reflective essay about discrimination

Essays About Discrimination: Top 5 Examples and 8 Prompts

You must know how to connect with your readers to write essays about discrimination effectively; read on for our top essay examples, including prompts that will help you write.

Discrimination comes in many forms and still happens to many individuals or groups today. It occurs when there’s a distinction or bias against someone because of their age, race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or disability.

Discrimination can happen to anyone wherever and whenever they are. Unfortunately, it’s a problem that society is yet to solve entirely. Here are five in-depth examples of this theme’s subcategories to guide you in creating your essays about discrimination.

1. Essay On Discrimination For Students In Easy Words by Prateek

2. personal discrimination experience by naomi nakatani, 3. prejudice and discrimination by william anderson, 4. socioeconomic class discrimination in luca by krystal ibarra, 5. the new way of discrimination by writer bill, 1. my discrimination experience, 2. what can i do to stop discrimination, 3. discrimination in my community, 4. the cost of discrimination, 5. examples of discrimination, 6. discrimination in sports: segregating men and women, 7. how to stop my discrimination against others, 8. what should groups do to fight discrimination.

“In the current education system, the condition of education and its promotion of equality is very important. The education system should be a good place for each and every student. It must be on the basis of equal opportunities for each student in every country. It must be free of discrimination.”

Prateek starts his essay by telling the story of a student having difficulty getting admitted to a college because of high fees. He then poses the question of how the student will be able to get an education when he can’t have the opportunity to do so in the first place. He goes on to discuss UNESCO’s objectives against discrimination. 

Further in the essay, the author defines discrimination and cites instances when it happens. Prateek also compares past and present discrimination, ending the piece by saying it should stop and everyone deserves to be treated fairly.

“I thought that there is no discrimination before I actually had discrimination… I think we must treat everyone equally even though people speak different languages or have different colors of skin.”

In her short essay, Nakatani shares the experiences that made her feel discriminated against when she visited the US. She includes a fellow guest saying she and her mother can’t use the shared pool in a hotel they stay in because they are Japanese and getting cheated of her money when she bought from a small shop because she can’t speak English very well.

“Whether intentional or not, prejudice and discrimination ensure the continuance of inequality in the United States. Even subconsciously, we are furthering inequality through our actions and reactions to others… Because these forces are universally present in our daily lives, the way we use them or reject them will determine how they affect us.”

Anderson explains the direct relationship between prejudice and discrimination. He also gives examples of these occurrences in the past (blacks and whites segregation) and modern times (sexism, racism, etc.)

He delves into society’s fault for playing the “blame game” and choosing to ignore each other’s perspectives, leading to stereotypes. He also talks about affirmative action committees that serve to protect minorities.

“Something important to point out is that there is prejudice when it comes to people of lower class or economic standing, there are stereotypes that label them as untrustworthy, lazy, and even dangerous. This thought is fed by the just-world phenomenon, that of low economic status are uneducated, lazy, and are more likely to be substance abusers, and thus get what they deserve.”

Ibarra recounts how she discovered Pixar’s Luca and shares what she thought of the animation, focusing on how the film encapsulates socioeconomic discrimination in its settings. She then discusses the characters and their relationships with the protagonist. Finally, Ibarra notes how the movie alluded to flawed characters, such as having a smaller boat, mismatched or recycled kitchen furniture, and no shoes. 

The other cast even taunts Luca, saying he smells and gets his clothes from a dead person. These are typical things marginalized communities experience in real life. At the end of her essay, Ibarra points out how society is dogmatic against the lower class, thinking they are abusers. In Luca, the wealthy antagonist is shown to be violent and lazy.

“Even though the problem of discrimination has calmed down, it still happens… From these past experiences, we can realize that solutions to tough problems come in tough ways.”

The author introduces people who called out discrimination, such as Mahatma Gandhi, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Barbara Henry – the only teacher who decided to teach Ruby Bridges, despite her skin color. 

He then moves on to mention the variations of present-day discrimination. He uses Donald Trump and the border he wants to build to keep the Hispanics out as an example. Finally, Bill ends the essay by telling the readers those who discriminate against others are bullies who want to get a reaction out of their victims. 

Do you get intimidated when you need to write an essay? Don’t be! If writing an essay makes you nervous, do it step by step. To start, write a simple 5 paragraph essay .

Prompts on Essays About Discrimination

Below are writing prompts that can inspire you on what to focus on when writing your discrimination essay:

Have you had to go through an aggressor who disliked you because you’re you? Write an essay about this incident, how it happened, what you felt during the episode, and what you did afterward. You can also include how it affected the way you interact with people. For example, did you try to tone down a part of yourself or change how you speak to avoid conflict?

List ways on how you can participate in lessening incidents of discrimination. Your list can include calling out biases, reporting to proper authorities, or spreading awareness of what discrimination is.

Is there an ongoing prejudice you observe in your school, subdivision, etc.? If other people in your community go through this unjust treatment, you can interview them and incorporate their thoughts on the matter.

Tackle what victims of discrimination have to go through daily. You can also talk about how it affected their life in the long run, such as having low self-esteem that limited their potential and opportunities and being frightened of getting involved with other individuals who may be bigots.

For this prompt, you can choose a subtopic to zero in on, like Workplace Discrimination, Disability Discrimination, and others. Then, add sample situations to demonstrate the unfairness better.

What are your thoughts on the different game rules for men and women? Do you believe these rules are just? Cite news incidents to make your essay more credible. For example, you can mention the incident where the Norwegian women’s beach handball team got fined for wearing tops and shorts instead of bikinis.

Since we learn to discriminate because of the society we grew up in, it’s only normal to be biased unintentionally. When you catch yourself having these partialities, what do you do? How do you train yourself not to discriminate against others?

Focus on an area of discrimination and suggest methods to lessen its instances. To give you an idea, you can concentrate on Workplace Discrimination, starting from its hiring process. You can propose that applicants are chosen based on their skills, so the company can implement a hiring procedure where applicants should go through written tests first before personal interviews.

If you instead want to focus on topics that include people from all walks of life, talk about diversity. Here’s an excellent guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

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A Personal Reflection on Racism and Inequality

Authored by Sydney Reed, M.S.W.

In these turbulent times of an unending struggle with a deadly virus and a growing awareness of social injustice and systemic racism, many in our country are supporting Black Lives Matter and reading books on racism.  There is a growing consensus that some fundamental changes need to be made to address racial and economic inequities.  Change at a personal level will not come about easily as it involves examining long standing beliefs related to basic personal identity.  The split in our country over issues of race shows that change will also not be easy on a societal level. Changes on both levels must be addressed before the policy issues that maintain the inequalities will be changed.  The broad-based support for civil rights for the LGBTQ community demonstrates that after enough marches, enough education, enough open conversation and airing of differences change can come about.  Some believe we are at a “tipping” point regarding race relations in our country.  I believe we are at the stage of opening communication with each other and sharing of facts, thoughts, and opinions.  This blog is my effort to contribute to the conversation.  I recognize that this is a complicated and complex issue and I most certainly do not pretend to cover it thoroughly.  Rather, I will share my journey with the expectation and the readiness to listen to the experiences and opinions of others to continue the conversation.

I have been thinking a lot about where I stand on these important issues and how I got here.  It is interesting to look at the choices one has made over a lifetime to discover how one has lived one’s life.  Considering myself quite liberal, I have been humbled by the moments of implicit bias and White supremacy I have seen in myself.  Over my lifetime there have been many people, books, articles, movies, classes, and experiences that have informed my quest to become “anti-racist”. I will reference only two of the most recent books.  Although I will not make many direct references to Bowen theory, the systems perspective of the theory provides me with a foundational understanding of the emotional process in society and in self.

Montana, where I grew up, does not have many Afro-Americans.  There are, however, seven Native American reservations in the state.  The town I grew up in from 9 years to 18 years, Hardin, was just outside two reservations, Crow and Cheyenne.   It was not until I left home in 1960 and was engaged in thinking about the condition of civil rights in our country that I began to recognize the systemic racism in Montana.

On a visit home, I listened to a White longtime family friend angry that the lease price on his Indian land had been raised, and frustrated that the native land owner would not sell him this land that he had farmed for years.  The intense interdependence of the wheat farmer and the Crow landowner was a shock to me.  These groups had truly little to do with each other as far as I could see.  Yet, the farmer and, I suspect, the Native landowner were locked in a very intense emotional and economic relationship that determined both their livelihoods.

The moment had some similarities to the economic interdependence of slavery and Jim Crow in the south.  I observed little awareness or appreciation on the rancher’s part of the history of persecution and oppression that Natives have endured as the American government conquered the tribes, broke treaties, confined them to reservations, worked to destroy their families and culture with  forced boarding schooling and in some cases adoption of Native children in attempts to assimilate the younger children into a White culture.  Even as recently as a few years ago, a South Dakota state child welfare agency headed by the deputy governor was removing children from Indian homes placing them for adoption in White families against the will of the Indian parents.   I was shocked once again as I saw the results of institutional racism played out.

After I left Montana, I became more interested in the Crow culture. My family and I would frequently attend the Crow fair and rodeo on the reservation 14 miles from my hometown.  We were among the handful of White people attending, dipping our toes into the Native traditions: interesting dances, drumming, and competitions.  I was an outsider living far away in the Chicago area wondering why more local Montana White people would not avail themselves of this cultural enrichment.  The institutional racism and the interdependence of the relationships help explain the reactive distance in these relationships (A note to those in Chicago:  The Field Museum is opening an exhibit on the “Warriors and Women” of the Crow Tribe.)  Novels by Louise Erdrich and other native writers provided me with a greater understanding of relationships between Native Americans and White Americans.

Considering myself a progressive, I was privileged to choose a college that had a strong reputation for social justice.  I marched for civil rights in the 1960’s, lived in East Harlem upon graduation, spent time in India in the Peace Corps, and finally settled in Evanston, Illinois, identifying it as a progressive integrated city.  For the last 20 years I have been attending Lake Street Church, (LSC), because of its strong commitment to social justice and peace.  This church, labeled progressive American Baptist, originally had Black and White members.  The Black members sat in the large balcony.  About 148 years ago they decided to form their own church, Second Baptist Church (SBC) in Evanston.  For the last five years our two churches have been working to repair this cutoff that occurred in 1882. Three years ago, the two congregations made a more serious commitment:  We became Sister churches by a vote in each congregation.  A former White pastor of LSC admonished us that if we were to succeed, LSC members would have to examine their White privilege.  The bar had been raised.

In one meeting several years ago the lay leadership of each church gathered to share leadership experiences in our respective churches.  I was surprised by remarks of several people from SBC that they wanted us to know they had forgiven us for the way our two churches had come apart.  Since it happened 148 years ago, I had given that history little thought.  Now Black history, local and national, is an important anchor for the work LSC and SBC are doing to address this historical cut-off. Efforts to get to know members of SBC meant sometimes putting myself in uncomfortable spaces: Second Baptist’s  annual church picnic sitting with Black Evanston residents I’d not known in the 49 years I’ve lived in Evanston, singing gospel hymns in a very different choral tradition, sometimes sitting through services that were much longer and coming out of a different theological tradition, finding areas of common interest with SBC choir members who came to our choir picnic.

I would like to describe one weekend that was a turning point for me.  On a Thursday night I attended a play called “Niceties”, which was a dramatization of an intense debate between a White history professor and a Black student about the contributions that Black slaves had made to the economic development of this country.  The professor wanted published written documentation in the paper.  The student used more recent articles from the internet citing the lack of published material on the subject. There was a powerful, at times thoughtful and at times emotional, debate about Black history and White privilege.  I was very moved and conflicted by the dramatic and personalized portrayal of each side of this complex issue.

The next night our choir sang at a rally sponsored by SBC to address racism in Evanston.  What was most interesting to me was the number of times I noted the difference AND SUPERIORITY of our White hymns, our choir, our manner of dressing for the evening.  I felt critical of the militant attitude of some of the Black speakers.  Of course, I was aware of my reactive thoughts and embarrassed to see them coming from an attitude of White superiority.  That did not prevent these thoughts from repeating themselves throughout the evening.

The next night some LSC members attended the NAACP banquet at the invitation of SBC pastor.  The main speaker was Reverend Moss, the pastor of Trinity Church on the south side of Chicago who has become a principle spokesman on issues of racism for national progressive churches.  Moved by his presentation and the experience of having my consciousness raised three nights in a row, I asked my youth minister dining companion about the book, “White Fragility”, recommended to me by a CFC faculty friend.

She wanted to read it as well and so we decided to sponsor a book group at church to discuss the book.  It became more and more impossible to avoid looking at my own implicit bias.  I was becoming more uncomfortable, but I felt that I was moving in the right direction.

Within the last year I have read an abundance of factual material about racism.  The New York Times publication of “1619” provides the scholarship by academics from leading American colleges focused on Black history including how the economic foundation and wealth accumulation of our country was built on the backs of unpaid slave labor.  T.V. and news commentary set in motion by the killing of George Floyd has provided multiple perspectives and opinions.  The graphic portrayal of Floyd’s murder left me horrified and dismayed as it did many in the country.

Our church discussion group is now reading Ibram X. Kendi’s, “How to be an Anti-racist”.   Kendi documents how the practice of slavery and ongoing discrimination served the economic self-interests of the slave dealers and now serves current policy makers. These practices have been rationalized as resulting from the inferiority and lack of humanity of Black people.  “Racial inequality is when two or more racial groups are not standing on approximate equal footing”, Kendi writes.  The book reports his personal journey growing up and becoming a professor of Afro-American history. He reflects on the many times his own attitude and behavior could have been considered racist as he has now come to understand racism.

Kendi’s work reminded me of two of my core beliefs based on Bowen theory; 1.) if a problem persists over time, everyone is playing a part in keeping it going, and 2.) when a person can enter a room of many people and can find a way not to put herself above or put herself beneath any other person, she is operating in a manner that respects self and other. Bowen theory states that healthy mature relationships are determined by a practice of standing up for one’s beliefs while staying in good connection to important others, listening to their beliefs and allowing them to be themselves.   Easier said than done but essential at this time when our country appears to have an opportunity to redefine itself as a nation of equal opportunity for all its members.

I believe that there are positive changes happening in me and in our country. Heightened self-awareness and more careful viewing of the context and consequences of long-standing racism in our county has pushed me to learn how to be anti-racist, and how to make contributions and actions to change policies toward creating a more equitable society.

This morning my brother sent me a copy of the Big Horn Country News, a weekly paper from my hometown of Hardin.  I was delighted to see what I could consider evidence of real change.  Wayne Hare, a Black writer from Colorado in article called “Ain’t None of Us Can Breathe” about racial injustice toward black people (with no reference to the racism in the West toward Native Americans) raises the question, “How do you explain racism when it is so subtle and ingrained that it became invisible to white people generations ago?”  I hope the article prompted good conversations in Hardin.

How to be an Antiracist by Ibram X. Kendi

Interview with Ibram X. Kendi on NPR

The 1619 Project published by the New York Times

White Fragility: Why It’s So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism  by Robin DeAngelo

Bowen Theory’s Secrets: Revealing the Hidden Life of Families by Michael E. Kerr

11 Comments on "A Personal Reflection on Racism and Inequality"

Thank you, Sydney, for sharing your racial autobiography with us – something all of us should try to write as we grapple with our White privilege. Many of us, myself included, are only dimly aware of that status which we have not had to be conscious of every day of our lives. In 1997 I met my husband, Don, in Evanston where he attended Lake Street Church and soon joined him on Sunday mornings. Before we left Evanston in 2006, LSC tried to reconcile with the Second Baptist Church but made little progress. SBC was a thriving, active church and had little reason to reconcile on LSC terms. It was gratifying to read your comments about how a reconciliation has begun to happen between two churches, equal in value, culture, and contribution to the community. We are all trying to understand our White privilege by reading the books you mentioned and by listening to others who are different, but not less than, ourselves. Thank you for reminding us that becoming an anti-racist is not always easy and is a long process that we have to do ourselves.

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Reflections on Race and Racism

Ala affiliate and division leaders speak out.

June 5, 2020

After an earth-shifting week that has brought into stark relief the experiences of racism and racial violence that many of us and our communities navigate every day as people of color, it is even more clear that the work of dismantling racism is overdue. It is overdue in our society, in library and information services, and at the American Library Association (ALA), which exists to ensure that libraries, learning, and information access are available to all.

Because the presence of racism, bias, and bigotry in any of our LIS institutions limits our reach and the possibility of realizing the full promise and potential of an equitably informed public, we must go beyond hashtags, statements, and committees and do the hands-on work needed to systemically uproot racism. This requires that we be willing to confront racism in our communities and in our own homes. We must get our own houses in order. At ALA that means our internal operations and decision making, as well as our external structure and engagement with membership, must bear out the goal of true racial equity and inclusion. To that end, I invited several ALA staffers and member leaders to reflect on this moment. You’ll find their responses below.

The future of libraries rests on the ability to stem racism and the divides it creates and exacerbates. ALA’s future, then, rests on its ability to guide the field in the building of institutions and policies that promote racial equity, confront racism, and fully recognize that the future of our nation rests in the fundamental truth that Black Lives Matter. Only then can we truly honor and atone the memory of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery—and the far too many names that follow theirs.

—Tracie D. Hall, executive director of the American Library Association

From Richard E. Ashby Jr., president of the Black Caucus of the American Library Association (BCALA):

As a Black librarian, I know I have a calling and that I am not just a librarian. I realize my professional title has meaning. It means that I stand on the shoulders of my ancestors and have crossed barriers that many believed could never be crossed. I serve as a leader to the community at large, and especially to children. I am a proud African American and culture keeper. I realize society looks to me and to my colleagues for information and guidance to empower their lives. We stand together as professional librarians and children of the diaspora.

Today, I stand alongside fellow librarians from all over the world addressing the injustices plaguing our society. We have been held down by systemic racism far too long. We are sacrificed and assassinated daily. The senseless murders of countless Black men and women, with the most recent being George Floyd, will not be tolerated. We need unity now more than ever before. Mental, physical, and spiritual acumen is needed to address the aftermath of disease, violence, and rioting, as we prepare to open our libraries.

The time has come to galvanize our profession and our organizations for the betterment of our communities. The time has come for us to unify in accordance with the dreams and hopes of pioneers and contemporaries of this calling. I am a product of soldiers of equality: Dr. E. J. Josey was a soldier, Pura Belpré was a soldier, Loida Garcia-Febo is a soldier, Wanda Kay Brown is a soldier, Dr. Carla Hayden is a soldier, Kenneth Yamashita is a soldier, Julius C. Jefferson Jr. is a soldier, Dora Ho is a soldier, I am a soldier! We are all soldiers. We are fighting the good fight to ensure America stays true to its pledge, “With liberty and justice for all.”

From ALA President Wanda Kay Brown:

Representation matters. That’s what I keep coming back to as I grieve with the nation and mourn the deaths of George Floyd and countless other Black Americans. Would they still be alive if Black people were better represented in positions of power? If there was diversity in our legislatures and statehouses? If more Black voices were lifted up in publishing? If Black history—before enslavement and beyond the civil rights movement—was really taught in our schools? If the ranks of librarianship were more representative of our nation?

As a librarian, I always come back to the idea that library users need to see themselves reflected in the people who work there. What would be the impact if there were more Black faces in the libraries? In library leadership positions? As a Black woman, and someone who has benefited from the mentorship of other Black librarians, I believe redoubling our efforts to diversify our profession is necessary and urgent. Representation matters—on police forces, in hospitals, in government, in libraries. By supporting school persistence and engaging young people after and outside of school, I believe libraries can also play a role in stopping the school-to-prison pipeline that disproportionately impacts Black youth. We must employ the right folks and pay them equitably for the work they do—work that is instrumental to a community’s ability to thrive and advance together. Our communities benefit greatly when our health care, education, and police professionals are people who have love and genuine care for the people of the community first and, secondly but equally, love for the work they do.

Having librarians committed to social justice who come from the communities they serve would be a big step forward. It won’t bring back any of those who we’ve tragically lost, but it might begin the process of healing and move us toward justice.

From Tammy Dillard-Steels, executive director of the Young Adult Library Services Association:

I want to say that I am shocked by the live broadcast of the killing of George Floyd, and all of the events that have led to civil unrest, but I am not.

I am frustrated. I am frustrated by the plague of racism in the US, which leads to injustice. I am frustrated with the actions of the police toward African Americans like George Floyd and Breonna Taylor, as well as countless others in America. I am frustrated as a Black woman, who is three times as likely to contract and die from COVID-19. All I can think is, “ Wow, even this virus is targeting African Americans.” I am frustrated with racism and the white supremacy that has been infectiously spreading for hundreds of years. Yet when we encounter or fight against racism, we are counteracted faster than any response to a viral disease that has killed more than 100,000 Americans in less than four months.

I am frustrated that I have to have a campaign, Black Lives Matter, to convince the world that I am just as human as the next person. I am frustrated that the young people who want to make a difference have no clear leadership to help them navigate and make sustainable change.

As the executive director of the Young Adult Library Services Association (YALSA), I want to contribute to the lives of young adults by infusing equity, diversity, and inclusion into all of our programs, products, and services. I stand with the young adults fighting for their rights for true freedom and equality. They need resources and support, and I want to contribute to the changes they are bringing to their communities.

YALSA is making a short-term strategic plan to serve our members, so that they are stronger together during this time of unrest. YALSA wants to empower our youth by offering virtual opportunities that create partnerships with communities to advocate for youth services. This will happen as we foster better communication with our members and learn their needs, so that they are successful in their endeavors and the next generation is not as frustrated as I am.

From Kenny Garcia, president of Reforma: the National Association to Promote Library and Information Services to Latinos and the Spanish Speaking:

As we live through another day of protests and rebellions, I’m having trouble reflecting on how we can act against racism and what work we need to do within a library association and profession. As we say their names—George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, Ahmaud Arbery, Tony McDade, Jamel Floyd—it will not bring these people back, it will not stop police brutality, it will not stop state violence, it will not stop them from being murdered, it will not stop white supremacy. We need to move beyond statements and do the work to be actively antiracist at a personal level, build with one another to be accomplices in our day-to-day lives, and work collectively to transform policies and procedures at our workplaces and library associations.

This work does not end after the protests end. This work does not end with initial reforms. This work must continue until it transforms the current missions and visions held by our communities, our profession, and our associations into missions and visions that center, promote, and value our community members and library professionals who are black, indigenous, and other people of color.

This work also needs to be done within Latinx communities, regarding how we are discussing and dealing with antiblackness as well as the ways in which blackness intersects with gender, class, sexuality, and religiosity. I believe it is something we can accomplish, and I’m heartened by the changes that have already taken shape since the protests and rebellions started. We need to keep pushing to ensure that we address racism at the systemic level and continue to hope that we can all work together to make sure this happens.

From George Gottschalk, president of the American Indian Library Association (AILA):

In the wake of the senseless and tragic death of George Floyd, perhaps it is time to be more selfish.

Why would this be a time for selfishness? Morality should make a compelling case to end racism and discrimination. Respect for the fundamental dignity for any life should be to end racism and discrimination.

So far, these have not been enough. Maybe what we need is more selfishness.

If we were all more selfish, we would want the economic benefits of a society that empowers every life and every voice. If we were all more selfish, we would want the increased advancements that empowered people and communities can achieve.

There is something different about the death of George Floyd. What is it? What is different is that those of us who embrace the dignity of every life understand that we have failed thus far.

We have failed to explain that no person, no community should be asked to justify their very existence. We have failed to explain the dignity of each and every life.

So, let’s try being selfish. Whether you want more money, more power, more safety—whatever you want more of, a society that does not burn resources on division will give you more.

Let us find out how much more of everything we will all have if we spend more time being selfish and less time trying to marginalize those whom we have chosen to “other.” Let’s find out how much more selfishness-directed creation can achieve than other-directed destruction.

Let’s try being selfish enough together that we manage to create a better society as an unanticipated benefit.

Thank you for your sacrifice and blessings, George Floyd. Thank you and all others who have had to die so we can all know that Black Lives Matter.

From Amber Hayes, outreach and communications program officer in the Office for Diversity, Literacy, and Outreach Services:

The idea of racism has always been coupled with extreme violence, which we have deemed Very Bad. But even then, the idea persists that a Black person must have done something to receive that sort of treatment. A young Black boy walking in a gated community wearing a hoodie was most likely up to no good—that’s why he was targeted. Black people are always responsible for proving their humanity and worth to a white society.

Even on a smaller scale, Black, Indigenous, and People of Color (BIPOC) experience racism daily. From patrons specifically requesting to have the white library worker assist them, to security targeting Black students at a campus library, Black people are always expected to prove why they deserve to exist in a space.

As an association, we can influence the profession and ensure that BIPOC voices are heard. This is a time for ALA to reaffirm its commitment to equity, diversity, and inclusion; make space for BIPOC library workers at the table; and critically examine why so many leave the profession or report low morale. We must all work collectively on identifying, challenging, and changing the values, structures, and behaviors that perpetuate systemic racism.

We can provide more leadership opportunities for BIPOC, and more opportunities for BIPOC to become librarians, so that their patrons can see someone who looks like them. We can take a stand to aggressively combat racism through both actions and words. We can educate white library workers so that the emotional burden does not fall on their BIPOC colleagues. We can examine the ways in which library policies and actions contribute to systemic racism. We can hold each other accountable, and we can move this association to a place where all library workers feel that they belong, they have a voice, and they are a part of an association that reflects the profession they want to see.

From Mary Keeling, president of the American Association of School Librarians (AASL):

I am the same age as Ruby Bridges, the first African-American child to attend an all-white school in the South. When I entered 1st grade in my own neighborhood school, I knew that I belonged. I did not need an escort of four federal marshals to protect me.

Much has changed. Yet challenges remain.

How do school librarians lead equity, diversity, and inclusion? We read and provide access to the stories of all people, create welcoming spaces that validate all learners and their cultures, and use instructional strategies to engage all learners in academic conversation. To do this effectively we must recognize that systemic racism is a real barrier experienced by many of our colleagues, neighbors, and students, and we must strive to become culturally competent.

One of the Shared Foundations of the AASL National School Library Standards, “Include,” describes our commitment to inclusiveness and respect for diversity. This shared foundation calls us to develop our own cultural competence so we can engage in difficult conversations and recognize and oppose oppression. Through cultivating the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures, we can lead learners to value diversity, engage in informed debate, and embrace friendships with peers from other backgrounds. Each of us must strive to stretch beyond our own personal comfort zones to create a future free of racial oppression.

From Bill Ladewski, executive director of the Reference and User Services Association (RUSA):

Racist actions and influence in our civilian police forces must be addressed. Police brutality against any person that is not addressed and punished is a reflection of us and is our failure. Black and brown people have disproportionately suffered from these abuses of authority. Correcting this will require that we acknowledge the problem: that unacceptable and unchecked policing exists and we must fight to change it.

I have been asked recently when things will get back to “normal.” Normal for who? This discomfort and uncertainty should stay with us until we are motivated to act. Those unwilling or unable to acknowledge the sin of racism in this country and its influence on our institutions will likely find normal soon. The rest of us must make it our life’s work to ensure equity and fairness for all is established and maintained, so that the hateful forces within our society do not ultimately destroy us.

From Alanna Aiko Moore, president of the Asian/Pacific American Librarians Association (APALA):

Another Black death hits the news and non-Black folk express outrage at the overt violence of the police. Seeing disbelief and anger on social media, what is often missing is a commitment to take action. To pledge to do painful self-reflection, learn history, and to work for justice for the long haul—not just for this moment in time.

As members of the Asian and Asian Pacific American community we have a responsibility to address anti-Blackness in our own communities, which may mean having difficult and uncomfortable conversations with our family members. White supremacy has historically pitted Asian communities against Black communities as a way to maintain control and power. We need to follow the example of Asian activists who organized with and supported Black activists. We must unequivocally support the right to protest without fear of a violent police response. We must listen to Black voices, donate to Black causes, and follow Black-led organizations and leaders.

White supremacy is insidious and multifaceted. While Black people are dying at the hands of police, migrant children are housed in cages, anti-Asian scapegoating and harassment are on the rise, trans folks of color are being murdered, and indigenous peoples fight for their land and resources.

Within our library organizations, we must interrupt the silent and pervasive culture of white supremacy. We must acknowledge the white, segregationist history of libraries; the culture of exclusion; and the persistent racial inequality and commit to doing better. We must confront our discomfort with talking about race and we must take action.

I stand with Black people everywhere demanding justice. I believe more than ever in the power of building bridges, in the capacity for a broad cross-racial movement based on true solidarity, in an intersectional analysis, and in centering the voices and demands of those suffering the most oppression. As a queer, cisgender, mixed-race Asian American woman, I pledge to fight the systemic, institutionalized racism and unchecked violence that’s led to the countless murders of Black people in our country. I commit to addressing anti-Blackness both inside and outside of my community and to support and love our Black and Blasian siblings. I promise to use my skills, power, and privilege to dismantle oppressive systems in our library institutions and the wider community.

Don’t let your outrage fade with the next news cycle.  What will you do to actively work for racial justice and to support Black people?

From Ninah Moore, training and events coordinator of the Association of Specialized, Government, and Cooperative Library Agencies (ASGCLA):

As I reflect on the civic unrest that has encompassed my country, state, city, and community, I find myself filled with worry and concern for the America my two black grandsons will grow up in.

I recall that in 1995, when my dad and brothers drove to Washington, D.C., to participate in the Million Man March, they were stopped and questioned by police. I think of my husband as a black man working in law enforcement, and the fine line he must walk. I think of my son who had just graduated from the University of Missouri before the 2015 protests on race relations came to campus and was living near Ferguson during the protests after the killing of Michael Brown in 2014.

Today I also think of how my dad and mother marched in the 1960s with Dr. King for racial equality and fair education and housing for black and brown people. They marched against police brutality and for those disenfranchised by systemic and institutionalized racism, and 50-plus years later we are still marching and fighting against these same societal ills.

I think of how, as the daughter, wife, sister, mother, and grandmother of black males, I fear for the target that is on their backs. While a lot of these battles need to be fought on a national level, we have the power to effect change in our communities by getting or staying involved. As a member of the board for the South Deering Manor (Ill.) Community Association, I remain committed to doing “something simple that will have a positive impact on my block,” in the words of Jahmal Cole, founder of My Block, My Hood, My City .

From Jeannette Smithee, interim executive director of ASGCLA:

Though I do not experience the isolation of racism firsthand, I cannot ignore the inequalities, injustice, and constant pressure of societal racism that is a daily reality for people of color. I try to understand the reasons behind images, including the horrific video of George Floyd’s death, that appear daily in the media. Awareness of racism has not always been part of my world. I came up in a different time and place—the segregated South. Awareness has come gradually with years of conscious learning, observing, listening, and yes, reading. And still the awareness of the sting of discrimination and the devaluation of fellow human beings is a sadness I process in my mind rather than my heart.

As a protected white person, I have not experienced the hurt and anger that is carried (and often buried) in colleagues and neighbors of color. Even as we communicate on professional or neutral topics, there is a layer of protective reticence. I know there is more to say and feel, but I have not yet earned the trust to share these feelings from the heart. At this stage of my life, the next steps to break down racism are probably small and personal, beginning with truly listening and trusting what colleagues and neighbors have to say.

These words are not meant as an apology or an excuse. Rather they are an admission of my shortcomings, my journey, and my hope to make a difference one person at a time.

From Shuntai Sykes, membership and programs specialist for RUSA and ASGCLA:

I CAN’T BREATHE!

Three words that are painful to hear, see, and feel. As a black woman with a black son and a black grandson, hearing George Floyd say those words was horrific. When he asked for his mother, it was gut-wrenching. I cried because at that moment George Floyd was my son. He was killed by the hands of another human being who felt his life did not matter—a human being who displayed such painful hate.

I have seen and known all too well what racism looks like. Whether it is institutional, systemic, or blatant, it exists. We can no longer sit and pretend that it does not.

We are living in a time of serious political, civil, and social unrest. We are existing in a socioeconomic panic. We are even still coping with a pandemic. My heart is heavy, but unfortunately we are left with no other recourse. I never support criminal acts to make a statement, but I understand there is anger and built-up self-hatred from more than 400 years of oppression. WE ARE ANGRY, UPSET, BROKEN AND JUST TIRED!

Black people have a knee on our necks and haven’t been able to breathe for 400 years. But this is just one battle. We won’t solve 400 years of oppression in a day, but it is my prayer that individually and collectively we can work to establish equal and equitable peace. SO WE ALL CAN BREATHE!

From Kenneth A. Yamashita, president of the board of directors of the Joint Council of Librarians of Color:

As one of the last babies born in the Topaz, Utah, concentration camp on September 11, 1945, I stand in solidarity with BCALA in condemning increased violence and racism toward Black Americans and people of color.

My parents and 18-month-old baby sister were forcibly removed from their Berkeley, California, home, detained in a horse stall at a racetrack, and incarcerated in a concentration camp in the Utah desert from April 1942 to October 1945. This was the result of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, but was due in large measure to the historic anti-Asian racism that prevailed predominantly on the West Coast of the US, which was heightened to hysteria after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

My family—parents, siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins—all suffered extreme racism, such as detention and incarceration without due process, solely based on our Japanese ethnicity and Asian race. Even the two-thirds of American-born citizens of Japanese ancestry out of the 120,000 people who were incarcerated were stripped of their Constitutional civil rights.

This experience has informed my career as a librarian in providing library services to communities of color, specifically unserved and underserved communities in general. It has also made me more attuned to racist, discriminatory, and microaggressive speech, acts, and incidents, and to call them out whenever needed.

On behalf of the board of directors of the Joint Council of Librarians of Color, I would like to suggest ways to address racism in our profession, institutions, and at ALA:

• Interact with member and nonmember librarians of color and ALA/institutional staff of color.
• Actively listen to librarians and staff of color about their experiences and concerns.
• Hear, read, learn, understand, and appreciate the history of systemic racism, bigotry, and discrimination against Black Americans, Indigenous Peoples, and people/communities of color.
• Provide training in identifying racist, discriminatory, and microaggressive speech, actions, and incidents and calling them out for all ALA members and staff.
• Fill out Jane Elliott’s Commitment to Combat Racism questionnaire. Self-reflect and discuss responses.
• Provide training in cultural competency for all ALA members and staff.

From Hong Yao, president-elect of the Chinese American Librarians Association (CALA):

During a pandemic that forced the closure of our communities, our cities, and our country, we all suffered a great deal as more than 100,000 lives were lost, millions of jobs disappeared, and people’s financial hardship deepened. Even though the virus attacks people indiscriminately, minority communities were hit hardest because of chronic poverty, lack of access to health care and education, and other factors that are ultimately byproducts of pervasive racism in one of the wealthiest countries in the world. And then the brutal and senseless killing of George Floyd by a white police officer in Minneapolis last week enraged us and created an outcry to end racial injustice in any way, shape, or form!

As the president-elect of CALA, I am writing on behalf of our organization in condemning violence and racism toward Black people and all People of Color. It is time for us to unite behind one voice to end racial discrimination, which is toxic in our society and sickens and kills in a more devastating way than any virus on earth. It is time for us to call out racist behavior so that it doesn’t have the oxygen to grow. It is time for us to demand equal rights and equal access for everyone, especially those who have been marginalized in this society for too long.

As information professionals with Chinese backgrounds, we understand the feelings of despair many of our African-American colleagues are experiencing. We stand with you all! We will use what we are most familiar with—information—to arm ourselves in any form of activism we engage in. We will take any opportunity to educate our members, colleagues, public, and families and friends on equity, diversity, and inclusion. We will challenge our fellow Chinese not to stay silent when any racist behaviors are displayed, whether toward Black, Brown, or any other People of Color.

I am hopeful that when we all stand united, we will see progress toward the end of racism.

The Association for Library Service to Children opted to share the comments of its board of directors.

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Statement condemns violence and racism toward black people and all people of color.

Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Evidence for Stigma Change (2016)

Chapter: 6 conclusions and recommendations, 6 conclusions and recommendations, lessons learned, experiences of other countries.

The experiences of Australia, Canada, and England (see Chapter 4 ) strongly indicate that changing negative social norms that stigmatize people with mental and substance use disorders will require a coordinated and sustained effort. Behavioral health-related norms and beliefs are created and reinforced at multiple levels, including day-to-day contact with people affected by mental and substance use disorders, organizational policies and practices, community norms and beliefs, the media, and governmental law and policy. Successful national-scale anti-stigma programs in other countries shared the following characteristics:

• They were supported by government at the national level.
• Support was committed on a long-term basis, often over decades.
• There was ongoing evaluation and monitoring from the planning phase forward.
• The initiative was multipronged to address the full range of relevant needs.
• Programs and services were coordinated across states (provinces) and across economic and social sectors to reduce fragmentation of efforts.
• Information was collected and disseminated about what worked, with whom, and under which conditions in order to inform the ongoing program development as well as future programs.

The Ryan White Act

In the United States, the Ryan White Care Act (RWCA) provides an example of a coordinated and sustained effort to meet the full spectrum of needs in people with HIV/AIDS. The act was initially passed by Congress in 1990 and has since been reauthorized four times in 1996, 2000, 2006, and 2009. The act supports programs and services at the community, municipal, and state level across the nation. Over the past 25 years, the Ryan White Program has become a critical component of the HIV/AIDS health care system in the United States, serving more than one-half million people ( Crowley and Kates, 2013 ). The history, evolution, and outcomes of the program provide relevant information for future behavioral health anti-stigma initiatives.

The Ryan White Program has evolved to embrace a focus on treatment as prevention, which is consistent with the goals of the Affordable Care Act and the U.S. National HIV/AIDS Strategy. Ongoing evaluation and outcomes research provide future direction for the program, most recently in the areas of health workforce development, insurance coverage, and efforts to scale up programs to achieve population-level impacts ( Crowley and Garner, 2015 ).

The Ryan White Program funds social support-related services in addition to traditional health care and prescription drug programs, including transportation and housing assistance, nutrition services, day care, and dental care ( Taylor, 2010 ). Such “wrap-around” services are provided within the context of an integrated model of care to improve quality of life for people living with HIV/AIDS who face many of the stigma-related barriers as individuals with mental and substance use disorders ( Garfield, 2011 ). Funding is awarded through statutorily established formula grants and through competitive mechanisms with the bulk of funds distributed noncompetitively in response to evolving needs.

One critique of RWCA is that the act did not establish minimum standards for care and services delivery across all states. For example, the act funded AIDS Drug Assistance Programs that were managed by individual states with the states deciding how to allocate funding and set eligibility for enrollment. At the program’s peak height in September 2011, more than 9,000 people with HIV were on state medication waiting lists. Although state and local autonomy regarding implementation and delivery is essential, lessons learned from the AIDS Drug Assistance Programs underscore the need for unifying program standards and illustrate the

important role of the federal government in a national strategy to reduce stigma related to mental and substance use disorders.

An Ecological Framework

Research on stigma toward mental and substance use disorders is challenging and complex in part because it necessarily involves a wide range of independent service systems, numerous sectors and professions, competing agendas, nuanced ethical and cultural issues, and multiple levels of outcome analysis ranging from the individual level to national statistics. Coordinating research across these many layers and systems will require a strategic and harmonious effort on the part of the federal government, private foundations, and academic and health care institutions, and other stakeholders. A coordinated research effort should be finely tuned to the societal and cultural contexts that intentionally or unintentionally endorse or facilitate stigma at various levels, especially the structural level. One assumption of an ecological perspective is that society’s tolerance for or endorsement of a negative norm sets a precedent for stigma at the individual, family, and community levels ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014 ). This underscores the need to focus more attention on eliminating structural stigma (see Recommendation 2 ).

Understanding the processes by which factors at the individual, family, community, and social levels interact to produce and maintain stigma will require multidisciplinary, multimethod, and multisector approaches. Research will need to leverage and build on the existing knowledge base related to mental and substance use disorders, stigma change, and other relevant and related fields. Finally, effective research needs to consider the cultural processes, social stratification, ecological variations, and immigrant/acculturation status that are pertinent to understanding the causes and consequences mental and substance disorder stigma ( Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, 2014 . These sociocultural factors are critical elements to consider in developing and testing intervention strategies and in adapting evidence-based practices to unique populations and target audiences to ensure cultural relevance, reach, efficacy, and adoption ( Barrera et al., 2013 ).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A national-level approach.

CONCLUSION: The experiences of the U.S. campaigns related to HIV/AIDS and of anti-stigma campaigns in Australia, Canada, and

England demonstrate the need for a coordinated and sustained effort over 2 or more decades to reduce the stigma associated with mental and substance use disorders.

Norms and beliefs related to behavioral health, such as the stigma associated with mental and substance use disorders, are created and reinforced at multiple levels, including day-to-day contact with affected individuals, organizational policies and practices, community norms and beliefs, the media, and governmental law and policy. A number of private and public organizations are already engaged in anti-stigma and mental health promotion efforts, but because these efforts are largely uncoordinated and poorly evaluated, they cannot provide an evidence base for future national efforts.

RECOMMENDATION 1: The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services should take the lead responsibility among federal partners and key stakeholders in the design, implementation, and evaluation of a multipronged, evidence-based national strategy to reduce stigma and to support people with mental and substance use disorders.

Relevant stakeholder groups would include the following:

• consumers in treatment for mental and substance use disorders and consumer organizations;
• families and others whose lives are touched by mental illness or substance use disorders, including suicide-attempt survivors and loss survivors;
• relevant private sector leadership, including major employers;
• relevant foundations and nongovernmental organizations;
• advocates and advocacy groups, including civil rights and disability law experts;
• insurance companies and pharmaceutical manufacturers;
• journalists and others in the news media, including public health media experts;
• health and behavioral health care providers, and administrators, including protective services and social services providers;
• health professional education institutions and professional associations;
• academic researchers, including suicide prevention experts and researchers;
• law enforcement officials and first responders; and
• representatives of federal, state, and local governments.

Early tasks would include the following:

• Identify a lead organization to serve as convener of stakeholders.
• Promote coordination and engagement across local, state, federal, and nongovernmental groups, including the U.S. Departments of Defense, Health and Human Services, Justice, and Labor, and relevant stakeholder groups to pool resources and promote evidence-based approaches.
• Evaluate current laws and regulations related to persons with mental and substance use disorders to identify opportunities to promote changes to support people on the path to recovery.
• Support the development of a strategic plan for research and dissemination of evidence about effective strategies to change social norms related to mental and substance use disorders (see Recommendation 3 ).
• With the federal agencies and other partners, develop a process of identifying and engaging grassroots efforts in each state to promote the implementation of evidence-based programs and fidelity monitoring of service delivery.
• With the federal agencies, establish a long-term, national monitoring system for stigma and stigma reduction.

Collaboration and Coordination

In 2013, eight federal agencies were identified as having programs to support individuals with mental and substance use disorders—the U.S. Departments of Defense, Education, Health and Human Services, Housing, Justice, Labor, Veterans Affairs, and the Social Security Administration—although their specific mission goals vary. To improve the effectiveness and extend the reach of the federal agencies’ programs, there are some ongoing efforts to coordinate across the agencies and their programs ( U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2014 ).

To maximize desired outcomes, collaborative efforts should eschew “ownership” of programs and include cobranding and resource sharing. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA’s) ongoing engagement with stakeholders can support the search for common ground, mutually articulated goals, and shared agendas.

The committee has identified structural stigma and stereotypes of dangerousness and unpredictability as major sources of public and self-stigma. Given the importance of reducing stigma in these areas, early efforts could focus on development of a communications campaign that

targeted policy and decision makers to challenge specific laws, policies and regulations that discriminate against people with mental and substance use disorders. Such a campaign could develop evidence-based public service announcements to hold in readiness for tragic events, such as mass violence, suicide by school and college students, and suicide clusters.

CONCLUSION: Changing stigma in a lasting way will require coordinated efforts, based on the best possible evidence, which are supported at the national level and planned and implemented by a representative coalition of stakeholders. Engaging a wide range of stakeholders would facilitate consensus building and provide the support needed to overcome major obstacles to the implementation of effective anti-stigma programs in the United States. Barriers and challenges include, but are not limited to, conflict among major stakeholder groups regarding best practices and priorities, resource constraints, and the need to target multiple audiences with variable perceptions and priorities, as well as shifting priorities at the national level.

RECOMMENDATION 2: The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services should evaluate its own service programs and collaborate with other stakeholders, particularly the criminal justice system and government and state agencies, for the purpose of identifying and eliminating policies, practices, and procedures that directly or indirectly discriminate against people with mental and substance use disorders.

Strategic Planning for Research

The committee defines strategic planning as the process undertaken by an agency or organization to define its future and formulate a detailed plan to guide its path from the current state to its vision for the future.

CONCLUSION: A planning process usually results in the development of a key document that includes a plan to ensure that communication is maintained across all stakeholders. This element is especially relevant for the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration given the agency’s ongoing engagement with stakeholders and collaborators. A strategic plan can also serve as the basis of comparison for an ongoing plan for iterative effectiveness monitoring.

RECOMMENDATION 3: The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration should conduct formative and evaluative research as part of a strategically planned effort to reduce stigma.

SAMHSA’s ongoing program of research on social norms and communications practices could coordinate with national efforts to achieve common goals and objectives. SAMHSA’s Office of Communication’s future activities could also be informed and supported by partners and participating stakeholders.

Because change occurs slowly, outcome evaluations need to be multifaceted and sustained to capture both direct and indirect effects, as well as intended and unintended consequences. An evaluation plan should include and support community-based participatory research that is based on the principle of partnership, in which community partners act as co-learners with academic partners rather than helpers and recipients. This approach involves community stakeholders in helping to define both the change targets and the intervention strategies, as well as in the conduct of the research itself. To inform a national campaign, more in-depth formative and evaluative research is critically needed in three areas: communication strategies, contact-based programs, and the role of peers.

Communication Strategies

Communication science provides a basis for understanding the effects of message features, contents, and platforms on four outcomes: cognitive (e.g., attention and memory), affective (e.g., liking, empathy, and fear), persuasive (e.g., attitude and behavior change), and behavioral (e.g., intents and actions). These effects are not discrete. They depend on characteristics of the target audience or audiences, the media platform, the message source, and the specific content and production features used in the message. For example, in a campaign to counter the stereotype of dangerousness in the wake of a tragic event, relevant audiences would include the media, school officials and teachers, young people, parents, and clergy. Messages would target specific smaller groups and would be designed and delivered with input and support of engaged stakeholders, for example, in donated airtime or volunteered time of high-profile supporters and speakers.

CONCLUSION: Best practices in choosing effective messages first require that a communications campaign develop well-defined goals for each specific group targeted. Effective messages can then be tailored to the specific target audience for the defined goals.

Because of the complexity of designing communication messages, efforts to implement the committee’s recommendation on this topic should be informed by the results of formative and evaluative research. Research is necessary both before message concepts are generated and after message concepts are created for testing in the field. The perspectives of people with lived experience of mental and substance use disorders should inform anti-stigma campaigns at every stage, including design, delivery, and evaluation.

RECOMMENDATION 4: To design stigma-reduction messaging and communication programs, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration should investigate and use evidence from formative and evaluative research on effective communication across multiple platforms.

Several general features of effective communication programs have been identified by research and can inform the work in the committee’s recommendations to SAMHSA:

• Identify specific target groups and specific goals appropriate to each group (e.g., legislators and policy makers, employers and landlords, educators, health care practitioners, and people with mental and substance use disorders).
• Make strong appeals that are relevant and personally consequential to particular audiences, for example, young people or veterans.
• Understand how a particular audience orients to a message and what kinds of cues and styles hold their attention so that the message is absorbed and remembered.
• Know what matters most to a specific target group.

Contact-Based Programs

Mixed-methods research has led to the identification of key elements of successful contact-based programs ( Corrigan et al., 2013 , 2014 ). Outcome research on contact demonstrates robust effects in pre-post studies ( Corrigan et al., 2012 ; Griffiths et al., 2014 ) and at follow-up ( Corrigan et al., 2015a ). Although the efficacy of contact-based programs is greater than that of education programs alone in adults across a range of specific target audiences, such as health professionals, college students, and police, evidence shows that one-time contact is not as effective as repeated contact. Education programs are effective in changing stigmatizing attitudes among adolescents.

CONCLUSION: To expand the reach of contact-based programs, efforts will be needed to develop a nationally representative cohort of individuals who have disclosed information about their experiences of mental or substance use disorders. Involvement of those individuals needs to be preceded by the design of programs to aid personal consideration and action on disclosure decisions and of peer training programs to help people consider the risks and benefits of disclosure.

RECOMMENDATION 5: To decrease public and self-stigma and promote affirming and inclusive attitudes and behaviors targeted to specific groups, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration should work with federal partners to design, evaluate, and disseminate effective, evidence-based, contact-based programming.

The Role of Peers

Peers play an essential role in combatting stigma, in part because they model personal recovery. Their role is critical in helping individuals to overcome the debilitating forces of self-stigma. Peer support programs and services include social and emotional support, as well as practical support related to quality-of-life decisions, delivered by people with mental and substance use disorders. Peer support has existed since the 1970s, but in 2001 several states began efforts to certify and train the peer specialist workforce. By 2012, 36 states had established such programs, although there is considerable variation in the certification programs across these states ( Ostrow and Adams, 2012 ). State programs vary in terms of stage of development and certification requirements, including the content and process of training, examination criteria, and requirements for continuing education and recertification ( Kaufman et al., 2012 ).

Most research on the outcomes of peer services has focused on quality-of-life measures. Few data are available about the costs and benefits of these programs, although the research suggests that people who use peer support services are more likely to use other behavioral health services of all kinds, including professional services and prescription drugs, which may lead to improved outcomes ( Landers and Zhou, 2014 ). Although more peers are becoming certified, stakeholders disagree about the risks and benefits of professionalizing the role given grassroots origins of peer support in the consumer movement ( Ostrow and Adams, 2012 ).

CONCLUSION: In the United States, there is no established and accepted set of national or state competencies or standards for peer

specialists, such as those that apply to other health professionals at state levels.

Although stakeholders do not agree on the risks and benefits of certification for peer support providers, it may contribute to the quality and outcomes of peer services and facilitate research on the effectiveness of these services across a range of outcomes. Programs need to be appropriately targeted to the audience or audiences and implemented at the relevant geographic level. Components of this effort would include standardization of preparation for peer service providers and development of practice guidelines for referral to and delivery of peer services across agencies and organizations engaged in this work. SAMHSA has taken steps in this direction with its 2009 Consumer-Operated Service Evidence-Based Practices Toolkit ( Chapter 4 ) and continues to have an important role to play in the development and dissemination of these products and programs across the nation. The National Federation of Families for Children’s Mental Health offers a national certification for parent support providers that could serve as a model for future efforts to expand the reach of high-quality peer support services.

RECOMMENDATION 6: The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration should work with partners to design, support, and assess the effectiveness of evidence-based peer programs to support people with mental and substance use disorders along the path to recovery and to encourage their participation in treatment.

Development of a national strategy for eliminating the stigma of mental and substance use disorders is a challenging, long-term goal that will require collaboration across federal agencies, support from governments at all levels, and engagement of a broad range of stakeholders. No single agency can implement an effective national strategy, but SAMHSA brings specific and unique strengths including well-established stakeholder relations, commitment to the recovery model, and a history of promotion and implementation of prevention and early intervention strategies. Early objectives will include consensus building across a range of issues, design of cost-sharing arrangements, and development and implementation of a research strategy, including a system for monitoring change public attitudes, and mechanisms for disseminating information to inform future anti-stigma interventions.

Estimates indicate that as many as 1 in 4 Americans will experience a mental health problem or will misuse alcohol or drugs in their lifetimes. These disorders are among the most highly stigmatized health conditions in the United States, and they remain barriers to full participation in society in areas as basic as education, housing, and employment. Improving the lives of people with mental health and substance abuse disorders has been a priority in the United States for more than 50 years. The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 is considered a major turning point in America's efforts to improve behavioral healthcare. It ushered in an era of optimism and hope and laid the groundwork for the consumer movement and new models of recovery. The consumer movement gave voice to people with mental and substance use disorders and brought their perspectives and experience into national discussions about mental health.

However over the same 50-year period, positive change in American public attitudes and beliefs about mental and substance use disorders has lagged behind these advances. Stigma is a complex social phenomenon based on a relationship between an attribute and a stereotype that assigns undesirable labels, qualities, and behaviors to a person with that attribute. Labeled individuals are then socially devalued, which leads to inequality and discrimination. This report contributes to national efforts to understand and change attitudes, beliefs and behaviors that can lead to stigma and discrimination. Changing stigma in a lasting way will require coordinated efforts, which are based on the best possible evidence, supported at the national level with multiyear funding, and planned and implemented by an effective coalition of representative stakeholders.

Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Evidence for Stigma Change explores stigma and discrimination faced by individuals with mental or substance use disorders and recommends effective strategies for reducing stigma and encouraging people to seek treatment and other supportive services. It offers a set of conclusions and recommendations about successful stigma change strategies and the research needed to inform and evaluate these efforts in the United States.

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Ultimate guide to writing a reflective essay, carla johnson.

• June 14, 2023
• How to Guides

Writing about yourself is a powerful way to learn and grow as a person. It is a type of writing that makes you think about your thoughts, feelings, and experiences and how they have affected your personal and professional growth. A reflective essay is a type of writing that lets you talk about your own experiences, thoughts, and insights. In this article , we’ll tell you everything you need to know about writing a reflective essay, from how to define it and figure out what it’s for to how to do it well.

What You'll Learn

Definition of a Reflective Essay

A reflective essay is a type of writing in which you write about your own thoughts, feelings, and experiences. It is a type of personal writing that lets you talk about your own thoughts and experiences and share them with other people. Students are often asked to write reflective essays for school, but they can also be used for personal or professional growth.

Purpose of a Reflective Essay

The goal of a reflective essay is to get you to think about your life and how it has affected your personal and professional growth. Reflective essays can help you learn more about yourself and your experiences, as well as find places where you can grow and improve. They can also help you get better at writing and better at getting your ideas across.

Importance of Reflective Writing

Writing about yourself and your work is an important way to grow personally and professionally. It can help you learn more about yourself, figure out where you need to grow and change, and learn more about how you think and feel. Writing about yourself can also help you get better at critical thinking and analysis , and it can help you get your ideas across better. It is a useful tool for anyone who wants to grow personally and professionally, and it can be used in many different situations, from academic writing to keeping a personal journal.

Writing about yourself and your work is a powerful way to grow personally and professionally. Reflective essays give you a chance to think about your own life and how it has affected your personal and professional growth. By writing about your thoughts and feelings, you can learn more about them, find ways to grow and improve, and improve your writing and communication skills . In the next parts of this article, we’ll show you how to write a good reflective essay step by step, from choosing a topic and organizing your thoughts to writing and revising your essay.

Elements of a Reflective Essay

A reflective essay is a type of writing that allows you to reflect on your personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings. There are several essential elements that should be included in a reflective essay to ensure that it is effective in conveying your personal reflections and experiences.

Personal Reflection

The first essential element of a reflective essay is personal reflection. This involves exploring your own thoughts and feelings about the experience you are reflecting on. It is important to be honest and open about your thoughts and feelings, as this will make your essay more authentic and meaningful.

Description of the Experience

The second element of a reflective essay is a description of the experience that you are reflecting on. This includes providing details about the experience, such as where it took place, who was involved, and what happened. The description should be clear and concise, and should provide enough detail for the reader to understand the context of your reflection.

Analysis of the Experience

The third element of a reflective essay is analysis of the experience. This involves exploring the experience in more depth, and examining your thoughts and feelings about it. You should consider what you learned from the experience, and how it impacted your personal and professional growth .

Evaluation of the Experience

The fourth element of a reflective essay is evaluation of the experience. This involves examining the experience from different perspectives, and considering its strengths and weaknesses. You should reflect on what you would do differently if you were in the same situation again, and how you could improve your response or approach.

Identification of Key Learning

The fifth element of a reflective essay is identifying the key learning that you gained from the experience. This involves reflecting on the insights and lessons that you learned from the experience, and how these have impacted your personal and professional growth. This can include new skills, knowledge, or perspectives that you gained from the experience.

Planning for Future Action

The final element of a reflective essay is planning for future action. This involves considering how you can apply the lessons and insights gained from the experience to improve your future actions. You should reflect on how you can use what you learned to approach similar situations differently in the future.

How to Write a Reflective Essay

Writing a reflective essay can be a challenging task, but by following a few simple steps, you can write an effective and meaningful essay .

Steps for Writing a Reflective Essay:

1. Brainstorming and Selecting a Topic

Begin by brainstorming and selecting a topic for your reflective essay. Think about a personal experience or event that had a significant impact on your personal or professional growth.

2. Creating an Outline

Create an outline for your essay . This should include an introduction, body, and conclusion, as well as sections for each of the essential elements described above.

3. Writing the Introduction

Write the introduction for your essay . This should include a brief overview of the experience that you will be reflecting on, as well as the purpose and focus of your essay.

4. Writing the Body

Write the body of your essay, which should include the personal reflection, description of the experience, analysis of the experience, evaluation of the experience, identification of key learning, and planning for future action . Make sure to use specific examples and details to support your reflection.

5. Writing the Conclusion

Write the conclusion for your essay , which should summarize the key points of your reflection and provide closure for the reader. You can also include a final reflection on the experience and what it means to you.

6. Revising and Editing

Pay close attention to grammar, spelling, and sentence structure as you reread and edit your essay . Make sure your essay is easy to read and flows well. You might also want someone else to look over your essay and give you feedback and ideas.

If you follow these steps, you should be able to write a good reflective essay. Remember to be honest and open about your thoughts and feelings, and to support your reflection with specific examples and details. You can become a good reflective writer with practice , and you can use this skill to help your personal and professional growth.

Reflective Essay Topics

Reflective essays can be written on a wide range of topics, as they are based on personal experiences and reflections. Here are some common categories of reflective essay topics:

Personal Experiences

– A time when you overcame a personal challenge

– A difficult decision you had to make

– A significant event in your life that changed you

– A moment when you learned an important lesson

– A relationship that had a significant impact on you

Professional Experiences

– A challenging project or assignment at work

– A significant accomplishment or success in your career

– A time when you had to deal with a difficult colleague or boss

– A failure or setback in your career and what you learned from it

– A career change or transition that had a significant impact on you

Academic Experiences

– A challenging course or assignment in school

– A significant accomplishment or success in your academic career

– A time when you struggled with a particular subject or topic and how you overcame it

– A research project or paper that had a significant impact on you

– A teacher or mentor who had a significant impact on your academic career

Cultural Experiences

– A significant trip or travel experience

– A significant cultural event or celebration you participated in

– A time when you experienced culture shock

– A significant interaction with someone from a different culture

– A time when you learned something new about a different culture and how it impacted you

Social Issues

– A personal experience with discrimination or prejudice

– A time when you volunteered or worked for a social cause or organization

– A significant event or moment related to a social issue (e.g. protest, rally, community event)

– A time when you had to confront your own biases or privilege

– A social issue that you are passionate about and how it has impacted you personally

Reflective Essay Examples

Example 1: Reflecting on a Personal Challenge

In this reflective essay, the writer reflects on a personal challenge they faced and how they overcame it. They explore their thoughts, feelings, and actions during this time, and reflect on the lessons they learned from the experience.

Example 2: Reflecting on a Professional Experience

In this reflective essay, the writer reflects on a challenging project they worked on at work and how they overcame obstacles to successfully complete it. They explore their thoughts and feelings about the experience and reflect on the skills and knowledge they gained from it.

Example 3: Reflecting on an Academic Assignment

In this reflective essay, the writer reflects on a challenging academic assignment they completed and how they overcame difficulties to successfully complete it. They explore their thoughts and feelings about the experience and reflect on the skills and knowledge they gained from it.

Example 4: Reflecting on a Cultural Experience

In this reflective essay, the writer reflects on a significant cultural experience they had, such as traveling to a new country or participating in a cultural event. Theyexplore their thoughts and feelings about the experience, reflect on what they learned about the culture, and how it impacted them personally.

Example 5: Reflecting on a Social Issue

In this reflective essay, the writer reflects on their personal experiences with discrimination or prejudice and how it impacted them. They explore their thoughts and feelings about the experience, reflect on what they learned about themselves and the issue, and how they can take action to address it.

These examples demonstrate how reflective essays can be used to explore a wide range of personal experiences and reflections. By exploring your own thoughts and feelings about an experience, you can gain insights into your personal and professional growth and identify areas for further development . Reflective writing is a powerful tool for self-reflection and personal growth, and it can be used in many different contexts to help you gain a deeper understanding of yourself and the world around you.

Reflective Essay Outline

A reflective essay should follow a basic outline that includes an introduction, body, and conclusion. Here is a breakdown of each section:

Introduction: The introduction should provide an overview of the experience you will be reflecting on and a preview of the key points you will be discussing in your essay .

Body: The body of the essay should include several paragraphs that explore your personal reflection, description of the experience, analysis of the experience, evaluation of the experience, identification of key learning, and planning for future action.

Conclusion: The conclusion should summarize the key points of your reflection and provide closure for the reader.

Reflective Essay Thesis

A reflective essay thesis is a statement that summarizes the main points of your essay and provides a clear focus for your writing. A strong thesis statement is essential for a successful reflective essay, as it helps to guide your writing and ensure that your essay is focused and coherent.

Importance of a Strong Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement is important for several reasons. First, it provides a clear focus for your writing, which helps to ensure that your essay is coherent and well-organized. Second, it helps to guide your writing and ensure that you stay on topic throughout your essay . Finally, it helps to engage your reader and provide them with a clear understanding of what your essay is about.

Tips for Writing a Thesis Statement

To write a strong thesis statement for your reflective essay, follow these tips:

– Be clear and concise: Yourthesis statement should clearly state the main focus and purpose of your essay in a concise manner.

– Use specific language: Use specific language to describe the experience you will be reflecting on and the key points you will be discussing in your essay .

– Make it arguable: A strong thesis statement should be arguable and provide some insight or perspective on the experience you are reflecting on.

– Reflect on the significance: Reflect on the significance of the experience you are reflecting on and why it is important to you.

Reflective Essay Structure

The structure of a reflective essay is important for ensuring that your essay is well-organized and easy to read. A clear structure helps to guide the reader through your thoughts and reflections, and it makes it easier for them to understand your main points.

The Importance of a Clear Structure

A clear structure is important for several reasons. First, it helps to ensure that your essay is well-organized and easy to read. Second, it helps to guide your writing and ensure that you stay on topic throughout your essay. Finally, it helps to engage your reader and provide them with a clear understanding of the key points you are making.

Tips for Structuring a Reflective Essay

To structure your reflective essay effectively, follow these tips:

– Start with an introduction that provides an overview of the experience you are reflecting on and a preview of the key points you will be discussing in your essay .

– Use body paragraphs to explore your personal reflection, description of the experience, analysisof the experience, evaluation of the experience, identification of key learning, and planning for future action. Ensure that each paragraph has a clear focus and supports your thesis statement .

– Use transition words and phrases to connect your paragraphs and make your essay flow smoothly.

– End your essay with a conclusion that summarizes the key points of your reflection and provides closure for the reader.

– Consider using subheadings to organize your essay and make it more structured and easy to read.

By following these tips, you can create a clear and well-structured reflective essay that effectively communicates your personal experiences and reflections. Remember to use specific examples and details to support your reflection, and to keep your focus on the main topic and thesis statement of your essay .

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. what is a reflective essay.

A reflective essay is a type of writing that allows you to reflect on your personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings. It involves exploring your own thoughts and feelings about an experience, and reflecting on what you learned from it.

2. What are the elements of a reflective essay?

The essential elements of a reflective essay include personal reflection, description of the experience, analysis of the experience, evaluation of the experience, identification of key learning, and planning for future action.

3. How do I choose a topic for a reflective essay?

To choose a topic for a reflective essay, think about a personal experience or event that had a significant impact on your personal or professional growth. You may also consider professional experiences, academic experiences, cultural experiences, or social issues that have impacted you personally.

Reflective writing is a powerful tool for personal and professional development. By exploring your own thoughts and feelings about an experience, you can gain insights into your personal and professional growth and identify areas for further development. To write an effective reflective essay, it is important to follow a clear structure, use specific examples and details to support your reflection, and stay focused on the main topic and thesis statement of your essay . By following these tips and guidelines, you can become a skilled reflective writer and use this tool to improve your personal and professional growth.

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• Inquiry methods for critical consciousness and self-change in faculty Peña, E. V. (2012). Inquiry methods for critical consciousness and self-change in faculty. Review of Higher Education, 36(1), 69-92. doi:10.1353/rhe.2012.0049
• Doubly estranged: Racism, the body and reflection Garratt, L. (2017). Doubly estranged: Racism, the body and reflection. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 40(4), 617-635. doi:10.1080/01419870.2016.1206589
• Shim, J. M. (2020). Meaningful ambivalence, incommensurability, and vulnerability in an antiracist project: Answers to unasked questions Shim, J. M. (2020). Meaningful ambivalence, incommensurability, and vulnerability in an antiracist project: Answers to unasked questions. Journal of Teacher Education, 71(3), 345-356. doi:10.1177/0022487119842054
• Self-reflection in multicultural training: be careful what you ask for more... less... Murray-García, J. L., Harrell, S., García, J. A., Gizzi, E., & Simms-Mackey, P. (2005). Self-reflection in multicultural training: be careful what you ask for. Academic Medicine, 80(7), 694-701.

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• But I'm Not Racist: Tools for Well-meaning Whites Kathy Obear, 2016
• White people are still raised to be racially illiterate, if we don't recognize the system, our inaction will uphold it DiAngelo discusses the implications of white people continuing to operate with racial illiteracy, believing in the illusion of meritocracy and simplistic explanations for racial inequality and racism. (Summary from Anti-Racism Bookshelf by Niki Bains and Sylvie Vigneux)
• White Like Me: Racism, Race and White Privilege in America Media Education Foundation, 2013. Tim Wise. Wise offers a fascinating look back at the race-based white entitlement programs that built the American middle class and argues that our failure as a society to come to terms with this legacy fo white privilege continues to perpetuate racial inequality and race-driven political resentments today. (Summary from Anti-Racism Bookshelf by Niki Bains and Sylvie Vigneux)
• First Contact This TV series takes six average Canadians, all with strong opinions about Indigenous people, on a unique 28-day journey to visit Indigenous communities. Over the course of the three episodes, the show challenges participants' perceptions and confronts their opinions about a world they never imagined they would see.
• What is White Privilege, Really? Collins, C. (2018). Learning for Justice. Recognizing white privilege begins with truly understanding the term itself.
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Reflective Essay on Discrimination and Anti-Oppressive Practices

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Prejudice and Discrimination Essay

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Prejudice and discrimination are impossible to avoid when living in society. However, you rarely think about them, if you are not a subject of bias. At least, what I can say about myself is that I have never really thought about prejudice and discrimination, their essence, and consequences. This course helped me realize that these phenomena are complicated and versatile. I have learned that they have many levels and can be formulated by the trends in television programs, commercials, music, and cultural developments. Well, I think it might be true because if since childhood we watch television programs that depict discrimination and bias, then we start thinking of them as of a normal way of building relations with people from outside our group.

Nevertheless, I believe that media culture is not the initial source of imposing belief that treating those who are somehow not like you differently is normal. What is the most robust influential factor is the process of socialization within your group. As a kid, you start it within your family. However, growing up in a family that criticizes discrimination does not necessarily mean that you will become an unbiased adult. What matters is the further process of socialization when you become a member of a bigger group that consists of people with various ethnic, social, religious, and other backgrounds. Seeing the difference every day, you start thinking differently than when you were a part of your small social group – family. At least, it was like that for me.

When I was in a family, I was completely unbiased because I always saw people who had similar backgrounds. When watching TV, I rarely thought that programs and commercials portray differences between people with different backgrounds; I just enjoyed the process. However, when I became a part of a larger group, I started noticing that I like people who are similar to my family members more than others who differ from me in some ways. Since then, I remarked that media also plays a role in this process showing differences between men and women, stressing on racial and class segregation. That said, what I believe is the source of bias is the subconscious desire to be involved with the members of your group that becomes stronger when you see that it is highlighted on television that aims at shaping particular attitudes to the member outside the group.

Prejudice and discrimination are just one side of the process of socialization. Another side of it is acknowledging that they exist and influence other people, trying to understand what makes you biased and what are the prejudices you have. What I can say about myself is that being in a group while studying the nature of bias and discrimination was a useful experience. It helped me become somewhat less biased because I saw people with different backgrounds gathered in one group.

In fact, I realized that we all are similar because we all have some prejudices and feel uncomfortable when sharing our feelings and thoughts. I believe that the outcomes of the course might have been different if I were not to share my feelings with the group or completed the assignment on my own because constant interactions with different people helped me reduce the prejudices, and sometime later the feeling of discomfort vanished, as I realized that I can trust these people and bias cannot be justified.

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Poverty And Human Rights: Reflections On Racism and Discrimination

About the author, roberto cuéllar.

Currently, in both the international system and the inter-American system for the protection of human rights, there are instruments which emphasize the obligation of States to guarantee the observance of the rights of all human beings, without distinction as to race, gender, religion or political stance. However, although a considerable body of treaties, declarations and conventions exists to safeguard such equality in law, as yet there is no effective equality in practice. In our opinion, poverty is inseparably linked to human rights, acting as both cause and effect of human rights violations, and must be tackled if de facto equality is to be achieved. Excluded groups and persons will then be able to claim their rights from States and obtain prompt and appropriate responses at a reasonable cost, thereby ensuring that social well-being spreads to all parts of society. While our subcontinent has moved on from the authoritarianism and flagrant assaults on life and liberty of the 1980s, and the majority of countries in the hemisphere now model their political relations on representative democracy and their economic thinking on market forces (the criterion for the allocation of resources), poverty and social exclusion are still widespread. This situation means that vast segments of the population experience a high degree of economic insecurity and despair about the future. Economic growth was 4.5 per cent on average during the period 2003-2006, showing an exceptional performance over the past 25 years, and the poverty rate, according to the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, dipped slightly below the 1980 level for the first time, from 40.5 per cent of the population in that year to 39.8 per cent in 2005. However, the Commission states (Panorama Social de America Latina 2006) that the recent encouraging progress should not obscure the fact that poverty levels continue to be very high, and the region still faces enormous challenges. It adds that historically one of the chief features of Latin America has been the marked inequity of income distribution and its inflexibility to change, and that this inequity not only exceeds that of other regions, but also remained invariable throughout the 1990s and even worsened at the beginning of the current decade. 1 By "social exclusion" we mean social discrimination processes engaged in by human groups on the grounds of sex, ethnicity, religion, political or ideological belief, social origin or socio-economic status and practices that fail to respect differences or value diversity. Excluded individuals and communities suffer distinct disadvantages by comparison with the rest of the population. First, they are deprived of the legitimate aspirations to which they are entitled, such as an adequate standard of living, labour force participation and social integration. Unable to attain these conditions, they are barred from the life style that a person expects to enjoy in a democratic society, including the exercise of human rights, whether civil and political or social, cultural and economic. For these reasons, such individuals and communities cannot be considered full members of society. In Latin America and the Caribbean, racism and discrimination have historical, economic, social and cultural features which have kept specific groups, including indigenous populations, Afro-descendants and women, in a state of marginalization, exclusion and extreme poverty. In this sense, discrimination is a crime, not only because it conflicts with international law but also because it lays the ground for the violation of basic human rights. 2 Moreover, when discrimination stems from prejudice based on race, ethnic identity, nationality or culture, it also affects collective subjects (populations and communities) that have rights as a group, deriving from their identity and culture, but do not always have the necessary legal or political status (a particular citizenship) to be able to defend themselves and claim rights. And the situation can be even worse when the population encountering discrimination is especially vulnerable, as in the case of the prison population. 3 The majority of victims of racial discrimination in the region are communities (and members of communities) with specific identities based on such factors as ethnicity, culture, nationality, language and territory; the common factor is that they look, and are perceived as, different from the dominant identity understood as the national one.4 Those who persist in being different and demand to be treated as such are stigmatized in highly diverse ways, in which the attribution of race as a stereotype and of a set of prejudices that devalues them is still prevalent. In this situation, discrimination is based on denial of the right to be different and hence denial of the diversity (multi-ethnic, multicultural) of the society and State as a whole.Recently, Louise Arbour, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, stated that, together with poverty, discrimination constituted another recurring source of disqualification and deprivation of rights, freedom and dignity and that, despite the many efforts undertaken by the international community, racism and racist practices continued to spread in subtle, vicious and insidious ways and were internalized in everyday life through a variety of processes of socialization. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has also referred to racial discrimination as a dangerous obstacle to national development. However, some of the global advances made to date deserve to be highlighted. The Preparatory Conference of the Americas against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance (Santiago, Chile, 2000) was significant in that the States of the region recognized that the identity of the Americas could not be separated from its multiracial, pluriethnic, multicultural, multilingual and pluralistic character, and that this social diversity provided an input to human coexistence and the building of mutually respected cultures and democratic political systems. It also recognized, for the first time, the existence of institutionalized discrimination and the possibility of reparations for suffering and injury caused by institutionalized discrimination. Similarly, the World Conference held in Durban, with its Declaration and Programme of Action, was instrumental in prevailing on a number of countries in the region to establish individual State bodies to implement its recommendations. 5 In July 2006, the Regional Conference of the Americas against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance was held in Brazil. This forum, organized with the support of the United Nations, in particular the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, brought together civil society, Governments and international institutions, with a view to promoting dialogue on advances and challenges in the implementation of the Programme of Action of the Durban Conference. The discussion focused on:

• the need to give new momentum to the implementation of the commitments assumed by States under the declarations and programmes of action of the Santiago Conference (2000) and the Durban Conference (2001), it being agreed that their content represented a substantive advance in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, especially in the recognition of the rights of victims of slavery and colonialism or victims of multiple or aggravated discrimination;
• the need for the United Nations system to re-evaluate the agreements reached in Durban in a process similar to that held in the case of all other international conferences and summit meetings;
• equal treatment on the part of the Organization of American States and the subregional multilateral bodies;
• the need to develop an international equality index for the adjustment, standardization and regulation of the review and quantification of the current forms of discrimination and racism, together with the formulation of indicators and the implementation of specific measures for their modification;
• the alignment of the Millennium Goals and the objectives established by the Regional Conference of the Americas and the Durban Conference, so that the Goals can be used as benchmarks to measure the progress achieved in the political, economic and social development of indigenous and Afro-descendant populations;
• the conclusion and adoption of an inter-American convention against racism and discrimination; and
• ways of increasing technical and financial support from Governments and international agencies for the implementation of programmes of action, the generation of indicators, the attainment of the MDGs, and the fostering and strengthening of State bodies for the promotion of ethnic and racial equity in the region. 6

For the above reasons, it is evident that the eradication of discrimination requires, among the most important and urgent measures, the development of a State policy which both combats racism and racial discrimination and promotes diversity as a condition for development with equity and the effective exercise of human rights. This policy is of particular importance in the areas of human rights education, access to justice, political participation of the Afro-descendant population and the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights. It is also necessary to develop a set of indicators for the objective assessment of the degree to which public policies perform this dual role, establish mechanisms for the monitoring of progress, and identify deficits where a greater effort is called for, as required in the work strategy of the Inter-American Institute of Human Rights, especially since the year 2000. 7 The emphasis in this strategy is on the need to remedy the shortcomings of democracy in the region, without abandoning the concept of the comprehensiveness of basic rights and the need to employ a multidisciplinary approach. The application of the cross-cutting perspectives already mentioned signifies a grasp of reality in the region and the official adoption of a position which for a number of years now has permeated various initiatives within the Institute that have as their guiding principle building universality from specificity and promoting equality from diversity. Notes 1 For its part, the Inter-American Development Bank states that the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean have one of the highest inequity indices in the developing world. It is a region where income, resources and opportunities are systematically and disproportionately concentrated in one segment of the population, the elite of society. For a long time, the poverty and social degradation resulting from the inequity in the region were considered merely economic problems. Only in recent years have increased attention and analysis been focused on a complex series of social, economic and cultural practices leading to social exclusion: limited access to the benefits of development for certain populations on the basis of their race, ethnicity, gender and/or physical capabilities (IDB, Sobre la exclusión social: declaración de la Misión, 2003). 2 The connection between racism and racial discrimination, understood as the deprivation of human rights for reasons of race or ethnicity (and even on other similar grounds) can be seen in the Yean and Bosico case, recently settled by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, which deals with an aspect of the situation familiar to many Haitians and Dominicans of Haitian origin in the Dominican Republic. The case shows how the deprivation of the right to a nationality, name and legal personality can subsequently affect girls as they try to gain access to the formal education system (see Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Dilcia Yean and Violeta Bosico v. The Dominican Republic, Series C No. 130, paras. 125-207). 3 The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has again had the opportunity to consider a situation in which the rights of persons who do not conform to the "dominant type" are restricted. Accordingly, the López Álvarez case expressly invokes the situation of detainees of Garifuna origin who have been denied the possibility of expressing themselves in their own language (see Inter-American Court of Human Rights, López Álvarez v. Honduras, Series C No. 141, paras. 160-174). 4 Consequently, it is stated that discrimination in our subregion constitutes a perverse practice or conduct based on stereotyping and prejudice outside the legislative framework and difficult to prosecute and eradicate from society. On the contrary, discrimination is closely correlated with inequality, which intensifies its effects and seems to suggest that it is a means of economic and political marginalization. 5 The bodies established included governmental committees for the development of public policies to combat racism and racial discrimination. 6 Additional information can be obtained from www.santiagomascinco.cl . 7 In another article, I intend to develop a set of suggestions on possible policy measures for adoption by Governments to promote multiculturalism in the thematic areas referred to, in the light of the experience acquired by the Inter-American Institute of Human Rights, which, in 27 years of work, especially since 2000, has consolidated a strategy of active promotion of human rights based on the prioritization of four thematic areas and three cross-cutting perspectives. The four thematic areas are: human rights education, justice and security, political involvement and effective exercise of economic, social and cultural rights; and the three cross-cutting perspectives are: gender equity, recognition and preservation of ethnic and cultural diversity, and the development of opportunities for the involvement of civil society and its interaction with the State.

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The engagement of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime with Member States is particularly focused on interventions addressing early adolescence through schools and families by piloting evidence-based, manualized programmes worldwide. 

A Chronicle Conversation with Pradeep Kurukulasuriya (Part 2)

In April 2024, Pradeep Kurukulasuriya was appointed Executive Secretary of the United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF). The  UN Chronicle  took the opportunity to ask Mr. Kurukulasuriya about the Fund and its unique role in implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This is Part 2 of our two-part interview.

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Essay on Discrimination: Effects of Discrimination

During thousands years, every civilization on the planet had elements of discrimination. Obviously, modern society is no exception. Every time when European colonizers occupied somebody’s land, it led to formation of isolated social groups and peoples. Most extreme types of discrimination often developed into such horrible things as a genocide or slavery. In some countries, discrimination wasn’t enacted at the legislative level, while in other countries discrimination was legislated. This phenomenon was called Apartheid. Along with these extreme forms of discrimination, human civilization also invented other, relatively soft forms, which are often reflected in immigration laws, as well as in disenfranchisement. Often we can observe discrimination in hospitals and schools; discrimination is often presented in media and public opinions. Some ethnic groups suffer from discrimination more often, throughout the whole world’s history. Such groups are the Jews, and the Roma (also known as Gypsies).

The meaning of discrimination is often related to another term, which is “disturbing”. In the Oxford Dictionary, such a term is explained as anxiety, and distress, as well as other bad mental states caused by unfairness and irritation. Therefore, such a state is often caused by various types of discrimination, since it is nothing but an unfair treatment of somebody who belongs to a particular race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and so on. Usually the reason for such an unfair treatment is prejudice. Most people who suffer from discrimination feel frustration, and anger. It may often cause anger addressed to people who caused such an unpleasant emotional state. However, there are many consequences of discrimination for both victims and victimizers, so in this essay, we decided to consider common effects of discrimination.

First of all, discrimination is not a new problem. Almost all human societies throughout world’s history suffered from different forms of discrimination. Now this issue is actively discussed, since in every country, there is some type of discrimination, which certain groups of people suffer from. Every kind of discrimination is based on opinion that certain groups of people don’t have equal rights and opportunities with others. These groups may be determined by race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, and so on. Sometimes people confuse discrimination with other social problems, such as stereotypes, or prejudice. As long as human society exists, people were struggling with these things, and until now, there are a lot of people and even governments, who support discrimination. First of all, such social tendencies are based on stereotypes – rigid representations of a certain race or ethnic group. Usually people don’t try to understand whether or not this representation is true. In turn, stereotypes form prejudice. Prejudice is our judgment of a person based on stereotypes about his or her race, gender, and so on. Generally, these two things form a strong basis for discrimination. The only particular feature of discrimination is that it also includes unfair treatment. Within discrimination, people support certain actions against victims of prejudices and stereotypes. Generally, attitude forms a certain type of prejudice, and actions form discrimination.

A lot of people note that discrimination grows and expands. Given latest right-wing political tendencies all over the world, discrimination develops. Even in 2017, people often receive hate messages, get ridiculed, or suffer from the direct violence just because they are somewhat different from the majority. Every time we don’t really know somebody, and yet give him or her names, or make certain conclusions based on stereotypes, we support discrimination.

Causes and Effects of Discrimination

There are relatively more familiar types of discrimination, such as discrimination based on gender, sexual orientation, race, disability or religion. These all are forms of direct discrimination. Another form of direct discrimination is sexual harassment. All these types of discrimination are direct actions against certain groups of people, based on prejudices or stereotypes. At the same time, there is also indirect discrimination, which is usually discussed not so wide and actively. Indirect discrimination includes such situations, where neutral positions or actions cause effects of discrimination. Along with these two major types of discrimination, we must mention institutional discrimination, which involves discriminatory practices, laws, and procedures within a certain company, social institution, or even country. Here we are talking about procedures that cause discriminatory consequences. A striking example of institutional discrimination is the South African Apartheid.

Discrimination rarely causes a certain single effect. Usually effects of discrimination multiply and each effect leads to several new consequences. Discrimination is often related to such thing as social distance. It’s always easier for people to judge those who are not related to their social group. The more far some group of people stands from the majority, the easier for the majority is to discriminate them.

Talking about causes of discrimination, we must highlight one thing that often forms discriminatory behavior among adults. Discrimination can be learned. Most people who support discrimination were raised by parents who support the same ideas. Teachers also may form discriminatory behavior of their students. Media often support discriminatory processes, since every time we talk about discrimination without doing anything to stop it, we also give it a certain level of social legitimacy. Since contact between different groups doesn’t help to fight discrimination, modern society often pays attention to social institutions, and education, in particular. Of course, implementing multicultural principles in education, we support diversity, and weaken discrimination. At the same time, immigration policies, special attention to civil rights, as well as quote hiring, form a strong basis against discrimination. Another important thing is relations between individuals, since true love and friendship between people from different groups is the best way to kill discrimination at the very beginning.

There are different political, psychological, social, and economic effects of discrimination. Victims of discrimination lose their self-confidence, they feel like outsiders. Such effects often become stronger due to political and economic discrimination. Inequality, ignorance and prejudices cause a lot of negative effects on many levels. Not only affects discrimination peace within a particular country, but also a world peace as well. This is a reason why many international organizations provide new instruments and laws, in order to stop discrimination worldwide. However, despite the fact that such organizations introduce new incentives, these incentives rarely are something more than just papers and agreements. Many countries ignore international instances, or accept such incentives only on paper.

We can see effects that discrimination causes on religion, race, and other specific groups of people. In USA, race discrimination still remains a hot issue, due to a number of illegal actions of police against black people. Populistic rhetoric of conservative politicians pushes racists to express their hate in public, promoting racism. There is also discrimination of the aborigines in Australia, since their culture is quite different from European culture. White majority don’t understand native people of Australia, creating distance between social groups. Another common type of discrimination is religious discrimination. In USA, this issue became a common topic for discussions after the introduction of Trump’s so-called Muslim ban. Islamic terrorists formed a common image of Muslims as terrorists and danger for civilized world. It is a stereotype which can lead to discriminatory immigration policy. Religious discrimination is dangerous to the world’s peace, since every religion has a lot of believers, so every time when rights of this group are violated somewhere on the planet, it may cause large-scale conflicts and wars.

According to studies, discrimination causes a direct effect on victim’s behavior. Moreover, different types of discrimination have a direct impact on a particular group, and an additional effect on other groups. For example, racial discrimination affects people suffered from ethnic discrimination, leading to depression and anxiety.

It takes a lot of time for victims of discrimination to cope with consequences. All victims need to fight against their fear, depression, and low self-esteem, searching for ways to survive within a society. Every victim faces the need to develop his or her own strategy of behavior. Some victims even try to ignore discrimination, and deny it. They claim that a certain incident was caused by other reasons, or they try to justify such discrimination, searching for the reason in their own behavior, look, words, etc. Another common strategy of victims is avoidance. People try to avoid or ignore situations that can cause discriminatory incidents with the highest probability. Obviously, such a practice cannot decrease the level of discrimination, since these people intentionally increase distance between them and majority, thus making it harder to integrate discriminated groups in the society. Obviously, world peace is impossible within such conditions. Discrimination divides and dissolves the society, creating an auspicious environment for wars.

Discrimination is a biggest challenge for modern societies. First of all, discrimination represents a threat to democracy, since latter is based on principles of equality. Discrimination is widely supported in societies based on strict hierarchy. Usually such societies build hierarchies based on religion, gender, or origin. Most of such societies support discrimination and promote it. In turn, Democracy represents efforts to build equal society, where equality is a basis of human rights. Of course, any kinds of discrimination are threats for such an idea.

Not only is discrimination a threat to the civilized society, but for its direct victims as well. Discrimination directly violates rights of a person, leading to a number of bad consequences. Such consequences may vary depending on the type of violence against this victim, alienation, psychological problems, exclusion, and so on.

First of all, discrimination is selfish. Our point is that discrimination is wrong, doesn’t matter which kind of discrimination it is. Discrimination is everywhere, in every country, and in every part of our everyday lives. There are many different causes of discrimination, and one of the most common causes is parents that always teach their kids to think the way they do. Parents who support racism, sexism, homophobia, raise their children and spread these dangerous diseases. First of all, parents shouldn’t teach their children hate, since hate always produces only more hate, which leads to discriminatory actions, conflicts, and wars. We already mentioned a lot of problems caused by discrimination. The only way to stop discrimination is to implement proper laws and protect human rights at the government level. In turn, the society must support victims of discrimination, helping them to cope with consequences, as well as to integrate in the society.

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How the College Application Essay Became So Important

S chool is out and summer is here. Yet future high school seniors and their families are likely already thinking about applying to college — a process that can be as labor-intensive and time-consuming as it is confusing. Students submit SAT scores, grades, references, personal essays, and more, often without a clear sense of what counts most.

The challenges facing college applicants today aren’t new. For over a century, Americans seeking higher education have had to navigate complicated admissions requirements including exams and grades as well as qualitative metrics of assessment, such as references, interviews, and essays.

Collecting so much academic and personal information has given colleges and universities greater control over the kinds of students they admit. In the first half of the 20th century, this information was mainly used to bar some applicants based on race, gender, and religion. Since the social movements of the 1960s and 70s, however, it has been used to do nearly the opposite by expanding access to previously excluded groups. In this process, personal essays have been especially valuable for the unique insights they can offer into applicants’ backgrounds and perspectives. In the context of today’s narrowing national diversity agenda, they are key to promoting inclusion in American higher education.

In the late 19th century, college admission standards were relatively low in America, even at the “Big Three” private universities, Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. In an era when few Americans had more than an eighth-grade education, and even fewer could afford the cost of higher education, there was little competition for admission. Applicants needed only to pass subject matter exams, tests that were rudimentary and could be taken repeatedly until passed. Even those who failed their entrance exams might be admitted if they had elite standing and could pay tuition.

Read More: How to Talk About Race on College Applications, According to Admissions Experts

By the turn of the 20th century, however, demand for higher education was growing. Colleges worked intentionally to admit a broader range of students, dropping archaic requirements like knowledge of Latin and Greek that had previously barred all but the most privileged high school students from applying. More and more qualified applicants competed for fewer available spots, which meant that colleges and universities could be more selective. 

But with more applicants passing exams and earning entry to higher education, private universities became increasingly concerned about the demographics of their student bodies. By the 1910s, as immigration increased, and more public high schools were better preparing students of all backgrounds to meet private entrance requirements, rising numbers of Jewish students were landing spots at the historically Protestant and upper-class universities. With antisemitism on the rise, many private colleges adopted new metrics of admission that could be used to limit the number of “undesirable” students, especially Jewish ones. 

It was at this juncture that selective colleges introduced the application essay to assess students for the amorphous category of "fit." Applications in general became much more involved and intrusive. 

For instance, beginning in 1919, Columbia required prospective students to complete an eight-page form, submit a photo, list their mother’s maiden name, and provide information about their religious background. Even standardized tests could be used to screen students by cultural background. Early entrance exams were heavily biased toward American customs and colloquialisms, putting first-generation immigrants at a disadvantage.

In the wake of World War II, the passage of the GI Bill created a surge in demand for higher education across the country. Between 1950 and 1970, enrollment in colleges and universities in the U.S. nearly quadrupled. 

Although public and private universities expanded in response, they still came under new pressures to bolster selective criteria that would allow them to limit the growth of their student bodies. To ensure spots for students long considered the natural recipients of higher education — especially white, middle-class, Protestant men — private colleges continued to use quotas and other forms of preference such as legacy status to effectively limit the numbers of Jewish students, people of color, and women admitted. Meanwhile, admissions were far from need blind; applying for a scholarship could damage your chance of acceptance.

Public universities like the University of California, Berkeley charted a different course. In the post-war period, the UC system admitted all students who met basic requirements — graduation from an accredited high school along with a principal's recommendation, acceptance by exam, or completion of an Associate’s degree. But public universities now also faced more demand than they could accommodate. Indeed, the 1960s California Master Plan for Higher Education acknowledged that state universities, too, might well have to introduce a selective process for choosing applicants in the face of expanded access across much wider class, geographic, and ethnic backgrounds. 

By the 1960s, a selective application process became common across major private and public universities. But the social movements of the 1960s and 70s forced private universities to drop their formal practices of discrimination and changed the use of personal essays and other qualitative metrics of evaluation in the process. 

For the first time, in the 1960s, admissions officers at historically white and Protestant universities acknowledged that applicants’ academic profiles were deeply shaped by the opportunities — educational, economic, and cultural — available to them, and that these in turn were shaped by students’ race, ethnicity, and sex. 

While special considerations about background had once been used to systematically exclude minorities, in the 1960s they were invoked for the first time to do the opposite, albeit with some striking limitations. 

By looking at applicants from a comprehensive standpoint, which included these markers of identity, even the most selective private universities made major strides in achieving racial diversity in this period. They also dropped quotas and began to admit women on an equal basis with men. Class diversity, however, was another matter — to this day private universities continue to be comparatively socio-economically homogenous despite meaningful shifts in other areas. 

Since the 1970s, the admissions system has only grown increasingly competitive, with more students than ever before applying to college. That forced universities to choose between strong applicants while building their own brands and competitive profiles. This competitive environment has turned the college application essay into a particularly important vehicle in the admissions process for learning about students’ backgrounds and human qualities.

Read More: How the End of Affirmative Action Could Affect the College Admissions Process

In 1975, a small group of mostly East Coast colleges came together to form the Common App — today used by more than 1,000 universities. The Common App led the way in formulating what we now think of as the personal statement, aimed at understanding the inner world of each student.

For more than 50 years now, universities both private and public have evaluated essays for a range of qualities including leadership capacity, creativity, service to the community, and ability to overcome hardship, as part of their admissions decisions. The kinds of questions universities ask, the qualities they seek, and the responses they receive have changed many times and have been shaped by the cultural trends of our times. 

In 2021 for example, following the spread of a global pandemic, the Common App introduced a question about gratitude for the first time. And while the prompts remained unchanged following the 2023 Supreme Court decision in Students for Fair Admissions Inc. (SFFA) v. President & Fellows of Harvard College and SFFA v. University of North Carolina , which formally excluded race as a factor in admissions, universities began to read them for the role of race, ethnicity, and other identities in students’ profiles. In these and many other ways, the essay has only gained value as a way for students to explain the important ways their experiences and identities have shaped their academic profiles.

Still, there have been calls to eliminate the college essay from admissions requirements from both the right and the left, as either frivolously inclusive, or potentially exclusionary. Now, at a time when there are major political constraints on supporting diversity and inclusion at the national level, personal essays give admissions committees important flexibility. They also allow colleges to evaluate students for underrated but essential intellectual and personal qualities hard to observe elsewhere, including the capacity for growth, self-reflection, and awareness of the world around them. 

The history of modern admissions shows how institutions of higher education have sought to engineer their classes, often reinforcing harmful racial, class, and gender hierarchies. There is little objectivity in the metric of “fit” that has shaped American admissions practices. But the Civil Rights era has had a powerful and long-lasting legacy in broadening access through an assessment of applicants that is attentive to identity. However flawed the system, the essay offers something no other metric can: an account of a student’s lived experience, in their own words.

Sarah Stoller is a writer and historian. She also tutors college essay writing.

Made by History takes readers beyond the headlines with articles written and edited by professional historians. Learn more about Made by History at TIME here . Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of TIME editors .

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