found” him/her. Fragments of this type of play remain during childhood, although it may appear in different manners such as turning lights on and off, or later in the hide and seek game.

2.4.2. Locomotor Play

Locomotor play comes later, and the child’s body is more actively involved; it includes a dimension of physical vigor, and consists in exaggerated and non-functional behaviors and behavioral sequences. According to Pellegrini [ 22 ], there are three sub-types of locomotor play, with different age peaks: (1) rhythmic stereotypies (infancy), (2) exercise play (preschool years), and (3) rough-and-tumble play (middle childhood). Locomotor play has physical, cognitive, and social benefits, and there are some gender differences, with boys being more prone to engage in this type of play, especially exercise play and rough-and-tumble play. Although rough-and-tumble play is a sub-type of locomotor play, due to its importance in future sport activities, we describe it with more detail. Rough-and-tumble play is frequent among juvenile mammals (mostly among males), and has an important impact on physical and psychological development. It consists in play fighting (very different from real fighting). Children wrestle, climb over each other, and roll around, among other similar behaviors. Besides developing strength and physical skills, it also allows participants to assess other´s skills and physical strength [ 22 , 25 ]. Rough-and-tumble play fosters both psychological development and social skills; more specifically, it helps children to learn the limits of their strength, to find out what other children will and will not let them do, to develop social relationships due to the change in roles and sort out personal boundaries, and, also importantly, burn off energy and decrease tension.

2.4.3. Object-Directed Play

In object-directed play, children use objects (extensions of their bodies) when playing; they discover novel uses for objects, and these can be used in exploration, in play (with objects), in construction, and in tool use [ 26 ]. The use of objects is connected with social network and group structure.

2.4.4. Pretend Play

Pretend play—also called imaginative play or dramatic play—happens when children use their imagination to enact scenarios (experienced, seen, and/or fantasized). It may progress from solitary to social pretending with others, and according to Pellegrini [ 22 ] there are four components of pretending: (1) decontextualized behavior, (2) self–other relations, (3) sequential combinations, and (4) object substitution.

Pretend play is rooted in early interactions with adults, especially the child’s mother (attachment), and may be exclusive to humans. It becomes more intense with the rise of the Oedipal complex. This type of play allows the possibility of movements towards identifications, the deeper acknowledgement of sexual differences between boys and girls, and other important aspects of construction of the identity [ 24 ]. Here, children enact different roles (e.g., super-hero, princess) within an interpersonal scenario with peers and other important figures. This type of pretend play allows children to dramatize his/her inner world, speaking about him/herself through others. Some gender differences should be noticed; boys and girls tend to choose different characters, which becomes more pronounced at this stage.

The definitions of play and games differ; the latter develop later in childhood, are governed by specific rules based on deduction [ 27 ], and the aim is usually to win. During childhood, children tend to have an idealized idea of their parents, and perceive them as omnipotent entities who know everything, and are able to solve any problem. This (normal) idealization is rooted in the need to feel safe in the face of anxieties (and vulnerability). In healthy development, the idealization (and illusion) progressively decreases, allowing children to abandon their omnipotence (self-centered interpretation of the world) and to incorporate social norms and rules, provided by social order; as a result, children can then access more abstract thinking. In this phase, the game emerges; it reflects a higher differentiation between psychic structures (id, ego, superego), and is underpinned by both competition and measurement of skills between the participants (peers function as a mirror).

Play (and later, games) have an important role in child development. Play allows—among other things—the expression of internal conflicts (some of them normal, others more prone to become psychopathology), and children change from passivity to activity, allowing them to act upon their surrounding reality. The later engagement in games is more demanding; due to their standardized characteristics, to properly engage in games, children must submit to social rules and norms. We consider that the earlier forms of play and games—along with specialization of basic motor skills—underpin sport activities. More on this topic will be discussed later.

2.4.5. Importance of Play in Natural Environments

Despite its benefits for child development, the amount of time spent by children on outdoor free play (unstructured activities) has considerably decreased in current societies [ 28 , 29 ], contributing to more sedentary lifestyles, disconnected from the natural world [ 30 ].

Unstructured outdoor play has several benefits in child development, health, and wellbeing, including physical development, self-regulation and attention, communication and social development, cognitive development and creativity [ 29 ], and imagination and reasoning abilities [ 31 ]. Outdoor play also contributes to fostering physical exercise (and energy bust), to improve social and emotional development [ 18 ] and may contribute to establishing rapport between parents and their children [ 31 ]. Due to its benefits, outdoor play has been considered in educational approaches [ 28 , 32 ].

3. PART II. Actual Constraints on Child Development

3.1. settings.

Nowadays, mostly in Western societies, child movement is frequently (and early) not accepted and contained. The COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to the decrease in child movement due to lockdown and other preventive measures that resulted in a decrease in outdoor areas to play, and increased the physical distance between people [ 33 ]. In their review article, Kourti et. al. [ 34 ] suggest that play habits changed during the COVID-19 pandemic (and teachers were concerned about it); the authors analyzed 17 articles from Europe and North America, and concluded that outdoor play decreased during the pandemic, while indoor play and videogames/screen use increased. However, even before the pandemic, some contexts were identified in which child movement was already being felt as unacceptable. Here, we highlight three of them.

3.1.1. Home

At home, within the family environment, when parenting styles lead to insecure attachment styles, the natural movement of infants—which is associated with (normal) aggressiveness, dirtiness, excitement, and noise—is perceived as uncomfortable to some parents [ 24 ]. The normal movement of children is poorly understood and contained by an external environment that aims to impose excessive order and tidiness, going in the opposite direction of children’s needs. When this happens, as submission is gradually imposed, children (especially male) are pushed to become “good”: quiet, clean and “well-behaved”. Here, when children behave accordingly, their submission tends to be reinforced by parents (and, as a result, the opposite behavior is rejected). For girls, it is expected, even in an unconscious way, that they behave, stay quiet, and play with dolls or house tools.

The increased (and often excessive) use of electronic devices among children also contributes to the decrease in play. These devices keep children quiet in front of a screen; it becomes very useful when parents wish for their children to demand less attention from them. The high number of children who cannot be seated at the dinner table with their parents (and perhaps siblings) without having an electronic device to play is impressive. Despite the positive aspects of technology, the excessive use of electronic devices by children is a red flag regarding their healthy development. The stimulus of electronic devices is excessive. This aspect leads to a growing necessity of fast pleasure and immediate reward. In an older child, the world is “expected” to be pleasurable and satisfying. So, frustration and need for continuous reward are a predicable factor of anxiety and aggressiveness among older children.

According to Desmurget [ 35 ], the excessive use of electronic devices by children may result in negative outcomes regarding their physical health (obesity, heart diseases, lower average life expectancy), behavior (aggressiveness, depression, anxiety), and intellectual skills (language, concentration, and memory). Some major international organizations have also focused their attention on the impact of excessive use of electronic devices by youngsters [ 36 , 37 ].

3.1.2. School

The first major separation of children from their nuclear families and homes occurs when they go to school. Even those children who have been in kindergarten before going to school now have to face a more structured and demanding environment. Children face challenges such as the need to develop their skills, to learn school material (within a specific time), to make friends, and to progressively become less dependent of adults—to grow. Obviously, attachment issues have a strong influence on their success in these demanding tasks.

School is a very important context and allows children to grow and develop their skills. However, their natural movement is also often poorly understood and tolerated. Children are often asked to keep quiet, and to listen to a teacher for long periods of time, in an environment often marked by an obsessive analysis of school performance (grades) and accumulation of material rather than fostering understanding [ 18 , 38 ]. Education has become more technical and “pseudo-cumulative”, with emphasis being placed on “skill acquisition” rather than fundamental knowledge and fostering the development of the capacity of children to think about themselves and how the world works.

Today´s school asks children to carefully listen to what their teacher tells them; however, children are being raised in a world where the value of words has decreased considerably over time, and children are constantly a target of visual, immediate, and short-term stimuli (electronic devices, social media, and others). As a result, the opportunities to appreciate silence, to contemplate, to feel, to listen and be listened to, and to have relationships with an adult caregiver that foster thinking about how the world works and thinking about themselves (which is time consuming), have decreased [ 24 ].

3.1.3. Outdoor (Street)

The lack of play in cities and streets is also a constraint. During recent decades, outdoor (street) free play has been gradually replaced by standardized and artificial activities [ 39 ], in which children are oriented by adults in predefined and goal-oriented activities. Free time has become a paradox; children are often asked to do something in time periods that are supposed to be free (and include the possibility not to do anything). Laziness among children is often necessary and important; when children feel bored, they tend to use creative solutions to amuse themselves. This often allows games and play to arise. In urban areas (where most families live), the presence of children playing on the street has significantly decreased. They mostly live locked at home and are transported by adults from point A to point B all the time. Today, the street, perceived as a place to play with other children, practically does not exist.

Parents, schools, and urban areas often have difficulties to contain and to provide meaning to child movement. The natural benefits of play are being replaced by artificial programs (often seen at school) to “teach empathy”, to “develop social skills”, and/or to “learn about emotions”.

3.2. Psychopathology

The verbal skills and the capacity of children to access symbolic thought, when compared to adults, are, obviously, lower (and still under development). When play decreases among children, psychopathology tends to arise [ 39 , 40 ]. Clinicians who work with children often observe infants’ difficulties being expressed through their bodies. We do not intend to cover child psychopathology in detail; for the purpose of this article, we divided the problem into two groups: children whose (normal) aggressiveness becomes inhibited (lack of movement) and, at the opposite pole, those whose who are characterized by excess of movement (due to the lack of containment).

3.2.1. Lack of Movement: Inhibition of Aggressiveness

Inhibited children tend to be more submissive, formal, and “hyper-mature” (behaviors often reinforced by their parents and teachers), kinds of mini-adults who lack spontaneity and have difficulties with imagination and fantasy. These children are usually perceived as well-behaved and a role model at school but have difficulties in making friends and in free spontaneous play.

Inhibited children are much less often signaled at school (where many cases of primary diagnosis are spotted) because they do not disturb adults. The preoccupations around these children are often connected with their difficulties with peers (e.g., bullying victimization), a sudden (and not expected) break in their academic performance, or abrupt change in behavior. The expression of normal aggressiveness often fails in submissive children, not allowing them to be properly assertive. The parents of inhibited children (especially boys) often seek sports activity for their children, expecting them to learn there how to defend themselves (e.g., fighting sports), or to make friends to compensate for the loneliness felt at school due to peer rejection.

3.2.2. Excess of Movement: ADHD and Related Issues

The opposite pole to inhibited children are those children who cannot calm down and are constantly excited and hyperkinetic. In these cases, the movement is disorganized and expresses internal conflict and/or nameless threats. The excess of excitement (that should not be confused with normal motor activity) often reflects a poorly harmonious evolution in child development. Inhibited children often have problems with expressing normal aggressiveness; on the other hand, hyperkinetic children (mostly boys) often have problems related to lack of containment. These children are often labeled as suffering from attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Interestingly, these children tend to behave differently if they are alone, with parents, in school, or with someone who they do not know. Their behavior also differs considerably when they are with peers (more agitated) or in a one-on-one situation with an adult (they tend to regulate more easily), especially a male figure. Finally, very stimulating environments and situations in which children are freer to control their learning rhythms, and situations in which they are being paid to do tasks, also contribute to the ability of ADHD children to regulate themselves [ 24 ]. These variables allow us to think about the role of internal working models in ADHD, as well as the importance sports may have in the regulation of these children; those (especially boys) who have difficulties in impulse control and affect regulation often find sports a positive environment, and may strongly benefit from such activities.

The benefits of sports for children at both poles will be described in more detail later in this essay.

4. PART III. Role of Sports in Child Development

4.1. how sports foster healthy development.

Sport participation fosters overall wellbeing of children [ 41 ]. Efforts have been made to develop models to describe how sports foster human development. Here, we briefly describe three proposals, based on different approaches, and considering different variables.

4.1.1. Developmental Model of Sport Participation

The Developmental Model of Sport Participation (DMSP) is based on theoretical and empirical data, and aims to describe the processes, pathways, and outcomes related to the participation of children and adolescents in sports [ 42 ]. The DMSP considers the importance of appropriate training considering the age of the participants and their physical and psycho-social development. It identifies three trajectories towards grassroots and elite performance: (1) sampling years (age 6–12), (2) specializing years (age 13–15), and (3) investment years (age 16+). The DMSP considers early diversification (taking part in different sports) to foster the development of general motor skills. It also calls attention to the benefits of a high amount of deliberate play, and a low amount of deliberate practice, during sampling years.

4.1.2. Personal Assets Framework

The Personal Assets Framework [ 43 ] aims to describe the mechanisms of positive youth development in sports. This model considers that sport experiences should be analyzed based on three dynamic elements: (1) type of activities (What?), (2) quality of relationships (Who?), and (3) setting (Where?).

According to Côté, Murata, and Martin [ 41 ], the type of activity emphasizes the need to tackle early specialization due to its negative impacts on children (see [ 44 ]), and to foster play during childhood while progressively increasing practice as youngsters grow older and approach adolescence. The quality of the relationships includes interpersonal relationships, team dynamics, and the broader social environment; different types of relations (attachments), such as adult–child, child–child (peers), child–club, individual, and group relations, should be considered. Finally, the settings include structures that provide physical support for the sport activities.

4.1.3. Long-Term Athlete Development

Long-term athlete development is a developmental model underpinning a considerable amount of research, that aims to foster participation in sports and physical activity throughout life, by describing what people should be doing at certain ages, in sports. The idea of doing the right things at the right time, in sports participation, is described in nine stages, from childhood to adulthood, divided by gender. The stages consider the physical, intellectual, cognitive, and moral development of the individuals within each category, and are divided into: (1) Active Start (age 0–6), FUNdamentals (age 6–9), Learning to Train (age 9–12), Training to Train (age 12–16), Learning to Compete (age 16–18), Training to Compete (age 18–21), Learning to Win (age 20–23), Winning for a Living (age 24+), and finally Active for Life (any age). The first three stages are mostly focused on physical literacy and development of basic motor skills through play; these underpin further endeavor in sports, from being active in life to competition [ 45 ].

Despite their differences, all three models overlap regarding the need to foster free play during the early stages of athlete development, and describe its benefits for motor, social, and psychological development. Children (especially boys) easily engage in sport activities, and these can play an important role in child development.

4.2. Maltreatment and Abuse in Sports

Sports are generally perceived as positive, and their potential benefits for children are well known; as a result, parents, teachers, and physicians, among others, often foster the engagement of children in sport activities. However, participation in sports may also result in negative outcomes; despite the potential to foster human development, several types of abuse may occur during sport activities. Abuse in sports settings has been studied—especially in the last couple of decades—including research on bullying [ 46 ], coach emotional abuse [ 47 ], early specialization [ 44 ], sexual abuse and harassment [ 48 ], and different types of interpersonal violence [ 49 ], among others. The results of the studies, as well as the public knowledge of some major scandals, called attention to the need to protect young athletes from abuse. Safeguarding in sports has progressively become a growing concern.

When parents leave their kids in sport clubs, they expect them to be in a safe environment, and engaged in a positive activity with peers, regulated by a responsible adult. However, as stated before, different types of abuse may occur. Some children may be (re)victimized in sports, rather than finding a healthy environment that helps them to grow and overcome their difficulties. We can then ask, are sports positive for children?

4.3. Does the Engagement in Sports Foster Child Development?

The right answer to this question is probably that sports are a very powerful tool to foster human development, and children may find many positive opportunities to develop physical and emotional skills, and to improve themselves constantly. However—and despite their potential—the quality of the engagement in sports greatly relies on the quality of the relationships (attachments) established with significant others within this setting (and with sport itself). We can conclude that merely practicing sports cannot ensure positive outcomes, but if sports activities are properly conducted and adapted to children’s developmental stages, then sports can be an outstanding tool to foster positive development of children and youth.

Being a competent child´s sport coach is high skilled and demanding activity. These coaches must have knowledge about sports training, but also about child development. To become a role model, these coaches must understand the children´s needs, and always focus their attention on their best interests.

4.4. Understanding Sports

Those who are/were athletes, and even those who do not practice sports and prefer to merely watch, are often excited by the accomplishments of athletes, or become profoundly sad and disappointed when their admired athlete or team loses a match/game. People often celebrate a point/goal/win in enthusiastic ways, rarely seen in other areas of their lives. Sports promote fights and disputes, but also companionship between people. The passion is often used as an explanation to explain such apparently weird behaviors. Besides that, sport activities are universal, which calls attention to their importance. Actually, sports are an ancestral activity, deeply rooted in all cultures, underpinned by play, and include corporeality and intra- and interpersonal relationships within a competition setting. Sports have been studied by several scientific areas, with different aims and methods. Historical analyses of paintings on the walls of caves, artifacts, and manuscripts, among other records and sources of information, describe how sport activities have always been spread all over the world, and have always had an important social role [ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. There seems to be a common base for most sports; modern sports are underpinned by the ancient ones and—despite some differences due to geographical, cultural, and chronological variables—there is a considerable overlap between them.

Sport sciences have focused their attention on improving the performance of athletes (including many efforts of sport psychology). However, other approaches focused mostly on understanding sports, by analyzing their social and symbolic aspects; among these are included sociology, anthropology, and social psychology. Regarding psychoanalysis—perhaps surprisingly—there is a lack of research on sports [ 54 , 55 ]. The involvement and participation in sports are not purely rational; unconscious drives and life and death instincts play an important role that helps to understand why humans become involved in sports, and the reason for the great amount of pleasure from such activity [ 56 ]. To better understand sports and their “passion”, we must look at the symbolic meanings of sports activity. The psychoanalysis approach to sports considers topics such as aggressiveness, narcissism [ 54 , 57 ], sexuality, and attachment themes throughout the human life cycle [ 57 ], among others.

Basic Elements of Sports

Sports are not easy to define and include under the same concept. Several operational definitions and taxonomies have been proposed, and none of them is totally satisfying. We do not intend to develop such a conceptual discussion. For the purpose of this article, we will adopt a definition that—despite its limitations—has received a large consensus. The European Sports Charter ([ 58 ] https://rm.coe.int/16804c9dbb (accessed on 1 January 2023), in Article 2, defines sport as: “all forms of physical activity which, through casual or organised participation, aim at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all levels”.

Despite the differences between different sports (and sports definitions), they are all underpinned by three basic elements: (body) movement, play, and competition (games).

(a) Movement

Sports result from the specialization of basic movements such as walking, running, jumping, kicking, grabbing/throwing, diving, climbing, etc. As a result, the body plays a major role in sports activities. Extension materials should also be considered (these are often used in child play); here, the body receives a “new part”, an extension, perceived as a continuity of the body itself (hockey or tennis are good examples).

The observation and analysis of the movement should not be based exclusively on sports techniques based on a musculoskeletal approach; it should also include the imprints from the psyche. The way children move and perceive their body is strongly related to their psychological development and attachment issues. Sports should therefore be perceived as an important area to provide meaning to movement, through a relation with another (bond). This is particularly important for youth sports training and young children who might suffer from inhibition of aggressiveness, ADHD, and other related issues.

Sports occur in a context of play with rules (games). They are underpinned by competition, and include ludic, symbolic, and pleasurable aspects. The understanding of the symbolic features of sports (and their potential to transform), as well as the working models of children, allows is to use sports in the service of child development. Sports allow the sublimation of aggressiveness in adequate ways, as well as impulses and unconscious desires.

(c) Competition

Competition is inherent to sports, and the engagement in these activities allows children to express normal aggressiveness. By playing sports, passiveness is turned into activeness, and children may symbolically domain others, and simulate their destruction (fantasy). The unconscious elements involved in sports may be expressed in adequate and progressively integrated ways (rather than being projected and acted out).

The binomials inside/outside, activity/passivity, and attack/defense interconnect and mutually influence each other. Many sports symbolically relate to attack and defense, to kill or die. The notions of space, territory, and target (own and opponents) should also be considered when analyzing sports. Besides motor skills, cognitive and spontaneous domains also play an important role and should not be ignored. The cognitive domain relates to planning and discipline; the representation (thinking and imagining) of an action before acting and the discipline to execute an action plan are always present in sports and extend to other areas of children’s lives (such as school). The spontaneous domain relates to freedom, to a creative flow, complementary to the cognitive domain.

4.5. Positive Outcomes

Here, we aim to analyze the use of sports as a tool to foster child healthy development. To do so, we divided the positive outcomes of sports into three major categories: (1) assigning meaning to body movement, (2) corporeality, fantasy, and play, and (3) ethics: positive identifications and sense of belonging. These areas are discussed and analyzed in the following.

4.5.1. Assigning Meaning to Body Movement

The brain has seven primary process emotional systems: SEEKING, SADNESS, FEAR, LUST, CARE, ANGER and PLAY; these are strongly linked to psychiatric disorders. The PLAY/JOY system stimulates young animals to engage in physical activities such as those described in rough-and-tumble play (wrestling, running, chasing each other), which helps young mammals to learn social limits and develop impulse control. If children do not play (or play less than needed), the development of their brain may be impaired, resulting in consequences in their maturation [ 3 , 59 ]. According to Panksepp [ 40 ], the increasing prevalence of ADHD among children may be related to the decreased opportunities for preschool children to engage more often in natural self-generated social play, because this type of play facilitates behavioral inhibition, while psychostimulants reduce playfulness.

When children are medicated for ADHD, many decrease their motor activity, but tend to feel apathy [ 24 ].

Rough-and-tumble play is also very common in childhood, especially among males; it contributes, among other aspects, to the development of social skills and capacity to increase concentration [ 60 ]. Both types of play described here underpin sports. Considering the actual decrease in play and generalized restrictions to movement among children, sports clubs became even more important to allow children to play (and move). If training is properly managed, and playfulness overcomes the development of specific motor skills, sports clubs can play a major role in assigning meaning to movement. The developmental models of young athletes overlap in the need to emphasize play and unstructured activities in early phases (see the section How Sports Foster Healthy Development). Unfortunately, many coaches of young athletes overemphasize the need to win in the short term, rather than focusing on the playfulness of sports, and on the development of children’s motor repertoire during their early training phases. Panksepp [ 40 ] proposes that play “sanctuaries” for children who suffer from ADHD should be established as an alternative for psychostimulants that reduce play. The author considers that this action would foster frontal lobe maturation and promote the healthy development of pro-social minds.

However, it is not only children who are hyperkinetic who benefit from sports. Those children who have difficulties in expressing normal aggressiveness and become too submissive may also find in sports an important setting to tackle their difficulties. Aggressiveness is natural and important; children should learn how to use and integrate it in proper ways (e.g., assertiveness). When aggressiveness is not integrated, and is turned towards the self, difficulties can arise. These children may become too mechanical, functional, and (pathologically) normative [ 61 ]. Children who suffer from obesity, dyspraxia, impairments in lateralization, and tics may also benefit from their engagement in sport activities, because they enhance body scheme and spatial–temporal representation, improve physical skills, and allow them to express aggressiveness in adequate ways.

Many difficulties of children are expressed through the body, and modern lifestyles contribute to the decrease in free play and constraint of movement. Sports can play an important role in stimulating play and movement of young children, fostering their motor, social, and psychological development. To do so, training practices should consider age appropriate activities, including free play and unstructured activities in early stages. The specialization of motor skills should be gradual, with training focused on enhancing performance, and coaches should be (more) aware of the needs of the children. In those cases of children who are inhibited or hyperkinetic, it is important understand their movement as a reflection of their internal world (and conflicts).

4.5.2. Corporeality, Fantasy, and Play

Advances in technology have brought major developments and improved the quality of lives worldwide. However, the virtual experience has also supplanted a large amount of embodied experience, which makes involvement in sports (playing) an important way to stay connected with a deep and ancestral part of human life [ 62 ].

Sports have a connection with psychoanalysis due to both considering interrelationships among intrapsychic, interpersonal, and social realms [ 57 ]. Involvement in sport activities includes the use of body expression (motor skills), within a ritual that considers both internal and external rules to regulate it (Freudian id, ego, and superego). According to Free [ 56 ], the overall system of allowances and prohibitions in sport activities may be perceived as an analogy to the Oedipal complex; most sports allow the symbolic physical expression of unconscious desires for maternal possession (which can be seen in the efforts to conquer territory, to score goals, to penetrate lines), but also require internalized discipline associated with parental authority (super ego). The pre-Oedipal functioning relates to indulgence, libido, and aggressive instincts, while the post-Oedipal regards aspects such as maturity, discipline, submission to social reality, and norms.

The internal working models of children influence how they perceive sports, and how they engage in such activities. The questions about “what” and “how” children play should be considered.

What a child plays is related to the sport chosen by him/her. What does the child try to symbolically express by playing that sport? How a child plays is related to the type of attachments he/she establishes with sports, peers, coaches, and competition. Some children do not allow themselves to win (due to the unconscious fantasy of destroying the other by doing so), while others cannot stand to lose (felt like a dangerous attack to their self-esteem). Learning how to “play the game” is very important for youngsters who engage in sports. By playing the game, we refer to learning how to relate to others in a positive way. More on this is developed in the next section.

4.5.3. Ethics: Positive Identifications and Sense of Belonging

According to Bonovitz [ 63 ], sports play an important role in the need for adolescents to search for idealization and idealized objects, for example, sport stars, allowing them to identify with these heroes, and foster their efforts for further separation from their parental figures. This positive idealization and identification reinforce the sense of identity of youngsters, within a social environment outside their families, and not directly linked with them.

By identifying with their sport heroes, youngsters may seek self-improvement and personal transcendence. In a broader sense, this is an ethical perspective of the utility of sports, that may work as a significant means to foster the identification with a competent, strong, fair, and resilient person, who works hard on a daily basis to overcome obstacles and become a successful hero. This perspective overlaps with the idea of the Jungian archetype of the hero [ 64 ].

Sports activity relies mostly on self-improvement and self-monitoring. There is the underpinning idea of competition: the best win and become champions— Citius, Altius, Fortius — Communis (Olympic Motto—Communis em 2021 [ 65 ]). The pursuit of things of value within a social setting (that include cooperation, rivalry, and competition) is important, and relates to the idea of a hierarchy. Hierarchies between people foster people to improve themselves so they can reach their goals and achievements. The idea of the champion is based on someone who is able to achieve something special; to do so, those who want to become champions must adopt the carpe diem ideal of using every day to improve him/herself (following a plan, with predefined goals). Although winning a game/competition is important, and athletes should focus their attention on it, and give their best to be successful, that game/competition is “just” one part of a much wider endeavor, that inevitably includes victories and losses, glory and frustration. This is a metaphor for life, and that is why winning each game is important but, at the same time, it is not. In the end, what might be important to teach children through sports is that the whole process, the whole sport life, is the most important, and to enhance the chances of being successful, one must learn how the world works, and how to play well with others.

Hierarchies result from the need to create a social organization, based on perceived value of their elements, that organize social relations. Hierarchies and power are frequently (and wrongly) associated with coercion and abuse. It is the misuse of power (abuse) that makes hierarchies non-functional: when elements arise from another factor rather than competence, then the hierarchy becomes tyrannical. The ideal of sports is to promote the best, based on their skills and competence, regardless their background, country, or any other factor that is not competence. Poor coaching perceives hierarchies wrongly, and tends to organize youth sport activities around two opposite poles: (1) flat hierarchies, and (2) win-at-all-costs mentality. Both approaches have flaws.

Flat hierarchies, considering that everyone wins despite their performance, are usually justified as a way to avoid negative feelings of frustration among youngsters, resulting from not being the best/champion. This approach is frequently fostered by those who consider competition a negative thing. We will try to explain why this approach is wrong.

First of all, if there is no competition, then we are not talking about sports. Competition is part of sports (and life in general). Avoiding competition is not a good strategy (especially in a long-term perspective) because it does not push children forward in order to pursue their goals. When this approach is undertaken, children see themselves as the Dodo Bird in Alice in Wonderland: despite their performance, everyone wins, and everyone has presents. When adults tell children that they win, no matter what they do (and their result), and that everything they do is always fantastic, children perceive their accomplishments as fake, and the judgement of adults as not reliable. This continued approach may contribute to the poor development of narcissism of narcissism, and the consequent feeling of not having real value. In these situations, children tend to remain in a pre-Oedipal state, not facing the social rules and personal limitations, and not being encouraged to expand their skills. The idea of keeping children in a non-confrontational ideal world does not allow them to grow up and accept their own (and others’) flaws and limitations. Here, it is important to have the role of the masculine, that helps to separate children from their protective mothers, and foster their endeavor to conquer unexplored territories.

Avoiding competition is a poor approach; however, the opposite pole of winning at all costs may not be the best option either. When adults teach children that winning at all costs is the thing to pursue, they are missing the point of the utility of sports. It is important to explain to children that the most important thing is to learn how to play the game. This does not mean that winning the game is not important, but it is more important to learn how to develop cooperation and to compete in the long term. The most important thing is to pursue this long-term goal (and sometimes to sacrifice short-term goals of winning the game) because the present competition is just a piece (and the beginning) of something bigger, longer, and more important.

Children should be trained not to necessarily win isolated games, but to improve their performance and become better, game after game (like in life). This idea is underpinned by the Olympic Motto and relates to the development of character or an attitude towards life, based on pursuing valuable things and playing well with others (in sports and life), which will increase the possibility of having success in life. To do so, sometimes one needs to sacrifice present satisfaction (winning now), and to progressively learn how to delay pleasure and build solid endeavors. By success, here, we refer to the improvement of relationships with others, by learning to metaphorically “play the game”, which will result in more positive relationships with peers, adults, and the whole community. To be successful is to learn to develop strategies to go well in life in the long term; to do so, children must identify themselves with role models not solely based on their skills, but mostly on their attitude towards sports and others.

Besides fostering active engagement over passivity, intense involvement in sports also provides a feeling of community and sense of identification [ 66 ]. According to Free [ 56 ], formally organized games and sports are reality-adapted play (post-Oedipal) that foster mutual identification between athletes, and observing rules is more significant than the victory itself. Peer relations become more and more important as children grow, peaking in adolescence, and engagement in sports can also play an important role here.

5. Conclusions

Sport activities include topics such as motor behavior (movement), unconscious motivation, conflict, and fantasy. In sports, youngsters find a way to express themselves; they allow them to confront their limitations while, at the same time, they have a huge potential for transcendence and improving resilience.

Considering the decrease in free and outdoor play in Western societies, sports become more and more important to provide meaning to child movement expressed through their bodies. Sports can be a powerful tool to foster human development. To do so, it is important to understand the relational dynamics of children, the quality of their attachments, and to know how to interpret the symbolic meaning of their behaviors. This humanistic approach to sports is the opposite of a considerable part of modern youth sports training, focused exclusively (and obsessively) on sports performance and competition. The obsession with sports performance among youngsters (as often happens at school) contributes for poor sport practices, and makes sports less fun for the athletes.

Despite the enormous potential of sports to foster child development, the quality of sport experience depends largely on the type of attachments and relationships established between the youngsters and other stakeholders in their sports environment: coach, peers, parents, club, and community. The active and continued engagement in sports fosters motor, social, and (healthier) psychological development, and should therefore be considered in youth education.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Author Contributions

Investigation, I.S.; data caution, C.N.; conception, M.N.; methods, A.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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• Open access
• Published: 21 May 2024

The bright side of sports: a systematic review on well-being, positive emotions and performance

• David Peris-Delcampo 1 ,
• Antonio Núñez 2 ,
• Paula Ortiz-Marholz 3 ,
• Aurelio Olmedilla 4 ,
• Enrique Cantón 1 ,
• Javier Ponseti 2 &
• Alejandro Garcia-Mas 2  

BMC Psychology volume  12 , Article number:  284 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

The objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review regarding the relationship between positive psychological factors, such as psychological well-being and pleasant emotions, and sports performance.

This study, carried out through a systematic review using PRISMA guidelines considering the Web of Science, PsycINFO, PubMed and SPORT Discus databases, seeks to highlight the relationship between other more ‘positive’ factors, such as well-being, positive emotions and sports performance.

The keywords will be decided by a Delphi Method in two rounds with sport psychology experts.

Participants

There are no participants in the present research.

The main exclusion criteria were: Non-sport thema, sample younger or older than 20–65 years old, qualitative or other methodology studies, COVID-related, journals not exclusively about Psychology.

Main outcomes measures

We obtained a first sample of 238 papers, and finally, this sample was reduced to the final sample of 11 papers.

The results obtained are intended to be a representation of the ‘bright side’ of sports practice, and as a complement or mediator of the negative variables that have an impact on athletes’ and coaches’ performance.

Conclusions

Clear recognition that acting on intrinsic motivation continues to be the best and most effective way to motivate oneself to obtain the highest levels of performance, a good perception of competence and a source of personal satisfaction.

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Introduction

In recent decades, research in the psychology of sport and physical exercise has focused on the analysis of psychological variables that could have a disturbing, unfavourable or detrimental role, including emotions that are considered ‘negative’, such as anxiety/stress, sadness or anger, concentrating on their unfavourable relationship with sports performance [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ], sports injuries [ 5 , 6 , 7 ] or, more generally, damage to the athlete’s health [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. The study of ‘positive’ emotions such as happiness or, more broadly, psychological well-being, has been postponed at this time, although in recent years this has seen an increase that reveals a field of study of great interest to researchers and professionals [ 11 , 12 , 13 ] including physiological, psychological, moral and social beneficial effects of the physical activity in comic book heroes such as Tintin, a team leader, which can serve as a model for promoting healthy lifestyles, or seeking ‘eternal youth’ [ 14 ].

Emotions in relation to their effects on sports practice and performance rarely go in one direction, being either negative or positive—generally positive and negative emotions do not act alone [ 15 ]. Athletes experience different emotions simultaneously, even if they are in opposition and especially if they are of mild or moderate intensity [ 16 ]. The athlete can feel satisfied and happy and at the same time perceive a high level of stress or anxiety before a specific test or competition. Some studies [ 17 ] have shown how sports participation and the perceived value of elite sports positively affect the subjective well-being of the athlete. This also seems to be the case in non-elite sports practice. The review by Mansfield et al. [ 18 ] showed that the published literature suggests that practising sports and dance, in a group or supported by peers, can improve the subjective well-being of the participants, and also identifies negative feelings towards competence and ability, although the quantity and quality of the evidence published is low, requiring better designed studies. All these investigations are also supported by the development of the concept of eudaimonic well-being [ 19 ], which is linked to the development of intrinsic motivation, not only in its aspect of enjoyment but also in its relationship with the perception of competition and overcoming and achieving goals, even if this is accompanied by other unpleasant hedonic emotions or even physical discomfort. Shortly after a person has practised sports, he will remember those feelings of exhaustion and possibly stiffness, linked to feelings of satisfaction and even enjoyment.

Furthermore, the mediating role of parents, coaches and other psychosocial agents can be significant. In this sense, Lemelin et al. [ 20 ], with the aim of investigating the role of autonomy support from parents and coaches in the prediction of well-being and performance of athletes, found that autonomy support from parents and coaches has positive relationships with the well-being of the athlete, but that only coach autonomy support is associated with sports performance. This research suggests that parents and coaches play important but distinct roles in athlete well-being and that coach autonomy support could help athletes achieve high levels of performance.

On the other hand, an analysis of emotions in the sociocultural environment in which they arise and gain meaning is always interesting, both from an individual perspective and from a sports team perspective. Adler et al. [ 21 ] in a study with military teams showed that teams with a strong emotional culture of optimism were better positioned to recover from poor performance, suggesting that organisations that promote an optimistic culture develop more resilient teams. Pekrun et al. [ 22 ] observed with mathematics students that individual success boosts emotional well-being, while placing people in high-performance groups can undermine it, which is of great interest in investigating the effectiveness and adjustment of the individual in sports teams.

There is still little scientific literature in the field of positive emotions and their relationship with sports practice and athlete performance, although their approach has long had its clear supporters [ 23 , 24 ]. It is comforting to observe the significant increase in studies in this field, since some authors (e.g [ 25 , 26 ]). . , point out the need to overcome certain methodological and conceptual problems, paying special attention to the development of specific instruments for the evaluation of well-being in the sports field and evaluation methodologies.

As McCarthy [ 15 ] indicates, positive emotions (hedonically pleasant) can be the catalysts for excellence in sport and deserve a space in our research and in professional intervention to raise the level of athletes’ performance. From a holistic perspective, positive emotions are permanently linked to psychological well-being and research in this field is necessary: firstly because of the leading role they play in human behaviour, cognition and affection, and secondly, because after a few years of international uncertainty due to the COVID-19 pandemic and wars, it seems ‘healthy and intelligent’ to encourage positive emotions for our athletes. An additional reason is that they are known to improve motivational processes, reducing abandonment and negative emotional costs [ 11 ]. In this vein, concepts such as emotional intelligence make sense and can help to identify and properly manage emotions in the sports field and determine their relationship with performance [ 27 ] that facilitates the inclusion of emotional training programmes based on the ‘bright side’ of sports practice [ 28 ].

Based on all of the above, one might wonder how these positive emotions are related to a given event and what role each one of them plays in the athlete’s performance. Do they directly affect performance, or do they affect other psychological variables such as concentration, motivation and self-efficacy? Do they favour the availability and competent performance of the athlete in a competition? How can they be regulated, controlled for their own benefit? How can other psychosocial agents, such as parents or coaches, help to increase the well-being of their athletes?

This work aims to enhance the leading role, not the secondary, of the ‘good and pleasant side’ of sports practice, either with its own entity, or as a complement or mediator of the negative variables that have an impact on the performance of athletes and coaches. Therefore, the objective of this study is to conduct a systematic review regarding the relationship between positive psychological factors, such as psychological well-being and pleasant emotions, and sports performance. For this, the methodological criteria that constitute the systematic review procedure will be followed.

Materials and methods

This study was carried out through a systematic review using PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews) guidelines considering the Web of Science (WoS) and Psycinfo databases. These two databases were selected using the Delphi method [ 29 ]. It does not include a meta-analysis because there is great data dispersion due to the different methodologies used [ 30 ].

The keywords will be decided by the Delphi Method in two rounds with sport psychology experts. The results obtained are intended to be a representation of the ‘bright side’ of sports practice, and as a complement or mediator of the negative variables that have an impact on athletes’ and coaches’ performance.

It was determined that the main construct was to be psychological well-being, and that it was to be paired with optimism, healthy practice, realisation, positive mood, and performance and sport. The search period was limited to papers published between 2000 and 2023, and the final list of papers was obtained on February 13 , 2023. This research was conducted in two languages—English and Spanish—and was limited to psychological journals and specifically those articles where the sample was formed by athletes.

Each word was searched for in each database, followed by searches involving combinations of the same in pairs and then in trios. In relation to the results obtained, it was decided that the best approach was to group the words connected to positive psychology on the one hand, and on the other, those related to self-realisation/performance/health. In this way, it used parentheses to group words (psychological well-being; or optimism; or positive mood) with the Boolean ‘or’ between them (all three refer to positive psychology); and on the other hand, it grouped those related to performance/health/realisation (realisation; or healthy practice or performance), separating both sets of parentheses by the Boolean ‘and’’. To further filter the search, a keyword included in the title and in the inclusion criteria was added, which was ‘sport’ with the Boolean ‘and’’. In this way, the search achieved results that combined at least one of the three positive psychology terms and one of the other three.

Results (first phase)

The mentioned keywords were cross-matched, obtaining the combination with a sufficient number of papers. From the first research phase, the total number of papers obtained was 238. Then screening was carried out by 4 well-differentiated phases that are summarised in Fig.  1 . These phases helped to reduce the original sample to a more accurate one.

Phases of the selection process for the final sample. Four phases were carried out to select the final sample of articles. The first phase allowed the elimination of duplicates. In the second stage, those that, by title or abstract, did not fit the objectives of the article were eliminated. Previously selected exclusion criteria were applied to the remaining sample. Thus, in phase 4, the final sample of 11 selected articles was obtained

Results (second phase)

The first screening examined the title, and the abstract if needed, excluding the papers that were duplicated, contained errors or someone with formal problems, low N or case studies. This screening allowed the initial sample to be reduced to a more accurate one with 109 papers selected.

Results (third phase)

This was followed by the second screening to examine the abstract and full texts, excluding if necessary papers related to non-sports themes, samples that were too old or too young for our interests, papers using qualitative methodologies, articles related to the COVID period, or others published in non-psychological journals. Furthermore, papers related to ‘negative psychological variables’’ were also excluded.

Results (fourth phase)

At the end of this second screening the remaining number of papers was 11. In this final phase we tried to organise the main characteristics and their main conclusions/results in a comprehensible list (Table  1 ). Moreover, in order to enrich our sample of papers, we decided to include some articles from other sources, mainly those presented in the introduction to sustain the conceptual framework of the concept ‘bright side’ of sports.

The usual position of the researcher of psychological variables that affect sports performance is to look for relationships between ‘negative’ variables, first in the form of basic psychological processes, or distorting cognitive behavioural, unpleasant or evaluable as deficiencies or problems, in a psychology for the ‘risk’ society, which emphasises the rehabilitation that stems from overcoming personal and social pathologies [ 31 ], and, lately, regarding the affectation of the athlete’s mental health [ 32 ]. This fact seems to be true in many cases and situations and to openly contradict the proclaimed psychological benefits of practising sports (among others: Cantón [ 33 ], ; Froment and González [ 34 ]; Jürgens [ 35 ]).

However, it is possible to adopt another approach focused on the ‘positive’ variables, also in relation to the athlete’s performance. This has been the main objective of this systematic review of the existing literature and far from being a novel approach, although a minority one, it fits perfectly with the definition of our area of knowledge in the broad field of health, as has been pointed out for some time [ 36 , 37 ].

After carrying out the aforementioned systematic review, a relatively low number of articles were identified by experts that met the established conditions—according to the PRISMA method [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]—regarding databases, keywords, and exclusion and inclusion criteria. These precautions were taken to obtain the most accurate results possible, and thus guarantee the quality of the conclusions.

The first clear result that stands out is the great difficulty in finding articles in which sports ‘performance’ is treated as a well-defined study variable adapted to the situation and the athletes studied. In fact, among the results (11 papers), only 3 associate one or several positive psychological variables with performance (which is evaluated in very different ways, combining objective measures with other subjective ones). This result is not surprising, since in several previous studies (e.g. Nuñez et al. [ 41 ]) using a systematic review, this relationship is found to be very weak and nuanced by the role of different mediating factors, such as previous sports experience or the competitive level (e.g. Rascado, et al. [ 42 ]; Reche, Cepero & Rojas [ 43 ]), despite the belief—even among professional and academic circles—that there is a strong relationship between negative variables and poor performance, and vice versa, with respect to the positive variables.

Regarding what has been evidenced in relation to the latter, even with these restrictions in the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the filters applied to the first findings, a true ‘galaxy’ of variables is obtained, which also belong to different categories and levels of psychological complexity.

A preliminary consideration regarding the current paradigm of sport psychology: although it is true that some recent works have already announced the swing of the pendulum on the objects of study of PD, by returning to the study of traits and dispositions, and even to the personality of athletes [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ], our results fully corroborate this trend. Faced with five variables present in the studies selected at the end of the systematic review, a total of three traits/dispositions were found, which were also the most repeated—optimism being present in four articles, mental toughness present in three, and finally, perfectionism—as the representative concepts of this field of psychology, which lately, as has already been indicated, is significantly represented in the field of research in this area [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 ]. In short, the psychological variables that finally appear in the selected articles are: psychological well-being (PWB) [ 53 ]; self-compassion, which has recently been gaining much relevance with respect to the positive attributional resolution of personal behaviours [ 54 ], satisfaction with life (balance between sports practice, its results, and life and personal fulfilment [ 55 ], the existence of approach-achievement goals [ 56 ], and perceived social support [ 57 ]). This last concept is maintained transversally in several theoretical frameworks, such as Sports Commitment [ 58 ].

The most relevant concept, both quantitatively and qualitatively, supported by the fact that it is found in combination with different variables and situations, is not a basic psychological process, but a high-level cognitive construct: psychological well-being, in its eudaimonic aspect, first defined in the general population by Carol Ryff [ 59 , 60 ] and introduced at the beginning of this century in sport (e.g., Romero, Brustad & García-Mas [ 13 ], ; Romero, García-Mas & Brustad [ 61 ]). It is important to note that this concept understands psychological well-being as multifactorial, including autonomy, control of the environment in which the activity takes place, social relationships, etc.), meaning personal fulfilment through a determined activity and the achievement or progress towards goals and one’s own objectives, without having any direct relationship with simpler concepts, such as vitality or fun. In the selected studies, PWB appears in five of them, and is related to several of the other variables/traits.

The most relevant result regarding this variable is its link with motivational aspects, as a central axis that relates to different concepts, hence its connection to sports performance, as a goal of constant improvement that requires resistance, perseverance, management of errors and great confidence in the possibility that achievements can be attained, that is, associated with ideas of optimism, which is reflected in expectations of effectiveness.

If we detail the relationships more specifically, we can first review this relationship with the ‘way of being’, understood as personality traits or behavioural tendencies, depending on whether more or less emphasis is placed on their possibilities for change and learning. In these cases, well-being derives from satisfaction with progress towards the desired goal, for which resistance (mental toughness) and confidence (optimism) are needed. When, in addition, the search for improvement is constant and aiming for excellence, its relationship with perfectionism is clear, although it is a factor that should be explored further due to its potential negative effect, at least in the long term.

The relationship between well-being and satisfaction with life is almost tautological, in the precise sense that what produces well-being is the perception of a relationship or positive balance between effort (or the perception of control, if we use stricter terminology) and the results thereof (or the effectiveness of such control). This direct link is especially important when assessing achievement in personally relevant activities, which, in the case of the subjects evaluated in the papers, specifically concern athletes of a certain level of performance, which makes it a more valuable objective than would surely be found in the general population. And precisely because of this effect of the value of performance for athletes of a certain level, it also allows us to understand how well-being is linked to self-compassion, since as a psychological concept it is very close to that of self-esteem, but with a lower ‘demand’ or a greater ‘generosity’, when we encounter failures, mistakes or even defeats along the way, which offers us greater protection from the risk of abandonment and therefore reinforces persistence, a key element for any successful sports career [ 62 ].

It also has a very direct relationship with approach-achievement goals, since precisely one of the central aspects characterising this eudaimonic well-being and differentiating it from hedonic well-being is specifically its relationship with self-determined and persistent progress towards goals or achievements with incentive value for the person, as is sports performance evidently [ 63 ].

Finally, it is interesting to see how we can also find a facet or link relating to the aspects that are more closely-related to the need for human affiliation, with feeling part of a group or human collective, where we can recognise others and recognise ourselves in the achievements obtained and the social reinforcement of those themselves, as indicated by their relationship with perceived social support. This construct is very labile, in fact it is common to find results in which the pressure of social support is hardly differentiated, for example, from the parents of athletes and/or their coaches [ 64 ]. However, its relevance within this set of psychological variables and traits is proof of its possible conceptual validity.

Analysing the results obtained, the first conclusion is that in no case is an integrated model based solely on ‘positive’ variables or traits obtained, since some ‘negative’ ones appear (anxiety, stress, irrational thoughts), affecting the former.

The second conclusion is that among the positive elements the variable coping strategies (their use, or the perception of their effectiveness) and the traits of optimism, perfectionism and self-compassion prevail, since mental strength or psychological well-being (which also appear as important, but with a more complex nature) are seen to be participated in by the aforementioned traits.

Finally, it must be taken into account that the generation of positive elements, such as resilience, or the learning of coping strategies, are directly affected by the educational style received, or by the culture in which the athlete is immersed. Thus, the applied potential of these findings is great, but it must be calibrated according to the educational and/or cultural features of the specific setting.

Limitations

The limitations of this study are those evident and common in SR methodology using the PRISMA system, since the selection of keywords (and their logical connections used in the search), the databases, and the inclusion/exclusion criteria bias the work in its entirety and, therefore, constrain the generalisation of the results obtained.

Likewise, the conclusions must—based on the above and the results obtained—be made with the greatest concreteness and simplicity possible. Although we have tried to reduce these limitations as much as possible through the use of experts in the first steps of the method, they remain and must be considered in terms of the use of the results.

Future developments

Undoubtedly, progress is needed in research to more precisely elucidate the role of well-being, as it has been proposed here, from a bidirectional perspective: as a motivational element to push towards improvement and the achievement of goals, and as a product or effect of the self-determined and competent behaviour of the person, in relation to different factors, such as that indicated here of ‘perfectionism’ or the potential interference of material and social rewards, which are linked to sports performance—in our case—and that could act as a risk factor so that our achievements, far from being a source of well-being and satisfaction, become an insatiable demand in the search to obtain more and more frequent rewards.

From a practical point of view, an empirical investigation should be conducted to see if these relationships hold from a statistical point of view, either in the classical (correlational) or in the probabilistic (Bayesian Networks) plane.

The results obtained in this study, exclusively researched from the desk, force the authors to develop subsequent empirical and/or experimental studies in two senses: (1) what interrelationships exist between the so called ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ psychological variables and traits in sport, and in what sense are each of them produced; and, (2) from a global, motivational point of view, can currently accepted theoretical frameworks, such as SDT, easily accommodate this duality, which is becoming increasingly evident in applied work?

Finally, these studies should lead to proposals applied to the two fields that have appeared to be relevant: educational and cultural.

Application/transfer of results

A clear application of these results is aimed at guiding the training of sports and physical exercise practitioners, directing it towards strategies for assessing achievements, improvements and failure management, which keep them in line with well-being enhancement, eudaimonic, intrinsic and self-determined, which enhances the quality of their learning and their results and also favours personal health and social relationships.

Data availability

There are no further external data.

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The federal judge overseeing the case must still sign off on the agreement, but if it is approved, it would signal a major shift in college sports in which students would play for compensation, not just scholarships, exposure and opportunities.

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The case, which was set to go to trial early next year, was brought by a former and a current college athlete who said the NCAA and the five wealthiest conferences improperly barred athletes from earning endorsement money. Former Arizona State swimmer Grant House and Sedona Prince, a former Oregon and current TCU basketball player, also contended in their suit that athletes were entitled to a piece of the billions of dollars the NCAA and those conferences earn from media rights agreements with television networks.

Michael McCann, a legal analyst and sports reporter at Sportico , told NBC News in an interview on Top Story with Tom Llamas the case has two components that “move away from amateurism” — one that deals with how players are paid for the past loss of earnings, including money they could have made for name, image and likeness.

“The going forward part is that colleges can opt in, conferences can opt in, as well, to pay players, to share revenue with them, to have direct pay, and that would be of course a radical from the traditions of college sports,” McCann said, adding many would say that change is warranted. “Now the athletes, at least at some schools, will get a direct stake.”

Terms of the deal were not disclosed, though some details have emerged in the past few weeks. They signal the end of the NCAA’s bedrock amateurism model that dates to its founding in 1906. Indeed, the days of NCAA punishment for athletes driving booster-provided cars started vanishing three years ago when the organization  lifted restrictions on endorsement deals  backed by so-called name, image and likeness, or NIL, money.

Now it is not far-fetched to look ahead to seasons when a star quarterback or a top prospect on a college basketball team not only is cashing in big-money NIL deals but also has a $100,000 school payment in the bank to play.

A host of  details are still to be determined . The agreement calls for the NCAA and the conferences to pay $2.77 billion over 10 years to more than 14,000 former and current college athletes who say now-defunct rules prevented them from earning money from endorsement and sponsorship deals dating to 2016.

Some of the money would come from NCAA reserve funds and insurance, but even though the lawsuit specifically targeted five conferences that comprise 69 schools (including Notre Dame),  dozens of other NCAA member schools  would get smaller distributions from the NCAA to cover the mammoth payout.

Schools in the Big Ten, the Big 12 and the Atlantic Coast and Southeastern conferences would end up bearing the brunt of the settlement at a cost of about $300 million apiece over 10 years, the majority of which would be paid to athletes going forward.

The Pac-12 is also part of the settlement, with all 12 current schools sharing responsibility even though Washington State and Oregon State will be the only league members left by this fall after the 10 other schools leave.

Paying athletes

In the new compensation model, each school would be permitted but not required to set aside up to $21 million in revenue to share with athletes per year, though as revenues rose, so could the cap.

Athletes in all sports would be eligible for payments, and schools would be given the freedom to decide how the money is divvied up among sports programs. Roster restrictions would replace scholarship limits by sport.

McCann said the back pay would disproportionately go to some sports — such as football and basketball.

“The schools that I think that are certainly big football schools will probably opt in because they’re going to want to compete, they’re going to want to get the best players, because college football generates a lot of revenue,” he said. 

Whether the new compensation model is subject to the Title IX gender equity law is unknown, along with whether schools would be able to bring NIL activities in-house as they hope and squeeze out the booster-run collectives that have sprouted up in the last few years to pay athletes. Both topics could lead to more lawsuits.

“There are all sorts of areas of turbulence that could present themselves,” McCann said of roadblocks that could arise.

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Other cases

The settlement is expected to cover two  other antitrust cases  facing the NCAA and major conferences that challenge athlete compensation rules. Hubbard v. the NCAA and Carter v. the NCAA are also in front of judges in the Northern District of California.

A fourth case, Fontenot v. NCAA, creates a potential complication, as it remains in a Colorado court after a judge  denied a request  to combine it with Carter. Whether Fontenot becomes part of the settlement is unknown, and it matters because the NCAA and its conferences don’t want to be on the hook for more damages should they lose in court.

“We’re going to continue to litigate our case in Colorado and look forward to hearing about the terms of a settlement proposal once they’re actually released and put in front of a court,” said George Zelcs, a plaintiffs’ attorney in Fontenot.

Headed in that direction

The solution agreed to in the settlement is a landmark but not surprising. College sports have been trending in this direction for years, with athletes receiving more and more monetary benefits and rights they say were long overdue.

In December, Baker, the former governor of Massachusetts who has been on the job for 14 months,  proposed creating a new tier of Division I athletics  in which the schools with the most resources would be required to pay at least half their athletes $30,000 per year. That suggestion, along with many other possibilities, remains under discussion.

The settlement would not make every issue facing college sports go away. There is still a question of whether athletes should be  deemed employees  of their schools, which Baker and other college sports leaders  are fighting.

Some type of federal legislation or antitrust exemption would most likely still be needed to codify the terms of the settlement, protect the NCAA from future litigation and pre-empt state laws that attempt to neuter the organization’s authority. As it is,  the NCAA still faces lawsuits  that challenge its ability to govern itself, including setting rules limiting multiple-time transfers.

“This settlement is also a road map for college sports leaders and Congress to ensure this uniquely American institution can continue to provide unmatched opportunity for millions of students,” the joint statement said. “All of Division I made today’s progress possible, and we all have work to do to implement the terms of the agreement as the legal process continues. We look forward to working with our various student-athlete leadership groups to write the next chapter of college sports.”

Federal lawmakers have indicated they would like to get something done, but while  several bills have been introduced , none have gone anywhere.

Despite the unanswered questions, one thing is clear: Major college athletics is about to become more like professional sports than ever before.