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Primary Research Explained | Definition, Types & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at October 16th, 2024 , Revised On October 24, 2024

While conducting research on any particular topic, subject or phenomenon, we gather information and data. Most of the data gathered already exists, which facilitates us in our work. However, the research that is carried out first-hand is known as primary research. Simply put, primary research is carried out by scholars and researchers to gain new information.

In this article, we shall develop an understanding of what a primary research study is, the importance of primary sources in research , the methodologies used in it and why it is useful in both qualitative and quantitative research .

What Is Primary Research Definition?

Primary research, also known as original research, is the act of gathering fresh data and information for the sake of producing new knowledge and insights. When doing this research, individuals do not rely on available databases, articles and research papers.

Many business, marketing and health companies conduct primary research to make informed decisions, as the data gathered first-hand is highly meaningful and accurate. This type of research is carried out in qualitative research, in the form of surveys, questionnaires and focus groups. Quantitative primary research does exist but is not common.

When To Use Primary Research?

There are two types of research . Unlike secondary research, which deals with existing research, primary research is used when a researcher needs original and up-to-date information on a specific topic. It is also a means to answer a new research question that has been sought by a research scholar.

Limited research or inadequate data on any subject also leads to the collection of new information, which is where primary research comes in handy. Not only can primary research strengthen secondary research but also helps identify new patterns and behaviours that were previously not apparent, addressing any gaps.

Methods Of Primary Research

Primary research can be carried out in many ways, but should always be done according to the principles of scientific methods. Here are some methods used in primary research by researchers, students and organisations:

Surveys/Questionnaires

This is a popular qualitative data collection approach that is used in primary research to gather information by both online and offline questionnaires. These questions tend to discover people’s opinions, behaviour and attitudes towards a particular topic and phenomenon. Questions can be both close-ended and open-ended, depending on the nature of the research.

It is important to understand how to conduct surveys and it is recommended that the surveys must not be lengthy as many individuals have limited attention spans, and can get bored. Moreover, each question must be comprehensive, error-free and not give way to observer bias.

This qualitative research method has been popular for ages, to gather key information and expand knowledge related to a subject. This method deals with one-on-one interviews with individuals to generate a better opinion as it gives detailed insights and expert opinions on the research question being examined. Moreover, interviews can be conducted face-to-face, on the telephone or online.

There are three main types of interviews conducted during research:

Structured interviews
Unstructured interviews
Semi-structured interviews

Focus Groups

Focus groups are another qualitative method for collecting data from a group of people, usually between 6 and 10. All the participants, who have expert opinions on the subject, are asked a series of questions. A moderator facilitates this mode of discussion and oversees the whole process. Moreover, business markets carry out these methods to learn more about the attitudes and opinions of customers and clients.

Observations

This primary research method involves observing people, a phenomenon or variables that are under study. There is no direct interaction between the researcher and the person being observed, and the researcher makes notes of the observations he makes. These observations can be carried out by a camera or a trained observer. It helps catch the genuine reactions of the subject.

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Here are three types of observations used in research:

Cohort studies
Cross-sectional studies
Case-control Studies

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Primary Research

Primary research is beneficial for a variety of purposes, however, it also has some disadvantages. Let’s understand the advantages of primary research and the disadvantages of primary research :

Difference Between Primary And Secondary Research

Primary and secondary research are two different methods of gathering information during research. Each has its definition, methodologies and characteristics. Here is how the two differ from each other:

Examples Of Primary Research

Here are some examples of primary research:

Example 1: Consumer Preference Survey

A skincare brand wants to introduce a new skincare product that heals acne scars. To understand consumer preference, they conduct an online survey targeting women and young girls, who are likely to face such skin issues.

The survey questions include demographic questions such as age and gender and consist of questions regarding skincare ingredient preferences, price range, and product packaging.

Example 2: Understanding Victim Psychology Through Interview

An interviewer wants to understand the experiences of victims for his podcast. He conducts a face-to-face interview with a victim of domestic violence. The interview consists of questions related to the victim’s domestic affairs, experiences and behaviours. Key focus areas include emotional responses to questions, coping mechanisms and certain psychological responses.

It is important to ensure that such interviews are conducted with the participant’s consent and with sensitivity and respect.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the difference between surveys and questionnaires.

Questionnaires are a set of questions given to participants in a survey, however, surveys are a larger part of the study of a specific group that can include a variety of research methodologies and questionnaires to understand the subject under study.

What is data analysis?

Data analysis involves understanding different patterns within the data. It deals with the inspection of data for information and trends, and creating a set of results and conclusions from it.

How can bias occur in primary research?

Primary research bias occurs during the research process and skews the accuracy of findings. It may occur due to subjective interpretation of results, poor questionnaires and if the researcher of the study consciously or unconsciously projects their opinions on the research. Moreover, it can occur when the participants fail to recall their experiences or previous events that are necessary for data collection.

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Primary Research: What It Is, Purpose & Methods + Examples

As we continue exploring the exciting research world, we’ll come across two primary and secondary data approaches. This article will focus on primary research – what it is, how it’s done, and why it’s essential.

We’ll discuss the methods used to gather first-hand data and examples of how it’s applied in various fields. Get ready to discover how this research can be used to solve research problems , answer questions, and drive innovation.

What is Primary Research: Definition

Primary research is a methodology researchers use to collect data directly rather than depending on data collected from previously done research. Technically, they “own” the data. Primary research is solely carried out to address a certain problem, which requires in-depth analysis .

There are two forms of research:

Primary Research
Secondary Research

Businesses or organizations can conduct primary research or employ a third party to conduct research. One major advantage of primary research is this type of research is “pinpointed.” Research only focuses on a specific issue or problem and on obtaining related solutions.

For example, a brand is about to launch a new mobile phone model and wants to research the looks and features they will soon introduce.

Organizations can select a qualified sample of respondents closely resembling the population and conduct primary research with them to know their opinions. Based on this research, the brand can now think of probable solutions to make necessary changes in the looks and features of the mobile phone.

Primary Research Methods with Examples

In this technology-driven world, meaningful data is more valuable than gold. Organizations or businesses need highly validated data to make informed decisions. This is the very reason why many companies are proactive in gathering their own data so that the authenticity of data is maintained and they get first-hand data without any alterations.

Here are some of the primary research methods organizations or businesses use to collect data:

1. Interviews (telephonic or face-to-face)

Conducting interviews is a qualitative research method to collect data and has been a popular method for ages. These interviews can be conducted in person (face-to-face) or over the telephone. Interviews are an open-ended method that involves dialogues or interaction between the interviewer (researcher) and the interviewee (respondent).

Conducting a face-to-face interview method is said to generate a better response from respondents as it is a more personal approach. However, the success of face-to-face interviews depends heavily on the researcher’s ability to ask questions and his/her experience related to conducting such interviews in the past. The types of questions that are used in this type of research are mostly open-ended questions . These questions help to gain in-depth insights into the opinions and perceptions of respondents.

Personal interviews usually last up to 30 minutes or even longer, depending on the subject of research. If a researcher is running short of time conducting telephonic interviews can also be helpful to collect data.

2. Online surveys

Once conducted with pen and paper, surveys have come a long way since then. Today, most researchers use online surveys to send to respondents to gather information from them. Online surveys are convenient and can be sent by email or can be filled out online. These can be accessed on handheld devices like smartphones, tablets, iPads, and similar devices.

Once a survey is deployed, a certain amount of stipulated time is given to respondents to answer survey questions and send them back to the researcher. In order to get maximum information from respondents, surveys should have a good mix of open-ended questions and close-ended questions . The survey should not be lengthy. Respondents lose interest and tend to leave it half-done.

It is a good practice to reward respondents for successfully filling out surveys for their time and efforts and valuable information. Most organizations or businesses usually give away gift cards from reputed brands that respondents can redeem later.

3. Focus groups

This popular research technique is used to collect data from a small group of people, usually restricted to 6-10. Focus group brings together people who are experts in the subject matter for which research is being conducted.

Focus group has a moderator who stimulates discussions among the members to get greater insights. Organizations and businesses can make use of this method, especially to identify niche markets to learn about a specific group of consumers.

4. Observations

In this primary research method, there is no direct interaction between the researcher and the person/consumer being observed. The researcher observes the reactions of a subject and makes notes.

Trained observers or cameras are used to record reactions. Observations are noted in a predetermined situation. For example, a bakery brand wants to know how people react to its new biscuits, observes notes on consumers’ first reactions, and evaluates collective data to draw inferences .

Primary Research vs Secondary Research – The Differences

Primary and secondary research are two distinct approaches to gathering information, each with its own characteristics and advantages.

While primary research involves conducting surveys to gather firsthand data from potential customers, secondary market research is utilized to analyze existing industry reports and competitor data, providing valuable context and benchmarks for the survey findings.

Find out more details about the differences:

1. Definition

Primary Research: Involves the direct collection of original data specifically for the research project at hand. Examples include surveys, interviews, observations, and experiments.
Secondary Research: Involves analyzing and interpreting existing data, literature, or information. This can include sources like books, articles, databases, and reports.

2. Data Source

Primary Research: Data is collected directly from individuals, experiments, or observations.
Secondary Research: Data is gathered from already existing sources.

3. Time and Cost

Primary Research: Often time-consuming and can be costly due to the need for designing and implementing research instruments and collecting new data.
Secondary Research: Generally more time and cost-effective, as it relies on readily available data.

4. Customization

Primary Research: Provides tailored and specific information, allowing researchers to address unique research questions.
Secondary Research: Offers information that is pre-existing and may not be as customized to the specific needs of the researcher.
Primary Research: Researchers have control over the research process, including study design, data collection methods , and participant selection.
Secondary Research: Limited control, as researchers rely on data collected by others.

6. Originality

Primary Research: Generates original data that hasn’t been analyzed before.
Secondary Research: Involves the analysis of data that has been previously collected and analyzed.

7. Relevance and Timeliness

Primary Research: Often provides more up-to-date and relevant data or information.
Secondary Research: This may involve data that is outdated, but it can still be valuable for historical context or broad trends.

Advantages of Primary Research

Primary research has several advantages over other research methods, making it an indispensable tool for anyone seeking to understand their target market, improve their products or services, and stay ahead of the competition. So let’s dive in and explore the many benefits of primary research.

One of the most important advantages is data collected is first-hand and accurate. In other words, there is no dilution of data. Also, this research method can be customized to suit organizations’ or businesses’ personal requirements and needs .
I t focuses mainly on the problem at hand, which means entire attention is directed to finding probable solutions to a pinpointed subject matter. Primary research allows researchers to go in-depth about a matter and study all foreseeable options.
Data collected can be controlled. I T gives a means to control how data is collected and used. It’s up to the discretion of businesses or organizations who are collecting data how to best make use of data to get meaningful research insights.
I t is a time-tested method, therefore, one can rely on the results that are obtained from conducting this type of research.

Disadvantages of Primary Research

While primary research is a powerful tool for gathering unique and firsthand data, it also has its limitations. As we explore the drawbacks, we’ll gain a deeper understanding of when primary research may not be the best option and how to work around its challenges.

One of the major disadvantages of primary research is it can be quite expensive to conduct. One may be required to spend a huge sum of money depending on the setup or primary research method used. Not all businesses or organizations may be able to spend a considerable amount of money.
This type of research can be time-consuming. Conducting interviews and sending and receiving online surveys can be quite an exhaustive process and require investing time and patience for the process to work. Moreover, evaluating results and applying the findings to improve a product or service will need additional time.
Sometimes, just using one primary research method may not be enough. In such cases, the use of more than one method is required, and this might increase both the time required to conduct research and the cost associated with it.

Every research is conducted with a purpose. Primary research is conducted by organizations or businesses to stay informed of the ever-changing market conditions and consumer perception. Excellent customer satisfaction (CSAT) has become a key goal and objective of many organizations.

A customer-centric organization knows the importance of providing exceptional products and services to its customers to increase customer loyalty and decrease customer churn. Organizations collect data and analyze it by conducting primary research to draw highly evaluated results and conclusions. Using this information, organizations are able to make informed decisions based on real data-oriented insights.

QuestionPro is a comprehensive survey platform that can be used to conduct primary research. Users can create custom surveys and distribute them to their target audience , whether it be through email, social media, or a website.

QuestionPro also offers advanced features such as skip logic, branching, and data analysis tools, making collecting and analyzing data easier. With QuestionPro, you can gather valuable insights and make informed decisions based on the results of your primary research. Start today for free!

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Primary Research: Methods and Best Practices

Introduction

What is the definition of primary research, what are examples of primary research, primary vs. secondary research, types of primary research, when to use primary research.

Conducting research involves two types of data: primary data and secondary data . While secondary research deals with existing data, primary research collects new data . Ultimately, the most appropriate type of research depends on which method is best suited to your research question .

While this article discusses the difference between primary and secondary research, the main focus is on primary research, the types of data collected through primary research, and considerations for researchers who conduct primary research.

Simply put, researchers conduct primary research to gather new information. When existing data cannot address the research inquiry at hand, the researcher usually needs to collect new data to meet their research objectives.

How do you identify primary research?

Primary research uses collected data that hasn't been previously documented. Primary research typically means collecting data straight from the source (e.g., interviewing a research participant , observing a cultural practice or phenomenon firsthand).

Note that other divides that you should also consider include that of collecting quantitative or qualitative data , and of conducting basic or applied research . Each of these dimensions informs and is informed by your research inquiry.

What are the advantages of primary research?

New data, particularly that which addresses a research gap, can contribute to a novel inquiry and prove compelling to the research audience. When a researcher conducts a literature review and generates a problem statement for their research, they can identify what new data needs to be collected and what primary research method can be used to collect it.

Primary research studies ultimately contribute to theoretical developments and novel insights that an analysis of existing data might not have identified. Research publications in some fields may place a premium on primary research for its potential to generate new scientific knowledge as a result.

What are the disadvantages of primary research?

Primary research is time-consuming and potentially expensive to conduct, considering the equipment and resources needed to collect new data as well as the time required to engage with the field and collect data.

Moreover, primary research relies on new data that has yet to be documented elsewhere, meaning that the research audience is less familiar with the primary data being presented. This might raise issues of transparency and research rigor (e.g., how does the audience know that the data they are shown is trustworthy?).

Primary research is common in various fields of research. Let's look at some typical examples of primary research in three different areas.

Education research

Teaching and learning is a field that relies on evidence-based data to make policy recommendations affecting teachers, learning materials, and even classroom requirements. As a result, there are countless methods for collecting relevant data on the various aspects of education.

Observations , interviews , and assessments are just some of the primary research methods that are employed when studying education contexts. Education research acknowledges the full variety of situated differences found in the diversity of learners and their schooling contexts. This makes collecting data that is relevant to the given context and research inquiry crucial to understanding teaching and learning.

Market research

Businesses often rely on primary research to understand the target market for their products and services. Since competing businesses tend not to share research on customer insights with each other, primary research collecting original data can be a necessity.

Focus groups , surveys , and user research are typical research tools employed by businesses. Within market research, the goal is typically to understand customers' preferences and use cases for specific products and services.

Cultural studies

Fields such as anthropology and sociology count on primary research for understanding cultures and communities. Ethnographic research acknowledges that thick description of cultures and phenomena is more meaningful than only generating universal theories, making the collection of primary data essential to understanding the full diversity of the social world.

Researchers examining culture often collect data through interviews, observations, and photovoice, among other research methods. These methods look at the social world through the eyes of the research participants to generate an immersive view of cultures and groups with which audiences may not be familiar.

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Primary research data stands in contrast to secondary research data, which is any data that has been previously collected and documented. In some situations, existing data may be abundant and available, making secondary research a more feasible approach to generating theory and identifying key insights.

Secondary research methods are employed in all fields of research. Market researchers conduct secondary research when there is already existing data about a target market. In particular, secondary market research might look at previous trends in the popularity of products to make predictions about the demand for new products.

Scholarly researchers can use secondary sources such as corpora, news articles, and online videos to make assertions about language and culture. Analytical approaches such as discourse analysis and content analysis can be well suited to analyzing data collected through secondary research methods.

Ultimately, primary and secondary research go hand in hand. The main function of research in building knowledge does not necessarily depend on the use of primary data collection . Rather, it is a matter of whether data needs to be collected in order to address your research inquiry, or relevant data already exists and you can access it.

There are many research methods used to collect data for primary research. The research method that works best for you depends on what you are looking to do with your research project.

This section lists some of the common primary data collection methods that researchers rely on.

One-on-one interviews are useful for capturing perspectives from research participants. Direct interactions can tell researchers what perspectives their research participants have and the thinking behind those perspectives.

Interview research is a complex and detailed methodology that includes several types of interviews to suit various research inquiries. Researchers can choose between structured interviews , semi-structured interviews , and unstructured interviews , depending on the nature of interaction they are looking to establish.

Focus groups

Focus groups are discussions that involve multiple research participants and are led by a moderator. Similar to interviews, the primary goal is to gather information about people's perspectives. Yet focus groups are distinct, because they can capture how people interact and build meaning when discussing a particular topic.

Market researchers may consider conducting a focus group discussion when they want to know more about how a particular group feels about a product or service. Researchers in linguistics and anthropology might be interested in observing how a group of people construct meaning with each other.

Observations

In research involving naturalistic inquiry and the social world, the researcher can gather information directly from the field through observational research methods . Primary data takes the form of field notes , audio and video recordings , their resulting transcripts , and even images of objects of interest.

For quantitative research inquiries, observation entails measuring the amount of activity or the frequency of particular phenomena. Qualitative observations look for patterns in cultural or social practices and document significant events in the field.

When the objective is to capture perspectives from large numbers of people, surveys are a good research method for collecting novel data. In-person questionnaires and online surveys can be used to quickly collect data at scale.

Surveys are used for conducting primary research in both quantitative and qualitative research . The structure of survey questions provide data that can be measured quantitatively, while open-ended survey responses require qualitative data analysis .

Experiments

While the above methods emphasize or are involved with naturalistic inquiry, experiments are a different form of primary research that is far more controlled. When you want to understand the relationship between various elements in a certain context (e.g., the effect of water and fertilizer on plant growth), a controlled experiment is a typical research approach to empirically establish scientific knowledge.

Experiments focus on a specific set of factors from the research phenomenon to understand causal relationships between variables. Experiments are a common primary research method in physical sciences, but they are also extensively used in psychology, education, and political science, among other areas.

The decision to conduct a primary or secondary study is a question of whether existing data is sufficient to satisfy the research inquiry at hand. Where data does not exist, primary research should be conducted.

Consider an example research study regarding ideal teaching methods in elementary school contexts in a developing country in Asia. Just because there is abundant data on the same topic in elementary schools in Western countries does not preclude the possibility of novel theoretical developments in schools in Asia. This becomes particularly important if insights based on existing data from other contexts may not be applicable to the present context.

Note that this does not mean that a secondary research study is any less novel than a primary study. Indeed, many fields and methodologies rely extensively on analyzing existing data. For example, studies that employ discourse analysis and content analysis typically (though not always) rely on existing sources of data to facilitate understanding of language use in real-world situations.

As a result, the choice between primary and secondary research can be seen as more of a practical consideration than a matter of a study's potential contribution to scientific knowledge. Novelty in research is as much about the data collection as it is about the resulting analysis. If you require data for your study where none exists, then data from primary research is your best option.

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Primary Research

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Primary research or a primary study refers to a research article that is an author’s original research that is almost always published in a peer-reviewed journal. A primary study reports on the details, methods and results of a research study. These articles often have a standard structure of a format called IMRAD, referring to sections of an article: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion. Primary research studies will start with a review of the previous literature, however, the rest of the article will focus on the authors’ original research. Literature reviews can be published in peer-reviewed journals, however, they are not primary research.

Primary studies are part of primary sources but should not be mistaken for primary documents. Primary documents are usually original sources such as a letter, a diary, a speech or an autobiography. They are a first person view of an event or a period. Typically, if you are a Humanities major, you will be asked to find primary documents for your paper however, if you are in Social Sciences or the Sciences you are most likely going to be asked to find primary research studies. If you are unsure, ask your professor or a librarian for help.

A primary research or study is an empirical research that is published in peer-reviewed journals. Some ways of recognizing whether an article is a primary research article when searching a database:

1. The abstract includes a research question or a hypothesis, methods and results.

2. Studies can have tables and charts representing data findings.

3. The article includes a section for "methods” or “methodology” and "results".

4. Discussion section indicates findings and discusses limitations of the research study, and suggests further research.

5. Check the reference section because it will refer you to the studies and works that were consulted. You can use this section to find other studies on that particular topic.

The following are not to be confused with primary research articles:

- Literature reviews

- Meta-analyses or systematic reviews (these studies make conclusions based on research on many other studies)

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Primary Research

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Note: This page offers a brief primer on primary research. For more information, see our dedicated set of pages on this topic .

Research isn't limited to finding published material on the Internet or at the library. Many topics you choose to write on may not already have been covered by an abundance of sources and hence may require a different kind of approach to conducting research. This approach involves collecting information directly from the world around you and can include interviews, observations, surveys, and experiments. These strategies are collectively called primary research.

For example, if you are writing about a problem specific to your school or local community, you may need to conduct primary research. You may be able to find secondary sources (such as those found at the library or online) on the more general topic you are pursuing, but may not find specifics on your school or town. To supplement this lack of sources, you can collect data on your own.

For example, Briel wants to research a proposed smoking ban in public establishments in Lafayette, Indiana. Briel begins by going to the library and then searching online. She finds information related to smoking bans in other cities around the United States, but only a few limited articles from the local newspaper on the ban proposed in Lafayette. To supplement this information, she decides to survey twenty local residents to learn what they think of the proposed smoking ban. She also decides to interview two local business owners to learn how they think the ban may affect their businesses. Finally, Briel attends and observes a town hall meeting where the potential ban is discussed.

Many different types of primary research exist. Some common types used in writing classes and beyond include:

Interviews: A conversation between two or more people in which one person (the interviewer) asks a series of questions to another person or persons (the interviewee). See also our page on interviewing .
Surveys and questionnaires: A process of gathering specific information from people in a systematic way with a set series of questions. Survey questions usually have pre-specified or short responses. See also our introduction to writing surveys .
Observations: Careful viewing and documenting of the world around you. See also our page on performing observations .

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primary research

Quick reference.

Techniques of original data collection or research direct from the target respondents. Primary research is different from secondary research in that secondary research uses data or research that has already been collected. Primary research includes qualitative and quantitative research and can include surveys, focus groups, questionnaires, and interviews. Since primary research typically takes anywhere from weeks to months to gather and is very expensive, secondary sources are typically exhausted first before any primary research is conducted.

From: primary research in A Dictionary of Marketing »

Subjects: Social sciences — Business and Management

Understanding research and critical appraisal

Introduction
Secondary research

What is primary research?

Quantitative research study designs, qualitative research study designs, mixed methods research study designs.

Critical appraisal of research papers
Useful terminology
Further reading and helpful resources

Primary research articles provide a report of individual, original research studies, which constitute the majority of articles published in peer-reviewed journals. All primary research studies are conducted according to a specified methodology, which will be partly determined by the aims and objectives of the research.

The following sections offer brief summaries of some of the common quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods study designs you may encounter.

Randomised Controlled Trial

A randomised controlled trial (RCT) is a study where participants are randomly allocated to two or more groups. One group receives the treatment that is being tested by the study (treatment or experimental group), and the other group(s) receive an alternative, which is often the current standard treatment or a placebo (control or comparison group). The nature of the control used should always be specified.

An RCT is a good study choice for determining the effectiveness of an intervention or treatment, or for comparing the relative effectiveness of different interventions or treatments. If well implemented, the randomisation of participants in RCTs should ensure that the groups differ only in their exposure to treatment, and that differences in outcomes between the groups are probably attributable to the treatment being studied.

In crossover randomised controlled trials, participants receive all of the treatments and controls being tested in a random order. This means that participants receive one treatment, the effect of which is measured, and then "cross over" into the other treatment group, where the effect of the second treatment (or control) is measured.

RCTs are generally considered to be the most rigorous experimental study design, as the randomisation of participants helps to minimise confounding and other sources of bias.

Cohort study

A cohort study identifies a group of people and follows them over a period of time to see who develops the outcome of interest to the study. This type of study is normally used to look at the effect of suspected risk factors that cannot be controlled experimentally – for example, the effect of smoking on lung cancer.

Also sometimes called longitudinal studies, cohort studies can be either prospective, that is, exposure factors are identified at the beginning of a study and the study population is followed into the future, or retrospective, that is, medical records for the study population are used to identify past exposure factors.

Cohort studies are useful in answering questions about disease causation or progression, or studying the effects of harmful exposures.

Cohort studies are generally considered to be the most reliable observational study design. They are not as reliable as RCTs, as the study groups may differ in ways other than the variable being studied.

Other problems with cohort studies are that they require a large sample size, are inefficient for rare outcomes, and can take long periods of time.

Case-Control Study

A case-control study compares a group of people with a disease or condition, against a control population without the disease or condition, in order to investigate the causes of particular outcomes. The study looks back at the two groups over time to see which risk factors for the disease or condition they have been exposed to.

Case-control studies can be useful in identifying which risk factors may predict a disease, or how a disease progresses over time. They can be especially useful for investigating the causes of rare outcomes.

Case-control studies can be done quickly, and do not require large groups of subjects. However, their reliance on retrospective data which may be incomplete or unreliable (owing to subject ability to accurately recall information such as the appearance of a symptom) can be a difficulty.

Cross-Sectional Study

A cross-sectional study collects data from the study population at one point in time, and considers the relationships between characteristics. Also sometimes called surveys or prevalence studies.

Cross-sectional studies are generally used to study the prevalence of a risk factor, disease or outcome in a chosen population.

Because cross-sectional studies do not look at trends or changes over time, they cannot establish cause and effect between exposures and outcomes.

Case Series / Case Reports

A case series is a descriptive study of a group of people, who have either received the same treatment or have the same disease, in order to identify characteristics or outcomes in a particular group of people.

Case series are useful for studying rare diseases or adverse outcomes, for illustrating particular aspects of a condition, identifying treatment approaches, and for generating hypotheses for further study.

A case report provides a study of an individual, rather than a group.

Case series and case reports have no comparative control groups, and are prone to bias and chance association.

Expert opinion

Expert opinion draws upon the clinical experience and recommendations of those with established expertise on a topic.

Grounded theory

Grounded theory studies aim to generate theory in order to explain social processes, interactions or issues. This explanatory theory is grounded in, and generated from, the research participant data collected.

Research data typically takes the form of interviews, observations or documents. Data is analysed as it is collected, and is coded and organised into categories which inform the further collection of data, and the construction of theory. This cycle helps to refine the theory, which evolves as more data is gathered.

Phenomenology

A phenomenological study aims to describe the meaning(s) of the lived experience of a phenomenon. Research participants will have some common experience of the phenomenon under examination, but will differ in their precise individual experience, and in other personal or social characteristics.

Research data is typically in the form of observations, interviews or written records, and its analysis sets out to identify common themes in the participants' experience, while also highlighting variations and unique themes.

Ethnography

Ethnography is the study of a specific culture or cultural group, where the researcher seeks an insider perspective by placing themselves as a participant observer within the group under study.

Data is typically formed of observations, interviews and conversation. Ethnography aims to offer direct insight into the lives and the experiences of the group or the culture under study, examining its beliefs, values, practices and behaviours.

A case study offers a detailed description of the experience of an individual, a family, a community or an organisation, often with the aim of highlighting a particular issue. Research data may include documents, interviews and observations.

Content analysis

Content analysis is used to explore the occurrence, meanings and relationships of words, themes or concepts within a set of textual data. Research data might be drawn from any type of written document(s). Data is coded and categorised, with the aim of revealing and examining the patterns and the intentions of language use within the data set.

Narrative inquiry

A narrative inquiry offers in depth detail of a situation or experience from the perspective of an individual or small groups. Research data usually consists of interviews or recordings, which is presented as a structured, chronological narrative. Narrative inquiry studies often seek to give voice to individuals or populations whose perspective is less well established, or not commonly sought.

Action research

Action research is a form of research, commonly used with groups, where the participants take a more active, collaborative role in producing the research. Studies incorporate the lived experiences of the individuals, groups or communities under study, drawing on data which might include observation, interviews, questionnaires or workshops.

Action research is generally aimed at changing or improving a particular context, or a specific practice, alongside the generation of theory.

Explanatory sequential design

In an explanatory sequential study, emphasis is given to the collection and analysis of quantitative data, which occurs during the first phase of the study. The results of this quantitative phase inform the subsequent collection of qualitative data in the next phase.

Analysis of the resultant qualitative data is then used to 'explain' the quantitative results, usually serving to contextualise these, or to otherwise enhance or enrich the initial findings.

Exploratory sequential design

In an exploratory sequential study, the opposite sequence to that outlined above is used. In this case, qualitative data is emphasised, with this being collected and analysed during the first phase of the study. The results of this qualitative phase inform the subsequent collection of quantitative data in the next phase.

The quantitative data can then be used to define or to generalise the qualitative results, or to test these results on the basis of theory emerging from the initial findings.

Convergent design

In a convergent study, qualitative and quantitative data sets are collected and analysed simultaneously and independently of one another.

Results from analysis of both sets of data are brought together to provide one overall interpretation; this combination of data types can be handled in various ways, but the objective is always to provide a fuller understanding of the phenomena under study. Equal emphasis is given to both qualitative and quantitative data in a convergent study.

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Research Methods

Primary research, what is primary research, secondary literature search, what is a primary source, interpreting primary sources, digital or original, databases of digitised primary sources available from teesside university library, ethics and privacy, referencing primary sources, useful resources, using material on this page.

Secondary Research
Quantitative Research This link opens in a new window
Qualitative Research This link opens in a new window
Being Critical This link opens in a new window
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Primary research is defined as the collation and analysis of original data that has not been gathered before. This differs from secondary research that is considered as the result of the study of research and sources which has been subject to academic enquiry. A more detailed explanation of the distinction between these fields of research is below:

“Primary research generally refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific to that particular research project, for example through using research methods such as questionnaires or interviews. Secondary research refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the research project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data … Most research projects will contain an element of secondary research in establishing and evaluating the types of data that have been collected in previous projects in the area as part of the literature review.” ( Gratton and Jones, 2010, p.8).

Carrying out primary research may be a requisite for your assessment. For postgraduates and researchers, it is a keystone of their work. Many students relish getting to grips with raw data, handling unread primary sources and making an original contribution to academic knowledge. Studying and analysing primary sources heighten critical thinking abilities and empowers independent learning.

Before carrying out any form of primary research it is vital to understand and appreciate the nature of your enquiry by carrying out a thorough review of the secondary literature in order to:

inform and direct primary research more effectively
use both primary and secondary sources in your writing to demonstrate command of your subject, theories and terminology
broaden and deepen your knowledge and appreciation of the research field
demonstrate where your research sits within existing work
signpost areas of research requiring further inquiry, gaps in knowledge, potential counter arguments to develop, alternative research methodologies, and raw data or archival sources for revaluating
undertake 'citation surfing' - follow up references and bibliographies of secondary sources to record the location and reference of primary sources used in the analysis in addition to identify additional secondary sources to read - see our support guide for finding more research here

Extensive advice and guidance for carrying out a literature search if available here

Primary sources are 'the basic raw material for study' (Mabbett, 2007, p. 34) and may be defined as ‘sources which came into existence within the period being instigated’ (Marwick, 2001, p. 26). This could be 1.000 years ago, or the present day, so could include medieval manuscripts for a historian, the results of laboratory tests for a health researcher or for the social scientist, focus groups and surveys. This ‘raw material’ then forms the basis of their studies.

There is an immense variety what can be considered as primary sources, as the examples below indicate. These can vary depending upon the discipline or context.

Personal sources – diaries, correspondence, personal journals and papers, autobiographies and memoirs, speeches
Surveys and reports – royal commissions, tax inspections, questionnaires
‘Official’ records – minutes, annual reports, accounts, church records, government records laws, parliamentary papers, parish registers, business records, census returns, birth certificates, patents
Media – newspapers, cartoons, films, video recordings, advertisements, speeches
Artistic sources – works of fiction, plays, poetry, sculpture, music, works of art, photographs
Material culture and artefacts – coins, clothes, architectures, archaeological finds, furniture
Oral recordings – interviews, recorded records, ‘oral history’, speeches, radio programmes, focus groups
Geographical records – place names, maps, satellite images
Observations – recording observed behaviour and occurrences

This is by no means an exhaustive list. There are also overlaps with secondary sources, for example, historiography written in the nineteenth century might now be considered a primary source as it tells us much about the mindset and belief of a nineteenth century individual.

Primary sources allow us to make connections to our own ideas and develop individual interpretations. When assessing a primary source, it is important to be remain critical of the source, retain an open mind and consider its intended audience. Being critical is a key academic skill, we've lots of help and information here .

When assessing a primary source, ask yourself the question, where and when and why is who is saying what to whom ? Primary sources are, in the most part, subjective and remain an individual’s interpretation of an event or activity. Primary sources may

not always be truly accurate.
have been produced with an intended audience in mind. Newspapers produce content for ‘their’ readers.
have been created for profit or commission and therefore be subject to what the customer wants rather than a true representation. A piece of artwork may be subject to ‘artistic licence’.
have been written to remain private – a diary or personal papers. Anne Frank’s diary was not intended to be read by a global audience or presented as an account of the Holocaust.
be fake. Even the most distinguished scholars have been fooled. In the 1980s, sixty volumes of (forged) journals purportedly written by Adolf Hitler were initially declared genuine by the respected historian Hugh-Trevor Roper (Steers and Nickell, 2013). That said, the fake diaries are themselves now considered primary sources as ‘news media’ documents of the past.

To access primary sources, previous generations of scholars would have trawled archives and libraries to examine documents. This ‘hands on’ approach is still recommended but can now be complemented with the vast number of primary sources available through online databases, which has its advantages:

Searchable, saveable, and printable sources from your desktop
Savings of time and expenses
Preservation of original documents
May be easier to read
Easier to create statistical data

As with ‘original’ sources, it is important to bear in mind the subjectivity of the source, but also evaluate the digital platforms and the providence of the source – can the original be located? There are also additional caveats when using digital sources:

The search strategy requires careful planning of keywords and dates
Manging results through saving
The context of the source may be lost. For example, other documents within the collection or publication may be overlooked if the search terms are too narrow.

The Library subscribes to a wide range of databases that offer a vast range of digitised primary sources. These include historic newspaper and periodical titles including The Times , art and architecture archives, full text digital versions of British and European books, tracts and pamphlets from the medieval age to the nineteenth century, British cartoons spanning 200 years, historic maps, images from the British Museum, and state and parliamentary papers.

We also provide digital access to a range of more specialist primary sources, these include news videos from Northern Ireland, Church of England records, women’s letters and diaries, radio and television archives, collections of notable individual’s own archives, trial accounts from the Old Bailey criminal court and much more.

To more information, including accessibility, of our digitised primary sources, go to Finding Digital Media, Newspapers, Official Documents & Statistics

Using primary source material brings with it responsibility and the question of ethics and research integrity. If you are embarking on a dissertation project, an ethics form may be a requirement of this exercise. You should also consult your tutor or academic school with regards to the University's ethics and integrity assurance if you are in any doubt.

Permission to use primary sources does not mean you have permission to use them in your work.

You must have explicit consent to consult primary data and to then use it for academic purposes. This is especially important if it is of a ‘sensitive’ nature, for example, surveys, commercial and medical data, interviews and family records.
Permission must be received from the people you will be studying in order to conduct research involving them.
Consider whether it might be appropriate to anonymise your findings and consult those involved in your study.
Be sensitive to others and carefully word interview or survey questions.

It is important to obtain authorisation and adhere to any copyright regulations when using primary sources, especially regarding copying documents, images, and data for both initial research consultation and then reproduction in written work. Archives and libraries will advise on this, as will the terms and conditions of digital databases. We also offer copyright guidance.

All primary sources used in academic writing must be fully referenced to ensure their veracity, to allow a reader to easily differentiate between primary and secondary sources in the writing and for others to locate source materials easily. If you read about a primary source in a secondary source and wish to use it, you should try to locate the primary source to check the context and data. To reference a primary source, follow the referencing guidelines for your subject area. Referencing primary sources can be tricky, especially if they are archival resources, if you need help, the Learning Hub is here for you.

Primary source historical documents and records are collated and stored in archives, where they may be accessed for research purposes. The range of archival resources vary immensely and can include just a specific set of documents or a vast range of records. The National Archives , the official archive for the UK Government, stores over 11million government and public records, that include Domesday Book to tweets from Downing Street.

Visiting archives

Before visiting

check the online catalogue – some resources may not be available if they are too fragile, for example
confirm if resources require pre-ordering and an appointment is required
find out If a visitor’s pass is needed. The British Library , for example, require researchers to apply for a Reader Pass
check online databases for digital formats, for example, nineteenth-century periodicals via our 19th Century UK Periodicals database
confirm arrangements for copying records. Some sites allow digital cameras and photocopying, others, such as the British Library, require researchers to order copies for a small charge.

When you research in an archive, please respect their procedures for researchers. Many sites request users only use pencils for note-making and that bags, coats and drinks are not taken into study rooms.

Notable archives and record offices

Teesside Archives – located i n the Dorman Museum, Middlesbrough. Historical records of Middlesbrough and surrounding areas https://teessidearchives.wordpress.com/

North Yorkshire County Record Office – historic records of North Yorkshire https://www.northyorks.gov.uk/county-record-office

Durham County Record Office - local authority archive service for County Durham and Darlington https://durhamrecordoffice.org.uk/

Many more local and national archives can be located using the National Archives discovery search tool https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/find-an-archive

Click on the image below to access the reading list which includes resources used in this guide as well as some additional useful resources.

Link to online reading list of additional resources and further reading

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License .

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Last Updated: Jul 9, 2024 12:18 PM
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Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews

Primary Research: Definitions and Overview

How research is defined varies widely from field to field, and as you progress through your college career, your coursework will teach you much more about what it means to be a researcher within your field.* For example, engineers, who focus on applying scientific knowledge to develop designs, processes, and objects, conduct research using simulations, mathematical models, and a variety of tests to see how well their designs work. Sociologists conduct research using surveys, interviews, observations, and statistical analysis to better understand people, societies, and cultures. Graphic designers conduct research through locating images for reference for their artwork and engaging in background research on clients and companies to best serve their needs. Historians conduct research by examining archival materials—newspapers, journals, letters, and other surviving texts—and through conducting oral history interviews. Research is not limited to what has already been written or found at the library, also known as secondary research. Rather, individuals conducting research are producing the articles and reports found in a library database or in a book. Primary research, the focus of this essay, is research that is collected firsthand rather than found in a book, database, or journal.

Primary research is often based on principles of the scientific method, a theory of investigation first developed by John Stuart Mill in the nineteenth century in his book Philosophy of the Scientific Method . Although the application of the scientific method varies from field to field, the general principles of the scientific method allow researchers to learn more about the world and observable phenomena. Using the scientific method, researchers develop research questions or hypotheses and collect data on events, objects, or people that is measurable, observable, and replicable. The ultimate goal in conducting primary research is to learn about something new that can be confirmed by others and to eliminate our own biases in the process.

Essay Overview and Student Examples

The essay begins by providing an overview of ethical considerations when conducting primary research, and then covers the stages that you will go through in your primary research: planning, collecting, analyzing, and writing. After the four stages comes an introduction to three common ways of conducting primary research in first year writing classes:

Observations . Observing and measuring the world around you, including observations of people and other measurable events.

Interviews . Asking participants questions in a one-on-one or small group setting.

Surveys . Asking participants about their opinions and behaviors through a short questionnaire.

In addition, we will be examining two student projects that used substantial portions of primary research:

Derek Laan, a nutrition major at Purdue University, wanted to learn more about student eating habits on campus. His primary re-search included observations of the campus food courts, student behavior while in the food courts, and a survey of students’ daily food intake. His secondary research included looking at national student eating trends on college campuses, information from the United States Food and Drug Administration, and books on healthy eating.

Jared Schwab, an agricultural and biological engineering major at Purdue, was interested in learning more about how writing and communication took place in his field. His primary research included interviewing a professional engineer and a student who was a senior majoring in engineering. His secondary research included examining journals, books, professional organizations, and writing guides within the field of engineering.

Ethics of Primary Research

Both projects listed above included primary research on human participants; therefore, Derek and Jared both had to consider research ethics throughout their primary research process. As Earl Babbie writes in The Practice of Social Research , throughout the early and middle parts of the twentieth century researchers took advantage of participants and treated them unethically. During World War II, Nazi doctors performed heinous experiments on prisoners without their consent, while in the U.S., a number of medical and psychological experiments on caused patients undue mental and physical trauma and, in some cases, death. Because of these and other similar events, many nations have established ethical laws and guidelines for researchers who work with human participants. In the United States, the guidelines for the ethical treatment of human research participants are described in The Belmont Report , released in 1979. Today, universities have Institutional Review Boards (or IRBs) that oversee research. Students conducting research as part of a class may not need permission from the university’s IRB, although they still need to ensure that they follow ethical guidelines in research. The following provides a brief overview of ethical considerations:

Voluntary participation . The Belmont Report suggests that, in most cases, you need to get permission from people before you involve them in any primary research you are conducting. If you are doing a survey or interview, your participants must first agree to fill out your survey or to be interviewed. Consent for observations can be more complicated, and is dis-cussed later in the essay.

Confidentiality and anonymity . Your participants may reveal embarrassing or potentially damaging information such as racist comments or unconventional behavior. In these cases, you should keep your participants’ identities anonymous when writing your results. An easy way to do this is to create a “pseudonym” (or false name) for them so that their identity is protected.

Researcher bias . There is little point in collecting data and learning about something if you already think you know the answer! Bias might be present in the way you ask questions, the way you take notes, or the conclusions you draw from the data you collect.

The above are only three of many considerations when involving human participants in your primary research. For a complete under-standing of ethical considerations please refer to The Belmont Report .

Now that we have considered the ethical implications of research, we will examine how to formulate research questions and plan your primary research project.

Planning Your Primary Research Project

The primary research process is quite similar to the writing process, and you can draw upon your knowledge of the writing process to understand the steps involved in a primary research project. Just like in the writing process, a successful primary research project begins with careful planning and background research. This section first describes how to create a research timeline to help plan your research. It then walks you through the planning stages by examining when primary research is useful or appropriate for your first year composition course, narrowing down a topic, and developing research questions.

The Research Timeline

When you begin to conduct any kind of primary research, creating a timeline will help keep you on task. Because students conducting primary research usually focus on the collection of data itself, they often overlook the equally important areas of planning (invention), analyzing data, and writing. To help manage your time, you should create a research timeline, such as the sample timeline presented here.

The Research Process: The Invention stage, which includes background (library) research, narrowing topic and crafting research question, creating a research timeline, and creating materials, The Data Collection stage, including choosing a location and/or participants for interviews, and collecting data, and The Drafting and Revision Stage, including organizing and transcribing data, analyzing data, drafting results, and revision. Ethical considerations impact all stages

When Primary Research Is Useful or Appropriate

In Evaluating Scientific Research: Separating Fact from Fiction , Fred Leavitt explains that primary research is useful for questions that can be answered through asking others and direct observation. For first year writing courses, primary research is particularly useful when you want to learn about a problem that does not have a wealth of published information. This may be because the problem is a recent event or it is something not commonly studied. For example, if you are writing a paper on a new political issue, such as changes in tax laws or healthcare, you might not be able to find a wealth of peer-reviewed research because the issue is only several weeks old. You may find it necessary to collect some of your own data on the issue to supplement what you found at the library. Primary research is also useful when you are studying a local problem or learning how a larger issue plays out at the local level. Although you might be able to find information on national statistics for healthy eating, whether or not those statistics are representative of your college campus is something that you can learn through primary research.

However, not all research questions and topics are appropriate for primary research. As Fred Leavitt writes, questions of an ethical, philosophical, or metaphysical nature are not appropriate because these questions are not testable or observable. For example, the question “Does an afterlife exist?” is not a question that can be answered with primary research. However, the question “How many people in my community believe in an afterlife?” is something that primary research can answer.

Narrowing Your Topic

Just like the writing process, you should start your primary research process with secondary (library) research to learn more about what is already known and what gaps you need to fill with your own data. As you learn more about the topic, you can narrow down your interest area and eventually develop a research question or hypothesis, just as you would with a secondary research paper.

Developing Research Questions or Hypotheses

As John Stuart Mill describes, primary research can use both inductive and deductive approaches, and the type approach is usually based on the field of inquiry. Some fields use deductive reasoning , where researchers start with a hypothesis or general conclusion and then collect specific data to support or refute their hypothesis. Other fields use inductive reasoning , where researchers start with a question and collect information that eventually leads to a conclusion.

Once you have spent some time reviewing the secondary research on your topic, you are ready to write a primary research question or hypothesis. A research question or hypothesis should be something that is specific, narrow, and discoverable through primary research methods. Just like a thesis statement for a paper, if your research question or hypothesis is too broad, your research will be unfocused and your data will be difficult to analyze and write about. Here is a set of sample research questions:

Poor Research Question : What do college students think of politics and the economy?

Revised Research Question : What do students at Purdue University believe about the current economic crisis in terms of economic recoverability?

The poor research question is unspecific as to what group of students the researcher is interested in—i.e. students in the U.S.? In a particular state? At their university? The poor research question was also too broad; terms like “politics” and the “economy” cover too much ground for a single project. The revised question narrows down the topic to students at a particular university and focuses on a specific issue related to the economy: economic recoverability. The research question could also be rephrased as a testable hypothesis using deductive reasoning: “Purdue University college students are well informed about economic recoverability plans.” Because they were approaching their projects in an exploratory, inductive manner, both Derek and Jared chose to ask research questions:

Derek: Are students’ eating habits at Purdue University healthy or unhealthy? What are the causes of students’ eating behavior?

Jared: What are the major features of writing and communication in agricultural and biological engineering? What are the major controversies?

A final step in working with a research question or hypothesis is determining what key terms you are using and how you will define them. Before conducting his research, Derek had to define the terms “healthy” and “unhealthy”; for this, he used the USDA’s Food Pyramid as a guide. Similarly, part of what Jared focused on in his interviews was learning more about how agricultural and biological engineers defined terms like “writing” and “communication.” Derek and Jared thought carefully about the terms within their research questions and how these terms might be measured.

Choosing a Data Collection Method

Once you have formulated a research question or hypothesis, you will need to make decisions about what kind of data you can collect that will best address your research topic. Derek chose to examine eating habits by observing both what students ate at lunch and surveying students about eating behavior. Jared decided that in-depth interviews with experienced individuals in his field would provide him with the best information.

To choose a data collection method for your research question, read through the next sections on observations, interviews, and surveys.

Observations

Observations have lead to some of the most important scientific discoveries in human history. Charles Darwin used observations of the animal and marine life at the Galapagos Islands to help him formulate his theory of evolution that he describes in On the Origin of Species . Today, social scientists, natural scientists, engineers, computer scientists, educational researchers, and many others use observations as a primary research method.

Observations can be conducted on nearly any subject matter, and the kinds of observations you will do depend on your research question. You might observe traffic or parking patterns on campus to get a sense of what improvements could be made. You might observe clouds, plants, or other natural phenomena. If you choose to observe people, you will have several additional considerations including the manner in which you will observe them and gain their consent.

If you are observing people, you can choose between two common ways to observe: participant observation and unobtrusive observation. Participant observation is a common method within ethnographic research in sociology and anthropology. In this kind of observation, a researcher may interact with participants and become part of their community. Margaret Mead, a famous anthropologist, spent extended periods of time living in, and interacting with, communities that she studied. Conversely, in unobtrusive observation, you do not interact with participants but rather simply record their behavior. Although in most circumstances people must volunteer to be participants in research, in some cases it is acceptable to not let participants know you are observing them. In places that people perceive as public, such as a campus food court or a shopping mall, people do not expect privacy, and so it is generally acceptable to observe without participant consent. In places that people perceive as private, which can include a church, home, classroom, or even an intimate conversation at a restaurant, participant consent should be sought.

The second issue about participant consent in terms of unobtrusive observation is whether or not getting consent is feasible for the study. If you are observing people in a busy airport, bus station, or campus food court, getting participant consent may be next to impossible. In Derek’s study of student eating habits on campus, he went to the campus food courts during meal times and observed students purchasing food. Obtaining participant consent for his observations would have been next to impossible because hundreds of students were coming through the food court during meal times. Since Derek’s research was in a place that participants would perceive as public, it was not practical to get their consent, and since his data was anonymous, he did not violate their privacy.

Eliminating Bias in Your Observation Notes

The ethical concern of being unbiased is important in recording your observations. You need to be aware of the difference between an observation (recording exactly what you see) and an interpretation (making assumptions and judgments about what you see). When you observe, you should focus first on only the events that are directly observable. Consider the following two example entries in an observation log:

The student sitting in the dining hall enjoys his greasy, oil-soaked pizza. He is clearly oblivious of the calorie content and damage it may do to his body.
The student sits in the dining hall. As he eats his piece of pizza, which drips oil, he says to a friend, “This pizza is good.”

The first entry is biased and demonstrates judgment about the event. First, the observer makes assumptions about the internal state of the student when she writes “enjoys” and “clearly oblivious to the calorie content.” From an observer’s standpoint, there is no way of ascertaining what the student may or may not know about pizza’s nutritional value nor how much the student enjoys the pizza. The second entry provides only the details and facts that are observable.

To avoid bias in your observations, you can use something called a “double-entry notebook.” This is a type of observation log that encourages you to separate your observations (the facts) from your feelings and judgments about the facts.

Observations Thoughts
The student sits in the dining hall. As he eats his piece of pizza, which drips oil, he says to a friend, "this pizza is good." It seems like the student really enjoys the high-calorie-content pizza.
I observed cash register #1 for 15 minutes. During that time, 22 students paid for meals. Of those 22 students, 15 grabbed a candy bar or granola bar. 3 of the 22 students had a piece of fruit on their plate Fruit is less accessible than candy bars (it is further back in the dining court). Is this why more students are reaching for candy bars?

Figure 3: Two sample entries from a double-entry notebook.

Observations are only one strategy in collecting primary research. You may also want to ask people directly about their behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes—and for this you will need to use surveys or interviews.

Surveys and Interviews: Question Creation

Sometimes it is very difficult for a researcher to gain all of the necessary information through observations alone. Along with his observations of the dining halls, Derek wanted to know what students ate in a typical day, and so he used a survey to have them keep track of their eating habits. Likewise, Jared wanted to learn about writing and communication in engineering and decided to draw upon expert knowledge by asking experienced individuals within the field.

Interviews and surveys are two ways that you can gather information about people’s beliefs or behaviors. With these methods, the information you collect is not first-hand (like an observation) but rather “self-reported” data, or data collected in an indirect manner. William Shadish, Thomas Cook, and Donald Campbell argued that people are inherently biased about how they see the world and may report their own actions in a more favorable way than they may actually behave. Despite the issues in self-reported data, surveys and interviews are an excellent way to gather data for your primary research project.

Survey or Interview?

How do you choose between conducting a survey or an interview? It depends on what kind of information you are looking for. You should use surveys if you want to learn about a general trend in people’s opinions, experiences, and behavior. Surveys are particularly useful to find small amounts of information from a wider selection of people in the hopes of making a general claim. Interviews are best used when you want to learn detailed information from a few specific people. Interviews are also particularly useful if you want to interview experts about their opinions, as Jared did. In sum, use interviews to gain de-tails from a few people, and surveys to learn general patterns from many people.

Writing Good Questions

One of the greatest challenges in conducting surveys and interviews is writing good questions. As a researcher, you are always trying to eliminate bias, and the questions you ask need to be unbiased and clear. Here are some suggestions on writing good questions:

Ask about One Thing at a Time

A poorly written question can contain multiple questions, which can confuse participants or lead them to answer only part of the question you are asking. This is called a “double-barreled question” in journalism. The following questions are taken from Jared’s research:

Poor question: What kinds of problems are being faced in the field today and where do you see the search for solutions to these problems going?

Revised question #1: What kinds of problems are being faced in the field today?

Revised question #2: Where do you see the search for solutions to these problems going?

Avoid Leading Questions

A leading question is one where you prompt the participant to respond in a particular way, which can create bias in the answers given:

Leading question: The economy is clearly in a crisis, wouldn’t you agree?

Revised question: Do you believe the economy is currently in a crisis? Why or why not?

Understand When to Use Open and Closed Questions

Closed questions, or questions that have yes/no or other limited responses, should be used in surveys. However, avoid these kinds of questions in interviews because they discourage the interviewee from going into depth. The question sample above, “Do you believe the economy currently is in a crisis?” could be answered with a simple yes or no, which could keep a participant from talking more about the issue. The “why or why not?” portion of the question asks the participant to elaborate. On a survey, the question “Do you believe the economy currently is in a crisis?” is a useful question because you can easily count the number of yes and no answers and make a general claim about participant responses.

Write Clear Questions

When you write questions, make sure they are clear, concise, and to the point. Questions that are too long, use unfamiliar vocabulary, or are unclear may confuse participants and you will not get quality responses.

Now that question creation has been addressed, we will next examine specific considerations for interviews and surveys.

Interviews, or question and answer sessions with one or more people, are an excellent way to learn in-depth information from a person for your primary research project. This section presents information on how to conduct a successful interview, including choosing the right person, ways of interviewing, recording your interview, interview locations, and transcribing your interview.

Choosing the Right Person

One of the keys to a successful interview is choosing the right person to interview. Think about whom you would like to interview and whom you might know. Do not be afraid to ask people you do not know for interviews. When asking, simply tell them what the interview will be about, what the interview is for, and how much time it will take. Jared used his Purdue University connection to locate both of the individuals that he ended up interviewing—an advanced Purdue student and a Purdue alum working in an Engineering firm.

Face-to-Face and Virtual Interviews

When interviewing, you have a choice of conducting a traditional, face-to-face interview or an interview using technology over the Internet. Face-to-face interviews have the strength that you can ask follow-up questions and use non-verbal communication to your advantage. Individuals are able to say much more in a face-to-face interview than in an email, so you will get more information from a face-to-face interview. However, the Internet provides a host of new possibilities when it comes to interviewing people at a distance. You may choose to do an email interview, where you send questions and ask the person to respond. You may also choose to use a video or audio conferencing program to talk with the person virtually. If you are choosing any Internet-based option, make sure you have a way of recording the interview. You may also use a chat or instant messaging program to interview your participant—the benefit of this is that you can ask follow-up questions during the interview and the interview is already transcribed for you. Because one of his interviewees lived several hours away, Jared chose to interview the Purdue student face-to-face and the Purdue alum via email.

Finding a Suitable Location

If you are conducting an in-person interview, it is essential that you find a quiet place for your interview. Many universities have quiet study rooms that can be reserved (often found in the university library). Do not try to interview someone in a coffee shop, dining hall, or other loud area, as it is difficult to focus and get a clear recording.

Recording Interviews

One way of eliminating bias in your research is to record your interviews rather than rely on your memory. Recording interviews allows you to directly quote the individual and re-read the interview when you are writing. It is recommended that you have two recording devices for the interview in case one recording device fails. Most computers, MP3 players, and even cell phones come with recording equipment built in. Many universities also offer equipment that students can check out and use, including computers and recorders. Before you record any interview, be sure that you have permission from your participant.

Transcribing Your Interview

Once your interview is over, you will need to transcribe your interview to prepare it for analysis. The term transcribing means creating a written record that is exactly what was said—i.e. typing up your interviews. If you have conducted an email or chat interview, you already have a transcription and can move on to your analysis stage.

Other than the fact that they both involve asking people questions, interviews and surveys are quite different data collection methods. Creating a survey may seem easy at first, but developing a quality survey can be quite challenging. When conducting a survey, you need to focus on the following areas: survey creation, survey testing, survey sampling, and distributing your survey.

Survey Creation: Length and Types of Questions

One of the keys to creating a successful survey is to keep your survey short and focused. Participants are unlikely to fill out a survey that is lengthy, and you’ll have a more difficult time during your analysis if your survey contains too many questions. In most cases, you want your survey to be something that can be filled out within a few minutes. The target length of the survey also depends on how you will distribute the survey. If you are giving your survey to other students in your dorm or classes, they will have more time to complete the survey. Therefore, five to ten minutes to complete the survey is reasonable. If you are asking students as they are walking to class to fill out your survey, keep it limited to several questions that can be answered in thirty seconds or less. Derek’s survey took about ten minutes and asked students to describe what they ate for a day, along with some demographic information like class level and gender.

Use closed questions to your advantage when creating your survey. A closed question is any set of questions that gives a limited amount of choices (yes/no, a 1–5 scale, choose the statement that best describes you). When creating closed questions, be sure that you are accounting for all reasonable answers in your question creation. For example, asking someone “Do you believe you eat healthy?” and providing them only “yes” and “no” options means that a “neutral” or “undecided” option does not exist, even though the survey respondent may not feel strongly either way. Therefore, on closed questions you may find it helpful to include an “other” category where participants can fill in an answer. It is also a good idea to have a few open-ended questions where participants can elaborate on certain points or earlier responses. How-ever, open-ended questions take much longer to fill out than closed questions.

Survey Creation: Testing Your Survey

To make sure your survey is an appropriate length and that your questions are clear, you can “pilot test” your survey. Prior to administering your survey on a larger scale, ask several classmates or friends to fill it out and give you feedback on the survey. Keep track of how long the survey takes to complete. Ask them if the questions are clear and make sense. Look at their answers to see if the answers match what you wanted to learn. You can revise your survey questions and the length of your survey as necessary.

Sampling and Access to Survey Populations

“Sampling” is a term used within survey research to describe the subset of people that are included in your study. Derek’s first research question was: “Are students’ eating habits at Purdue University healthy or unhealthy?” Because it was impossible for Derek to survey all 38,000 students on Purdue’s campus, he had to choose a representative sample of students. Derek chose to survey students who lived in the dorms because of the wide variety of student class levels and majors in the dorms and his easy access to this group. By making this choice, however, he did not account for commuter students, graduate students, or those who live off campus. As Derek’s case demonstrates, it is very challenging to get a truly representative sample.

Part of the reason that sampling is a challenge is that you may find difficulty in finding enough people to take your survey. In thinking about how get people to take your survey, consider both your everyday surroundings and also technological solutions. Derek had access to many students in the dorms, but he also considered surveying students in his classes in order to reach as many people as possible. Another possibility is to conduct an online survey. Online surveys greatly increase your access to different kinds of people from across the globe, but may decrease your chances of having a high survey response rate. An email or private message survey request is more likely to be ignored due to the impersonal quality and high volume of emails most people receive.

Analyzing and Writing About Primary Research

Once you collect primary research data, you will need to analyze what you have found so that you can write about it. The purpose of analyzing your data is to look at what you collected (survey responses, interview answers to questions, observations) and to create a cohesive, systematic interpretation to help answer your research question or examine the validity of your hypothesis.

When you are analyzing and presenting your findings, remember to work to eliminate bias by being truthful and as accurate as possible about what you found, even if it differs from what you expected to find. You should see your data as sources of information, just like sources you find in the library, and you should work to represent them accurately.

The following are suggestions for analyzing different types of data.

If you’ve counted anything you were observing, you can simply add up what you counted and report the results. If you’ve collected descriptions using a double-entry notebook, you might work to write thick descriptions of what you observed into your writing. This could include descriptions of the scene, behaviors you observed, and your overall conclusions about events. Be sure that your readers are clear on what were your actual observations versus your thoughts or interpretations of those observations.

If you’ve interviewed one or two people, then you can use your summary, paraphrasing, and quotation skills to help you accurately describe what was said in the interview. Just like in secondary research when working with sources, you should introduce your interviewees and choose clear and relevant quotes from the interviews to use in your writing. An easy way to find the important information in an interview is to print out your transcription and take a highlighter and mark the important parts that you might use in your paper. If you have conducted a large number of interviews, it will be helpful for you to create a spreadsheet of responses to each question and compare the responses, choosing representative answers for each area you want to describe.

Surveys can contain quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (written answers/descriptions) data. Quantitative data can be analyzed using a spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel to calculate the mean (average) answer or to calculate the percentage of people who responded in a certain way. You can display this information in a chart or a graph and also describe it in writing in your paper. If you have qualitative responses, you might choose to group them into categories and/or you may choose to quote several representative responses.

Writing about Primary Research

In formal research writing in a variety of fields, it is common for research to be presented in the following format: introduction/background; methods; results; discussions; conclusion. Not all first year writing classes will require such an organizational structure, although it is likely that you will be required to present many of these elements in your paper. Because of this, the next section examines each of these in depth.

Introduction (Review of Literature)

The purpose of an introduction and review of literature in a research paper is to provide readers with information that helps them under-stand the context, purpose, and relevancy of your research. The introduction is where you provide most of your background (library) research that you did earlier in the process. You can include articles, statistics, research studies, and quotes that are pertinent to the issues at hand. A second purpose in an introduction is to establish your own credibility (ethos) as a writer by showing that you have researched your topic thoroughly. This kind of background discussion is required in nearly every field of inquiry when presenting research in oral or written formats.

Derek provided information from the Food and Drug Administration on healthy eating and national statistics about eating habits as part of his background information. He also made the case for healthy eating on campus to show relevancy:

Currently Americans are more overweight than ever. This is coming at a huge cost to the economy and government. If current trends in increasing rates of overweight and obesity continue it is likely that this generation will be the first one to live shorter lives than their parents did. Looking at the habits of university students is a good way to see how a new generation behaves when they are living out on their own for the first time.

Describing What You Did (Methods)

When writing, you need to provide enough information to your readers about your primary research process for them to understand what you collected and how you collected it. In formal research papers, this is often called a methods section. Providing information on your study methods also adds to your credibility as a writer. For surveys, your methods would include describing who you surveyed, how many surveys you collected, decisions you made about your survey sample, and relevant demographic information about your participants (age, class level, major). For interviews, introduce whom you interviewed and any other relevant information about interviewees such as their career or expertise area. For observations, list the locations and times you observed and how you recorded your observations (i.e. double-entry notebook). For all data types, you should describe how you analyzed your data.

The following is a sample from Jared about his participants:

In order to gain a better understanding of the discourse community in environmental and resource engineering, I interviewed Anne Dare, a senior in environmental and natural resource engineering, and Alyson Keaton an alumnus of Purdue University. Alyson is a current employee of the Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), which is a division of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

Here is a sample from Derek’s methods section:

I conducted a survey so that I could find out what students at Purdue actually eat on a typical day. I handed out surveys asking students to record what they ate for a day . . . I received 29 back and averaged the results based on average number of servings from each food group on the old food guide pyramid. The group included students from the freshman to the graduate level and had 8 women and 21 men respond.

Describing Your Study Findings (Results)

In a formal research paper, the results section is where you describe what you found. The results section can include charts, graphs, lists, direct quotes, and overviews of findings. Readers find it helpful if you are able to provide the information in different formats. For example, if you have any kind of numbers or percentages, you can talk about them in your written description and then present a graph or chart showing them visually. You should provide specific details as supporting evidence to back up your findings. These details can be in the form of direct quotations, numbers, or observations.

Graphic from Derek's results section: a bar chart with an x axis indicating different food groups and a y axis measuring number of servings eaten by the average Purdue Student. Food groups include grains, vegetables, fruits, meat/protein, dairy, and other. The bars compare the servings consumed by the average male, the servings consumed by the average female, and the minimum number of servings recommended by the USDA. According to the chart, both males and females eat fewer servings of grain, fruit, and vegetables than the recommended amount. Males eat more servings of protein than recommended, while females eat the recommended amount. Both males and females consume slightly less than the recommended amount of dairy. Both males and females consume more than the recommended amount of food in the 'other' category.

Jared describes some of his interview results:

Alyson also mentioned the need for phone conversation. She stated, “The phone is a large part of my job. I am communicating with other NRCS offices daily to find out the status of our jobs.” She needs to be in constant contact in order to insure that everything is running smoothly. This is common with those overseeing projects. In these cases, the wait for a response to an email or a memo can be too long to be effective.

Interpreting What You Learned (Discussion)

In formal research papers, the discussion section presents your own interpretation of your results. This may include what you think the results mean or how they are useful to your larger argument. If you are making a proposal for change or a call to action, this is where you make it. For example, in Derek’s project about healthy eating on campus, Derek used his primary research on students’ unhealthy eating and observations of the food courts to argue that the campus food courts needed serious changes. Derek writes, “Make healthy food options the most accessible in every dining hall while making unhealthy foods the least. Put nutrition facts for everything that is served in the dining halls near the food so that students can make more informed decisions on what to eat.”

Jared used the individuals he interviewed as informants that helped him learn more about writing in agricultural and biological engineering. He integrated the interviews he conducted with secondary research to form a complete picture of writing and communication in agricultural and biological engineering. He concludes:

Writing takes so many forms, and it is important to know about all these forms in one way or another. The more forms of writing you can achieve, the more flexible you can be. This ability to be flexible can make all the difference in writing when you are dealing with a field as complex as engineering.

Primary Research and Works Cited or References Pages

The last part of presenting your primary research project is a works cited or references page. In general, since you are working with data you collected yourself, there is no source to cite an external source. Your methods section should describe in detail to the readers how and where the data presented was obtained. However, if you are working with interviews, you can cite these as “personal communication.” The MLA and APA handbooks both provide clear listings of how to cite personal communication in a works cited/references page.

This essay has presented an overview to three commonly used methods of primary research in first year writing courses: observations, interviews, and surveys. By using these methods, you can learn more about the world around you and craft meaningful written discussions of your findings.

Primary research techniques show up in more places than just first year writing courses. Where else might interviews, surveys, or observations be used? Where have you seen them used?
The chapter provides a brief discussion of the ethical considerations of research. Can you think of any additional ethical considerations when conducting primary research? Can you think of ethical considerations unique to your own research project?
Primary research is most useful for first year writing students if it is based in your local community or campus. What are some current issues on your campus or in your community that could be investigated using primary research methods?
In groups or as a class, make a list of potential primary research topics. After each topic on the list, consider what method of inquiry (observation, interview, or survey) you would use to study the topic and answer why that method is a good choice.

Suggested Resources

For more information on the primary methods of inquiry described here, please see the following sources:

Works Cited

This essay was written by Dana Lynn Driscoll and was published as a chapter in Writing Spaces: Readings on Writing , Volume 2, a peer-reviewed open textbook series for the writing classroom. This work is licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) . Please keep this information on this material if you use, adapt, and/or share it.

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Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples

Primary Research | Definition, Types, & Examples

Published on 15 January 2023 by Tegan George .

Primary research is a research method that relies on direct data collection , rather than relying on data that’s already been collected by someone else. In other words, primary research is any type of research that you undertake yourself, firsthand, while using data that has already been collected is called secondary research.

Primary research is often used in qualitative research , particularly in survey methodology, questionnaires, focus groups, and various types of interviews . While quantitative primary research does exist, it’s not as common.

When to use primary research, types of primary research, examples of primary research, advantages and disadvantages of primary research, frequently asked questions.

Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study . The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you.

Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research. It is usually exploratory in nature, concerned with examining a research question where no preexisting knowledge exists. It is also sometimes called original research for this reason.

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Primary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:

Surveys and questionnaire
Observational studies
Interviews and focus groups
Surveys and questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires collect information about a group of people by asking them questions and analyzing the results. They are a solid choice if your research topic seeks to investigate something about the characteristics, preferences, opinions, or beliefs of a group of people.

Surveys and questionnaires can take place online, in person, or through the mail. It is best to have a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions, and how the questions are phrased matters. Be sure to avoid leading questions, and ask any related questions in groups, starting with the most basic ones first.

Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from conducting a traditional experiment , observational studies are often a good stopgap.

There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies , cohort studies, and case-control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design – just beware of confounding variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.

Similarly to surveys and questionnaires, interviews and focus groups also rely on asking questions to collect information about a group of people. However, how this is done is slightly different. Instead of sending your questions out into the world, interviews and focus groups involve two or more people – one of whom is you, the interviewer, who asks the questions.

There are 3 main types of interviews:

Structured interviews ask predetermined questions in a predetermined order.
Unstructured interviews are more flexible and free-flowing, proceeding based on the interviewee’s previous answers.
Semi-structured interviews fall in between, asking a mix of predetermined questions and off-the-cuff questions.

While interviews are a rich source of information, they can also be deceptively challenging to do well. Be careful of interviewer bias creeping into your process. This is best mitigated by avoiding double-barreled questions and paying close attention to your tone and delivery while asking questions.

Alternatively, a focus group is a group interview, led by a moderator. Focus groups can provide more nuanced interactions than individual interviews, but their small sample size means that external validity is low.

Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of different research methods you can use to explore different topics.

Primary research is a great choice for many research projects, but it has distinct advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of primary research

Advantages include:

The ability to conduct really tailored, thorough research, down to the ‘nitty-gritty’ of your topic . You decide what you want to study or observe and how to go about doing that.
You maintain control over the quality of the data collected, and can ensure firsthand that it is objective, reliable , and valid .
The ensuing results are yours, for you to disseminate as you see fit. You maintain proprietary control over what you find out, allowing you to share your findings with like-minded individuals or those conducting related research that interests you for replication or discussion purposes.

Disadvantages of primary research

Disadvantages include:

In order to be done well, primary research can be very expensive and time consuming. If you are constrained in terms of time or funding, it can be very difficult to conduct your own high-quality primary research.
Primary research is often insufficient as a standalone research method, requiring secondary research to bolster it.
Primary research can be prone to various types of research bias . Bias can manifest on the part of the researcher as observer bias , Pygmalion effect , or demand characteristics . It can occur on the part of participants as a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias .

The 3 main types of primary research are:

Exploratory research explores the main aspects of a new or barely researched question.

Explanatory research explains the causes and effects of an already widely researched question.

There are several methods you can use to decrease the impact of confounding variables on your research: restriction, matching, statistical control, and randomisation.

In restriction , you restrict your sample by only including certain subjects that have the same values of potential confounding variables.

In matching , you match each of the subjects in your treatment group with a counterpart in the comparison group. The matched subjects have the same values on any potential confounding variables, and only differ in the independent variable .

In statistical control , you include potential confounders as variables in your regression .

In randomisation , you randomly assign the treatment (or independent variable) in your study to a sufficiently large number of subjects, which allows you to control for all potential confounding variables.

A questionnaire is a data collection tool or instrument, while a survey is an overarching research method that involves collecting and analysing data from people using questionnaires.

When conducting research, collecting original data has significant advantages:

You can tailor data collection to your specific research aims (e.g., understanding the needs of your consumers or user testing your website).
You can control and standardise the process for high reliability and validity (e.g., choosing appropriate measurements and sampling methods ).

However, there are also some drawbacks: data collection can be time-consuming, labour-intensive, and expensive. In some cases, it’s more efficient to use secondary data that has already been collected by someone else, but the data might be less reliable.

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Peer Review and Primary Literature: An Introduction: Is it Primary Research? How Do I Know?

Scholarly Journal vs. Magazine
Peer Review: What is it?
Finding Peer-Reviewed Articles
Primary Journal Literature
Is it Primary Research? How Do I Know?

Components of a Primary Research Study

As indicated on a previous page, Peer-Reviewed Journals also include non -primary content. Simply limiting your search results in a database to "peer-reviewed" will not retrieve a list of only primary research studies.

Learn to recognize the parts of a primary research study. Terminology will vary slightly from discipline to discipline and from journal to journal. However, there are common components to most research studies.

When you run a search, find a promising article in your results list and then look at the record for that item (usually by clicking on the title). The full database record for an item usually includes an abstract or summary--sometimes prepared by the journal or database, but often written by the author(s) themselves. This will usually give a clear indication of whether the article is a primary study. For example, here is a full database record from a search for family violence and support in SocINDEX with Full Text :

Although the abstract often tells the story, you will need to read the article to know for sure. Besides scanning the Abstract or Summary, look for the following components: (I am only capturing small article segments for illustration.)

Look for the words METHOD or METHODOLOGY . The authors should explain how they conducted their research.

NOTE: Different Journals and Disciplines will use different terms to mean similar things. If instead of " Method " or " Methodology " you see a heading that says " Research Design " or " Data Collection ," you have a similar indicator that the scholar-authors have done original research.

Look for the section called RESULTS . This details what the author(s) found out after conducting their research.

Charts , Tables , Graphs , Maps and other displays help to summarize and present the findings of the research.

A Discussion indicates the significance of findings, acknowledges limitations of the research study, and suggests further research.

References , a Bibliography or List of Works Cited indicates a literature review and shows other studies and works that were consulted. USE THIS PART OF THE STUDY! If you find one or two good recent studies, you can identify some important earlier studies simply by going through the bibliographies of those articles.

A FINAL NOTE: If you are ever unclear about whether a particular article is appropriate to use in your paper, it is best to show that article to your professor and discuss it with them. The professor is the final judge since they will be assigning your grade.

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Primary Sources Research Guide

What Are Primary Sources?
What Are Secondary Sources?
Examples of Primary & Secondary Sources
Where to Look for Primary Sources

Get Primary Sources by Subject

Many library subject guides contain sections on primary sources for those subjects. BELOW you can also see a list of research guides that have been tagged "primary sources."

Still have questions? Please get in touch with the librarian for your subject area for more information about specific primary sources in your field.

Defining Primary Sources

Primary sources are original materials that provide direct evidence or first-hand testimony concerning a topic or event -- firsthand records created by people who actually participated in or remembered an event and reported on the event and their reactions to it.
Primary sources can be contemporary sources created at the time when the event occurred (e.g., letters and newspaper articles) or later (such as, memoirs and oral history interviews).
Primary sources may be published or unpublished. Unpublished sources include unique materials (e.g., family papers) often referred to as archives and manuscripts.
What constitutes a primary source varies by discipline -- see Primary Sources by Discipline below . How the researcher uses the source generally determines whether it is a primary source or not.

*This material is used with permission from the University of Pittsburgh Library's research guide on Primary Sources

Primary Sources by Discipline

The definition of a primary source varies depending upon the academic discipline and the context in which it is used.

1. In the humanities , a primary source could be defined as something that was created either during the time period being studied or afterward by individuals reflecting on their involvement in the events of that time.

Examples from the humanities:

Art: painting, photograph, print, sculpture, film or other work of art, sketch book, architectural model or drawing, building or structure, letter, organizational records, personal account by artist History: artifact, diary, government report, interview, letter, map, news report, oral history, organizational records, photograph, speech, work of art Literature: interview, letter, manuscript, personal account by writer, poem, work of fiction or drama, contemporary review Music: score, sound recording, contemporary review, letter, personal account by composer or musician

2. In the social sciences , the definition of a primary source would be expanded to include numerical data that has been gathered to analyze relationships between people, events, and their environment.

Examples from the social sciences:

Anthropology: artifact, field notes, fossil, photograph Business: market research or surveys, anything that documents a corporation's activities, such as annual reports, meeting minutes, legal documents, marketing materials, and financial records. Communication: websites, blogs, broadcast recordings and transcripts, advertisements and commercials, public opinion polls, and magazines (e.g., Rolling Stone ). Economics: company statistics, consumer survey, data series Geography: field notes, census data, maps, satellite images, and aerial photographs. Law: code, statute, court opinion, legislative report Psychology: case study, clinical case report, experimental replication, follow-up study, longitudinal study, treatment outcome study Sociology: cultural artifact, interview, oral history, organizational records, statistical data, survey

3. In the natural sciences , a primary source could be defined as a report of original findings or ideas. These sources often appear in the form of research articles with sections on methods and results.

Examples in the natural sciences:

Biology, Chemistry, etc: research or lab notes, genetic evidence, plant specimens, technical reports, and other reports of original research or discoveries (e.g., conference papers and proceedings, dissertations, scholarly articles).

*This material is used with permission from the Lafayette College Library research guide on primary sources . Image 1: "Massachusetts Bay Colony 1776" CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Tom Woodward: Flickr Image 2: "data" CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 CyberHades: Flickr Image 3: "Katydid 50x Magnification Wing, Coventry, CT" CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 Macroscopic Solutions: Flickr

Examples of Primary Sources

Primary sources typically include such items as:

manuscripts, letters, first-person diaries, memoirs, personal journals, interviews, speeches, oral histories, and other materials individuals used to describe events in which they were participants or observers. Many of these materials frequently are referred to as " papers ";
records of government agencies and other organizations, including such documents as parliamentary debates, proceedings of organization meetings, conferences, etc. Many of these materials frequently are referred to as " archives ";
original documents such as birth certificates, marriage and baptismal registers, wills, trial transcripts, etc.;
published materials written at the time of the event, including newspapers, news magazines, advertising, cartoons, and other ephemeral publications such as pamplets and flyers;
contemporary creative works of literature, art, and music, such as novels, paintings, compositions, poems, etc.;
contemporary photographs, maps, audio recordings, television and radio broadcasts, and moving pictures;
Internet communications including email, listservs, and blogs;
statistical and numeric data collected by various government and private agencies, including census data, opinion polls, and other surveys;
research reports and case studies in the sciences or social sciences;
artifacts of all kinds such as coins, clothing, fossils, furniture, and musical instruments from the time period under study

Primary sources sometimes can be ambiguous and contradictory, relecting a specific person's opinions and contemporary cultural influences on them. For that very reason such sources are invaluable tools for developing your own interpretations and reaching your own conclusions about what is going on at a point in time.

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Last Updated: Nov 11, 2024 2:52 PM
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EDUC 9300: Educational Research (Hirsch)

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Where can I find primary research sources?
Knowledge Check Activity

Different databases may contain different types of sources. When you are conducting research you need to consider what types are most likely to contain the type of information you need to answer your research question. Depending on the database you might find books, magazine articles, trade publication articles, scholarly journal articles, documents, newspapers, videos, audio clips, images, et cetera. For the purposes of your Education Literature Review we will focus on sources that are primary research studies. Before you can do that, you need to know the difference between primary research and secondary research, how to identify which one you are looking at when you evaluate a source that you find and why the emphasis gets placed on using primary research studies.

Primary Research: This is research that is done by the author of the source you are using where that author conducted some method of research to gather new data that s/he then reports, analyzes and interprets in that source. Primary = original, first-hand; the author of the source generated the research data they are using.

Secondary Research: This is when an author of the source you are using gathers existing data, usually produced by someone else, and they then report, analyze or interpret that other person's data. Secondary = second-hand; the author of the source did not generate the research data s/he is using.

Tips when first evaluating a source: Once you find a research-based source, read the abstract and/or methodologies section and ask yourself who conducted the actual research process to gather the data?

If the author(s) indicate they gathered the data first-hand by surveying a specific population, creating and running an experiment, conducting a focus group, observing a specific population/task, et cetera, they are doing primary research.
If the author(s) indicate that they used only data gathered from other people's research studies by reviewing the literature or research, they are doing secondary research.

Common sources where primary research in the field of Education is published are:

Scholarly/academic journals - these are journals that are published by academic publishers (colleges, universities, et cetera) and professional organizations.
Conference Proceedings
Dissertations
District, State or National Reports

Any of the above sources may also be peer-reviewed, meaning that the content is reviewed by other professionals in the field before it is published. Peer-reviewed, scholarly journals are considered to be high quality and often are a requirement in your research assignments because they are produced by experts and professionals in the field and all primary research articles are put through a peer-reviewed vetting process that is detailed by the journal publisher. It is also where professionals in the field in turn tend to publish their research for those same reasons. It is important to keep a couple of things in mind:

Not all scholarly/academic journals are peer-reviewed.
Not every article in a peer-reviewed journal is a primary research article or even a secondary research article. These journals often contain book/product reviews, opinion pieces, advice for practitioners, literature reviews, et cetera.
Books take longer to publish and when you need current research/data this is a consideration. It can also be hard to determine what, if any type of peer-review process a book has gone through.
Dissertations are by their very nature peer-reviewed, especially at the doctoral level, but can be hard to access as they are often only available at the university where the dissertation was written.
In Education, district/state/national reports may be peer-reviewed, but like with books this can be hard to determine.

Research Databases are a great tool for finding and accessing primary research articles published in scholarly/academic, peer-reviewed journals. In the field of Education our library provides access to ERIC, Education Source, Proquest Education Database and Academic Search Ultimate. Each of these databases have search functions to help you narrow your results list down to scholarly/academic, peer-reviewed journals.

Depending on your topic and research question you may need to explore research databases in other disciplines as well. Here are two examples:

Does gender impact bullying in middle school? In edition to Education databases I might want to also look at psychology (from the aspect of gender and behavior) and criminal justice databases (from the perspective that bullying can be a crime and looking at gender/age based statistics)
What impact does arts therapy have on children with behavioral issues in the classroom? In edition to Education databases I might want to also look at psychology and medical databases (from the aspect of children with behavioral issues and arts therapy methods)
Knowledge Check Activity: Primary vs. Secondary Education Research Ready to apply what you just learned? Click on the provided link then read the provided abstracts and try to determine whether the article is a primary research study, a secondary research study or non-research-based.
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Last Updated: Sep 20, 2024 1:05 PM
URL: https://fitchburgstate.libguides.com/educ9300

Primary Sources Research Guide

Primary Sources - What are They?
Primary versus Secondary Sources
Primary Source Literacy
How to Search for Primary Sources
Primary Source General Online Collections
Primary Sources - History
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Primary Sources - Literature
Primary Sources - Business
Primary Sources - Education
Primary Sources - Political Science & Government
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Primary Sources Liaison

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Video: what are primary and secondary sources.

Video from University of Cincinnati Libraries. Creative Commons license verified.

What are primary sources, what is a primary source, a primary source is a document or other piece of evidence written or created during the time being studied, or by one of the persons or organizations directly involved with the event. primary sources can be records and material that are original, direct, first-hand evidence of an event or object of study. they are recorded at the time of the event, like letters, government documents, photographs, artifacts, field data, and original creative works like art and fiction., some examples of primary sources can include:, original documents: diaries, speeches, letters, minutes, interviews, news film footage, autobiographies, official records, creative works: poetry, drama, novels, music, art, films, relics or artifacts: jewelry, pottery, furniture, clothing, buildings, tools, statistics: public opinion polls, census data, labor statistics, note: science disciplines may define "primary" and "secondary" sources differently. for example, in the sciences, original research is considered a primary source., why use primary sources, when doing historical research, primary sources can give you a more personal view of the period or event you are researching. while secondary sources (sources created after the fact) can be useful for looking back at an event or time more critically through the lens of "what happened next," primary sources can tell you how the people at the time you are studying felt about the events happening around them . , where to find primary sources, depending on the discipline you are working in, primary sources can take on a variety of forms. for disciplines where new data is generated, the academic articles or reports that contain this data are considered primary sources. if you generate your own data, that is also a primary source., for other disciplines, primary sources in newspapers, archives and special collections, or databases that specialize in a given topic might be more relevant. see the next tab (on the left) for locations to visit to find primary sources., some information on this page was paraphrased from the iowa state university library, as found in their " primary and secondary sources in the social sciences & humanities" research guide , with a creative commons cc-by license . some content on this page was paraphrased from the butler libraries & archives' primary sources libguide and from the hillsborough community college's "primary & secondary sources" research guide . .

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Last Updated: Nov 12, 2024 1:08 PM
URL: https://libguides.easternflorida.edu/primary-sources

Evidence Based Practice

1. Ask: PICO(T) Question
2. Align: Levels of Evidence
3a. Acquire: Resource Types
3b. Acquire: Searching
4. Appraise

Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Qualitative and Quantitative Sources
Managing References

Sources are considered primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the originality of the information presented and their proximity or how close they are to the source of information. This distinction can differ between subjects and disciplines.

In the sciences, research findings may be communicated informally between researchers through email, presented at conferences (primary source), and then, possibly, published as a journal article or technical report (primary source). Once published, the information may be commented on by other researchers (secondary sources), and/or professionally indexed in a database (secondary sources). Later the information may be summarized into an encyclopedic or reference book format (tertiary sources). Source

Primary Sources

A primary source in science is a document or record that reports on a study, experiment, trial or research project. Primary sources are usually written by the person(s) who did the research, conducted the study, or ran the experiment, and include hypothesis, methodology, and results.

Primary Sources include:

Pilot/prospective studies
Cohort studies
Survey research
Case studies
Lab notebooks
Clinical trials and randomized clinical trials/RCTs
Dissertations

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources list, summarize, compare, and evaluate primary information and studies so as to draw conclusions on or present current state of knowledge in a discipline or subject. Sources may include a bibliography which may direct you back to the primary research reported in the article.

Secondary Sources include:

reviews, systematic reviews, meta-analysis
newsletters and professional news sources
practice guidelines & standards
clinical care notes
patient education Information
government & legal Information
entries in nursing or medical encyclopedias Source

More on Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis

Systematic reviews – Systematic reviews are best for answering single questions (eg, the effectiveness of tight glucose control on microvascular complications of diabetes). They are more scientifically structured than traditional reviews, being explicit about how the authors attempted to find all relevant articles, judge the scientific quality of each study, and weigh evidence from multiple studies with conflicting results. These reviews pay particular attention to including all strong research, whether or not it has been published, to avoid publication bias (positive studies are preferentially published). Source

Meta-analysis -- Meta-analysis, which is commonly included in systematic reviews, is a statistical method that quantitatively combines the results from different studies. It can be used to provide an overall estimate of the net benefit or harm of an intervention, even when these effects may not have been apparent in the individual studies [ 9 ]. Meta-analysis can also provide an overall quantitative estimate of other parameters such as diagnostic accuracy, incidence, or prevalence. Source

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Next: Qualitative and Quantitative Sources >>
Last Updated: Nov 9, 2023 12:14 PM
URL: https://libraryguides.nau.edu/evidencebasedpractice

COMMENTS

Primary Research
Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study. The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you. Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research.
Primary Research Explained
Primary research, also known as original research, is the act of gathering fresh data and information for the sake of producing new knowledge and insights. When doing this research, individuals do not rely on available databases, articles and research papers.
What is Primary Research and How do I get Started?
Primary research is an excellent skill to learn as it can be useful in a variety of settings including business, personal, and academic. But I'm not an expert! With some careful planning, primary research can be done by anyone, even students new to writing at the university level. The information provided on this page will help you get started.
Primary Research: What It Is, Purpose & Methods + Examples
Here are some of the primary research methods organizations or businesses use to collect data: 1. Interviews (telephonic or face-to-face) Conducting interviews is a qualitative research method to collect data and has been a popular method for ages. These interviews can be conducted in person (face-to-face) or over the telephone.
What is Primary Research?
Introduction. Conducting research involves two types of data: primary data and secondary data. While secondary research deals with existing data, primary research collects new data. Ultimately, the most appropriate type of research depends on which method is best suited to your research question. While this article discusses the difference ...
Guides: Peer-Review and Primary Research: What is a Primary Study
A primary research or study is an empirical research that is published in peer-reviewed journals. Some ways of recognizing whether an article is a primary research article when searching a database: 1. The abstract includes a research question or a hypothesis, methods and results. 2. Studies can have tables and charts representing data findings. 3.
Primary Research
Many different types of primary research exist. Some common types used in writing classes and beyond include: Interviews: A conversation between two or more people in which one person (the interviewer) asks a series of questions to another person or persons (the interviewee). See also our page on interviewing.
Primary research
Primary research includes qualitative and quantitative research and can include surveys, focus groups, questionnaires, and interviews. Since primary research typically takes anywhere from weeks to months to gather and is very expensive, secondary sources are typically exhausted first before any primary research is conducted. From: primary ...
Primary research
Primary research articles provide a report of individual, original research studies, which constitute the majority of articles published in peer-reviewed journals. All primary research studies are conducted according to a specified methodology, which will be partly determined by the aims and objectives of the research.
Primary Research
Primary research is defined as the collation and analysis of original data that has not been gathered before. This differs from secondary research that is considered as the result of the study of research and sources which has been subject to academic enquiry. A more detailed explanation of the distinction between these fields of research is below:
Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys, and Interviews
Conclusion. This essay has presented an overview to three commonly used methods of primary research in first year writing courses: observations, interviews, and surveys. By using these methods, you can learn more about the world around you and craft meaningful written discussions of your findings.
Primary Research
Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study. The only key is that data must be collected firsthand by you. Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research.
Is it Primary Research? How Do I Know?
Simply limiting your search results in a database to "peer-reviewed" will not retrieve a list of only primary research studies. Learn to recognize the parts of a primary research study. Terminology will vary slightly from discipline to discipline and from journal to journal. However, there are common components to most research studies. STEP ONE:
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. Primary research gives you direct access to the subject of your research. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. Examples include journal articles, reviews ...
What Are Primary Sources?
The definition of a primary source varies depending upon the academic discipline and the context in which it is used. 1. ... research reports and case studies in the sciences or social sciences; artifacts of all kinds such as coins, clothing, fossils, furniture, and musical instruments from the time period under study ...
Primary Research vs. Secondary Research
Primary Research: This is research that is done by the author of the source you are using where that author conducted some method of research to gather new data that s/he then reports, analyzes and interprets in that source. Primary = original, first-hand; the author of the source generated the research data they are using.
PDF Introduction to Primary Research: Observations, Surveys
The primary research process is quite similar to the writing process, and you can draw upon your knowledge of the writing process to un-derstand the steps involved in a primary research project. Just like in the writing process, a successful primary research project begins with careful planning and background research. This section first describes
Primary Research vs Secondary Research in 2024
The primary research definition refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific to a particular research project (Gratton & Jones, 2010). When doing primary research, the researcher gathers information first-hand rather than relying on available information in databases and other publications.
Primary Sources
For disciplines where new data is generated, the academic articles or reports that contain this data are considered primary sources. If you generate your own data, that is also a primary source. For other disciplines, primary sources in newspapers, archives and special collections, or databases that specialize in a given topic might be more ...
Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary Sources. A primary source in science is a document or record that reports on a study, experiment, trial or research project. Primary sources are usually written by the person(s) who did the research, conducted the study, or ran the experiment, and include hypothesis, methodology, and results. Primary Sources include: Pilot/prospective ...

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Primary Research Explained | Definition, Types & Examples

What Is Primary Research Definition?

When To Use Primary Research?

Methods Of Primary Research

Surveys/Questionnaires

Focus Groups

Observations

Hire an Expert Researcher

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Primary Research

Difference Between Primary And Secondary Research

Examples Of Primary Research

Example 1: Consumer Preference Survey

Example 2: Understanding Victim Psychology Through Interview

Frequently Asked Questions

What is data analysis?

How can bias occur in primary research?

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Primary Research: What It Is, Purpose & Methods + Examples

What is Primary Research: Definition

Primary Research Methods with Examples

1. Interviews (telephonic or face-to-face)

2. Online surveys

3. Focus groups

4. Observations

Primary Research vs Secondary Research – The Differences

1. Definition

2. Data Source

3. Time and Cost

4. Customization

6. Originality

7. Relevance and Timeliness

Advantages of Primary Research

Disadvantages of Primary Research

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