water hyacinth as paper research paper

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Investigation of physical properties of paper produced by blending of water hyacinth and dried flowers

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Biotechnology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, 641004, India. [email protected].
• 2 Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, 641021, India.
• PMID: 36348239
• DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23925-6

The production of paper is a key component for global civilization. Around 300 million tonnes of paper are produced every day globally, with matured pulpwood being the major contributor. Due to rising demand for paper and the depletion of available wood resources, researchers are now focused on finding alternative non-wood resources that are suitable for pulp and paper production. The current study aims to produce eco-friendly and biodegradable paper using a combination of Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) and dried flowers. Water hyacinth is considered as a lignocellulose plant which contains 57% lignocellulose, and dried flower contains 40% cellulose, which is the prime source for paper production. Various sections of water hyacinth, including wet and dry petiole, leaves, and root, were blended with dried flowers through the soda process. Then, the physical properties and FTIR analysis was carried out to identify the quality of the paper produced. The paper produced from root and dried petiole has a lower thickness (1.0 mm and 0.5 mm) than other mix proportions. The opacity of the leaves was found to be 0.5% (light passing) and for the root 0.7% (light passing). Also, the dry petiole and root paper have a good dry tensile strength of 1.30Kpa and 1.20Kpa, respectively. Hence, paper made from dry petiole and root was found to be efficient and suitable for the paper industry.

Keywords: Biodegradable; Dried flowers; Paper; Pulp; Water hyacinth; Wood.

© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.

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Investigation on the Mechanical Properties of Paper Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes)

• Brillant D. Wembe  

Brillant D. Wembe

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The widely use of papers and for the promotion of conservation of the forest ecosystem in making papers from the falling of trees. This work is focused on the realization of paper and its mechanical properties. Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is aquatic plant with a high growth rate that usually cover the river surface and has an impact to the environment and other living things. The work done was to produce a paper from water hyacinth through cutting, grinding, refining, molding, the bleaching process and drying process we obtained different papers. In the realization process of the papers, we have used Hydrogen peroxides for the bleaching process to obtain white paper (Bleached paper). In our case we have both the bleached and the unbleached paper. Papers were successfully produced under experimental condition. Mechanical properties of each paper were investigated. The various density of paper water hyacinth plant of the bleached and unbleached was 21.68 g/m 3 and 26.37 g/m 3 respectively, average tensile rupture stress 1.337MPa & 0.405MPa and young modulus was found to be 36.278MPa and 17.604MPa, the elongation at break 4.744% and 2.879%, average moisture content of 4.82% to 9.59% and 3.57% to 6.62% respectively for the Unbleached and Bleached paper water hyacinth plant. For this reason, Unbleached Paper with certain different strength ranges could be considered to be applied as packaging, seedling pot, mulching or insulating material in advance application. The use of water hyacinth as biomass with the used of the roots and leaf shows a bulky structure. The study concludes that water hyacinth is a potential fiber for paper production especially in areas where it is abundant, but the tensile strength of unbleached paper is more than the bleached paper. So that the paper can be used for other purpose than writing.

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The benefits of water hyacinth ( eichhornia crassipes ) for southern africa: a review.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

2. methodological considerations, 3. valuable materials recovery from water hyacinth, 3.1. phytoremediation, 3.2. animal feed, 3.3. bio-fertiliser, 3.4. high-value chemicals, 3.5. insulation boards, 3.6. enzyme production, 3.7. biopolymers, 3.8. bioenergy, 3.8.1. briquettes, 3.8.2. bioethanol, 3.8.3. biogas, 4. techno-economic analysis of water hyacinth mitigation, 5. exploring the water hyacinth benefits: an opportunity for southern africa, 6. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Ilo, O.P.; Simatele, M.D.; Nkomo, S.L.; Mkhize, N.M.; Prabhu, N.G. The Benefits of Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) for Southern Africa: A Review. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 9222. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12219222

Ilo OP, Simatele MD, Nkomo SL, Mkhize NM, Prabhu NG. The Benefits of Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) for Southern Africa: A Review. Sustainability . 2020; 12(21):9222. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12219222

Ilo, Obianuju P., Mulala D. Simatele, S’phumelele L. Nkomo, Ntandoyenkosi M. Mkhize, and Nagendra G. Prabhu. 2020. "The Benefits of Water Hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) for Southern Africa: A Review" Sustainability 12, no. 21: 9222. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12219222

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Progress in the utilization of water hyacinth as effective biomass material

• Open access
• Published: 28 July 2023

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• Asep Bayu Dani Nandiyanto 1 ,
• Risti Ragadhita 1 ,
• Siti Nur Hofifah 1 ,
• Dwi Fitria Al Husaeni 1 ,
• Dwi Novia Al Husaeni 1 ,
• Meli Fiandini 1 ,
• Senny Luckiardi 2 ,
• Eddy Soeryanto Soegoto 2 ,
• Arif Darmawan 3 &
• Muhammad Aziz 4  

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Water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) is considered a prospective free-floating aquatic plant potentially used to address current issues on food, energy, and the environment. It can grow quickly and easily in various tropical and subtropical environments as long as it has access to adequate light and water to support photosynthetic growth. Ecosystems are threatened by their invasive growth and remarkable capacity for adaptation. However, managing this plant can result in valuable products. This paper demonstrates particle technologies that might be used to utilize water hyacinths, including brake pads, fertilizer, bioenergy, animal feed, phytoremediation agents, bioplastics, and adsorbents. This study is accompanied by a discussion based on the conducted experiments and currently available literature, providing readers with a clearer understanding. Water hyacinth's capacity to absorb macro- and micro-nutrients, nitrogen, and phosphorus makes it a good plant for phytoremediation. The prospect of producing cellulose makes it prospective as a biomass energy source and livestock feeding. Further, it can be transformed into high-cellulose content particles for applications in bioplastics, brake pads, and adsorbents. The current reports regarding education of water hyacinth to student also were added. Finally, issues and suggestions for future development related to the use of water hyacinths are discussed. This study is expected to provide comprehensive knowledge on how to turn invasive water hyacinth plants into valuable products.

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1 Introduction

Water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ) is one of the invasive species that lives and reproduces in the aquatic environment. It is a free-floating aquatic plant that typically flourishes in stagnant swamps, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers (Jirawattanasomkul et al., 2021 ). It poses a threat to socio-economics and biological diversities at the environmental, individual, and genetic levels (Colautti & MacIsaac, 2004 ). Its rapid growth creates a global concern because uncontrolled growth can clog water bodies and disrupt power plants. In addition, water hyacinths can prevent sunlight from reaching water bodies and lower oxygen levels, disturbing the aquatic ecology due to a lack of oxygen from the atmosphere (Madikizela, 2021 ).

Water hyacinth is classified as a weed or nuisance plant due to its rapid proliferation in aquatic ecosystems. Before expanding, it persists in small numbers. Water hyacinths are incredibly prevalent, especially in reservoirs, ponds, lakes, and fish farm ponds. The utilization of water hyacinths is quite broad in scope, but research is still urgently required to prevent the spread of water hyacinths and turn them into valuable goods. Various methods for using and managing water hyacinths have been reported and examined (Ajithram et al., 2021 ; Ali et al., 2020 ; Duenas et al., 2018 ; Elenwo & Akankali, 2019 ; Ilo et al., 2020 ; Leguizamo et al., 2017 ; Mishra & Maiti, 2017 ; Pandey, 2020 ; Priya & Selvan, 2017 ; Ting et al., 2018 ; Yan et al., 2017 ; Zolnikov & Ortiz, 2018 ). Unfortunately, current publications only provide incomplete descriptions of effective use in one particular case and some theoretical perspectives. This study's major goal was to demonstrate how technologies can be applied to manufacture products from water hyacinths, including animal feed, fertilizer, bioenergy, brake pads, bioplastics, phytoremediation agents, and adsorbents (see Fig.  1 ). Additionally, several new findings obtained in the experimental results are explained in every section. This study brought the discussion based on the literature to a close with experiments that can help readers gain a better understanding and perspective. This study is expected to provide comprehensive knowledge on using invasive water hyacinth species to produce beneficial products.

Potential applications of water hyacinth

In addition, although the paper shows several applications, as shown in Fig.  1 , this study is limited to discussion and description of some potential applications of water hyacinths. In fact, many applications are available such as bioenergy (i.e., biogas, biofuel, biodiesel, bioethanol), animal feed stock, water treatment, soil remediation, crafts, medicine, production of new materials and fertilizers.

The benefits of this study are being able to document the potential and sustainable application of water hyacinths to control the massive growth of water hyacinth and an environmental conservation method.

The review highlights several applications, including bioplastics, brake pads, animal feed, bioenergy, and waste water treatment (i.e., phytoremediation and adsorption), as well as important education aspects to support its management and utilization. We also added current reports regarding education of water hyacinth to student.

This study also compiles all the possible ways to control the growth of water hyacinth through a potential, safe, and sustainable holistic approach. It also focuses on the role of naturally growing plants to pave the way for further afforestation programs (Yadav et al., 2021 ). Therefore, the benefits of this study include comprehensive documentation of the potential and sustainable application of water hyacinth as a method of controlling the massive growth of water hyacinth and environmental conservation and deep exploration of the educational potential of water hyacinths, providing educators with ideas, methodologies, and case studies to integrate this aquatic plant into their teaching and learning activities.

This study also has a bibliometric analysis study on water hyacinth research. Thus, this research is also expected to help and become a source for other researchers in conducting and determining research topics based on related topics.

The current study’s roadmap regarding water hyacinth use is explained in Fig.  2 . The trend of water hyacinth research is exploring the potential use of water hyacinth (such as wastewater treatment, fertilizers, bioenergy, handicrafts, potassium sources, composite fillers, biochar, and animal feed) as an effort to control the invasive growth of water hyacinth (Hofifah & Nandiyanto, 2024 ; Nandiyanto et al., 2024 ). In detail, several research trends on water hyacinths are explained as follows:

In the first ten years (1971–1980), the water hyacinth was introduced through several publications, including many publications that informed general ecology and the life history of the water hyacinth. The papers also discussed that water hyacinth is an aquatic plant that floats in tropical waters and subtropics and is known as one of the most serious pest plants; thus, it is necessary to control the inhibition of this pest plant. In addition, they informed the macronutrient content (such as inorganic and organic) of water hyacinth, which is useful as a feed ingredient, and discussed that the waters where water hyacinth plants grow affect the physical properties of water (such as temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and alkalinity).

In the second decade (1981–1990), the application of water hyacinth plants has been extensively studied for municipal wastewater treatment, irrigation, drainage, and water along with many other uses (such as animal feed, source of fresh water through evapotranspiration, source of methane, fertilizer, and compost). Water hyacinth plants are proven very efficient to be efficient in wastewater treatment. It can be implemented to prevent eutrophication by removing biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), NH 3 , and PO 4 . Not only it has the potential to recycle wastewater but also the potential application of water hyacinth in air recycling ecological systems is also informed.

In the third ten years (1991–2000), the use of macrophyte plants for municipal wastewater treatment grew rapidly. For example, water hyacinths are used to purify three effluents (nitrogen, phosphorus, chemical oxygen demand (COD), and suspended solids) containing high levels of ammonia nitrogen. In addition to water treatment, water hyacinth is used to purify chlorophenoxy acid (CPH) and s-triazine herbicides, accumulated in sediments. During this year, efforts to inhibit the growth of water hyacinth as an aquatic weed have been studied. One of the efforts to control the inhibition of water hyacinth growth was carried out through biological and chemical control.

In the fourth ten years (2001–2010), researchers have focused on the use of water hyacinth for long-term conservation for the rehabilitation and management of lakes, management of ecosystems polluted by heavy metals (such as cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel, and lead) and industrial management of wastewater (such as treating wastewater from dairy, tanneries, sugar factories, pulp and paper industries, palm oil mills, and refineries) through phytoremediation and adsorption methods. In these years, water hyacinth has been informed of its prospect of becoming a very valuable resource as a substrate for mushroom production. However, in promoting the use of water hyacinth biomass as a substrate for mushroom cultivation, it is also necessary to assess the food safety of the mushrooms produced. This is because water hyacinths and mushrooms accumulate various mineral elements. Furthermore, the potential use of water hyacinths as a source of potassium to produce potassium salts has been reported through the process of extracting and extracting potassium from water hyacinths.

In the fifth ten years (2011–2020), research trends in water hyacinth span this year were still related to the utilization of water hyacinth biomass as fish and livestock feed, fertilizer, and fuel energy (such as biofuel). Water hyacinth can be harvested and used economically for fish and livestock feed. In addition to fuel energy, dry water hyacinth biomass can also be made into briquettes, which are suitable as additional fuel in coal-fired power plants. Water hyacinth was also studied to absorb petroleum hydrocarbons; thus, it can be used in the phytoremediation of polluted ecosystems contaminated by crude oil. To increase the added value of water hyacinth, this plant is also used as an alternative source in the manufacture of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) because it has a high cellulose content. In addition to making CMC, water hyacinths were used as a raw material for handicrafts to replace paper. Water hyacinth has also been studied for its application as an effective, efficient, inexpensive biofilter for wastewater treatment from fish farming; thus, small and medium farmers can adopt this treatment system to aim for sustainable employment from this activity.

In the sixth ten years (2021–present), most of the research trends for water hyacinth were the same as the previous year; namely, the detection of invasive plant species in aquatic ecosystems using various instruments (for example, geographic information systems (GIS) and earth observation applications (EO)), recycling of biomass (animal feed, compost, biochar, bioadsorbent, composite filler, magnetic bioadsorbent with a combination of inorganic and inorganic materials), and multifunctional engineering to reduce pollutants in the form of heavy metals, metalloids, and organic compounds. Water hyacinth has been widely studied because it can fulfill various sustainable development goals (SDGs) related to clean and safe water, land protection, ecosystem, and biodiversity conservation, climate action, increased industrialization, and public awareness. In addition to the techniques for utilizing water hyacinth plants, research trends on assessing the economic value of water hyacinth plants are no less important. This economic analysis can be used to provide evidence of the effectiveness of water hyacinth biological control. Economic analysis studies also show that robust and cost-effective economic analysis is made possible by good record-keeping and generalizable models that can demonstrate management effectiveness and improve the social efficiency of invasive species control.

The roadmap of the current study regarding the use of water hyacinths. Data was obtained using the Scopus database with keywords “water hyacinth” and “ecosystem” analyzed on July 2023

2.1 Raw materials

Several materials were used: water hyacinth (from Cirata dam, Purwakarta, Indonesia), pure water, curcumin (extracted from turmeric purchased from a local market in Bandung, Indonesia), acetic acid, glycerol, Bisphenol A-epichlorohydrin (technical grade, P.T. Justus Kimiaraya, Indonesia), cycloaliphatic amine (technical grade, P.T. Justus Kimiaraya, Indonesia), and iron (III) chloride hexahydrate (FeCl 3 , Sigma-Aldrich; as a model for metal ion).

2.2 Phytoremediation

Water hyacinths were washed and cleaned from impurities to ensure the absence of pests, such as insect eggs. Metal salt solution (45-ppm FeCl 3 in 2.5 L) was put in a glass batch reactor (dimensions of 25 × 15 × 14.5 cm for length, width, and height, respectively) containing water hyacinths. The water hyacinth was exposed to the solution for two weeks at room temperature and pressure (controlled light for 12 h/d). The growth of water hyacinths was monitored (length of the petiole and the width of the leaf blade), and an aliquot sample from the glass batch reactor was taken for chemical content analysis using UV–Vis spectroscopy (Model 7205; JENWAY; Cole-Parmer; U.S.; between 280 and 600 nm). The UV–Vis spectrophotometer results were normalized and extracted using Beer Law to get the actual concentration (Pratiwi & Nandiyanto, 2021 ).

2.3 Nutrient analysis

Proximate analysis on the determination of moisture, ash, and crude fiber content was carried out using the gravimetric method. Analysis of fat, protein, and carbohydrate contents was performed using the Soxhlet, Kjeldahl, and Luff-Schoorl methods, respectively. Thermal Gravimetric analysis of the samples was performed on a NETZSCH Company, Germany, STA449F3 synchronous thermal analyzer (25–600 °C; a heating rate of 20 °C/min).

2.4 Energy content analysis

To analyze the energy content in the water hyacinth, 50 mg of the water hyacinth was introduced into a thermogravimetric analyzer (TG–DTA; DTG60A TA60WS, Shimadzu Corp., Japan) under atmospheric conditions (the heating rate of 10 °C/min; between 25 and 600 °C; holding time at the targeted temperature of 10 min). Information regarding TG–DTA was explained in the previous study (Nandiyanto, 2017 ).

An adiabatic bomb calorimeter in a pressure-resistant reactor (ASTM D 5865–13) was used to measure the calorific value of the water hyacinth (which was dried before the analysis). The water hyacinth sample was exposed to 99.5% pure oxygen for 10 min. A current passed through an ignition wire (inserted inside the bomb) ignited the sample. The reactor was submerged in water and covered by a jacket to prevent heat loss. The heat generated from the combustion was used to heat the water, and the transformed heat was measured.

2.5 Water hyacinth particle production

Water hyacinth (i.e., stems and leaves) was washed, cut into pieces, dried using sunlight for 3 h, re-dried using an electrical furnace at 150 °C for 2–3 h to remove physically attached water, saw-milled (to get particles), and put into sieve test mesh (ASTM D1921) to get fine particles with a specific size (i.e., 500, 250, 100, 74, and 60 μm)). Detailed information on the preparation of particles is reported in the previous study (Nandiyanto et al., 2018 ). The particle size and morphology of the material were investigated using a digital microscope. Fourier transforms infrared spectrometer (FTIR, FTIR-6600, Jasco Corp.; Japan) was used to analyze chemical content. Data obtained from FTIR was then compared to the FTIR dataset available in the literature (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ). To support the analysis of the surface area and porous structure, nitrogen sorption measurement (BET Nova 4200e; Quantachrome Instruments Corp., US; operated at 77 K) was conducted.

2.6 Bioplastic production

Water hyacinth particles were mixed with cornstarch particles (a composition ratio of 15:0.1; 15:1.0; 15:1.5; and 15:2.0), water, glycerol, and acetic acid. The mixture was heated and stirred for 20 min at 60 °C until it thickened. The thickened mixture was then poured into the mold and dried at room temperature to obtain brownish-yellow bioplastics. The prepared bioplastics were observed using a digital microscope (BXAW-AX-BC, China) to determine the morphology and structure of the bioplastics. To analyze the chemical structure of bioplastics, FTIR (FTIR-4600, Jasco Corp., Japan). A biodegradation test was done by immersing bioplastics in water. Detailed information regarding the preparation with its biodegradation analysis of bioplastics is presented in the previous studies (Nandiyanto et al., 2020a , 2020b , 2021d , 2022a , 2022b , 2022d ; Triawan et al., 2020 ).

2.7 Brake pads production

Water hyacinth particles were mixed with bisphenol A-epichlorohydrin and cycloaliphatic amine (the mass ratios of 6/5/5; 9/5/5; 3/5/5), poured into a silicone mold (dimensions of 4 × 3 × 1 cm for length, width, and thickness, respectively), and dried at room temperature and pressure for one week. Detailed information for the preparation of brake pads is reported in previous reports (Anggraeni et al., 2022a , 2022b ; Nandiyanto et al., 2021b , 2021c , 2022c , 2022d , 2022e ). The prepared brake pad was then put into the compression test using a micro screw mount (Model I ALX-J, China) with a digital force meter (model HP-500, serial number H5001909262), the puncture test using a shore durometer (Shore A hardness, In Size, China), and friction test using sandpaper (Dae Sung CC-80Cw, Daesung Abrasive Co., Ltd., Korea) with 5 kg mass pressure (20 min at a speed of 18 cm/s) for understanding wear rate ( M ) and friction coefficient ( μ )). The wear rate was determined using Eq. ( 1 ):

where Ma and Mb are the mass of the brake pad in initial and final conditions after the friction test (g), and t is the testing time (s). A is the cross-sectional area of the brake pad in contact with the sandpaper (cm 2 ).

2.8 Adsorption analysis

For the adsorbent, water hyacinth particles with a specific size were put into a 150-mL glass reactor containing curcumin solution (i.e., concentrations of 100, 80, 60, 40, and 20 ppm; as a model of dye). The suspension was mixed (at 500 rpm for 120 min) at ambient conditions with a constant pH (approximately pH 7). An aliquot of the mixed suspension was taken and filtered through a pore size of 0.22-µm nylon membrane syringe. The filtrate was analyzed using a UV–Vis spectrophotometer (Model 7205; JENWAY; Cole-Parmer; U.S.; between 250 and 500 nm). The UV–Vis spectrometry results were normalized and extracted using the Beer Law to get the actual concentration (Pratiwi & Nandiyanto, 2021 ). Ten adsorption isotherm models were used to evaluate the phenomenon during the adsorption process (i.e., Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Fowler–Guggenheim, Hill-Deboer, Jovanovic, Harkin–Jura, Flory–Huggins, and Halsey). The mathematical analysis and its interpretation of the models are explained in the previous studies (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2021 ).

2.9 Education references

We collected data on the theme of education in Indonesia about water hyacinth through a literature study. Data on various articles and books indexed by google scholar were searched and collected through the vosviewer application. The keyword used was "education in Indonesia about water hyacinth". The searched data were limited to only the last 5 years. The development of research on water hyacinth education over the last 5 years obtained as many as 996 articles and book data. After that, several sample article data were taken to be analyzed and discussed.

3 Results and discussion

3.1 current progress in the management of water hyacinth as invasive species.

Invasive species are alien species that live and breed in the aquatic area until they become a threat to biological diversity (Colautti & MacIsaac, 2004 ). The introduced species must generally survive in small populations before becoming invasive. The invasion happened because of competition to get resources, which can significantly change the functions and processes in ecosystems (Duenas et al., 2018 ), transform the balance of the ecosystem, and lead to environmental damage and economic losses. Invasive species possibly reduce biodiversity, causing the extinction of species and habitats (Evans et al., 2016 ).

Many types of invasive species live in water bodies, such as water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes ), creeping water primrose ( Ludwigia adscendens ), flowering pickerel weeds ( Monochoria vaginalis ), African water weeds ( Monochoria africana ), water lettuce ( Pistia stratiotes L. ), lesser bulrush ( Typha angustifolia ), Kariba weeds ( Salvinia molesta ), mosquito fern ( Azolla pinnata ), and yellow velvetleaf ( Limnocharis fava ). These aquatic species occupy the same niche in the water area, causing direct interactions with the ecosystem (Pandey, 2012 ). One of the most well-known invasive aquatic plants is the water hyacinth. It causes a lot of economic loss in agriculture and husbandry due to its quick invasion of the area. It appears randomly everywhere, competing with cultivated plants for water, sunlight, nutrients, and space. It can destroy native habitats and threaten native plants, organisms, and animals in water bodies. To control water hyacinths in the ecosystem, many researchers reported controlling nutrients (Karouach et al., 2022 ; Yan et al., 2017 ) in the water as well as adding natural enemies (e.g., Neocetina. Spp ) (Elenwo & Akankali, 2019 ) and herbicides (Portilla & Lawler, 2020 ). However, since water hyacinths easily proliferate and have high resistance to extreme planting conditions, controlling their growth is challenging.

One of the best strategies is to make them consumable products. Water hyacinth is a free-floating aquatic plant that usually grows in swamps, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers with a steady flow (see Fig.  3 a). It is a biomass that has great potential to be utilized. Many reports have documented the use of water hyacinth for numerous beneficial products. Because of its high crude protein content, water hyacinth was employed as food for ruminants, pigs, geese, ducks, and fish (Wimalarathne & Perera, 2019 ). Additionally, it is employed in producing bioenergy, biogas, briquettes, fertilizer, and arts and crafts. It is even well-introduced to students in their education from elementary through high school. (Harun et al., 2021 ). According to some publications, water hyacinths can also be used for phytoremediation to take out organic (Madikizela, 2021 ) and heavy metals [e.g., cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chrome (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu)] (Nazir et al., 2020 ; Pandey, 2016 ) from water. The next sections of the article give a discussion based on experimental results compared to recent literature.

a Photograph image of water hyacinth, b development of Publication number, and c Network visualization of Publications on "Water Hyacinth" and "Ecosystem" (from 2017 to 2022). The inserted table at the bottom right is the publication data

Information on water hyacinths has been distributed to students since elementary school due to the major concern regarding water hyacinth management. On the official website of the Indonesian Directorate General of Education, for instance, this material is included in the curriculum and even developed into a project-based learning program. In Indonesia, water hyacinths are explained to elementary school students as eutrophication and the potential used as conventional craft products. Following that, in the 2013 curriculum, water hyacinth-related learning has been given to 7 th -grade middle school students. Specifically, water hyacinth is introduced in the section on biomass energy combined with information on plants, agricultural waste, forestry waste, human waste, and livestock manure treatment. The topic (regarding "Relations of Interaction and Natural Appearance") was also available to discuss the advantages of water hyacinths, including their usage as animal feed, handicraft materials, and floral arrangement support. Water hyacinth has been used to foster student entrepreneurship, encouragement, and innovation (Syamsi & Fitrihidajati, 2021 ). Discussion about water hyacinths was re-introduced to 10 th -grade senior high school students. In extracurriculars, students are taught to convert water hyacinths into basic consumer goods, such as photo frames, flower vases, sandals, tote bags, and other souvenirs.

To support the explanation in this paper, computational literature review analysis was employed to comprehend the impacts of water hyacinth on the ecosystem as well as products that can be made from it. Detailed information for the computational literature review analysis used in this study is reported in the previous studies (Al Husaeni & Nandiyanto, 2022b ). This analysis has been widely employed in numerous research fields to understand current trends in certain areas of inquiry, such as engineering and mining (Al Husaeni & Nandiyanto, 2022a ; Mulyawati & Ramadhan, 2021 ; Nandiyanto et al., 2023a ), education (Al Husaeni et al., 2023 ; Al Husaeni & Nandiyanto, 2023 ; Bilad, 2022 ; Nordin, 2022 ; Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2022a ; Shidiq et al . , 2021 ; Sudarjat, 2023 ; Wirzal & Putra, 2022 ), health (Hamidah et al., 2020 ; Saputra et al., 2022 ), agriculture and biotechnology (Hirawan et al., 2022 ; Luckyardi et al . , 2022 ; Mudzakir et al., 2022 ; Riandi et al., 2022 ; Soegoto et al., 2022 ), chemistry, chemical engineering, and material science (Kurniati et al., 2022 ; Nandiyanto & Al Husaeni, 2021 ; Nandiyanto et al., 2021a , 2022a , 2022d , 2022e ; Saputra et al., 2022 ; Setiyo et al., 2021 ; Shidiq, 2021 ; Wiendartun et al., 2022 ). The analysis current progress using keywords of “Water Hyacinth" and "Ecosystem" found 993 articles. This can become the novelty in this study since the literature review analysis was completed by computational literature review analysis for searching research papers for supporting the experiments and discussion. A research matrix is shown in the attached table in Fig.  3 , with a total number of citations of 9,660. The publications had 1932 citations per year and 9.73 citations per year. The collected data had an h-index of 45 and a g-index of 70, implying a relatively good level of metrics for the productivity and impact of citations from publications. Table 1 shows the popular articles (taken on January 2023 using VOSviewer with google scholar database). This data confirms the importance of research on water hyacinths to the ecosystem.

Figure  3 b shows the progress in the publications between 2017 and 2022. Research has increased since 2019, implying increasing concerns regarding water hyacinths, especially facing the issues of this aquatic plant in the ecosystem. Figure  3 c presents the network visualization of Publications from 2017 to 2022, showing a strong connection in different colors of the nodes in the visualization, including several groups:

Aquatic weed, biodiversity, biological control, biological control agent, ecological impact, ecosystem, ecosystem service, Eichhornia crassipe , freshwater ecosystem, invasion, invasive plant, invasive water hyacinth, macrophyte, proliferation, rivers, and wetlands.

Aquatic plant, aqueous solution, characterization, effectiveness, Eichhornia crassipes , environment, heavy metal, phytoremediation, plant, wastewater, water, water hyacinth, water hyacinth plant, and water lettuce.

Concentration, fish, infestation, lake, lake ecosystem, lake tana, Lake Victoria, presence, spread, water body, water ecosystem, water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipe , water hyacinth infestation, and water quality.

Aquatic ecosystem, biomass, compost, ecological, Eichhornia, growth, performance, soil, water hyacinth biomass, water hyacinth compost, and water hyacinth invasion.

Biogas production, Eichornia crassipe , and weed.

Eichornia crassipe .

Based on the above results, water hyacinths have connections to the research in the aquatic ecosystem, water treatment, and lake. Compared to the environmental impact, research on managing water hyacinths is relatively less, informing the need for comprehending reports to solve issues in the water hyacinth invasion.

3.2 Phytoremediation

Water plants, especially water hyacinth, have been widely studied for phytoremediation (Pandey, 2012 ; Rezania et al., 2015 ; Ting et al., 2018 ) for removing organic, inorganic, and heavy metal pollutants in water. Current reports on the utilization of water hyacinths for phytoremediation for removing chemicals (such as nitrogen, phosphorous, ammonia, Fe, Cu, Cr, Zn, Pb, Cd, and Ni), as well as connection to the COD, total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), total suspended solids (TSS), BOD, and DO, are presented in Table 2 .

Different from other reports, the present study has a novelty in analyzing directly the growth of water hyacinth under the existence of iron in the water medium. Iron ion was selected as a model since it creates agriculture, industries, and municipal problems. The permissible iron concentration in water is less than 10 ppm (Kumar et al., 2017 ). This study used an initial concentration of iron ions of 45 ppm. Figure  4 shows the phytoremediation results of water hyacinth under iron-contaminated water. Figure  4 a is the Vis spectrum results, and Fig.  4 b is the analysis of concentration using Beer Law (taken at a wavelength of 325 nm). Figure  4 c is a visualization of the sample during the phytoremediation. After going through phytoremediation for 14 days, the concentration of iron decreased significantly, as shown by decreasing the visible spectrum for the solution before and after 14 days of phytoremediation (see Fig.  4 a). The Beer Law analysis from the visible spectrum of the phytoremediation process replies to the decreases in the concentration from 45 to 12 ppm of iron (see Fig.  4 b). The successful phytoremediation was shown by the effectiveness of iron removal in water at about 38% after two weeks of phytoremediation. The decreases in concentration are due to the ability of the roots of the water hyacinth plant to absorb pollutants accumulated in water (Newete et al., 2016 ). These pollutants are accumulated as dissolved materials in the accumulator plant parts (Ali et al., 2020 ).

a The result of the visible spectrum of the water hyacinth phytoremediation test under iron-contaminated water, b analysis of iron concentrations after phytoremediation, c visualization of the decrease in iron concentrations for 14 days after phytoremediation, d appearance of water hyacinth leaves before phytoremediation, and e appearance of water hyacinth leaves after phytoremediation

The successful phytoremediation was supported by observing the growth of water hyacinths (see Fig.  5 ). The growth of the petiole size and leaf blade width (see Fig.  5 ) were obtained daily with a total elongation of more than 3 cm within 14 days. Almost no impact on the additional contaminant in the water was found, showing the metabolic stability of water hyacinths under extreme conditions (Nguyen et al., 2021 ). The water hyacinth plant continued to grow; however, yellow spots were found on the leaves (see Fig.  4 e), which is different from the healthy leaf (presented in Fig.  4 d). It is suspected that the spots are caused by an accumulation of iron absorbed (Kneen et al., 1990 ), but further research is still required to investigate deeply for this case. During the growth in 14 days, the total water loss due to the water hyacinths absorption and water evaporation was about 1.2 L (from a total of 5 L of the reactor). It is relatively large, informing great photosynthesis for supporting their growth by absorbing carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide, and nutrients.

Leaf growth during phytoremediation

Based on the phytoremediation process carried out in this study, iron metal absorbed by water hyacinth roots was translocated to other organs until it accumulated in these organs (in roots, petioles, and leaf blades). The results of this study correlate with the results of another study by Ndimele et al. ( 2013 ), which compared the absorption of Fe and Cu by water hyacinths, and reported that Fe and Cu could accumulate in the roots and leaves of water hyacinths. These results indicate that the potential for absorption and accumulation of Fe by water hyacinth is higher than that of Cu. The results of this study are also in line with the research of Hasani et al. ( 2021 ), who examined iron phytoremediation in the waters of former sand mines in Lampung, Indonesia. The results of research by Hasani et al. ( 2021 ) showed that water hyacinths can absorb up to 97.96% of iron in water with only 50% of water hyacinths submerged in water. Also in the phytoremediation process, the absorption of Fe metal occurs simultaneously with the absorption of nutrients. Sufficient levels of nutrients in the waters will increase the ability of photosynthesis. Thus, the absorption of nutrients and metal Fe by water hyacinth is greater. Another study examined the ability of water hyacinth to remediate kitchen waste water, and the result was that water hyacinth was able to absorb iron with the highest bioconcentration factor (BCF) of 8,363.40 compared to other metals such as nickel, zinc, and mercury contained in kitchen waste water (Parwin & Karar Paul, 2019 ).

3.3 Nutrition in water hyacinths

The nutritional content of water hyacinth is presented in the table attached in Fig.  6 . Dried water hyacinth contains water (83.51%), ash (3.20%), fat (0.19%), protein (3.5%), carbohydrate (5.13%), and crude fiber (4.06%). Another study showed that the proximate analysis of water hyacinth contains moisture (89.20%), ash (18.20%), protein (8.20%), lipid (2.20%), fiber (21.42%), and carbohydrate (49.98%). The results demonstrate that water hyacinths have a high moisture content (> 80%). The moisture content of any food is an indicator of its stability and susceptibility to microbial contamination. Because of its high moisture content, water hyacinth may have a limited shelf life. Because of the high moisture content, dehydration would raise the relative concentrations of the other food ingredients and improve the shelf-life/preservation of the water hyacinth meal (Suleiman et al., 2020 ). For more details, a comparison of the nutritional value of water hyacinth with other floating plants is presented in Table 3 (Banerjee and Matai, 1990). The nutrient composition (such as ash, fat, protein, carbohydrates, and fiber) of water hyacinth in this study has a lower value than some other floating plants.

Thermal analysis results of stems and leaves of raw water hyacinth

Based on other studies, due to its high levels of cellulose and hemicellulose, water hyacinth is suitable to be used as an alternative to animal feed (Harun et al., 2021 ; Wimalarathne & Perera, 2019 ). This finding is also supported by other research on the use of water hyacinths for animal feed, such as goats (Abegunde et al., 2017 ), sheep (Mekuriaw et al., 2018 ), pigs (Akankali & Elenwo, 2019 ), ducks (Jianbo et al., 2008 ), rabbits (Hassan et al., 2015 ; Moses et al., 2021 ), and fish (Emshaw et al., 2021 ; Hailu et al., 2020 ). Processing water hyacinths for certain animal feed usually varies. Usually, the entire plant is utilized. However, some users remove the roots to avoid possible metal contamination (Moses et al., 2021 ).

The use of water hyacinth as an animal feedstock has been well-reported (Table 4 ). In Srilanka, water hyacinth is used as feed for ruminants, pigs, ducks, geese, and fish because of its high crude protein content (Wimalarathne & Perera, 2019 ). In China, for pig livestock feed, water hyacinths are usually processed through boiling, chopping, and mixing other ingredients such as vegetable scraps, rice bran, copra meal, and salt. In Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand, water hyacinths are used for pigs, ducks, and fish. However, water hyacinths are cooked without other ingredients before being fed to the animals. For catfish feed, water hyacinth is used as an additional nutrition. Water hyacinths can be used as livestock feed either in fresh form or as silage with straw instead of grass (Malik, 2007 ). In short, water hyacinth can be used as a supplemental feed that replaces the high-cost main feed with a cost-effective source.

3.4 Biomass energy

To meet the increasing energy demand, new energy sources must be considered. Renewable energy sources should be a viable alternative to fossil-fueled energy sources (Satriawan et al., 2021 ; Setiyo et al., 2021 ), such as hydroelectric, geothermal, wind, solar, and biomass-based power. Aquatic plants, such as water hyacinths, are promising biomass for renewable energy in future instead of land plants (Mishima et al., 2008 ). Currently, the literature that studied water hyacinth as a candidate energy source is summarized in Table 5 .

Figure  6 shows the thermal analysis curve on dried stems and leaves of water hyacinths from 25 to 600 °C at a heating rate of 20 °C/min. Along with the TGA-DTA curves, the heating process can be divided into four stages, namely the water evaporation stage, the devolatilization and combustion stage, the carbonization and decomposition stage, and the stable stage. The details of the three stages are discussed in the following (Luo et al., 2011 ; Wauton & Ogbeide, 2019 ):

Temperature between 50 and 120 °C. A decrease in the initial curve up to 47% in the stem and 23% in the leaf occurs, associated with the evaporation of moisture absorbed by the sample. The amount of water in the stem is higher than in the leaf. This is in line with the existence of water in the proximate analysis (see attached table in Fig.  6 ). However, the sample was raw (not dried) in the proximate analysis.

Temperature between 120 and 330 °C. The decomposition of hemicellulose, lignin, and fiber occurs. The decomposition temperatures of the original crude fiber and the pure cellulose fiber were 202 and 253 °C, respectively. The mass removal rate in this temperature range was 2% for both stem and leaf samples. This result is in line with the existence of organic components (such as lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and fibers) in the proximate analysis (see attached table in Fig.  6 )

Temperature between 330 and 380 °C. It indicates the carbonization and decomposition stage. All organic compounds were converted into carbon material (if there is not enough oxygen) and gasses (carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide if there is enough oxygen) (Nandiyanto, 2020 ).

Temperature higher than 380 °C. It indicates the presence of carbonaceous material (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2022b ).

Based on the calorific value analysis results, dried water hyacinth had a gross calorific value of 12.87 kJ/kg (0.01287 MJ/Kg) with a water content of 30%. In the literature (Cheng et al., 2010 ), the heating values of water hyacinth for leaves, stems, and roots are 14,930; 13,520; and 8,460 kJ/kg, respectively. The calorific value of water hyacinth was 14,550 kJ/kg (Munjeri et al., 2016 ). When compared with the calorific value of other aquatic plants and conventional fuels (such as diesel and gasoline), as shown in Table 6 (Arefin et al., 2021 ), the energy value of water hyacinths in this study is still relatively low or does not approach the calorific value of conventional fuels. The relatively small calorific value of water hyacinth is due to the water content in the water hyacinths that is relatively large, reaching 83% of raw water hyacinths (see nutrient content in the attached table in Fig.  6 ) and 30% for dried water hyacinth (water hyacinth adsorb water from surrounding). Therefore, additional techniques must be added to improve the calorific value since the water content is very influential on the calorific value. If the water content is high, then the calorific value is low. Less water content correlates to the obtainment of better calorific value. The calorific value is the most important quality parameter that greatly determines fuel quality (Gill et al., 2018 ).

3.5 Physicochemical properties of water hyacinth microparticles

Figure  7 presents the physicochemical properties of water hyacinth particles characterized by the microscope, the sieve test, and the FTIR analysis. The water hyacinth particles were prepared using a combination of drying and saw-milling process (see Fig.  7 a) using a similar method to the previous studies (Nandiyanto et al., 2018 ). The sieve test analysis using ASTM D1921 revealed the prepared particles having sizes of between 60 and 300 μm (see Fig.  7 b). The average sizes are 150 µm with a standard deviation of 24.61 µm. To confirm the pore structure in the particles, surface area analysis (Fig.  7 c) with BJH pore analysis (Fig.  7 d) was measured. The surface area of the particles was 26.149 m 2 /g with a pore volume of 0.033 cm 3 /g, and a pore radius of 1.704 nm, informing the particles were dense with no meso and macropore structure.

Physicochemical analysis of water hyacinth particles: a Microscope image analysis, b particle size distribution using ASTM D1921, c Nitrogen sorption analysis, d BJH pore size analysis, and e FTIR analysis results. The attached table on the bottom right shows the peaks in the FTIR analysis

The FTIR analysis for understanding the chemical structure and functional groups of water hyacinth particles is presented in Fig.  7 e. Detailed information regarding the dataset for FTIR is presented in previous studies (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ). Detailed peaks are shown in the paneled table in Fig.  7 . The typical absorption peaks of water hyacinth-based particles appear at 3412.19, 2928.04, 1627.97, 1375.29, 1251.84, and 1035.81 cm −1 . The broad absorption peak at 3412.19 cm −1 is the absorption of the OH group, confirming the particles contain water and can easily adsorb more water. The sharp absorption at 2928.04 cm −1 is the C-H bond on CH 2 in cellulose (Tibolla et al., 2014 ). The presence of stretching C–O of the cellulose structure is observed in the absorption region of 1035.81 cm −1 (Sundari & Ramesh, 2012 ). The absorption at 1627.97 cm −1 indicates the presence of C=O bonds which indicates the presence of lignin and hemicellulose. The peak in the 1375.29 cm −1 region corresponds to the C–H and C–O groups of the aromatic ring in lignin. Then, the presence of ester, ether, or phenolic compounds was indicated by a peak at 1251.84 cm −1 (Nguyen et al., 2021 ; Tibolla et al., 2014 ). In addition, a broad peak between 2000 and 2300 corresponds to nitrogen content (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ). The data is in good agreement with the nutrition data (the attached table in Fig.  6 ) that showed the highest content of water hyacinth is water (83.51%), followed by ash content (3.20%), fat content (0.19%), protein content (3.5%), carbohydrate content (5.13%), and crude fiber (4.06%).

3.6 Bioplastics

The synthesis of bioplastics based on biodegradable materials has generated a lot of interest. Starch-based bioplastics are one of the most interesting materials. Many reports indicate the successful fabrication of starch-based bioplastics (see Table 7 ). However, the manufacture of starch-based bioplastics (without reinforcing materials) has weaknesses such as mechanical properties, hydrophilicity, and resistance to water and humidity. Therefore, to overcome this problem, bioplastics with reinforcing materials using water hyacinth are added. Different from other reports, to minimize the possible existence of void spaces between the water hyacinth particles, the experiment was supported by the additional glycerol and starch, which is the novelty of the production of the present bioplastic.

Figure  8 a depicts the appearance of bioplastics made from cornstarch combined with water hyacinths. The color appearance of the final bioplastic product is brownish. The morphology of bioplastics has an inhomogeneous and agglomerated surface structure. Figure  8 b depicts the appearance of bioplastics after three weeks of immersion. Mold was found on the surface of the bioplastics, accompanied by discoloration and cracks of the bioplastics (see Fig.  8 b in the red and orange circle areas).

a Microscope image of bioplastic sample made from corn starch and water hyacinth, b Microscope image of bioplastic surface with fungus for three weeks, c Mechanical properties of various composition bioplastics, and d FTIR results of bioplastics made from corn starch and water hyacinth, bioplastic immersed in water for seven days, and bioplastic surface with fungus for three weeks

Figure  8 c describes the compressive strength of bioplastics made from water hyacinth combined with cornstarch. Water hyacinth's content directly impacts the compressive strength (from 43 to 69 MPa). Additional cornstarch can give the highest compression test since cornstarch binds the water hyacinth particles. However, too much cornstarch can negatively impact the decrease of mechanical strength. Water hyacinth has fibers that can bring better mechanical properties. However, too less cornstarch resulted in inhomogeneous bioplastics. The lack of homogeneity in bioplastics weakens the interfacial bond between the fiber surface and the matrix, potentially decreasing the mechanical properties of bioplastics (Sumrith & Dangtungee, 2019 ). Another study showed that organic growing bags with a composition of 155 g of coconut fiber and 505 g water hyacinth (A3B3) has a compressive strength of 0.020 kg/cm 2 (0.00196133 MPa) (Lutfi et al., 2020 ). Based on the research results of Lutfi et al. ( 2020 ), the bioplastics produced from the previous research show better mechanical characteristics. A puncture test was carried out to confirm the compressive test results. Bioplastics using water hyacinth/cornstarch ratios of 15/0.5; 15/1.0; 15/2.0 had puncture test results of 54.57; 57.71; and 65.71, respectively. The addition of water hyacinth affects the hardness of bioplastics. Bioplastics become brittle and stiff when water hyacinths s are used in large quantities. Furthermore, water hyacinth contains cellulose and lignin, a dry, hard, and easily brittle material (Sumrith & Dangtungee, 2019 ).

Figure  8 d is the FTIR analysis results for the bioplastic during the biodegradation process. The change in the immersed bioplastic after 14 days was found at the peak of about 2100 cm −1 , informing the decomposition of some chemical structures. The possible released component is the nitrogen compound (Nandiyanto et al., 2019 , 2023b ) used by fungi for its growth. The results of this study are also in line with the results of a study by Rop et al. ( 2019 ), which stated that cellulose water hyacinth used as a polymer hydrogel can biodegrade and has the potential to absorb and retain water.

The results of the biodegradability testing of bioplastic are shown in Fig.  9 . The tests were carried out using the immersion method in water. The test results showed that mass loss was found. More additional cornstarch led to the obtainment of less mass loss, which is because cornstarch has impacts on the formation of denser structures in the bioplastics. The decay dimension of the bioplastics under various compositions of water hyacinth and cornstarch are almost the same. Although there are some differences, the values are not so high (between 0.15 and 0.17 g/cm 2 ). The dissolution and decomposition of bioplastics in water are confirmed by the FTIR pattern (Fig.  8 d) and the appearance of fungi on the surface (Fig.  8 b). The cellulose, lignin content, and some nutrients (as shown in the attached table in Fig.  6 ) in the water hyacinth's body lead to the water hyacinth prospectively consumed by microorganisms for their growth (Ilo et al., 2020 ). Also, the ability of water hyacinth components to adsorb water and other chemical components makes the prepared bioplastics easily degraded, in which detailed information regarding the prospective water hyacinth particles for adsorbing chemical components is explained in the next section of this paper. The higher capability of bioplastic in adsorbing water correlates to a better biodegradation rate (Chaiwarit et al., 2022 ).

Biodegradability of the bioplastics

3.7 Brake pads

Brake pads are a type of composite material usually composed of reinforcement material embedded in a matrix along with some other backing material. The reinforcement constituents in brake lining pad composites impart the desired high friction properties required by automotive pads to function properly as motion stoppers (Idris et al., 2015 ). Currently, fabrication and performance evaluation of composite materials for wear resistance applications utilize agro-waste as reinforcement material. Bio-reinforcement has long been regarded as a potential candidate to replace inorganic reinforcement in composite-based materials, thereby assisting in resolving environmental issues and gaining an economic advantage (Supri et al., 2011 ). Water hyacinth has been widely used as a reinforcing material in composite due to its cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents. Several studies reported the potential of water hyacinth as a filler and reinforcement material in various types of composite materials, summarized in Table 8 . Several studies have reported using water hyacinth as a reinforcement for brake linings, biobased composites, concrete confinement, and others. But, this study focuses on using water hyacinth as reinforcement for brake pads. Different from other reports, as presented in Table 8 , the present brake pads were produced by compacting water hyacinth with resin and hardener. The possible hardening process at room temperature is the main idea for not adding heat during the polymerization. Thus, the water hyacinth particles as the main reinforcing agent for the brake pad can be maintained, and the optimal mechanical properties of the brake pad from water hyacinth can be obtained.

Figure  10 a shows the as-prepared brake pads from water hyacinth particles with epoxy resin. Figure  10 b shows a microscope image of the prepared brake pads. The mixed water hyacinth particles packed with the epoxy matrix were found. Various amounts of water hyacinth were used and tested to evaluate the compressive strength of the prepared brake pads (Fig.  10 c) and mass loss during the friction test (Fig.  10 d). The results of the compressive test of each sample are shown in Fig.  10 c. The compressive strength of the brake pads prepared using the ratios of water hyacinth/resin/hardener of 3/5/5; 6/5/5; and 9/5/5, respectively, peaked at 424.9; 408.6; and 431.6 MPa. The brake pads from the 3/5/5 ratio reached a steady of 290 MPa, while other brake pads were stable at around 250 MPa. The puncture test confirmed all samples to have 84%. All samples could withstand the applied pressure. The brake pads remain strong. No cracks were found, and only a few indentations were left in contact with the pressing surface, informing that water hyacinth particles are a good reinforcing component for composite. The reinforcing material on the brake pads could withstand the compressive loads given collectively (Nandiyanto et al., 2022a ). These characteristics occur because epoxy resin's polymerization at room temperature strongly binds water hyacinth powder. Water hyacinth with cellulose fibers (57%), hemicellulose (25.6%), and lignin (4.1%) (Tanpichai et al., 2019 ) bring better mechanical properties to the brake pads. However, too much water hyacinth added to the composite has no big impact on the mechanical properties. It is because there is an optimum condition for compact interaction and binding between water hyacinth and resin.

As-prepared brake pads from water hyacinth particles and epoxy resin: a a photograph image, b a high-magnified microscope image of the surface of the brake pad, c compressive tests, d mass loss during friction test

Figure  10 d shows the mass loss curves during the friction test. In the friction test, water hyacinth brake pads were rubbed against sandpaper as a brake disk model. The friction between the brake pad and sandpaper converts kinetic into heat energy. Dust was produced from this friction, resulting in wear and a decrease in the mass of the brake pads. The brake pads prepared using the ratios of water hyacinth/resin/hardener of 3/5/5; 6/5/5; and 9/5/5 had wear rates of 4.76; 5.09; and 2.91, respectively. The presence of more water hyacinth contributes to a lower mass loss rate (see Fig.  10 d). Water hyacinth particles as reinforcement increase the bond strength between polymer resins. The abundant water hyacinth reinforcement embedded in the resin increases the force and energy required to decompose the brake pad matrix into smaller particles. Thus, more content of water hyacinth particles on the brake pads reduces the level of wear of the brake pads. However, too much amount of water hyacinth had issues with the existence of a high wear rate. The more amounts of water hyacinth particles correlate to the inhomogeneous surface. Indeed, this condition makes an unstable structure when friction is applied. The heat generated during the friction test raises the surface temperature of the brake pads, softening the resin (Nandiyanto et al., 2021b ). When the resin is softened, the water hyacinth-resin bonding decreases. The results obtained from compression and friction tests are in line with the results of Arivendan et al. ( 2022 ). Their experiments are the same as those found in this study. The strength of the mechanical brake pads they make increases with the increasing amount of water hyacinth added, but when the amount of water hyacinth is more than 30%, the mechanical strength decreases (due to the agglomeration effect of water hyacinth). When compared with the results of other studies, Flores Ramirez et al. ( 2015 ) used water hyacinth fiber in a polyester resin composite with a concentration of 5–10% and explained that the addition of water hyacinth to polyester resin did not adversely affect the thermal composite and could even strengthen the mechanical qualities. These results are the same as the results from previous study in that water hyacinth fiber strengthens brake pads based on a polymer resin matrix. The cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents in water hyacinths cause this fiber to have good strength. Thus, further research is needed to analyze brake pads' optimum composition of water hyacinth particles.

3.8 Adsorbent

Water hyacinth contains cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin which have hydroxyl functional groups, making it potentially used as an adsorbent in an aqueous solution. Many reports showed water hyacinth's successful adsorption process (see Table 9 ). They explained the successful adsorption; however, they did not mention what phenomena were taking place during the adsorption process. The novelty of this study was to demonstrate the effectiveness of the adsorption process using water hyacinth microparticles and to explain their adsorption mechanism.

Figure  11 displays the adsorption ability of water hyacinth particles for adsorbing curcumin. Figure  11 a presents the result of the visible spectrum analysis, showing the concentration decreases along with the adsorption process time. Figure  11 b shows a curve of decreasing curcumin concentration, which is confirmed by the physical appearance of decolorization in Fig.  11 c.

Adsorption ability of curcumin solution by water hyacinth a results of the visible spectrum of water hyacinth adsorption test under curcumin solution, b analysis of curcumin concentrations after adsorption, c visualization of the decrease in curcumin concentrations during the adsorption process

Curcumin was used as a model for adsorptive. Its molecular size (about 1.4 nm) effectively describes the phenomena during adsorption. This study used three particle sizes to ensure the mechanism happening during the adsorption process. Then, to support the adsorption analysis, 10 isotherm models such as Langmuir, Freundlich, Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Fowler–Guggenheim, Hill-Deboer, Jovanovic, Harkin Jura, Flory–Huggins, and Halsey were used. The calculation was also compared to the nitrogen sorption analysis, shown in Fig.  7 c, d, which confirmed the particles have no macro and mesoporous structure. Thus, all adsorption processes will be done on the outer surface of the adsorbent. Detailed isotherm parameters gained from the experiments are presented in Table 10 . Detailed fitting analysis for understanding the calculation of isotherm adsorption is explained in the previous studies (Ragadhita & Nandiyanto, 2021 ).

Based on the adsorption results, the suitability of the adsorption isotherm model was analyzed by comparing the coefficient values of each adsorption isotherm model. The isotherm model was tested by regression analysis to get the correlation coefficient value ( R 2 ). Based on the value of R 2 in the range of more than 0.80, sequentially, the five most suitable models were the Jovanovic isotherm ( R 2  = 0.9672) > Harkin–Jura ( R 2  = 0.9258) > Langmuir ( R 2  = 0.9144) > Freundlich ( R 2  = 0.8264) > Halsey ( R 2  = 0.8264) (see Table 9 ). Meanwhile, the other five models (such as Temkin, Dubinin–Radushkevich, Fowler–Guggenheim, Hill-Deboer, and Flory–Huggins) are not recommended to explain the adsorption process (see Table 9 ).

An illustration of the adsorption process on the surface of water hyacinth-based bio adsorbent is depicted in Fig.  12 . Based on the Jovanovic, Langmuir, and Halsey models, the adsorption process follows monolayer coverage. Based on Freundlich and Harkin–Jura's models, the adsorption process forms multilayer and monolayer coverage. Due to the formation of monolayer and multilayer coverage, the adsorption process follows a cooperative process (see the value of 1/ n  > 1 in the Freundlich model). Therefore, during the adsorption process, physical and chemical interactions occur simultaneously. Physisorption occurs because of weak van der Waals bonds between the adsorbent surface and the adsorbate. Physically, the adsorbate diffuses across the adsorbent surface without any interaction with the adsorbent. Chemisorption occurs among the adsorbates in forming the upper layer, forming cooperative adsorption.

Adsorption process between water hyacinth-based adsorbent and curcumin (as adsorbate)

The results of this study are in line with the fact that water hyacinth has the potential to be used as an adsorbent material for absorbing waste in water (such as organic or inorganic waste) as reported by Mohammad et al. ( 2022 ). Mohammad et al. ( 2022 ) reported the adsorption process in wastewater contaminated with medicinal waste with activated carbon derived from water hyacinths. Research results from Alam et al. ( 2015 ) showed that the adsorption was fast, and the equilibrium time was estimated to be 120 min. The pH of the drug solution strongly impacts on the amount of drug adsorbed, where the optimal pH value is 8. The percentage of drug adsorbed at the original pH approaches obtained at the optimal pH. Then, the adsorption isotherms were fitted with the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Redlich-Peterson isotherm models, and the Langmuir model showed the best fit describing drug adsorption as one of the monolayer forms on adsorption sites that are energy equal and homogeneously distributed. An important adsorption parameter is the adsorption capacity of Langmuir, where the Q max value is 122.47 mg/g. Kumar and Chauhan ( 2019 ) also elaborated on the development of chemically modified dry hyacinth roots (DWHR) as an adsorbent to remove chromium (VI) from synthetic aqueous solutions whose results showed that The DWHR removed chromium (VI) from the synthetic aqueous solution at maximum removal efficiency of 95.43% from the conducted batch adsorption at optimized parameters (i.e., pH 3.0, adsorbent dose = 14.0 g/L, adsorbent size = 150 µ, adsorbate concentration = 10.0 mg/l, temperature = 25 ± 5 °C, agitation speed = 200 rpm) after 2 h contact time. The DWHR has a maximum adsorption capacity of 1.28 mg/g. Other researchers also investigate the effect of different parameters, i.e., adsorbent dosage, contact time, pH of the solution, initial dye concentration, and temperature, in adsorption studies of congo red dye solutions using carbon synthesized adsorbents from water hyacinth stem and leaf. The results showed that the observed Langmuir isotherms were the most suitable, with maximum adsorption capacity of 14.367 mg/g and 13.908 mg/g at 50 °C and contact time of 60 min, and initial dye concentration of 50 mg/L (Extross et al., 2023 ). Based on the results of several studies that have been described, the use of water hyacinths as an adsorbent in this study has better results than previous studies in terms of its relatively larger adsorption capacity.

3.9 Education for water hyacinth

Education for understanding of water hyacinth and its impact on environment is provided at various levels of education. In Indonesia, it starts from kindergarten to tertiary education and even the community, in which this can be obtained from the official website in Indonesian directorate general of education (see https://ayoguruberbagi.kemdikbud.go.id/artikel/mengajarkan-cara-mengolah-sampah-eceng-gondok-di-masa-pandemi/ ). Most of territory in Indonesia consists of water, and water hyacinth plants do grow in water areas. This plant is important to be taught because it has several advantages and disadvantages in realistic life. This plant can be processed into various products and can even become a commercial products that can increase income and national economic growth. To elementary school students, water hyacinths are introduced as a eutrofication and possibly used as traditional crafting materials. Then, the education of water hyacinth has been reported more in class VII in middle school based on the 2013 curriculum. Water hyacinths have been introduced in the section of biomass energy, which can be from plants, agricultural waste, forest waste, human waste, and livestock manure. Water hyacinths also were introduced in topic 5 for "relations of interaction and natural appearance", in which the topic discussed the benefits of water hyacinths including their uses for animal feed as well as handicraft materials and flower arrangement support. This topic is important for improving student creativity as well as student encouragement and entrepreneurship. Discussion about water hyacinths was re-introduced in class X. In extracurricular school, students are taught to use water hyacinths for simple products, such as photo frames, flower vases, sandals, tote bags, and other souvenirs. Another discussion on water hyacinths is reported in the use of biomass energy. Education about water hyacinth has been also implemented in various countries. Although most countries provide education about these plants at the research level, unlike Indonesia, they start from various levels of education, confirmed by few research developments on water hyacinth found with specific discussions at every level of education. Detailed information regarding the education of water hyacinth is explained in detail in literature (Fiandini et al., 2023 ).

Water hyacinth is considered to be a promising valuable species in future. With the support of available technologies, water hyacinths can be converted from invasive species that endanger the ecosystem into prospective and valuable products. A summary of the current progress in utilizing water hyacinths is presented in Fig.  13 , which can be done in three general ways, including the combustion process, the direct use, and the drying process with particle preparation. The processes are the following:

Direct utilization of water hyacinths can be useful for phytoremediation because water hyacinth has an excellent performance in absorbing pollutants such as metals (i.e., Pb, Zn, Ni, Hg, Cr, and As), organic pollutants, and inorganic pollutants (i.e., nitrogen and phosphorus) in water (see R1).

Direct combustion is carried out to generate energy because water hyacinth has enormous potential to be used as an energy source due to its low lignin and high cellulose and hemicellulose contents (see R2). For some cases, direct burning of water hyacinth plants is not recommended due to their low density, low calorific value per unit volume, and high water content, informing the need for pretreatment, such as an additional drying process. Other processes derived from direct burning are by adding treatments to produce briquette (see R3), which effectively increase the thermal value of water hyacinth biomass. Furthermore, water hyacinth's direct combustion process (also known as the carbonization process) produces carbon material (see R4). The carbonization process removes non-carbon compounds, thus, organic components and cellulose decompose into carbon. This carbon material derived from water hyacinth can be used as an adsorbent, fertilizer, and even supercapacitor and other carbon-related applications (see R5). Also, the carbonization process can be combined with the briquette production technique to produce briquettes (see R6).

Additional drying and particle preparation process can also be used to convert water hyacinth into other useful products (see R7). Drying is a process carried out to remove the water content contained in the substance to get excellent sub-products for the next treatment. For example, the dried water hyacinth and its powder form can be used for components in the briquette production process (see R8). Chopped and dried water hyacinth, and further proceeding into powder forms, can be used for animal feed and fertilizer (see R9). The water hyacinth that has been dried and/or ground can be used directly for adsorbent (see R10). In addition, mixing additives with water hyacinth is known to produce new and sustainable materials such as bioplastics and brake pads (see R11). To make bioplastics, water hyacinth needs to be added with plasticizer additives such as glycerol. Meanwhile, water hyacinth needs to be added with additives such as resin and catalyst to make brake pads. The dried water hyacinth can also be used for bio-fuel using fermentation or pyrolysis process (see R12).

Water hyacinth has a significant amount of carbon content. Cellulose and hemicellulose can be fermented or put into pyrolysis to obtain bio-fuel (see R13). Utilization of water hyacinth through drying and particle preparation can also be done to support this fermentation and pyrolysis process (see R12).

Summary of the current progress in the utilization of water hyacinth

This paper is expected to become integrated information for demonstrating how to utilize invasive water hyacinth species to become useful products. Indeed, this is prospective for solving current issues regarding food, energy, and the environment (wastewater treatment). This must be supported by transferring education to student to support more innovations in future.

Data availability

All authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are from authors’ experiments and all relevant data are included in the article.

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Nandiyanto, A.B.D., Ragadhita, R., Hofifah, S.N. et al. Progress in the utilization of water hyacinth as effective biomass material. Environ Dev Sustain (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03655-6

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Utilizing water hyacinths for weaving: innovation in activity in thailand's bueng kho hai community.

© 2023 IIETA. This article is published by IIETA and is licensed under the CC BY 4.0 license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ).

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In Southeast Asia, water hyacinths pose a significant threat to freshwater ecosystems, proliferating as invasive species. This study explores an innovative approach to leverage these natural resources in the creative economy, extending local wisdom through the craft of wickerwork. Qualitative research methods were employed to examine the unique weaving techniques of the Bueng Kho Hai community, known for transforming water hyacinths into wickerwork products. Data was collected through an array of techniques, including document analysis, field studies, preliminary surveys, structured and unstructured interviews, participatory and non-participatory observations, and group discussions. Rooted in traditional weaving practices and guided by meticulous experimentation, an eco-friendly fabric was developed, comprising a unique blend of 40% water hyacinth fiber and 60% cotton. This blend symbolizes the community's efforts to reconcile the preservation of local handicrafts and the Thai way of life with environmental conservation. It presents a cost-effective and scalable method contributing to sustainable development. The study highlights the untapped potential of indigenous knowledge in advocating sustainability and provides insights into local innovation that could be replicated in diverse contexts. This abstract elucidates the implementation of research methods and the specific data gleaned from each source, offering readers a comprehensive understanding of the study's methodology. Furthermore, it underscores the significant implications of the research for environmental conservation and the preservation of local handicrafts and Thai culture, emphasizing the environmental benefits of this unique blend.

wickerwork production, water hyacinth fiber, Thai handicrafts, eco-friendly design, sustainable materials, community innovation, indigenous knowledge, Bueng Kho Hai community

The development of human civilization has been shaped by inventiveness as well as adaptability to the natural resources that were available at the time. The skill of wickerwork dates back some four thousand years, and it has been made using materials such as bamboo and rattan. Thai basketry, a distinguishing attribute of agricultural cultures, has always been sensitive to the use of local resources, generating patterns that appeal to aesthetics, usefulness, religious rites, and cultural customs. This has resulted in the production of designs that are unique to Thailand.

In recent years, Thailand, along with other locations such as Lake Victoria in Kenya, has come up against a problem in terms of its ecology as a direct result of the growth of water hyacinths. These non-native aquatic plants represent significant threats to the health of freshwater ecosystems, including adverse effects on fisheries, water quality, and even irrigation systems. Despite this, the inventiveness of humans has come up with ways to turn this challenge into an opportunity. Other places are researching the possibilities of water hyacinth as a bioenergy resource, organic fertilizer, and even a base material for handicrafts [1]. In Thailand, skilled artists have cleverly combined water hyacinth into traditional wickerwork. This adaptability illustrates the durability of human cultures by demonstrating their capacity to generate novel solutions to the problems posed by the environment.

In recent decades, rapid advancements in technology and industry, in addition to rising global populations and increasing urbanisation, have brought mankind face-to-face with a number of significant difficulties, including those pertaining to the availability of water, food, energy, and a sustainable environment. In the context of Thailand, the water problem stands out as a noteworthy one due to the fact that it is intricately connected to the other three predicaments. It is abundantly clear that water is necessary for the production of both food and energy, and it is clear that environmental concerns extend to the protection of water quality and the management of associated challenges. This study presents a novel strategy to reuse the biological leftovers of the water hyacinth plant, which is known scientifically as Eichhornia crassipes. The goal of the study is to address the obstacles that have been presented. The goal is to turn dried water hyacinth stalks into materials of consistently high quality that are appropriate for use in handicrafts [2]. This will be accomplished by utilizing automated equipment specialized for processing dried water hyacinth stalks. This programme not only provides a long-term solution to environmental problems, but it also helps local handicraft enterprises by providing a more efficient and affordable alternative to the conventional manual processes that are now in use.

Introduced to Thailand in 1901 by King Rama V as an ornamental addition, the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) soon transformed from a benign decorative freshwater plant to an environmental concern, rapidly plaguing and deteriorating freshwater habitats. Its swift proliferation across water bodies earned it an infamous reputation as an environmental menace. However, the silver lining to this ecological challenge has been the ongoing research into its untapped potential. Despite the fact that its fast spread has given it a reputation as an environmental hazard. For instance, the high cellulose content of water hyacinth fibers, which may reach up to 62.15%, paves the way for the creation of reinforced polymer composite materials that are ideal for applications that need less weight. These fibers have been extracted using new mechanical methods rather than the usual retting procedures, and they have been used in the development of environmentally friendly handcraft goods such as table mats, which are gaining favor among customers in cities like Bangkok. In addition, the use of these items not only satisfies the desire that customers have for environmentally friendly products but also helps the local economy by providing a novel approach to a plant that has historically been troublesome. It's interesting to note that the widespread development of water hyacinth also has an effect on the local species. For example, the presence of these plants has caused certain species of waterbirds, such as the Little blue heron and the Common moorhen, to modify the ways in which they forage for food. This study highlights the adaptability of water hyacinth by illustrating how it has evolved from an environmental obstacle into a model for environmentally responsible innovation and ecological harmony [3-6].

Handicrafts play an important part in the economy of Pathum Thani, which is located in the middle of Thailand. These handicrafts exemplify the ideals of the circular economy and sustainability. Recently, there has been an increased emphasis placed on the design of environmentally friendly furniture that makes use of waste materials and has an emphasis on recycling and reusing [7]. In spite of the fact that water hyacinth continues to be a dominant material in the area, local artists are investigating the possibility of using hybrid laminated composites. They want to manufacture environmentally friendly materials that are appropriate for a variety of structural purposes by using different types of fibers, such as coir [8]. This forward-thinking strategy not only highlights the region's illustrious handcraft heritage but also tackles environmental concerns by reusing trash and incorporating environmentally friendly materials.

It is essential to develop and make designs that appeal to current preferences and put an emphasis on both beauty and sustainability if the business of water hyacinth wickerwork is going to see a revitalization. The usage of water hyacinth should not be justified merely by its visual appeal, rather its environmental benefits as an alternative that is kind to the environment should be emphasized [9]. This environmentally friendly method tackles the problems that are caused by the overgrowth of water hyacinths in aquatic habitats while also capitalizing on the plant's potential for use in the creation of reinforced polymer composites [10].

The Pathum Beyond the realm of traditional handicrafts, the water hyacinth industry in Thani, which is well known for its handcrafted goods like purses and home décor, has unrealized potential. It is crucial to provide a connection between craftspeople and customers, making certain that products are in line with modern desires while preserving the rich crafting tradition [11].

Nevertheless, difficulties are in the horizon for the sector. The attraction and demand for water hyacinth goods have slightly decreased as a result of factors such as market saturation, shifting consumer preferences, and a perceived lack of innovation in the industry. As the focus of the world moves towards sustainability, there is an urgent need for the sector to innovate, broadening its offers to include items with value additions, such as bioenergy solutions [12]. In a market environment that is always shifting, it will be essential for the industry to embrace innovation and adaptation in order to maintain its continuous development and relevance.

This research investigates the cultural and creative industries throughout Asia, with a particular emphasis on the weaving practises of water hyacinth in Pathum Thani, Thailand. The artists of Pathum Thani, who may be found tucked away amid the bustling fabric of the cultural industries of Asia, have established themselves not just as keepers of heritage but also as trailblazers in their own right. They have invented a combination of water hyacinth fiber and cotton, which has resulted in an eco-friendly fabric that can be used in a variety of design applications. This was accomplished by skilfully merging indigenous knowledge with current processes. This synergy is a monument to the community's combined dedication to sustainability and innovation, and it aligns perfectly with the needs of the current market [13].

In addition, the purpose of this investigation is to dissect the more far-reaching implications of such innovations on the economic dynamics of local communities, environmental sustainability, and the treasured preservation of cultural heritage. The intentions here are multifaceted, much like those of many cultural sectors across Asia, including the preservation of centuries-old artistic practices, the creation of economically viable paths, the successful navigation of the ebb and flow of the global market, and the accomplishment of larger societal objectives. By using this perspective, the research is able to draw interesting similarities with other cultural epicenters in Asia, shedding light on the same aspirations held by the region's cultural sectors as well as the inherent difficulties they face [13].

Investigate the innovative approach of water hyacinth fiber and cotton to create an eco-friendly fabric with potential applications in design.

2.1 Fabric-making process using water hyacinth

The Research conceptual framework delves into the production of water hyacinth fabric (Figure 1). This exploration focuses on the detailed manufacturing process, the fabric's inherent attributes, and its potential market value. Within this process, water hyacinth fiber is spun into yarn, accentuating the fabric's sustainability while highlighting its eco-friendliness. This approach also presents a solution to agricultural waste by using it as a primary material for fabric.

The journey from ideation to the final product is multifaceted. Both textiles and final products are designed with a balance of aesthetic and functional qualities. The fabric's unique characteristics offer opportunities for establishing a distinct brand or product identity. Textile machinery plays an indispensable role, in ensuring production efficiency and top-tier quality. Furthermore, this fabric lends itself to the creation of distinctive furniture designs, resulting in either market-ready prototypes or finished products.

Figure 1 . Research conceptual framework

Upholding quality is of paramount importance. The production process strictly adheres to textile testing standards, ensuring the fabric meets safety and quality criteria. Similarly, the produced furniture aligns with set standards, guaranteeing durability and safety. The resultant furniture product is tailored to meet market preferences.

From harvesting to processing, this sequence outlines the transformation of water hyacinth into fabric. If a deep dive into the entire procedure is the aim, detailing these stages becomes essential. However, a summarized version suffices if the spotlight rests on the conceptual framework and its broader applications.

Potential stakeholders must understand the fabric's texture, resilience, eco-consciousness, and aesthetics. This may appear redundant to water hyacinth fabric experts, but it delivers significant information to a larger audience.

2.2 Environmental benefits

Figure 2 . Pathum Thani is strategically located in Thailand's central region, bordered by various provinces and the vital Chao Phraya River. This river not only supports agriculture but also significantly influences the day-to-day life of the locals

Figure 2 looks into the several districts that comprise the Pathum Thani province, known for combining urban growth and natural splendor. For example, the Sam Khok District is known for its long history of agricultural production and its strong sense of community. Mueang District is Pathum Thani's busy epicenter with business and residential zones. The Lat Lum Kaeo District is an example of how contemporary urban growth can live with the splendor of nature. The Nong Suar District is distinguished by its verdant landscapes and calm bodies of water. At the same time, the Khlong Luang District is renowned for its status as an intellectual center due to the presence of many educational and research facilities.

The Thanyaburi District is always bustling with activity, as seen by the lively marketplaces and robust community life. However, the Lam Luk Ka District is the one that genuinely attracts the interest of visitors with its enormous wetlands, which are a haven for birdwatchers owing to the abundance of bird species found there. A region of great relevance to this investigation is Bueng Kho Hai, which is located inside Lam Luk Ka. Its one-of-a-kind ecosystem highlights community-led efforts to develop sustainable products while preserving the surrounding environment. These community-based endeavors, particularly in places like Bueng Kho Hai, shed light on the possibilities for bringing economic goals and ecological responsibilities into harmony:

• Sustainable Resource. Water hyacinth's rapid growth makes it a promising renewable resource.
• Reduces Water Pollution. Harnessing water hyacinth, known for its invasive growth in waterways, aids in mitigating its spread and curbing water pollution (Figure 3).
• Biodegradable. Crafted products from water hyacinth fabric decompose naturally, reducing landfill waste.
• Potential for Local Economy. Cultivating and processing water hyacinth into fabric can usher in economic opportunities for the local populace (Figure 4).

Figure 3 . Plants hold potential for innovative applications like weaving and eco-friendly packaging

Figure 4 . Possibility for the regional economy. The local community may benefit economically from water hyacinth cultivation and processing into fabric

3.1 Scope of study

The weaving skills used in the Bueng Kho Hai village, along with the community's dedication to being good stewards of the environment, make this a particularly interesting case study. It is admirable that they have developed a novel strategy to turn water hyacinth, a plant that has the potential to cause problems, into valued handmade items. Research has proven that water hyacinth has the potential to be turned into cellulose nanocrystals; this demonstrates the community's versatility in making use of the plant for a variety of uses that are environmentally friendly [14].

The research investigates a number of distinct subcommunities that exist inside the Bueng Kho Hai community. This includes both the village academics and the village weavers, in addition to the larger populace engaged in the manufacture of wickerwork. A method of this level of specificity seeks to get an understanding of the intertwined contributions that various practices make to the culture, economics, and long-term viability of the local community.

The research attempts to gain insights that may be applicable to other communities in the area by concentrating on this particular community and its unique circumstances. It's possible that this may serve as a model for more comprehensive approaches to sustainable development and environmental preservation. The community of Bueng Kho Hai in Thailand is an excellent example of how traditional weaving methods may be combined with concerns for the environment. It is interesting that they have made an attempt to transform an invasive plant into valued artisan goods that are in demand all around Thailand. This research illustrates the resiliency of the town as well as the cooperative spirit that exists there, highlighting the city's twin quest of economic advancement as well as cultural preservation.

Figure 5 . Comprehensive overview of the project's various impacts on society and the environment. Complete overview of the project's multiple effects on other parts of society and the environment

This picture depicts the development of the area as well as its significance in a variety of different ways (Figure 5). The necessity of protecting the environment is brought to light in item number one. It displays the region's dedication to the preservation of the natural environment. The second illustration illustrates the crucial importance that agricultural communities play in the region, while the third illustration examines the differences and similarities between urban and rural communities. The fourth point emphasizes how important it is for communities to continue their education and build up their capabilities. The importance of forming connections is highlighted in point number 5. The importance of connecting the many different players in this field is underlined. Because of these visuals, we have a much better understanding of the significance of the relationships between the many factors in this region.

3.2 Area boundary

The region of Bueng Kho Hai in Pathum Thani province is significant because of its proximity to the Chao Phraya River, its agricultural resources, and its pioneering approach to the use of water hyacinths in the manufacture of wickerwork and environmentally friendly design. Because of the community's dedication to the maintenance of local customs and the protection of the local environment, it is an essential component of the region.

The study methodology used a qualitative approach to conduct an in-depth inquiry and gain a better knowledge of the traditional water hyacinth weaving practices used in the community of Bueng Kho Hai. These practices entail weaving for ornamental purposes and manufacturing useful products like bags and baskets, as seen in (Figures 6 and 7). This strategy was developed to unearth the underlying concepts, beliefs, and procedures that form the basis of the community's one-of-a-kind approach to using water hyacinth, using the plant's inherent features to generate sustainable things that can be used daily.

Figure 6 . Dried water hyacinths can be processed using traditional methods

Figure 7 . Explore potential strategies for revitalizing and promoting traditional production processes, such as education and training programs and collaborations with designers and entrepreneurs to create innovative products that appeal to contemporary consumers

4.1 Data analysis

The data analysis process consists of several key steps as follows:

4.1.1 Data collection

Tools were employed to collect detailed data from various community sources. This included structured interviews with artisans, first-hand observations of traditional weaving practices, and document analysis.

4.1.2 Pre-processing

The gathered data underwent an organization phase to ensure it was primed for in-depth analysis, ensuring the information's accuracy and reliability.

4.1.3 Analytics

Techniques were harnessed to interpret the data, identifying trends and patterns concerning weaving techniques, material preferences, and cultural significance.

4.1.4 Visualization

Analysis results were translated into visual formats, such as charts or graphs, facilitating the comprehension of intricate data sets.

4.1.5 Performance and insights

The culmination of the analysis process led to the drawing of substantial conclusions. This offered insights into the community's weaving practices, innovative strategies, and overarching contribution to the local economy and sustainability.

4.2 Strategies for revitalization and promotion

Based on the insights gained from the data analysis, several potential strategies can be explored to revitalize and promote traditional production processes.

4.2.1 Education and training programs

Implementing comprehensive education and training programs can help preserve and enhance conventional weaving skills. This may include workshops, seminars, and hands-on training sessions led by experienced artisans.

4.2.2 Collaborations with designers and entrepreneurs

Forming collaborations with contemporary designers and entrepreneurs can lead to the creation of innovative products that appeal to modern consumers. This can broaden the market reach and add value to traditional crafts.

4.2.3 Marketing and branding

Effective marketing and branding strategies can promote the unique aspects of conventional wickerwork, emphasizing its eco-friendly nature and cultural significance. This can attract new customers and increase demand.

4.2.4 Support for sustainable practices

Encouraging and supporting sustainable practices can further enhance the appeal of traditional wickerwork. This includes the use of environmentally friendly materials and energy-efficient production methods.

The detailed analysis of data collected through sophisticated tools, as visualized in the provided pictures, offers valuable insights into the traditional weaving practices of the Bueng Kho Hai community. The understanding gained from this analysis can guide potential strategies for revitalizing and promoting these conventional production processes. By embracing education, innovation, collaboration, and sustainability, it is possible to preserve the rich cultural heritage while adapting to contemporary market demands and contributing to broader societal objectives.

4. 3 Methods and tools of the trade

This Section provides a detailed overview of the methodologies and instruments employed in this study.

4.3.1 Document analysis

Relevant documents, encompassing historical archives, government directives, past research projects, and news articles, were thoroughly investigated. This exploration traced the journey of water hyacinth in Thailand and charted the evolution of innovative weaving techniques.

4.3.2 Field research

Direct visits to the Bueng Kho Hai village offered invaluable firsthand observations of the weaving practices. These visits also fostered meaningful interactions with local inhabitants. The significance of community engagement became particularly evident, especially during collaborative group discussions.

4.3.3 Interviews

Both structured and open-ended interviews with community members yielded deep insights into their perspectives and experiences related to water hyacinth weaving. Notably, many of these interviews transitioned into broader group discussions, revealing diverse viewpoints and shared experiences.

4.3.4 Observational insights

Engaging in both participatory and non-participatory observation techniques allowed for a nuanced understanding of the intricacies of water hyacinth weaving. These sessions also granted a unique perspective on the dynamics and flow of group discussions.

4.3.5 Group dialogues

Facilitated group discussions among stakeholders and fostered a space of shared learning and collaboration. As captured in Figure 8, these discussions were pivotal in unearthing the community's weaving practices, challenges, and aspirations.

Figure 8 . Researchers urge stakeholders to share water hyacinth-weaving ideas, experiences, and opinions in groups. These talks help researchers comprehend weaving practices and provide vital insights

4.4 Alteration of water hyacinth stems and design procedure

The research delved deeper into the practical applications and innovations possible with water hyacinth fibers, expanding upon the foundational knowledge of traditional water hyacinth weaving techniques.

4.4.1 Water hyacinth production of fiber

Figure 9 depicts a significant aspect of the research the transformation of water hyacinth stems into a woven material. This is a multi-step procedure. Collecting water hyacinth plants from their aquatic environment. The process of separating the stems and allowing them to dry naturally. Extracting the fibers from the desiccated stems. Transforming these fibers into a format suitable for weaving. In addition to being eco-friendly, the resulting woven fabric possesses the required strength and pliability for a variety of applications, including the manufacture of furniture.

Figure 9 . Focuses on transforming water hyacinth stems into a woven fabric, an eco-friendly and sustainable material. This is accomplished through the production of hyacinth stems, which are used to create hyacinth-woven fabric

4.4.2 The use of water hyacinth fiber in the design of furniture

Water hyacinth, traditionally viewed as an invasive aquatic species, has emerged as a sustainable material with multifaceted applications. This section focuses on the utilization of water hyacinth fibers specifically for furniture construction.

Harnessing insights from the local community, who possess extensive experience with this plant, a comprehensive method was developed to transform these fibers into functional furniture. This process encompasses:

• Conceptualization Phase

Preliminary ideas emerge from brainstorming sessions, emphasizing the distinctive texture, durability, and adaptability of water hyacinth fibers.

• Prototyping

The abstract concept is translated into a tangible prototype, laying down the initial blueprint for the design.

• Community Engagement

This prototype is presented to the community for feedback. Their deep-rooted familiarity with water hyacinth enriches the design process, ensuring the prototype resonates with local sensibilities.

• Final Design

Community feedback is integrated, refining the design to achieve an equilibrium between aesthetic appeal and functional efficacy.

• Manufacturing

With the design blueprint in place, the transformation of water hyacinth fibers into eco-friendly furniture commences.

The innovative use of water hyacinth fibers in furniture design presents a sustainable alternative to conventional materials. Beyond being an aesthetic choice, this eco-friendly material embodies the ethos of the local community and emphasizes the adaptability of water hyacinths. While the referenced study discusses the broader applications and potential of water hyacinth, including its potential as an alternative energy source and environmental implications, this section underscores the plant's versatility, specifically in sustainable furniture practices (Figure 10) [15].

Figure 10 . The researcher uses community input to create an initial design

Based on the information provided in the article, the researchers investigated the potential for using water hyacinth fibers in the design and production of eco-friendly products. The research team observed and worked with local villagers in Pathum Thani province to learn about traditional weaving techniques and create innovative designs that cater to modern market needs.

The article indicates that producing water hyacinth fabric involves drying and spinning the stems into uniform strands, which are then combined with cotton yarn in various proportions to create materials with different properties. The resulting fabrics were found to be suitable for a range of applications, including furniture, bags, tablecloths, and curtains.

The weaving process employed in this study involves blending water hyacinth fibers with cotton yarn to create a range of versatile and eco-friendly fabrics. The research explores five distinct ratios for mixing water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn to strike the right balance between flexibility and durability.

Figure 1 1 . Natural fiber derived from water hyacinth, as briefly described in the given proportions, results in a distinct fabric pattern resembling marble's appearance

Table 1. Comparison of the characteristics of fabrics made from water hyacinth and cotton strands in various proportions

Figure 11 visually illustrates the varying compositions of water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn, providing a tangible understanding of their textures and appearances.

100% water hyacinth fiber, this composition emphasizes environmental sustainability, as demonstrated in Table 1. As a result, it possesses the highest ecological value possible. On the other hand, it might not have the same degree of flexibility and gentleness typically found in compositions containing cotton.

This composition, outlined in the second row of Table 1, strikes a balance between comfort and sustainability by utilizing 80% water hyacinth fiber and 20% cotton yarn. Compared to a composition consisting entirely of water hyacinth, the fabric's flexibility and softness significantly improve when cotton yarn makes up 20% of the design.

This blend offers a harmonious balance between eco-friendliness and user comfort, as shown in the third row of Table 1, and as a result, it is a versatile choice for a variety of applications. The water hyacinth fiber makes up 70% of the yarn, while the cotton yarn makes up 30%.

This blend, which is highlighted in the fourth row of Table 1, is geared towards maximizing comfort and flexibility, making it suitable for applications where user comfort is a priority. The water hyacinth fiber makes up sixty percent of the yarn, and the cotton yarn makes up forty percent.

Fifty percent water hyacinth fiber and 50 percent cotton yarn: The fifth row in Table 1 displays the most well-balanced blend of water hyacinth and cotton, which ensures the highest possible level of flexibility, softness, and durability.

In conclusion, the choice of fabric composition is determined by the desired equilibrium between comfort and sustainability, as outlined in Table 1.

Table 2. Comparing the weight and durability of water hyacinth cloth to traditional materials

Figure 1 2 . Using a 60:40 cotton-water hyacinth blend and a 70:30 water hyacinth-cotton yarn in creating lamps and furniture emphasizes the importance of size and type in furniture design while utilizing eco-friendly vegetable fibers

Water hyacinth's potential in the textile industry becomes more evident when its characteristics are compared to traditional materials. The density of textiles made from water hyacinth, as shown in Table 2, is noticeably lower compared to materials like cotton, silk, and linen. This is further illustrated in Figure 12, which showcases a blend of 60:40 cotton-water hyacinth and a 70:30 water hyacinth-cotton yarn used in lamp and furniture design, emphasizing the adaptability of water hyacinth fibers [16].

The tensile strength of water hyacinth fabric is closely comparable to that of cotton fabric, with figures standing at 250 Mpa and 280 Mpa, respectively. Additionally, water hyacinth fabric exhibits strong resistance against abrasion and color fading, marking it as an appealing and environmentally friendly option.

Research efforts have combined water hyacinth fiber and cotton yarn in various proportions aiming to produce textiles that are both eco-friendly and user-friendly. The ultimate goal was to identify the best combinations suitable for diverse design and industrial applications. An exemplary design highlighted in Figure 13, showcases a chair made using water hyacinth fabric, requiring 10 tons of water hyacinth stems in its production.

Figure 1 3 . A chair design that utilizes water hyacinth fabric requires 10 tons of water hyacinth stems for processing

Figure 1 4 . The vital role of improvements in life and community economies, focusing on eradicating poverty, providing clean water and sanitation, promoting decent work, and fostering economic growth to create a sustainable future

Figure 14 underscores the profound impact of such innovations on local community economies, emphasizing broader societal implications. Adopting sustainable materials like water hyacinths can shape a sustainable future by addressing challenges like poverty, ensuring clean water and sanitation access, and stimulating economic growth [17].

Figure 1 5 . Explore community-based decision-making, active participation in community development, and sharing the benefits of local production to contribute to a thriving and sustainable community

Furthermore, Figure 15 sheds light on the significance of community-based decision-making, accentuating the importance of active community involvement and the equitable distribution of production benefits.

In conclusion, the potential of water hyacinth fibers in eco-friendly product design and manufacturing is profound. Merging age-old craftsmanship with contemporary market needs, augmented by sustainable materials, can meet the increasing global demand for environmental responsibility.

Water hyacinths, an invasive species known to create significant ecological problems, have the potential to be transformed into a valuable resource for sustainable product development [18]. Communities can assist in preventing the spread of this invasive species and, in turn, minimize its adverse effects on water quality, native flora and fauna, and the overall health of aquatic ecosystems by utilizing water hyacinths in the wickerwork industry [19]. This can be realized by using water hyacinths to craft wickerwork products [20].

The exhibition "Transforming Water Hyacinths: Thai Weaving Innovation for Sustainable Development in Thailand" emphasizes the novel approach of using water hyacinths as a renewable resource for eco-friendly products. This strategy aligns with global trends that prioritize sustainability and environmentally conscious design [21]. In Thailand's Pathum Thani province, researchers partnered with local villagers to understand traditional weaving techniques and design patterns that meet the demands of contemporary markets [22]. By processing water hyacinth fibers and merging them with cotton yarn, they developed a spectrum of textiles suitable for various applications, including furniture, bags, tablecloths, and curtains [23]. The researchers also designed prototype furniture and displays, revealing the commercial potential of water hyacinth fabric.

Adopting water hyacinth fibers benefits local communities, conserves artisan traditions, and aids environmental conservation efforts. By repurposing an invasive species for sustainable product development, these communities can economically thrive and adapt age-old methods to satisfy modern market requirements [24-26]. This ensures eco-friendly materials remain competitive in global markets [27].

Future studies might delve into additional applications of water hyacinth fibers, such as packaging or construction materials [28]. Such applications could diminish plastic waste and reduce the carbon footprint of manufacturing processes. As the world confronts environmental challenges and the quest for sustainable development, innovative methods like the one described herein gain increasing importance.

Numerous advantages may be gained by exploring the possibility of employing water hyacinths as a resource for the creation of environmentally friendly products. Researchers may help local populations, protect traditional crafts, and contribute to efforts to make the world a more sustainable place if they investigate novel applications of invasive species.

In the framework of Transforming Water Hyacinths: Thai Weaving Innovation, Thailand, various routes of inquiry that might contribute to the growth, development, and sustainability of the water hyacinth weaving industry will be the focus of future research.

6.1 Advanced processing techniques

Investigate and develop innovative methods for processing water hyacinth fibers to improve their strength, durability, and versatility. This may include experimenting with different treatments, blending with other natural fibers, or incorporating new technologies in the production process.

6.2 Diversification of applications

Explore a wider range of applications for water hyacinth woven products, such as packaging materials, insulation, textiles, and construction materials. By diversifying the product portfolio, the industry can attract new markets and customers while reducing dependence on a single product type [29].

6.3 Sustainable dyeing and finishing processes

Examine eco-friendly dyeing and finishing techniques that can enhance the aesthetic appeal of water hyacinth woven products without causing harm to the environment. This research could focus on natural dyes derived from plants, minerals, or other sustainable sources.

6.4 Market research and consumer preferences

Conduct in-depth market research to understand consumer preferences and identify potential niches for water hyacinth woven products. This information can help guide product development, design, and marketing strategies to target potential customers better and increase market share [30].

6.5 Environmental impact assessment

Study the long-term environmental impacts of water hyacinth harvesting and processing on local ecosystems, aquatic life, and water quality. This research can help develop guidelines for sustainable harvesting and processing practices that minimize negative impacts on the environment [31].

6.6 Social and economic impact

Assess the social and economic impact of the water hyacinth weaving industry on local communities, including job creation, skill development, and income generation. This research can help identify strategies for maximizing the positive effects of the industry while addressing potential challenges and inequalities [32].

6.7 Policy and regulatory frame work

Investigate the current policy and regulatory framework governing the water hyacinth weaving industry and its environmental aspects. Identify gaps and propose recommendations for improvements that can foster sustainable growth and development in the sector.

6.8 Collaboration and knowledge sharing

Explore opportunities for collaboration and knowledge sharing among different stakeholders, such as researchers, local artisans, government agencies, and non-governmental organizations. This can foster innovation, capacity building, and the transfer of best practices within the industry.

By focusing on these future research topics, the water hyacinth weaving industry in Thailand can continue to evolve, adapt to market demands, and contribute to sustainable development and environmental conservation.

The innovative approach to repurposing water hyacinths, an invasive species in Southeast Asia, for sustainable product development forms the crux of this research. Researchers have explored the potential of water hyacinth fibers to create eco-friendly products by revitalizing traditional weaving techniques and aligning them with modern market needs.

The study emphasizes the importance of supporting local communities, preserving traditional crafts, and reducing environmental impact. By harnessing the potential of water hyacinths, communities can benefit economically while contributing to global sustainability efforts. This project is not only about innovation but also about the continuous adaptation of traditional techniques to ensure that eco-friendly materials remain competitive in an increasingly eco-conscious world.

One key aspect that adds depth to this research is the role of education. Education plays a pivotal role in the success of sustainable product development, particularly in the context of repurposing water hyacinths for eco-friendly products. It empowers local communities with the knowledge and skills required to innovate and adapt traditional techniques to contemporary market demands. By fostering collaboration between researchers, artisans, and educators, education acts as a bridge, connecting traditional wisdom with modern scientific understanding. The integration of educational programs in the process promotes awareness, builds capacity, and enhances the community's ability to engage with sustainable practices effectively. Moreover, education can inspire new generations to continue exploring and innovating within the realm of sustainability, ensuring the long-term growth and resilience of eco-friendly product development.

The article underscores the innovative use of Southeast Asia's water hyacinth overgrowth, transforming this invasive plant into valuable and sustainable products. Through collaboration between researchers and local communities and the integration of education, this study exemplifies how creative solutions can turn environmental challenges into opportunities for sustainable development.

The field of research offers promising paths for exploration, such as optimizing blends of water hyacinth fiber, scaling production, engaging local communities, analyzing market trends, and assessing long-term environmental impacts. These avenues, infused with educational strategies, can further contribute to environmental stewardship and present a responsible innovation and sustainable growth model aligned with global sustainability goals.

This investigation was supported by the Academic Promotion Fundamental Fund and Area-based Research Unit. In addition, the author would like to thank Mr. Krittin Wichittraitham for his invaluable counsel and assistance throughout the course of this study.

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Water hyacinths: Use them or lose them? A holistic approach to a multi-faceted problem

• Penning de Vries, Marloes
• Dube, Timothy
• Münch, Finn
• Ncube, Mgcini
• Anthonj, Carmen
• De Senerpont Domis, Lisette
• Marambanyika, Thomas
• Nondo, Ntandokamlimu
• Osei, Frank
• Shoko, Cletah
• van der Wal, Daphne

Lakes in tropical regions around the world suffer from the infestation of water hyacinth. Its proliferation is attributable to the influx of nutrient-rich waters, as rivers feeding the lakes are polluted with wastewater and run-off of fertilizer and manure from surrounding agricultural fields and husbandry within the catchment. The weed clogs waterways and intakes and affects aquatic life, water availability, transportation, fishing, irrigation, and tourism. Water hyacinth infestation has implications for human health, as it may facilitate the spread of water-related diseases. While water hyacinth may pose health risks, they have the potential to benefit human livelihoods when exploited for wastewater treatment, as fertilizer, for biofuel production or, when made into handicrafts, as a source of income.A sustainable solution to these issues tackles both water quality deterioration and water hyacinth infestation, and "uses" water hyacinth instead of only attempting to "lose" them. We present a research project that identifies such solutions, applicable and appropriate within the local and cultural context of our study region, Lake Chivero, the main source of drinking water to Harare. The project consists of three main pillars: (1) performing systematic studies of causes and effects of water hyacinth spread based on satellite and empirical data; (2) scientifically investigating water hyacinth exploitation methods, and (3) engaging with stakeholders to co-develop strategies to address the challenges of water quality and water hyacinth. The project's impacts will be a more healthy and resilient lake ecosystem, improved wellbeing of people depending on the lake, and more resilient communities at Lake Chivero and other lakes in Sub-Saharan Africa. It will thereby contribute to the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) related to health (SDG 3), drinking water (SDG 6), and sustainable communities (SDG 11). Moreover, the project is in line with the South African National Development Plan 2030 and the African Union Agenda 2063.

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• Published: 05 July 2024

Exploring the ecological security evaluation of water resources in the Yangtze River Basin under the background of ecological sustainable development

• Jie-Rong Zhou 1   na1 ,
• Xiao-Qing Li 1   na1 ,
• Xin Yu 1 , 2 ,
• Tian-Cheng Zhao 1 &
• Wen-Xi Ruan 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  15475 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental social sciences

The Yangtze River (hereafter referred to as the YZR), the largest river in China, is of paramount importance for ensuring water resource security. The Yangtze River Basin (hereafter referred to as the YRB) is one of the most densely populated areas in China, and complex human activities have a significant impact on the ecological security of water resources. Therefore, this paper employs theories related to ecological population evolution and the Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) model to construct an indicator system for the ecological security of water resources in the YRB. The report evaluates the ecological security status of water resources in each province of the YRB from 2010 to 2019, clarifies the development trend of its water resource ecological security, and proposes corresponding strategies for regional ecological security and coordinated economic development. According to the results of the ecological population evolution competition model, the overall indicator of the ecological security of water resources in the YRB continues to improve, with the safety level increasing annually. Maintaining sound management of water resources in the YRB is crucial for sustainable socioeconomic development. To further promote the ecological security of water resources in the YRB and the coordinated development of the regional economy, this paper proposes policy suggestions such as promoting the continuous advancement of sustainable development projects, actively adjusting industrial structure, continuously enhancing public environmental awareness, and actively participating in international ecological construction and seeking cooperation among multiple departments.

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Introduction.

Water is the primary resource for sustaining living organisms and also an important contributor to the ecological environment and the global economy. However, the current status of water resources is facing formidable challenges owing to rapid global population growth, sustained economic development, and extreme climatic conditions triggered by climate change. According to reports from the World Economic Forum and the United Nations, currently, over 2 billion people worldwide inhabit water-scarce regions, a figure projected to increase to as much as 3.5 billion by the year 2025. Approximately a quarter of the global population is confronting a “water stress” crisis, with water scarcity issues gradually becoming commonplace, defying prior expectations 1 . The report assessed the water risks in almost 200 countries and regions. Seventeen regions and countries around the world consume more than 80% of the available water supply, putting them at risk of experiencing severe water scarcity. The scarcity, uneven distribution, and deteriorating environmental quality of water resources have emerged as significant impediments to human sustainable development and societal progress, posing severe threats to water resource security across various regions. Consequently, there is an urgent imperative to engage in interdisciplinary research and foster collaborative innovation to devise scientifically sound water resource management strategies, thereby advancing the societal attainment of sustainable development goals.

Water resources are a strategic asset for ensuring economic and social development. Water is not only a fundamental element for human survival but also a crucial guarantee for economic and social development. If industry is the foundation of the national economy, then water is its “lifeblood”, essential for the development of all industries. As the largest river in China, the YZR originates from the Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau, traverses three major economic zones, and finally flows into the East China Sea. The YZR the world’s third-longest river and also has the widest basin area in China, accounting for approximately 36% of the country's total water resources. Thus, it is one of China’s most critical rivers. The YZR runs through eleven regions, including an autonomous region, eight provinces, and two municipalities directly under the central government, namely, Qinghai Province, the Tibet Autonomous Region, Yunnan Province, Sichuan Province, Hunan Province, Hubei Province, Jiangxi Province, Anhui Province, Jiangsu Province, Chongqing Municipality, and Shanghai Municipality. Due to the complex terrain and low population density in the Tibet Autonomous Region, human activities in the area have a relatively minor impact on water resource ecological security. Considering the integrity of administrative divisions, this paper selects ten provinces (municipalities), namely, Qinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Chongqing, and Shanghai, as the research area, representing the YRB as the research object. The YRB currently has hundreds of millions of residents, meaning that the supply and demand of water resources in the basin are crucial for people’s livelihoods and industrial and agricultural production. As one of the most economically developed regions in China, the YRB has important economic centres and industrial bases. The rational utilization and management of water resources are crucial for the economic development of this region. Assessing the security of water resources in the YRB is the foundation for ensuring high-quality development in this area. To actively address the challenges posed by water security issues and achieve sustainable development, it is essential to prioritize and resolve water security challenges 2 .

By investigating research progress on water resource security both domestically and internationally, it has been found that the majority of studies primarily focus on the ecological system aspect, while a minority are based on the social attributes of water resources. Particularly within the realm of human–water relationships 3 , research examining the impact of socioeconomic factors on water resource ecological security from temporal and spatial perspectives is relatively limited. This study introduces the Lotka–Volterra biological concept to explore the competitive or symbiotic relationships between two populations concerning ecological resources within the same temporal and spatial context. Here, we assume that the changes in socioeconomic factors have an impact on the ecological security of water resources, and at the same time, the continuous improvement of water resource ecological security is also a sign of the advancement of socioeconomic development. The two mutually influence each other. Meanwhile, the water resource ecosystem possesses a certain degree of resilience, meaning that it can recover to a certain level through natural restoration or human intervention after being damaged to a certain extent. Building upon this foundation, the DPSIR model is employed to establish a symbiotic assessment index system for socioeconomic factors and water resources. The entropy weight method was utilized to calculate the weights of the indicators. Furthermore, the Lotka–Volterra coexistence model was employed to conduct an in-depth evaluation of the ecological security of water resources in the YRB from 2010 to 2019. The results indicate that during the period of 2010–2015, the ecological security status of water resources in the YRB was highly sensitive and even approached a dangerous state. However, with national governance and policy adjustments, the ecological security of water resources in the YRB has shown a trend of orderly recovery, currently stabilizing at a state of security or near-security. Nevertheless, challenges still exist in the management of water resource ecological security. It is vital not only to maintain and protect the YRB but also to further research and safeguard other water source areas. In summary, future efforts to govern and maintain the ecological security of water resources will be arduous, requiring the collaborative participation and governance of multiple stakeholders. Establishing a sound management system and calling for concerted efforts from the entire society to protect the YZR are crucial. Active participation in comprehensive ecological security protection projects in the YRB is essential. This lays the groundwork for constructing a healthier and more sustainable water resource ecological security management system.

Research progress at domestic and abroad

Interspecific competition model foundation—logistic model.

The logistic curve, also known as the “S-shaped curve, ” is a graphical representation of the growth pattern of a population 4 . This logistic growth model was constructed by Verhulst 5 . The logistic model describes the development of many phenomena in nature, showing continuous growth within a certain period 6 . Generally, in the initial stages of species development, the population grows rapidly. After a certain period, the growth rate reaches its peak. Due to internal factors, the rate gradually slows until it no longer increases, reaching a stable state at the limit. This process of changing population size is referred to as a finite growth process, namely, the logistic growth process. According to the research results of scholars such as Haibo et al. 7 , Lingyun and Jun 8 , and Tao 9 , the basic interspecies competition model, the logistic model, is represented by the following equation:

The constant \({\upgamma } > 0\) in the equation represents the self-intrinsic growth rate of the population, indicating the maximum growth rate of a single population without external environmental limitations. This variable reflects the difference between the average birth rate and the average death rate of individuals in a population who are not subjected to external inhibitory effects. This constant reveals the intrinsic growth characteristics of a species population. The parameter K reflects the abundance of available resources within an ecosystem. When the population size K of a species equals K, the population will no longer grow. Therefore, the K value represents the maximum number of individuals of a species that the ecosystem environment can accommodate, also known as the carrying capacity.

According to the logistic equation, we can observe that the relative growth rate of a population is proportional to the remaining resource capacity in the ecological system environment. When the remaining resources are abundant, the relative growth rate of the species population is high. This phenomenon, where the rate of population growth slows as population density gradually increases, is known as density-dependent regulation. As the ecological system capacity K approaches infinity, the growth rate of the population approaches exponential growth, and this change in the population growth curve is known as the logistic curve.

Lotka–Volterra ecological model

In 1925, Lotka introduced a significant model in his research titled “Elements of Physical Biology”, the predator‒prey interaction model. This model quantitatively elucidates the interactions between organisms 10 . In 1926, Volterra, in his study “Variazionie fluttuazioni del numero d’individui in specie animali conviventi,” described the population dynamics of two interacting species in the biological realm 11 . These contributions laid the theoretical foundation for interspecific competition models and significantly influenced the development of modern ecological competition theories.

The interactions between species can be classified into three main types: competitive relationships, predator–prey relationships, and mutualistic cooperation relationships 12 . The Lotka–Volterra model was initially developed to describe predator‒prey relationships. However, with the increasingly widespread application of differential equation theory, this ecological model has evolved to encompass a broader range of applicability.

• DPSIR model

In 1993, the research group OECD innovatively proposed the DPSIR model, which is the “driving force-pressure-state-influence-response” model based on previous research models and has since been widely promoted in policy-making and research. Combining the characteristics of both the DSR (Driving Force-State-Response) and PSR frameworks, the DPSIR model effectively reflects causal relationships within systems, integrating elements such as resources, development, environment, and human health. As a result, it is considered a suitable method for evaluating watershed ecological security.

Consistent with the PSR framework, the DPSIR model organizes information and relevant indicators based on causal relationships with the aim of establishing a chain of causality: driving force (D)-pressure (P)-state (S)-impact (I)-response (R). In this context, “Driving Force (D)” primarily refers to potential factors reflecting changes in the health of the water cycle system, such as socioeconomic and population growth. “Pressure (P)” mainly refers to the impacts on the structure and functioning of the water cycle system, such as the utilization of water resources. “State (S)” represents changes in the water cycle system resulting from the combined effects of driving forces and pressures, serving as the starting point for impact and response analysis. “Impact (I)” reflects the effects of the hydrological cycle system on human health and social development. “Response (R)” refers to the feedback provided by the water cycle system to driving forces and pressures.

This model describes the causal chain between activities conducted by humans and the water environment, illustrating the mutually constraining and influencing processes between the two. It can encompass elements such as society, economy, and environment to indicate the threats posed by social, economic, and human activities to watershed ecological security. It can also utilize response indicators to demonstrate the feedback of the environment to society resulting from human activities and their impacts, as shown in Fig.  1 13 .

DPSIR model framework.

Overview of water resource ecological security

Water resources are a vital strategic asset for sustainable development and a key factor influencing human survival and socioeconomic development. The security of water resources is intricately linked to national economies and social stability 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 . As the population and economy grow rapidly, as well as due to the influence of climate change, water scarcity and deterioration of the water environment have become increasingly prevalent, posing a critical constraint to human survival and development 19 . Currently, research on water resource ecological security issues primarily revolves around the following three aspects.

The first aspect involves the evaluation of the water resources carrying capacity (hereafter referred to as the WRCC) and vulnerability.

Regarding the WRCC, some studies consider that the WRCC implies the need for water resources to sustain a healthy societal system 20 . Other researchers argue that the WRCC is the maximum threshold for sustaining human activities 21 .

In terms of calculation methods, various quantification methods for the WRCC have gradually emerged. For example, Qu and Fan 22 considered the available water volume in water demand, national economic sectors and the ecological environment. They employed the traditional trend approach to obtain the population and development scales of industry and agriculture. Zhou Fulei adopted the entropy weight method, an objective weight determination method, to determine the weights of each evaluation indicator, utilized the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to adjust the weights, constructed composite weights, and then used the TOPSIS model to evaluate the water resources carrying capacity of Qingdao city from 2015 to 2021 23 . Ma et al. 24 and Xiong et al. 25 analysed and evaluated the WRCC using the entropy weight method and provided suggestions for regional sustainable development. Wang et al. 26 , under the traditional TOPSIS model, used an improved structural entropy weighting method to determine the weights of evaluation indicators. They then constructed a grey-weighted TOPSIS model using a grey correlation matrix to specifically evaluate the current state of the agricultural WRCC in Anhui Province. Zhang X and Duan X combined the weights obtained from the entropy and CRITIC methods using the geometric mean method. They applied these combined weights to a model integrating grey relational analysis (GRA), the technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS), and the coupling coordination degree model (CCDM) to calculate the evaluation value of the water resource carrying capacity 27 . Zhang and Tan 28 and Fu et al. 29 separately used optimization models and projection tracking models to evaluate the WRCC in their study areas and conducted comprehensive assessments of the regional WRCC. Gong and Jin 30 , Meng et al. 31 , Wang et al. 32 , and Gao et al. 33 applied fuzzy comprehensive evaluation methods to assess the influencing factors of the WRCC by establishing a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation matrix. On this basis, they analysed the factors affecting the WRCC and evaluated and predicted the future carrying capacity of water resources in the study area. Additionally, other methods have been employed, such as multidimensional regulation 34 , neural network genetic algorithms 35 , 36 , multi-index evaluation models 37 , and nonparametric analysis models 38 .

Ait-Aoudia and Berezowska-Azzag 39 conducted an assessment of the WRCC to analyse the balance between domestic demand and water supply. To assess the WRCC of specific regions, the assessment factors were determined by evaluating the relevant factors of water usage and availability. The conceptual framework for assessing the capacity of water resources was developed based on the supply–demand relationship. Yan et al. 40 focused on the previous decade’s regional water resource data of Anhui Province in China. They constructed a framework for the Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response Management (DPSIRM) model and conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the WRCC using the entropy weight method and variable weight theory. Based on the derived comprehensive evaluation values and incorporating the modified Gray–Markov combined forecasting, they made predictions about the local WRCC for the coming years. In 2020, Zhengqian 41 discussed the concept and research methods of regional WRCC. The research methodology has evolved from a singular and static approach to a dynamic, multilevel, and comprehensive study with various indicators. Jiajun et al. 42 , starting from a systemic perspective, studied the coordinated development relationships among China’s economy, social development, ecological environment, and water resources. They applied the WRCC Comprehensive Evaluation Model, calculating the comprehensive evaluation index for specific years based on relevant data. This allowed them to describe the WRCC status of provinces and regions in China, providing a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of China’s WRCC. Ren et al. 43 introduced the concept of biological metabolism to the regional WRCC and proposed the theory of regional water resource metabolism. Additionally, they established an evaluation indicator system for the WRCC considering regional water resource characteristics, socioeconomic systems, and sustainable development principles.

Raskin et al. 44 assessed the extent of water resource security by using the proportion of water extraction relative to the total water resources, defined as the water resource vulnerability index. Rui 45 constructed a water resource vulnerability model based on the theory of mutation series. They utilized the principles of mutation series to redefine grading standards and assessed the vulnerability status of water resources in Shanxi Province from 2004 to 2016. The aim was to offer technical assistance for the scientific management of water resources.

The second aspect involves the measurement of the sustainable utilization and efficiency of regional water resources.

Over the last few years, numerous domestic researchers have actively conducted research on the sustainable utilization of water resources, focusing primarily on two aspects:

First, research on evaluation indicator systems for the sustainable utilization of water resources should be conducted. Li Zhijun, Xiang Yang, and others addressed the lack of connection between water resource ecology and socioeconomic development in traditional water resource ecological footprint methods. They introduced the water resource ecological benefit ratio and analysed the water resource security and sustainable development status through an improved water resource energy value ecological footprint method 46 . Zhang et al. 47 established a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model based on entropy weight, providing recommendations for the sustainable utilization of water resources in Guangxi Province. Liu Miliang, aiming for sustainable development, quantitatively analysed the current situation and influencing factors. Based on the DPSIR model, they established an evaluation system for the sustainable utilization of water resources 48 .

Second, in terms of evaluation methods and research on the sustainable utilization of water resources, Yunling et al. 49 constructed an evaluation indicator system for the WRCC to assess the comprehensive water resource carrying status in Hebei Province. Xuexiu et al. 50 , based on both domestic and international research on water resource pressure theory, analysed the connotation of water resource pressure, introduced commonly used methods for water resource pressure evaluation, and provided a comprehensive overview and comparative analysis of water resource pressure evaluation methods from aspects such as calculation principles, processes, and applications. Guohua et al. 51 established an entropy-based fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model of water resource allocation harmony and evaluated the water resource allocation status of various districts and counties in Xi’an city. Shiklomanov 52 used indicators such as available water resources, industrial and agricultural water usage, and household water consumption to assess water resource security.

The SBM-DEA model was used by Deng et al. 53 to appraise the efficiency of water resource utilization across nearly all provinces in China. They proposed factors influencing water resource utilization efficiency, including the added value of the agricultural sector, per capita water usage, the output-to-pollution ratio of polluting units, and import–export dependency. Yaguai and Lingyan 54 employed a two-stage model combining superefficiency DEA and Tobit to assess water resource efficiency in China from 2004 to 2014. They analysed regional differences and influencing factors. Mei et al. 55 separately used stochastic frontier analysis and data envelopment analysis to measure the absolute and relative efficiencies of water resource utilization in 14 cities in Liaoning Province. They employed a kernel density estimation model to analyse the dynamic evolution patterns of water resource utilization efficiency. Xiong et al. 56 adopted an iterative correction approach to modify and apply water resource utilization efficiency evaluation models based on single assessment methods such as entropy, mean square deviation, and deviation methods.

The third aspect involves investigating the relationship between water resource security and other societal systems.

Shanshan et al. 57 laid the foundation for the rational construction of an urbanization and water resource indicator system. Through the establishment of a dynamic coupled model, they conducted an analytical study on the harmonized development trends between the urbanization system and the water resource system in Beijing. Wei 58 utilized a coordination degree model to explore the coupling relationship between the quality of new urbanization and water resource security in Guangdong Province. Caizhi and Xiaodong 59 combining coupled scheduling models with exploratory spatial data analysis and conducted an analysis of the security conditions and spatial correlations among water resources, energy, and food in China. Additionally, Xia et al. 60 employed the Mann–Kendal test method to study the degrees of matching between water resources and socioeconomic development in six major geographical regions of China.

A review of the relevant literature reveals that scholars have explored the issues of water resource ecological security and regional socioeconomic development from various perspectives and fields, which is one of the urgent problems to be addressed in the current process of social development. These research findings not only have learning and reference significance but also provide insights for the writing of this paper.

Summarizing the achievements of previous research, the essence of water resource security evaluation mainly includes three aspects: ensuring water quantity, sustainability, and water quality. Evaluation methods include principal component analysis, fuzzy comprehensive evaluation methods, analytic hierarchy processes, and system dynamics modelling methods, among others, among which the analytic hierarchy process has certain advantages in addressing multilevel problems and is widely used in constructing multilevel analysis models. Therefore, this paper introduces the Lotka–Volterra biological concept and continues to explore this topic further. It can effectively combine the relationships between indicators and weights and study the competition or symbiotic relationship between two populations competing for ecological resources in the same time and space context 61 . Drawing from the DPSIR model, this study devises a comprehensive evaluation framework to assess the interdependence of socioeconomic factors and water resources. Through the application of the entropy weight method, this study determines the relative importance of various indices within this framework. Employing the Lotka–Volterra symbiotic model, this research scrutinizes and quantifies the ecological security status of water resources in the YRB from 2010 to 2019. The overarching objective is to furnish technical insights that can catalyse efforts to enhance the ecological security of regional water resources.

Methodology

• Lotka–Volterra symbiosis model

In the 1940s, A. J. Lotka and V. Volterra jointly introduced the Lotka–Volterra model 62 , which serves as a method for studying the relationships between biological populations. Its basic form is as follows:

In the given equation, \({\text{N}}_{1} \left( {\text{t}} \right), {\text{N}}_{2} \left( {\text{t}} \right)\) denote the populations of species \({\text{S}}_{1}\) and \({\text{S}}_{2}\) , respectively. \({\text{K}}_{1}\) and \({\text{K}}_{2}\) represent the carrying capacities of populations \({\text{S}}_{1}\) and \({\text{S}}_{2}\) in their respective environments. \({\text{r}}_{1}\) and \({\text{r}}_{2}\) represent the growth rates of populations \({\text{S}}_{1}\) and \({\text{S}}_{2}\) , respectively. \(\alpha\) denotes the competitive intensity coefficient of species \({\text{S}}_{2}\) on species \({\text{S}}_{1}\) , while \(\beta\) represents the competitive intensity coefficient of species \({\text{S}}_{1}\) on species \({\text{S}}_{2}\) .

By replacing the socioeconomic relationships within the entire YRB with the provinces within the basin, the Lotka–Volterra model is introduced into the regional water resource ecological security assessment. This allows for the construction of a symbiotic model between socioeconomic factors and water resources within the YRB. The specific formula is as follows:

In the equation, \({\text{F}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) denotes the comprehensive socioeconomic development status, \({\text{E}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) signifies the comprehensive development status of water resources, \({\text{C}}\) represents the ecological environment, \({\text{r}}_{{\text{F}}}\) signifies the socioeconomic growth rate, \({\text{r}}_{{\text{E}}}\) represents the growth rate of water resources, \(\alpha\) denotes the coefficient of water resources’ impact on the socioeconomy, and \(\beta\) denotes the coefficient of the impact of the socioeconomy on water resources. Therefore, solving for the coefficients \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) in the model is essential for examining the interaction between the socioeconomy and water resources. The specific steps for solving the equation are as follows.

Discretizing Eqs. ( 4 ), ( 5 ) yields:

The solution is:

Different values of \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) correspond to different symbiotic relationships between the socioeconomy and water resources, as illustrated in Fig.  2 .

Symbiotic model between the socioeconomic and water resources in the YRB.

Construction of the DPSIR model and indicator system

To construct a water resource ecological security index system for the 10 provinces in the YRB, this paper is based on the research of relevant scholars and introduces the DPSIR model to evaluate water resource ecological security. This model was proposed to describe the concept of environmental systems and the structure of complex cause-and-effect relationships by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 1999. It is mainly applied in assessments of ecological security, regional sustainable development, and water resource ecological security.

The establishment of the DPSIR model in this paper is illustrated in Fig.  3 .

DPSIR model.

Generally, the driver (D) in the socioeconomic system tends to improve the environmental and resource states (S), while the economic pressure (P) tends to disrupt the resource and environmental states (S). The states of resources and the environment contribute essential production materials to the socioeconomic system. Simultaneously, drivers (D) and pressures (P) reflect two different aspects of socioeconomic development. Therefore, these factors can indicate the level of socioeconomic development. Based on these definitions, the following indicators are selected to assess the DPSIR model for water resource ecological security. The weights of various indicators calculated through the entropy weight method are presented in Table 1 . A more significant role played by the corresponding indicator in the comprehensive assessment of regional ecological security will have a greater weight.

On this basis, the socioeconomic stress index \({\text{S}}_{{\text{F}}} \left( {\text{k}} \right)\) and water resource stress index \({\text{S}}_{{\text{E}}} \left( {\text{k}} \right)\) are defined as follows:

The comprehensive index between socioeconomic and water resources, also called the symbiosis index \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) , is calculated as follows:

According to Eq. ( 14 ), \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right) \in \left[ { - \sqrt 2 ,\sqrt 2 } \right]\) , a larger value of A indicates that the symbiotic state between the socioeconomy and water resources is better; conversely, a smaller value of A indicates that the symbiotic state between the two is worse.

The water resources force index can illustrate the direction of the socioeconomic impact on water resources, and the symbiotic index can illustrate the magnitude of the socioeconomic impact on water resources. Therefore, these two indices serve as the basis for evaluating the water resource security status. Formula ( 14 ) implies that the symbiotic index \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) falls within the range of \(\left[ { - \sqrt 2 ,\sqrt 2 } \right]\) . A larger numerical value indicates a better symbiotic relationship between the two subsystems, while a smaller value suggests a poorer symbiotic relationship. However, the relationship between the symbiotic index and regional ecological security is not straightforward. Regional ecological security must be judged according to specific criteria grounded in both the measure of symbiosis \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) and the ecological force index \({\text{S}}_{{\text{E}}} \left( {\text{k}} \right)\) . This approach comprehensively characterizes the ecological security of the YRB urban agglomeration. In our study, a two-dimensional symbiotic model of socioeconomic–natural ecology is employed to depict the evolution of ecological security under dual-characteristic indices.

Within this model, ecological security is divided into six regions that progress in a sequential manner, conforming to the progressive law of ecological security evolution. In the safe zone, the socioeconomic and natural ecological systems mutually benefit, and both experience robust development. In the subsafe zone, although the natural ecological system is still in a growing state, this occurs at the expense of socioeconomic development, leading to an unstable ecological security status. If the socioeconomic system continues to suffer damage, it falls into the sensitive zone, where the harm to the socioeconomic system outweighs the benefits to the natural ecological system. If this condition persists, both systems enter a state of competition, resulting in harm to both, and they are situated in the danger zone. In unfavourable zones, the socioeconomic system gains weak benefits, while the natural economy suffers damage. If humanity recognizes this situation and takes measures to improve the environment, it may transition from the unfavourable zone to the cautious zone, leading to an improvement in ecological security and potential entry into the safe zone. For ease of analysis and based on the relevant literature 63 , following expert discussions, this study classifies ecological security into six categories corresponding to six ecological security early warning levels, as shown in Table 2 .

Discrimination of water resource ecological security levels

The YZR originates from the Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau, considered the “Roof of the World,” traversing three major economic regions before ultimately flowing into the East China Sea. For our study area, we selected the eight provinces and two municipalities through which the YZR flows. These regions are Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Chongqing, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Qinghai. In the subsequent text, they will be referred to collectively as the YRB. The data for this study primarily originate from statistical yearbooks, water resource bulletins, and development reports spanning the years 2010 to 2019.

According to the criteria for water resource security status presented in Table 2 , the corresponding information is summarized in Table 3 for the years 2011 to 2018, indicating the water resource security status in the YRB during this period. It is observed that from 2011 to 2018, the water resources security status in the YRB initially experienced a decline but later recovered to a secure level. In recent years, the country has not only emphasized economic development but also placed significant importance on environmental protection. Rapid industrial development in earlier years led to an exacerbation of water pollution issues. However, the government promptly recognized this problem and implemented a series of measures to address water pollution. Stringent controls were also imposed on industrial water usage. Consequently, the water resource status quickly returned to a level considered safe.

The water resource security evaluation values obtained using the entropy method range from 0 to 1. Ideally, a value closer to 1 indicates a better water resource security situation, while a value closer to 0 suggests a poorer water resource security situation.

After standardizing the processed data, we can plug them into Eq. ( 15 ) to sequentially obtain the basic indices for socioeconomic, ecological environment, and water resource security in the YRB. The specific process involves substituting the basic indices for socioeconomic, ecological environment, and water resource ecological security into Eqs. ( 12 )–( 14 ). This approach yields comprehensive indices, including the socioeconomic stress index, water resource stress index, and symbiotic degree index. These indices serve as the basis for evaluating the water resource security status in the assessment region, with the water resource stress index and symbiotic degree index being the key indicators.

In the equation, f i represents the comprehensive level of water resource ecological security, \({\text{x}}_{{\text{i}}}^{\prime }\) signifies the standardized values obtained from the original data, and \({\text{w}}_{{\text{i}}}\) denotes the weights assigned to each indicator. When the value of f i falls between 0 and 1, the closer the value is to 1, the better the ecological security of water resources. In contrast, it shows a poorer ecological security status. Similarly, according to this equation, the classification of water resource ecological security can be divided into six categories: 0–0.16 denotes a dangerous state, 0.16–0.32 indicates a deteriorating state, 0.32–0.48 signifies a sensitive state, 0.48–0.64 represents a vigilant state, 0.64–0.8 implies a subsecure state, and 0.8–1.0 corresponds to a safe state. Different levels of water resource ecological security entail varying relationships with the national economy and society. For specific characteristics corresponding to each security level, please refer to Table 4 .

Informed consent statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Evaluation of water resource ecological security levels in the Yangtze River Basin

Overall, the evaluation values of water resource security in the YRB from 2010 to 2019 showed a fluctuating upwards trend (refer to Table 5 ). From 2010 to 2013, the evaluation values fluctuated between 0.2 and 0.4, reaching the lowest level at Grade V. In 2011, the evaluation value was only 0.2201, indicating that during this period, the water resources in the YRB were in an unsafe state, resulting in water scarcity. These results indicate that economic and social development are not being met on a sustainable basis at the watershed scale. In 2014, the water resource security evaluation value for the YRB reached 0.4243, classified as Grade III. Subsequently, there was a significant upwards trend, with the evaluation value reaching 0.6746 in 2017, which was classified as Grade II, indicating a relatively secure state. These results suggest that the water resources of the YRB appeared to be more secure than they were before, and the YRB could essentially fulfil the requirements for sustainable economic and social development at the national level. This upwards trend continued, reaching 0.7215 in 2019. From 2010 to 2019, the water resource security status in the YRB improved from Grade V to Grade II, demonstrating significant improvement. However, it has not yet reached Grade I, indicating that there is still room for improvement in the future.

The DPSIR model was used to analyse the reasons for the improvement in the ecological security of water resources in the YRB based on five criteria. Table 5 shows that the evaluation values for driving forces significantly increased from 2010 to 2019, while the values for pressure and response slightly increased, and those for state and impact fluctuated, resulting in a slight overall improvement. Specifically, the evaluation values for driving forces fluctuated from 0.0543 to 0.2370, indicating the significant contributions of indicators such as per capita GDP, the proportion of primary industry, population density, and the urbanization rate to the enhancement of water resource security. The assurance provided by economic and social development for water resource security is evident. The evaluation value for pressure fluctuated from 0.0403 to 0.1149, suggesting a reduction in pressure on water resources from economic development, agricultural and industrial production, and residents' lifestyles, leading to a decrease in basin water pollution and an alleviation of water quality deterioration. The response increased from 0.0527 to 0.1665, indicating relatively significant growth. These results suggest that measures taken by the government and society to address water resource issues have been effective, resulting in improvements in both the quantity and quality of water resources and an enhancement of water resource security levels. The evaluation value for impact fluctuated from 0.0261 to 0.0349, indicating a standardized industrial wastewater discharge volume and an improvement in water resource security conditions. The evaluation value for state initially decreased from 0.1633 to a minimum of 0.0656 before increasing to approximately 0.17. These results suggest that, considering indicators such as per capita sewage discharge and per capita water consumption, the status of water resources initially declined but gradually improved after governance measures were implemented.

In summary, from 2010 to 2019, the improvement in water resource security in the YRB can be attributed mainly to the enhancement of driving forces and response indicators. Economic and social development has provided ample assurance for water resource security, while water resources have imposed constraints on economic and social development to a certain extent. In the YRB, the current governance of water resources has reached a relatively high level, making it challenging to achieve significant breakthroughs in the future. The efficiency of water use in the existing industrial structure is difficult to substantially improve. Therefore, adjusting the industrial structure to enhance water resource security is a future research focus. These findings align with the conclusions of other domestic scholars. For instance, a study by Xiaotao and Fa-wen 64 revealed that water consumption per unit of production energy and agricultural production in the YRB contributed the same proportion of GDP. They argued that future water conservation efforts should focus on adjusting industrial structures and developing water-saving technologies. Another study by Wang Hao revealed that the water resource utilization efficiency in the YRB was second only to that in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region 65 . These authors suggested that the potential for mitigating the contradiction between water supply and demand through deep water conservation is limited.

According to the above methods and steps, further calculations were conducted to determine the water resource ecological security status of each province in the YRB from 2010 to 2019, as shown in Tables 6 and 7 . Information gleaned from Tables 6 and 7 suggests that the overall improvement in the water resource ecological security status of each province in the YRB from 2010 to 2019 was significant. There was a discernible improvement from 2014 to 2015, with a clear boundary line. Before 2015, the water resources in most areas were relatively sensitive, and some regions even experienced deterioration. However, after 2015, almost all areas reached subsafe or safe states.

Calculation results of the water resource security status of each province in the YRB from 2010 to 2019.

Trends in water resource ecological security in the Yangtze River Basin

According to Eq. ( 15 ), and by empirically examining the ecological status of water resources in the YRB from 2010 to 2019, the comprehensive levels of the ecological environment, socioeconomic development, and water resources in ten provinces of the YRB were obtained, as shown in Fig.  4 .

Development of the basic indices in the YRB.

The information gleaned from Table 4 suggests that the economic development in the YRB from 2010 to 2019 showed a positive trend, increasing from 0.09 to 0.35. This increase is attributed to the favourable current economic development environment and robust support from national directives. Policies such as the 2013 “Guiding Opinions on Building China’s New Economic Support Belt Based on the Yangtze River”, the 2018 speech at the Symposium on Deepening the Development of the YZR Economic Belt, the “Development Plan for the Huaihe River Ecological Economic Belt”, and the 2019 “Outline of the Development Plan for the Regional Integration of the Yangtze River Delta” have played crucial roles in driving industrial restructuring and achieving quality economic development in the YRB.

The ecological environment comprehensive level in the YRB exhibited a fluctuating development trend from 2010 to 2019, resembling an “M” shape, increasing from 0.24 to 0.37 with a relatively small amplitude. Ecological civilization construction, as a fundamental national policy, has provided important guidance for the economic development of the YRB. This development includes intensified efforts in the treatment of industrial pollutants and urban wastewater, along with increased levels of regional afforestation and greenery. Notably, significant improvements were observed in indicators such as per capita park green space, the urban green space ratio, and the harmless disposal of waste in the YRB in 2015.

The comprehensive level of water resources in the YRB increased slightly from 0.19 to 0.20 from 2010 to 2019. Although there was an upwards trend, the magnitude of the increase was minimal, indicating an unfavourable water resource status in the YRB. The primary factor in this slight increase is the accelerated consumption of water resources. As a part of the ecological environment, a decrease in the comprehensive level of water resources is also an important factor restricting the overall improvement of the ecological environment. In future development, the YRB should leverage favourable national policies to promote breakthrough development in the regional economy. Simultaneously, efforts should be intensified towards the protection and management of regional water resources and the ecological environment, striving to enhance the comprehensive level of water resources and the ecological environment.

Based on the previously calculated comprehensive socioeconomic, ecological environment, and water resource levels, the stress indices for socioeconomic and water resources, as well as the symbiotic index for the YRB during the years 2010–2019, were computed, and the results are presented in Fig.  5 .

Development status of comprehensive indices in the YRB.

Figure  5 clearly shows that, except for the years 2012, 2014, and 2016, the impact of water resources on the socioeconomy remained consistently positive, indicating that during this period, water resources positively contributed to economic growth. The water resources force index has been consistently positive in recent years, signifying the promotion by socioeconomic development, with a relatively minor hindrance from socioeconomic development during this period. The symbiotic index values between the two factors were 1.05, 1.24, 1.40, 1.26, and 1.07 in the years 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018, respectively, reaching an optimal state of mutual benefit and symbiosis. However, a slight decline was observed in subsequent years, suggesting the need for further improvement.

Spatial pattern analysis of water resource ecological security in the Yangtze River Basin

Using the ArcGIS10.4 tool, which is provided by the Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc (commonly known as ESRI), several representative years were selected to visualize the ecological security status of water resources in the YRB. The computational results are visualized in Figs.  6 , 7 and 8 .

Ecological security status of water resources in the YRB in 2011(map were generated with software ArcMap10.4 http://www.esri.com/ ).

According to the division standards for administrative regions along the YZR in 2014, the YRB studied in this paper can be categorized into three main regions: the upper, middle, and lower reaches. The upper reach includes three provinces: Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. The middle reach comprises four provinces and municipalities: Chongqing, Hunan, Hubei, and Jiangxi. The lower reach consists of three provinces and municipalities: Anhui, Jiangsu, and Shanghai.

Figures  6 , 7 and 8 show that from 2011 to 2019, the overall ecological security status of water resources in the YRB transitioned from “deteriorating,” “sensitive,” and “vigilant” states to “subsecure” and “safe” states. The range of comprehensive evaluation values for water resource ecological security (hereafter referred to as evaluation values) increased from 0.16–0.64 to 0.64–1.

As illustrated in Fig.  6 , notable disparities were present in the distribution of the ecological security status of water resources among provinces and municipalities in the YRB, with the ecological security status of water resources in the upper and lower reaches of the YZR notably superior to that in the middle reaches. The data indicate that the water resource utilization efficiency levels in the upper and lower reaches of the YZR were greater than that in the middle reaches in 2011, exhibiting a pattern of high efficiency at both ends and lower efficiency in the middle. Regions with high comprehensive water resource utilization efficiency are mainly concentrated in the upper and lower reaches of the YZR.

Although the upstream regions have limited economic strength, they also have relatively fewer water-intensive industries. Meanwhile, these regions actively respond to green development policies and prioritize energy conservation and environmental protection industries. Underdeveloped regions can also achieve higher water resource efficiency by controlling total water consumption and improving the output of water per unit used.

The areas with low comprehensive utilization efficiency of water resources are primarily concentrated in the middle reaches of the YZR, where the proportions of traditional industries such as steel, chemicals, and nonferrous metals are relatively large, leading to high industrial water consumption and consequently the lowest efficiency in water resource utilization. Provinces such as Hunan and Hubei, with large populations and rapid economic development, exhibit high demands for water resources, resulting in increased regional water resource consumption and persistently high per capita sewage discharge indicators.

The downstream regions of the YZR boast strong economic progress, with high levels of industrial technological innovation and governance capabilities. This region exhibits the highest level of economic development, which can drive improvements in the utilization efficiency of water resources. Consequently, Shanghai and Jiangsu provinces have the highest water resource utilization efficiency. As a result, the ecological security status of water resources in Shanghai has improved rapidly.

As shown in Fig.  7 , in 2015, the overall ecological security status of water resources notably improved in the YRB. The fundamental reason for this improvement is that in recent years, regions across the basin have recognized the importance of the ecological environment for overall development. They have gradually undertaken regional industrial restructuring and upgrading and accelerated urbanization and simultaneously emphasized the preservation of water resources and the environment. The three major regions exhibit regional disparities in water resource utilization efficiency due to differences in geographical environment, economic foundation, and industrial structure. In terms of the total water consumption of each province and municipality, agricultural water usage accounts for more than half of the total water consumption, which is significantly greater than the water usage in the industrial, domestic, and ecological sectors. However, compared to other industries' output values, the overall water resource utilization efficiency in agriculture is lower. Therefore, regions with greater proportions of primary industry output tend to have lower water resource utilization efficiency.

Ecological security status of water resources in the YRB in 2015(map were generated with software ArcMap10.4 http://www.esri.com/ ).

The industrialization level in the upstream regions is relatively low, with relatively outdated production technologies. As industrialization progresses, the negative impact on water resources' ecological security is gradually increasing. The industrialization in the middle and lower reaches of the YZR has reached relatively high levels. Control measures have been gradually implemented to manage the resource consumption and environmental pollution generated during the industrial development process. With advancements in technology, the negative impact on water resource ecological security is gradually diminishing. Among these provinces, Hunan Province and Hubei Province in the middle reaches of the YZR experienced the greatest increases in water resource ecological security status, transitioning from “deteriorating” to “subsecure.” The regions in the middle reaches emphasize considering the resource and environmental carrying capacity to ensure the coordination between water resource allocation and regional sustainable development, achieving rational distribution and efficient utilization of water resources within the region.

The lower reaches of the YZR are characterized by developed economies, advanced technologies, and high levels of both urbanization efficiency and water resource efficiency, maintaining harmonious development. This region exhibits the strongest economic development and hosts the highly integrated YZR Delta urban agglomeration. With a solid foundation in secondary and tertiary industries, high levels of technological innovation, and openness, the overall ecological security status of water resources in this region is at a relatively high level.

Across the provinces and municipalities in the YRB, efforts have been intensified to control the discharge of pollutants such as phosphorus, leading to reduced pollutant emissions and improved water quality. Moreover, improvements in water resource allocation have been made, reducing the risks associated with pollution factors through increased water volume and dilution effects, thereby ensuring the supply and safety of drinking water downstream of Shanghai. The stable proportion of GDP in the YZR Economic Belt indicates a balanced relationship between economic development and the ecological protection of water resources. While maintaining economic growth, downstream cities also prioritize environmental protection and water resource management.

Figure  8 clearly shows that the overall ecological security status of water resources in the YRB has been developing at an accelerated pace, trending towards overall coordinated development by 2019, with mutual promotion between socioeconomic and water resources. This trend can be attributed to various factors. This positive influence is exemplified in agricultural water use efficiency, which has improved in recent years due to various factors, such as changes in agricultural production methods, organizational structures, cropping patterns, and water-saving practices. As a result, the negative impact of the proportion of the output value of the primary industry on water resource efficiency has been mitigated.

Ecological security status of water resources in the YRB in 2019(map were generated with software ArcMap10.4 http://www.esri.com/ ).

However, despite efforts, China still faces serious water pollution issues, with poor water environmental quality and significant pollution discharge loads from industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources. These factors pose severe challenges to the ecological security of water resources. To address these challenges, China has formulated a series of plans aimed at strengthening water pollution prevention and control and ensuring national water resource ecological security. These plans were officially announced and implemented after 2015.

Based on the analysis results, each province and city in the YRB should embrace a people-centred approach to new urbanization and the scientific development concept of water resource protection and utilization. While focusing on promoting new urbanization construction, efforts should be intensified to enhance ecological environmental protection and explore new paths for coordinated regional economic development and resource utilization. Provinces and cities should rely on the golden waterway of the YZR to establish cross-regional and cross-provincial basin cooperation mechanisms and long-term mechanisms, actively promoting coordinated development among the three major regions of the YRB.

Against the backdrop of the global environmental crisis, the Lancang-Mekong River, as Asia’s largest transboundary river, also faces certain water security issues. Specifically, the “status” of water resources is relatively low, as manifested by the polluted state of the water quality of the river. Additionally, factors such as the uneven distribution of precipitation within the year and the weakness of storage facilities such as wetlands and reservoirs contribute to seasonal water shortages and serious water disasters in the basin. Moreover, the response levels of basin countries are limited, and there is room for improvement in the level of water resource management. Countries in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin are in a stage of rapid economic and social development, and population growth, economic activities, and changes in land use (such as urbanization) will have direct or indirect impacts on water resources in the basin. The Ganges River Basin faces similar ecological and environmental problems. In recent years, India’s economic prosperity and urbanization process have had significant impacts on the Ganges River Basin. Soil erosion and insufficient drinking water under population pressure have plagued the people of the Ganges River Basin. Additionally, the serious problem of surface water pollution caused by the discharge of industrial and domestic wastewater has led to a certain degree of land salinization.

Climate change, land use, human consumption of water resources, and government management of water resources are all factors that can directly or indirectly affect the water security situation in a region. Given that the Lancang-Mekong River spans China and five Southeast Asian countries, its water resource ecological security is particularly influenced by socioeconomic factors. Therefore, we believe that the methods we propose are equally applicable to the evaluation of water resource ecological security in this basin. By introducing the Lotka–Volterra symbiotic model and using the DPSIR model to construct a system of evaluation indicators for the symbiosis between socioeconomic factors and water resources in the study area, this system will help us to thoroughly assess the water resource ecological security of the Lancang-Mekong River Basin and provide a scientific basis for the implementation of region-specific water security strategies. These approaches are highly important for promoting regional sustainable development and maintaining basin ecological security.

Research has revealed that over a decade ago, the water resource ecological security status in the YRB initially fell within a relatively poor range. However, with close attention from the government and the implementation of various regulations, as well as active participation from the public in protecting the YZR, the water resource ecological security status in the YRB has improved rapidly. It is now generally maintained at levels of safety or near safety, with prospects for further improvement in the future. Comprehensive analysis of data from 2010 to 2019 revealed continuous trends in improvement in water resource security. To further enhance water resource security, we propose the following recommendations:

The industrial structure should be adjusted to achieve sustainable utilization of water resources. Governments should strongly support the green economy and environmental protection industries by providing tax incentives for enterprises, encouraging them to invest in water resource management and protection projects. By establishing corresponding financial funds and reward mechanisms, more social forces can be guided to participate, achieving a mutually beneficial outcome for water resource security and economic development. The Chinese government has called for all citizens to actively respond to carbon peak and carbon neutrality strategies and has formulated specific and feasible emission reduction plans. Enterprises are encouraged to adopt clean production technologies to improve resource utilization efficiency and achieve carbon emission reduction goals. There should be a focus on strengthening sewage resource utilization, integrating atypical water sources into unified water resource allocation, and encouraging locations with the necessary conditions to fully utilize unconventional water sources. Water-deficient cities should actively expand the scale and scope of recycled water utilization. The principles of demand-driven supply, water quality division, and local utilization should be followed to promote the use of recycled water in industrial production, municipal miscellaneous use, land greening, ecological replenishment, and other areas.

Focusing on agricultural water use and preventing water source pollution. As one of the main rice-producing regions in China, to further enhance water resource security in the YRB, agricultural measures should be taken. With respect to water conservation, water-saving irrigation techniques combined with smart irrigation systems should be adopted to achieve precise irrigation and improve water resource utilization efficiency. Moreover, enhancing rainwater collection and utilization by establishing rainwater collection systems and storing water for agricultural irrigation can effectively utilize rainwater resources and alleviate irrigation pressure during the dry season.

Agricultural pesticide use is also an issue that cannot be ignored. Excessive use and improper handling of pesticides can often lead to serious water pollution, posing a threat to the water resource security of the YRB. To address this issue, we need to strengthen pesticide use management, promote scientific pesticide application techniques, reduce excessive pesticide use, raise farmers' environmental awareness to prevent pesticide waste from being directly discharged into water bodies, and strengthen water quality monitoring and treatment to promptly detect and address pesticide pollution problems.

Improve people’s education level and strengthen environmental awareness. As people's living standards and education levels improve, concerns about ecological water security have increased, and higher demands are being placed on water safety and quality. The incomplete assessment and mismanagement of water resources, coupled with wasteful practices, have led to water resources becoming uncontrollable variables. Recognizing, measuring, and expressing the value of water and incorporating it into decision-making processes are particularly important against the backdrop of increasingly scarce water resources, population growth, and the pressures of climate change. It is essential to achieve sustainable and equitable water resource management and meet the development goals of the United Nations' 2030 Agenda.

Actively participate in international ecological construction. According to Maximo Torero of the FAO, strengthening water resource protection and management requires enhanced cooperation among countries, the integration of various stakeholders' interests, multipronged approaches, and the consideration of social, economic, and environmental factors. It also involves a focus on technology, legal frameworks, and overall policy environments. We recommend that governments actively engage in international cooperation projects, sharing experiences and technologies in managing water resources in the YRB while drawing lessons from successful ecological initiatives in other countries. Such cross-border collaboration can foster global ecological sustainability, address global environmental issues collectively, share innovative technologies and research achievements, and achieve global governance of ecological environments.

Data availability

Our data is sourced from the provincial data in the China Statistical Yearbooks from 2011 to 2019 published by the National Bureau of Statistics of China ( https://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/ ), as well as the Water Resources Bulletins ( http://www.mwr.gov.cn/sj/tjgb/szygb/ ). Figures  6 , 7 , and 8 were created by us using ArcGIS 10.4 software, which is provided by the Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (commonly known as ESRI). Our vector boundary data and the Yangtze River data are sourced from the National Catalogue Service For Geographic Information ( www.webmap.cn ), using the 1:1,000,000 public version of basic geographic information data (2021). The tiled data is processed according to GB/T 13989-2012 “National Fundamental Scale Topographic Map Tiling and Numbering”.

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This research was supported by the Project of Social Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. 22TQC005).

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These authors contributed equally: Jie-Rong Zhou and Xiao-Qing Li.

Authors and Affiliations

Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, Nanjing, 211171, Jiangsu, China

Jie-Rong Zhou, Xiao-Qing Li, Xin Yu & Tian-Cheng Zhao

School of Information Management, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China

Wageningen University and Research, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Wen-Xi Ruan

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Conceptualization, J.Z. and X.Y.; methodology, J.Z. and X.L.; software, W.R.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L. and X.Y.; writing—review and editing, X.L., X.Y. and J.Z.; visualization, T.Z.; supervision, X.Y.; project administration, X.Y.; funding acquisition, X.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Xin Yu .

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Zhou, JR., Li, XQ., Yu, X. et al. Exploring the ecological security evaluation of water resources in the Yangtze River Basin under the background of ecological sustainable development. Sci Rep 14 , 15475 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65781-z

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Received : 03 April 2024

Accepted : 24 June 2024

Published : 05 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65781-z

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