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New Food Freezing Concept Improves Quality, Increases Safety and Cuts Energy Use

Contact: Kim Kaplan Email: Kim Kaplan

ALBANY, Calif., Sept. 2, 2021 – Shifting to a new food freezing method could make for safer and better quality frozen foods while saving energy and reducing carbon emissions, according to a new study by U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service (ARS) and University of California-Berkeley scientists. 

"A complete change over to this new method of food freezing worldwide could cut energy use by as much as 6.5 billion kilowatt-hours each year while reducing the carbon emissions that go along with generating that power by 4.6 billion kg, the equivalent of removing roughly one million cars from roads," said ARS research food technologist Cristina Bilbao-Sainz . She is with the Healthy Processed Foods Research Unit , part of ARS's Western Regional Research Center (WRRC) in Albany. 

"T­hese savings could be achieved without requiring any significant changes in current frozen food manufacturing equipment and infrastructure, if food manufacturers adopt this concept," Bilbao-Sainz added. 

The new freezing method, called isochoric freezing, works by storing foods in a sealed, rigid container—typically made of hard plastic or metal—completely filled with a liquid such as water. Unlike conventional freezing in which the food is exposed to the air and freezes solid at temperatures below 32 degrees F , isochoric freezing preserves food without turning it to solid ice.  

As long as the food stays immersed in the liquid portion, it is protected from ice crystallization, which is the main threat to food quality. 

"Energy savings come from not having to freeze foods completely solid, which uses a huge amount of energy, plus there is no need to resort to energy-intensive cold storage protocols such as quick freezing to avoid ice crystal formation," Bilbao-Sainz said .

Isochoric freezing also allows for higher quality storage of fresh foods such as tomatoes, sweet cherries and potatoes that are otherwise difficult to preserve with conventional freezing.

Another benefit of isochoric freezing is that it also kills microbial contaminants during processing.

"The entire food production chain could use isochoric freezing—everyone from growers to food processors, product producers to wholesalers, to retailers. The process will even work in a person's freezer at home after they purchase a product—all without requiring any major investments in new equipment," said WRRC center director Tara McHugh, co-leader of this study. "With all of the many potential benefits, if this innovative concept catches on, it could be the next revolution in freezing foods." 

UC-Berkeley biomedical engineer Boris Rubinsky, co-leader of this project, first developed the isochoric freezing method to cryopreserve tissues and organs for transplants. 

Since then, ARS and UC-Berkeley have applied for a joint patent for applying isochoric freezing to preserving food. The research team is now developing the best applications for this technology in the frozen foods industry, especially scaling up the technology to an industrial level. They also are seeking commercial partners to help transfer the technology to the commercial sector.

UC-Berkeley mechanical engineer Matthew Powell-Palm, one of the lead authors of the study paper, noted that "isochoric freezing is a cross-cutting technology with promising applications in not only the food industry, but in medicine, biology, even space travel." 

WRRC has also been designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark in 2002 by the American Chemical Society for developing the Time-Temperature Tolerance studies, which made possible the production of stable, safe and high quality frozen food, revolutionizing the industry in the 1950s. 

This research was published in Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews .

The Agricultural Research Service is the U.S. Department of Agriculture's chief scientific in-house research agency. Daily, ARS focuses on solutions to agricultural problems affecting America. Each dollar invested in agricultural research results in $17 of economic impact.  

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Food microbiology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Food microbiology is the scientific study of microorganisms, both in food and used for the production of food. This includes microorganisms that contaminate food, as well as those used in its production; for example to produce yoghurt, cheese, beer and wine.

Latest Research and Reviews

Emergence of potentially disinfection-resistant, naturalized Escherichia coli populations across food- and water-associated engineered environments

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Food safety

• Food safety, nutrition and food security are inextricably linked.
• An estimated 600 million – almost 1 in 10 people in the world – fall ill after eating contaminated food and 420 000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy life years (DALYs).
• US$ 110 billion is lost each year in productivity and medical expenses resulting from unsafe food in low- and middle-income countries.
• Children under 5 years of age carry 40% of the foodborne disease burden, with 125 000 deaths every year.
• Foodborne diseases impede socioeconomic development by straining health care systems and harming national economies, tourism and trade.

Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health. Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances causes more than 200 diseases, ranging from diarrhoea to cancers. It also creates a vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting infants, young children, elderly and the sick. Good collaboration between governments, producers and consumers is needed to help ensure food safety and stronger food systems.

Major foodborne illnesses and causes

Foodborne illnesses are usually infectious or toxic in nature and caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances entering the body through contaminated food. Chemical contamination can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as cancer. Many foodborne diseases may lead to long-lasting disability and death. Some examples of food hazards are listed below.

• Salmonella, Campylobacter and enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli are some of the most common foodborne pathogens that affect millions of people annually, sometimes with severe and fatal outcomes. Symptoms can be fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. Foods involved in outbreaks of salmonellosis include eggs, poultry and other products of animal origin. Foodborne cases with Campylobacter are mainly caused by raw milk, raw or undercooked poultry and drinking water. Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli is associated with unpasteurized milk, undercooked meat and contaminated fresh fruits and vegetables.
• Listeria infections can lead to miscarriage in pregnant women or death of newborn babies. Although disease occurrence is relatively low, Listeria ’s severe and sometimes fatal health consequences, particularly among infants, children and the elderly, count them among the most serious foodborne infections. Listeria is found in unpasteurised dairy products and various ready-to-eat foods and can grow at refrigeration temperatures.
• Vibrio cholerae can infect people through contaminated water or food. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, vomiting and profuse watery diarrhoea, which quickly lead to severe dehydration and possibly death. Rice, vegetables, millet gruel and various types of seafood have been implicated in cholera outbreaks.

Antimicrobials, such as antibiotics, are essential to treat infections caused by bacteria, including foodborne pathogens. However, their overuse and misuse in veterinary and human medicine has been linked to the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria, rendering the treatment of infectious diseases ineffective in animals and humans.

Some viruses can be transmitted by food consumption. Norovirus is a common cause of foodborne infections that is characterized by nausea, explosive vomiting, watery diarrhoea and abdominal pain. Hepatitis A virus can also be transmitted by food and can cause long-lasting liver disease and spreads typically through raw or undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce.

Some parasites, such as fish-borne trematodes, are only transmitted through food. Others, for example tapeworms like Echinococcus spp, or Taenia spp, may infect people through food or direct contact with animals. Other parasites, such as Ascaris, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica or Giardia , enter the food chain via water or soil and can contaminate fresh produce.

Prions, infectious agents composed of protein, are unique in that they are associated with specific forms of neurodegenerative disease. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or so-called mad cow disease) is a prion disease in cattle, associated with the variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) in humans. Consuming meat products containing specified risk material, such as brain tissue, is the most likely route of transmission of the prion agent to humans.

Of most concern for health are naturally occurring toxins and environmental pollutants.

• Naturally occurring toxins include mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, cyanogenic glycosides and toxins occurring in poisonous mushrooms. Staple foods like corn or cereals can contain high levels of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin, produced by mould on grain. A long-term exposure can affect the immune system and normal development, or cause cancer.
• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that accumulate in the environment and human body. Known examples are dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are unwanted by-products of industrial processes and waste incineration. They are found worldwide in the environment and accumulate in animal food chains. Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental problems, damage the immune system, interfere with hormones and cause cancer.
• Heavy metals  such as lead, cadmium and mercury cause neurological and kidney damage. Contamination by heavy metal in food occurs mainly through pollution of water and soil.
• Other chemical hazards in food can include radioactive nucleotides that can be discharged into the environment from industries and from civil or military nuclear operations, food allergens, residues of drugs and other contaminants incorporated in the food during the process.

The burden of foodborne diseases

The burden of foodborne diseases to public health and to economies has often been underestimated due to underreporting and difficulty to establish causal relationships between food contamination and resulting illness or death.

The 2015 WHO report on the estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases presented the first-ever estimates of disease burden caused by 31 foodborne agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins and chemicals) at global and sub-regional level, highlighting that more than 600 million cases of foodborne illnesses and 420 000 deaths could occur in a year. The burden of foodborne diseases falls disproportionately on groups in vulnerable situations and especially on children under 5, with the highest burden in low- and middle-income countries.

The 2019 World Bank report on the economic burden of the foodborne diseases indicated that the total productivity loss associated with foodborne disease in low- and middle-income countries was estimated at US$ 95.2 billion per year, and the annual cost of treating foodborne illnesses is estimated at US$ 15 billion.

The evolving world and food safety

Safe food supplies support national economies, trade and tourism, contribute to food and nutrition security, and underpin sustainable development.

Urbanization and changes in consumer habits have increased the number of people buying and eating food prepared in public places. Globalization has triggered growing consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, resulting in an increasingly complex and longer global food chain. Climate change is also predicted to impact food safety.

These challenges put greater responsibility on food producers and handlers to ensure food safety. Local incidents can quickly evolve into international emergencies due to the speed and range of product distribution.

A public health priority

Governments should make food safety a public health priority, as they play a pivotal role in developing policies and regulatory frameworks and establishing and implementing effective food safety systems. Food handlers and consumers need to understand how to safely handle food and practicing the WHO Five keys to safer food at home, or when selling at restaurants or at local markets. Food producers can safely grow fruits and vegetables using the WHO Five keys to growing safer fruits and vegetables .

WHO response

WHO aims to strengthen national food control systems to facilitate global prevention, detection and response to public health threats associated with unsafe food. To do this, WHO supports Member States by:

• providing independent scientific assessments on microbiological and chemical hazards that form the basis for international food standards, guidelines, and recommendations, known as the Codex Alimentarius ;
• assessing the performance of national food control systems throughout the entire food chain, identifying priority areas for further development, and measuring and evaluating progress over time through the FAO/WHO food control system assessment tool ;  
• assessing the safety of new technologies used in food production, such as genetic modification, cultivated food products and nanotechnology;
• helping implement adequate infrastructure to manage food safety risks and respond to food safety emergencies through the International Food Safety Authorities Network ( INFOSAN );
• promoting safe food handling through systematic disease prevention and awareness programmes, through the WHO Five keys to safer food message and training materials;
• advocating for food safety as an important component of health security and for integrating food safety into national policies and programmes in line with the International Health Regulations (IHR 2005);
• monitoring regularly the global burden of foodborne and zoonotic diseases at national, regional and international levels, and supporting countries to estimate the national burden of foodborne diseases; and
• updating the WHO Global Strategy for Food Safety (2022–2030) to support Member States to strengthen their national food control systems and reduce the burden of foodborne diseases.

WHO works closely with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and other international organizations to ensure food safety along the entire food chain from production to consumption.

• Safe, healthy and sustainable diets
• Food handlers manual
• Nuclear accidents and radioactive contamination of foods
• WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases
• Advancing food safety initiatives: strategic plan for food safety including foodborne zoonoses 2013-2022
• WHO's work on food safety
• Codex Alimentarius – International Food Standards

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Emerging global food safety challenges and how to address them

By Rudolf Krska Chris Elliott , Martín Wagner , Oonagh McNerney

7 September 2022

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Weaknesses triggered by zoonotic disease and mycotoxins will be intensified due to the impacts of climate change, a move to plant-based and circular economies. Here, four experts explore the upcoming issues to be aware of and how we might forge a safe path forwards.

Zoonoses and extreme weather events in Europe, compounded by the COVID-19 pandemic, have shone a spotlight on the underlying vulnerabilities of our global food systems; 1 they are a wakeup call that must be heeded. Moreover, most of our food is not produced in single production chains, but in a complex web of actors that trade on a global scale. Many influential sectors and drivers for improved food safety in these chains have already been identified; among them: climate change, growing global population, changing patterns of urbanisation, changing dietary patterns and demographics, water scarcity, and reduced biodiversity (see Figure 1). 2

These drivers can have direct and indirect effects on the emergence and spread of food safety hazards, and can also be connected or interrelated with each other. Critically, these global stressors impact on regional and often local food safety management procedures that become incapable of maintaining safe food, resulting in disturbance of the system and the emergence of a range of food safety hazards.

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Microplastics in Food and Their Impact on Human Health

June 21, 2024 • By Andrea Tolu

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In February 2024, a group of Canadian and American researchers published a study in the journal Environmental Pollution that analyzed the presence of microplastics in 16 protein-based foods commonly found in supermarkets ( Environ Pollut . 2024;343:123233). The products included plant and animal proteins from both marine and terrestrial animals and with different levels of processing, such as breaded shrimp, Pollock fillets, chicken nuggets, pork loin chops, plant-based nuggets, and tofu.

The analysis found microplastics contamination in all sampled foods, with no significant difference between animal and plant-based proteins. Another takeaway was that more processed products, such as chicken nuggets and tofu, contained more microplastics particles than those with minimal processing, such as Pollock fillet or pork chops.

The correlation between levels of processing and microplastics contamination is not surprising. As Madeleine Milne, PhD, a researcher at the University of Manitoba and co-author of the study says, “as food goes through additional processing steps, there might be more opportunities for contamination from microfibers of synthetic polymers used for workers’ clothing or rubber pieces from conveyor belts.”

This study is not the first one indicating microplastics contamination generated in food processing environments. In 2001, in Japan, a research study found that the levels of phthalates in retail packed lunch meals substantially decreased after PVC (polyvinyl chloride) gloves containing DEHP (a common phthalate plasticizer) were banned during production and cooking processes ( Food Addit Contam . 2001;18:569-579). In 2020, researchers from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional in Mexico analyzed milk samples and found microparticles of sulfone polymers, which are commonly used for membrane materials in dairy processes ( Sci Total Environ . 2020;714:136823).

Microplastics contamination in food products creates a potential new food safety risk for manufacturers, especially when one of the pathways is the very processing environment they are responsible for; exactly how to manage that risk is something researchers are still trying to determine.

Worrying Signs

One of the main questions about microplastics is their actual toxicity. “Humans have been exposed to different types of particles for thousands of years; they ingest them and digest them without anything bad happening. We don’t know yet whether microplastics are any different,” says Mohamed A. Abdallah, PhD, associate professor in persistent organic pollutants and emerging contaminants at the University of Birmingham in the U.K. and a member of the Birmingham Plastics Network, an interdisciplinary team of experts aiming to address the global plastics waste problem. “We still don‘t have a full understanding of the toxic implications of human exposure to microplastics, and we haven’t been able to establish a toxic dose level (TDL), which is the lowest dosage known to have produced signs of toxicity. We have reasons to worry, though.”

One of those reasons is the small size of microplastics, which allows them to potentially reach any corner of the human body. Most microplastics are the product of the breakdown of plastics into smaller particles. Their size ranges from one micrometer (one thousandth of a millimeter) up to five millimeters. “Current findings are focusing on microplastics in the smaller size range, less than 50 micrometers, which can be carried around by blood and accumulate in organs,” says Dr. Abdallah. “Microplastics were found in tissues, bones, genitals, and there are even indications that they can cross the cerebral spinal barrier and reach the brain.”

The very presence of these extraneous particles in the human body may be reason for concern: “There have been studies on mice pointing to microplastics as a cause of myocardial toxicity,” says Susanne Brander, PhD, an associate professor in the College of Agricultural Sciences at Oregon State University in Corvallis, who focuses on endocrine disrupting compounds and microplastics in aquatic organisms. “The hypothesis is that these particles could interfere with cell function and cause muscle tissue inflammation.”

Another potential source of toxicity are the additives used to give plastic certain attributes, such as color, texture, or flexibility: “A lot of those chemicals, bisphenol A for example, have been shown to be endocrine disruptors, which means they can bind to hormone receptors on cells and disrupt the messaging that happens between them and organs,” says Dr. Brander.

The damage that these plastic additives cause to human health are well known. In 2022, a research study published in the US was able to quantify the societal costs of cardiovascular mortality associated with phthalate exposures to at least $39 billion per year ( Environ Pollut . 2022;292:118021).

Growing Pains

In fact, the research on microplastics contamination in food and its toxicity in humans is relatively new. It evolved from the study of plastic pollution in marine environments and then in fish. “Up until a few years ago, most of the studies were focused on the occurrence of microplastics in oceans and in waterways. Funding sources for research focused on humans have just started to materialize. If you got a grant, and it‘s a three-year or five-year grant, you’re probably still working on it,” says Dr. Brander.

A significant issue confronting research on microplastics in food is measurement techniques. Measuring the content of microplastics typically goes through three stages: chemically digesting the sample, removing the food part, and using microscopy and spectroscopy to identify and count the particles. Currently, however, there is no standard method for measuring microplastics. “The protocol is well established, the problem is, it takes a lot of time and it‘s a very intensive and expensive process due to the labor that‘s required. One sample has been estimated to take up to 60 hours from start to finish,” says Dr. Brander.

“A lot of labs are trying to figure out how to reduce the manual labor of having to look under a microscope at samples and pick particles. But until then, it will definitely be a challenge, because each measuring method has its benefits and limitations. Some techniques can only measure larger microplastics, while others can examine smaller particles,” says Dr. Milne.

Because not all techniques are available to all researchers, the size range of microplastics they investigate might be limited by the instrumentation they have access to. These limitations make it difficult to compare results of different studies: “If a hypothetical study on fish found 50 particles of microplastics in a sample and another one found 100 particles, you couldn’t simply say the second one was more contaminated, because they may be measuring completely different size ranges,” says Dr. Abdallah.

Once these issues are resolved, however, the progress on microplastic detection will pave the way to the study of nanoplastics, whose size can be as small as a nanometer, which is the thousandth part of a micrometer. Nanoplastics are still a largely unexplored side of plastics contamination: “They’re the next frontier and one of the biggest challenges,” says Dr. Brander. “We know that they’re there, and the technology to quantify them is improving, but it’s still expensive and it‘s not available to most labs that work on microplastics.”

Reducing Microplastics in Food

Food safety regulations and standards don’t yet have any specific requirements around microplastics—this may change in the future. “Microplastics in food products is a rising concern among both food manufacturers and the public,” says Bosco Ramirez, senior director of the North American Laboratory Division of NSF International, a global certification body for food safety schemes. “Hopefully, as research progresses and methodologies improve, specific requirements for microplastics will be introduced to existing food safety standards. It’s also possible that new standards or government regulations will be developed. Collaboration among experts, industry stakeholders and regulatory agencies will be key in deriving robust methodologies to detect and quantify microplastics.”

Right now, there’s not a lot that food companies can do to tackle the issue of microplastics contamination directly: “A lot of food and non-food companies are concerned about whether they’re inadvertently generating microplastics or are using materials that contain microplastics,” says Caroline Potter, VP of sustainability at Sagentia Innovation, an R&D consultancy based in the U.K. “But if you find microplastics contamination in a food processing environment, it would be very difficult to understand how much of it came from the processing line, from water, from air pollution, or from the people working in the facility. And without knowing that, it would be very difficult to take precautionary measures.”

The best strategy for food manufacturers is to reduce the use of plastics across the board: “Part of the problem is coming from plastic packaging and the way it’s mismanaged after use, which leads to the breakdown that generates microplastics,” says Potter. “Food companies should definitely look at using alternative materials or use plastic packaging designed in a way that it can be easily recycled, so that it won‘t make its way into the environment.”

The problem, however, is more nuanced, Potter adds. “Sustainability isn’t just one thing. Plastic leakage is an important aspect, but companies are also looking at their carbon footprint, and with plastic being a very lightweight material, it can be the lower carbon footprint packaging option in some cases. When evaluating the alternatives, our advice is to try and balance all the different sustainability trade offs, whether it‘s carbon footprint, water usage, or impact on biodiversity. There’s no point in finding a solution that has a better impact in one area of sustainability, just to have a worse impact on another.

Tolu is a freelance writer based in Barcelona, Spain.

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• Human Nutrition and Food Safety

Research Publications (Food Safety)

This page tracks research articles published in national and international peer-reviewed journals. Recent articles are available ahead of print and searchable by Journal, Article Title, and Category. Research publications are tracked across six categories: Bacterial Pathogens, Chemical Contaminants, Natural Toxins, Parasites, Produce Safety, and Viruses. Articles produced by USDA Grant Funding Agencies (requires login) and FDA Grant Funding Agencies (requires login) are also tracked in Scopus.

Displaying 1 - 25 of 41777

High-resolution serotyping reveals salmonella surveillance challenges in the turkey industry.

• Sat, 06/22/2024 - 04:00
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• Bacterial pathogens

Impact of fish dry-curing on the behaviour of Listeria monocytogenes during the production of ready to eat fishery products

• Listeria monocytogenes

Pichia kudriavzevii UNJCC Y-137 and Candida tropicalis UNJCC Y-140 isolated from Durio kutejensis as potential probiotic agents

• Food Science and Biotechnology

Durio kutejensis , commonly known as Lai durian, has a unique characteristics of a creamy texture and a combination of sweet and bitter tastes. This study aimed to isolate and screen yeast from fruits as a potential probiotic agent. The tests consisted of tolerance to bile salt and gastric acid at pH 2, antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella enteriditis , and hemolytic activity on blood agar medium.

Nutrient content amelioration in red lettuce growing in nutrient deficient soils via arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi

• Plant and Soil

Comparing the effect of mycorrhizal fungi inoculation with different levels of chemical fertilizers on increasing yield and absorption of nutrients in order to achieve an environmentally friendly method to reduce the use of chemical fertilizers in lettuce cultivation in poor soils.

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Prevalence of Listeria monocytogenes in Milk and Dairy Product Supply Chains: A Global Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

• Foodborne Pathogens and Disease

Immunobiotic Bacteria Attenuate Hepatic Fibrosis through the Modulation of Gut Microbiota and the Activation of Aryl‐Hydrocarbon Receptors Pathway in Non‐Alcoholic Steatohepatitis Mice

• Molecular Nutrition & Food Research

The MCD diet significantly exacerbates hepatic fibrosis by activating hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) and increasing markers of inflammation and fibrosis, including NASH, inflammatory cytokines, and liver triglycerides (TG). This diet also leads to gut dysbiosis, increased intestinal permeability, bacterial translocation, and elevated endotoxin levels, further aggravating liver damage. Conversely, immunobiotics markedly reduces hepatic fibrosis and HSC activation.

In vitro investigations on interference of selected probiotic candidates with Campylobacter jejuni adhesion and invasion of primary chicken derived cecal and Caco-2 cells

• Gut Pathogens

Campylobacter (C.) jejuni is one of the most important bacterial foodborne pathogens worldwide. Probiotics such as Lactobacillus or Bacillus species are considered one option for reducing the colonization rate an...

• Campylobacter

Advancements and 4E + Q performance analyses in solar drying for maize kernels preservation: A comprehensive review

• Fri, 06/21/2024 - 04:00
• Journal of Food Process Engineering

Fresh maize kernels are dried to reduce post‐harvest food loss while preserving product quality. Performance and quality are analyzed together in a 4E analysis and quality assessment (4E + Q analysis) being vital for evaluating the drying system's impact on product quality. Abstract The world's population is projected to increase, impacting a 60% rise in food production demand by 2050, including the demand for maize.

• Natural toxins

Production of grains with ultra‐low heavy metal accumulation by pyramiding novel Alleles of OsNramp5 and OsLsi2 in two‐line hybrid rice

• Plant Biotechnology Journal

Summary Ensuring rice yield and grain safety quality are vital for human health. In this study, we developed two‐line hybrid rice (TLHR) with ultra‐low grain cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) accumulation by pyramiding novel alleles of OsNramp5 and OsLsi2. We first generated low Cd accumulation restorer (R) lines by editing OsNramp5, OsLCD, and OsLCT in japonica and indica.

• Chemical contaminants
• Heavy Metals

Mozzarella cheese in Italy: characteristics and occurrence of Listeria monocytogenes and coagulase-positive staphylococci at retail

• International Dairy Journal

Mozzarella cheese is a popular type of fresh cheese, originating from Mediterranean countries and worldwide consumed. As for other soft cheeses, its characteristics might support the growth of Listeria monocytogenes ; therefore, the research’s aim was to determine the occurrence of L. monocytogenes strains and Listeria spp. on mozzarella cheese at the time of purchase (T0) and at the end of shelf life (Tf).

Duplex PCR-lateral flow immunoassay for rapid and visual screening of Salmonella spp. and Vibrio cholerae for food safety assurance and hygiene surveillance

Salmonella and Vibrio cholerae are the deadliest foodborne pathogens, requiring effective routine screening for food safety assurance. Hence, a duplex polymerase chain reaction integrated with a lateral flow immunoassay (PCR-LFIA) was developed for rapid detections of Salmonella and V. cholerae to overcome the laborious, time-consuming, complicated, and costly limitations of standard bacterial culture.

Evidence of cadmium transport via the phloem in cacao seedlings

Background and aims It is unclear if cadmium (Cd) is loaded into cacao beans directly from the roots and stem or rather via reallocation from leaves and stem via the phloem.

The zebrafish embryo model: unveiling its potential for investigating phage therapy against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection

• Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy

Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Ahead of Print. Staphylococcus aureus is a pathogenic bacterium responsible for a broad spectrum of infections, including cutaneous, respiratory, osteoarticular, and systemic infections. It poses a significant clinical challenge due to its ability to develop antibiotic resistance.

• Staphylococcus aureus

Review on the extension of shelf life for fruits and vegetables using natural preservatives

• Thu, 06/20/2024 - 04:00

Fruits and vegetables are important for the nutrition and health of individuals. They are highly perishable in nature because of their susceptibility to microbial growth. Foodborne pathogens create a significant problem for consumers, food businesses, and food safety. Postharvest factors, including transportation, environment, and preservation techniques, cause a reduction in product quality. The present world is using synthetic preservatives, which have negative impacts on consumer health.

• Post Harvest

A Novel Fluorescence cross-priming Amplification Based on Universal Molecular Beacon for Rapid and Specific Detection of Salmonella enterica in food Samples

• Food Analytical Methods

A methodology with rapidity and specificity is of great significance for the effective control and management of outbreaks caused by Salmonella enterica as it has presented an obvious threat to food safety and public health worldwide.

Detection of AFB1 in corn by MXene paper‐based unlabeled aptasensor

This study developed an affordable electrochemical sensor using thin MXene sheets for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) detection. MXene was etched to form single or small layers, and a paper electrode was created via vacuum filtration. The sensor, with specific aptamer modification, showed wide detection range, selectivity, and reproducibility in detecting AFB1 in real samples.

Hepatitis A virus subtype IB outbreak among MSM in Hungary with a link to a frozen berry source

• Infection, Genetics and Evolution

Men who have sex with men (MSM) are at high risk of acquiring hepatitis A virus (HAV) and in recent years several HAV outbreaks mostly affecting MSM have been described. These outbreaks were caused by subtype IA strains circulating in this high-risk population. After years of low incidence, an outbreak among MSM in Hungary caused a significant increase in reported HAV infections in 2022.

Unveiling the biofloc culture potential: harnessing immune functions for resilience of shrimp and resistance against AHPND -causing Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection

• Fish & Shellfish Immunology

In shrimp aquaculture, disease mitigation may be accomplished by reducing the virulence of the pathogen or by boosting the shrimp's immunity. Biofloc technology is an innovative system that improves the health and resistance of shrimp to microbial infections while providing a viable option for maintaining the quality of culture water through efficient nutrient recycling.

Assessment of Proximate Composition, Heavy Metal Concentration, and Human Health Risk Associated with Wheat Cultivated in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh, India

• Water, Air, & Soil Pollution

This study investigated proximate composition and heavy metal concentration in wheat flour samples gathered from five districts of Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. The sample of Panchkula, Rohtak, Palwal, Dadri, Sirsa, Bhind, Neemuch, Bhopal, Khargone, and Anuppur are referred to as HR1, HR2, HR3, HR4, HR5, MP1, MP2, MP3, MP4, and MP5 respectively.

Regulation of nutrient use efficiency: Boon to wheat cultivar under co-impact of drought and arsenic

Background and aims

Measurement of Nutrient use efficiency (NUE) can be useful for evaluating crops under stressful conditions. The study aimed to elucidate the NUE regulation post-NP (Nitrogen and Phosphorus) supplementation under the combined effect of drought (D) and arsenic (As) stress in wheat seedlings.

Determination of trace amounts of metobromuron herbicide residues in fruits by QuEChERS and DLLME methods

• Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

Food products have the potential to contain herbicide residues that may pose a threat to human health and the environment, and the determination of these residues at trace levels is extremely important. In this study, a rapid, simple, accurate and environmentally friendly DLLME-QuEChERS method was developed for the sensitive determination of metobromuron at trace levels in coconut-strawberry samples. Mass spectrometry coupled to gas chromatography was used to perform the analysis.

• Pesticide residues

Prevalence and characterization of foodborne pathogens isolated from fresh-cut fruits and vegetables in Beijing, China

• Wed, 06/19/2024 - 04:00
• International Journal of Food Microbiology

Pre-cut fresh fruits and vegetables are highly appealing to consumers for their convenience, however, as they are highly susceptible to microbial contamination in processing, the potential risks of foodborne illnesses to public health are not negligible.

Disrupting quorum sensing as a strategy to inhibit bacterial virulence in human, animal, and plant pathogens

• Tue, 06/18/2024 - 04:00
• Pathogens and Disease

The development of sustainable alternatives to conventional antimicrobials is needed to address bacterial virulence while avoiding selecting resistant strains in a variety of fields, including human, animal, and plant health. Quorum sensing (QS), a bacterial communication system involved in noxious bacterial phenotypes such as virulence, motility, and biofilm formation, is of utmost interest.

Antiviral Activity of Natural Compounds for Food Safety

• Food and Environmental Virology

Gastroenteritis and hepatitis are the most common illnesses resulting from the consumption of food contaminated with human enteric viruses. Several natural compounds have demonstrated antiviral activity against human enteric viruses, such as human norovirus and hepatitis A virus, while little information is available for hepatitis E virus. Many in-vitro studies have evaluated the efficacy of different natural compounds against human enteric viruses or their surrogates.

Comparative Analysis of Maize Physico-Chemical Parameters and Mycotoxin Levels in Dual Environments

Maize (Zea mays L.) stands as a vital staple food globally, holding significant nutritional and economic value. However, its susceptibility to mycotoxin contamination under stressful environmental conditions poses a considerable concern. This study aimed to assess the quality and pasting characteristics of maize varieties across two distinct regions and examine the occurrence of mycotoxins influenced by climatic factors.

• Frontiers in Microbiology
• Food Microbiology
• Research Topics

Ensuring Food Safety and Quality in Sustainable Emerging Production Methods

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The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) present a universal mandate to end poverty, protect the planet and improve lives and prospects globally. Innovations along the Food Supply Chain are key to attaining the SDGs, ensuring food security while reducing the environmental impact of food production. With this aim, new strategies for producing, distributing and preserving food products have been developed during the last years. These strategies include the adoption of alternative technologies as well as the use of sensors, predictive models, and advanced data analytics. However, these novel strategies may inadvertently pave the way for the emergence of new pathogens or the adaptation of existing ones. Therefore, scientific efforts are required to ensure the quality and safety of food produced via these innovative, eco-friendly methods. This Research Topic seeks to highlight recent breakthroughs in the field of food safety and quality, with a particular focus on identifying the advantages and limitations of cutting-edge methods and strategies for controlling foodborne microorganisms. These include non-thermal preservation techniques, innovative food packaging technologies, and novel antimicrobial agents. We also consider innovative strategies such as the use of artificial intelligence and other data-driven systems to enhance food safety control systems, or the reuse of by-products to reduce the environmental impact of food production. We also encourage studies employing a multidisciplinary approach to provide a comprehensive understanding of the impact of such novel strategies on food security. This Research Topic welcomes submissions addressing the following research areas with an emphasis on food safety and quality: • Methods for detecting and controlling microbial hazards and spoilage in food; • Non-thermal technologies for controlling microbial food contaminants; • Development of antimicrobial compounds as potential substitutes for synthetic disinfectants; • Development of green strategies for food production that reduce the environmental impact; • Investigations on the revalorization of food by-products to implement circular economies; • Use of predictive models and data analytics to enhance the safety and sustainability of food production.

Keywords : Food Safety Techniques, Food Manufacturing, Artificial Intelligence in Food Safety, Green Technologies for Food Industry, Sustainable Practices, Revalorization of Food Waste, Microbial Hazards, Spoilage Microorganisms, Predictive Modelling

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• v.41(2); 2018 Apr

Food safety in the 21st century

a Division of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, USA

b Department of Occupational Medicine, Sharp HealthCare/Sharp Rees-Stealy Medical Group, San Diego, CA, USA

Huei-Shyong Wang

c Division of Pediatric Neurology, Chang Gung Children's Hospital at Linkou, Taoyuan, Taiwan

d College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan

Suresh Menon

e Department of Research and Development, Menon Biosensors Inc., Escondido, CA, USA

Food is essential to life, hence food safety is a basic human right. Billons of people in the world are at risk of unsafe food. Many millions become sick while hundreds of thousand die yearly. The food chain starts from farm to fork/plate while challenges include microbial, chemical, personal and environmental hygiene. Historically, documented human tragedies and economic disasters due to consuming contaminated food occurred as a result of intentional or unintentional personal conduct and governmental failure to safeguard food quality and safety. While earlier incidents were mainly chemical contaminants, more recent outbreaks have been due to microbial agents. The Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) attributed to these agents are most devastating to children younger than 5 years of age, the elderly and the sick. To ensure food safety and to prevent unnecessary foodborne illnesses, rapid and accurate detection of pathogenic agents is essential. Culture-based tests are being substituted by faster and sensitive culture independent diagnostics including antigen-based assays and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) panels. Innovative technology such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) coupled with nanoparticles can detect multiple target microbial pathogens' DNA or proteins using nucleic acids, antibodies and other biomarkers assays analysis. The food producers, distributors, handlers and vendors bear primary responsibility while consumers must remain vigilant and literate. Government agencies must enforce food safety laws to safeguard public and individual health. Medical providers must remain passionate to prevent foodborne illnesses and may consider treating diseases with safe diet therapy under proper medical supervision. The intimate collaboration between all the stakeholders will ultimately ensure food safety in the 21st century.

Introduction and historical perspective

Food safety is a basic human right.

Billions of people in the world are at risk of unsafe food. Many millions become sick while hundreds of thousands die every year because they consume unsafe food. Therefore, safe food saves lives. Safe food enhances individual and population health. Safe food improves economic growth of the region where food safety is practiced and enhanced. Safe food supply depends on both sound science and equitable law enforcement. With technological advances, new regulations must be enacted to protect a continuing supply of food products that are safe and wholesome for the health and wellness of people.

As the standard of living improves, concerns over food safety and potential contaminants will continue to be an important health issue. Consumers demand quality and safety of products they consume because food as energy and nutrient is necessary to sustain life. In general, consumers rely on government to ensure all food products not only are safe but are sold as what they claim to contain. For example, a jar of olive oil labeled as 100% virgin olive oil must contain exactly what the label says except the naturally occurring trace elements that are part of olive oil and which cannot be extracted or eliminated completely without destroying the olive oil.

Challenges and tragedies in food safety include chemical, biological, personal hygiene and environmentally related incidents. Historically, incidents of food products contaminated with industrial pollutants have been well documented. Japan, Iraq, United States and other nations experienced incidents where hundreds and thousands of people fell ill or died.

Most notorious is the Minamata disease (methylmercury poisoning) first discovered in 1956 around Minamata Bay in Kumamoto Prefecture, Japan. A second epidemic occurred in 1965 along the Agano River, in Niigata Prefecture, Japan. Symptoms of this disease included cerebellar ataxia, sensory disturbance, narrowing of the visual field, and hearing and speech disturbances. The discharged methyl mercury accumulated in fishes and shellfishes and caused poisoning on consumption [1] , [2] .

Before 1960, the local population in the Jinzu river basin of Japan suffered an endemic illness called “Itai–Itai” due to the residents in that area consumed rice contaminated with high level of cadmium. An investigation in 1961 determined that the Mitsui Mining and Smelting's Kamioka Mining Station caused the cadmium pollution and that the worst-affected areas were 30 km downstream of the mine. Not until 1968 the Ministry of Health and Welfare of Japan issued a formal statement about the symptoms of “itai–itai” disease is in fact caused by the cadmium poisoning [3] .

In 1968, a mass poisoning by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) occurred in northern Kyushu, Japan where rice oil that had become contaminated by heat-degraded PCBs during processing. These patients suffered a unique skin disease called chloracne. In addition, hepatic, reproductive, endocrine, neurobehavioral and carcinogenic effects have been described. The Illness was coined “Yusho” disease (literally oil syndrome). It should be noted that Yusho was not a deliberate contamination of cooking oil [4] , [5] .

In 1971–72, a large outbreak of mercury poisoning caused by the consumption of seed dressed with organomercury compounds occurred in Iraq. The source of organomercury came from seeds are treated with fungicides before planting, mainly to control infection by seed- or soil-borne fungi. Patients who consumed these seeds suffered tremor, confusion, hallucination, delusion and seizure [6] .

Similar food contamination incidents have appeared in Taiwan around 1979. It was discovered that cooking oil contaminated with PCBs and dibenzofurans (PCDFs) was sold to the public. The volume of contaminated oil and the nature of oil processing, packaging, labeling, distribution, sales, and usage were extensive that about 2000 people consumed contaminated eating oil. A recent study concludes that exposure to PCBs and PCDFs may increase mortality pattern even 3 decades later [7] . The short and long term health consequences of people consumed contaminated oil during recent (2014–5) oil incidents in Taiwan are yet to be studied.

In 1989, the United States Food & Drug Administration (US FDA) issued a “fats and oils” injunction against brokers buying and selling non-feed oils, such as waste industrial oil, and labeled them for animal feed use. One case evolved from findings PCB residue in turkeys marketed for human food. FDA field investigators traced the PCBs to waste oils from a chemical plant's scum pond, labeled “industrial waste not for animal feed use.” Further investigation showed that merchants “buy and sell” railcars and tankers of oils and invoice the products to feed manufacturers as feed grade regardless of source. The manufacturer might have blended it with other fats and oils so its original identity and any contaminants were greatly diluted. This US incident was not widespread because of the alert FDA field investigators program and state of the art food toxicology laboratory that stopped a major crisis [8] .

In the 21st century, food safety issues have not waned. Local outbreaks can turn into international emergencies due to the speed and range of product distribution. Serious foodborne disease outbreaks have occurred on every continent. In China alone, the 2008 contamination of infant formula with melamine affected 300,000 infants and young children, 51, 900 were hospitalized and 6 of whom died. In addition to renal damages, complications such as tumorigenesis or growth retardation in the future have been raised [9] , [10] .

In 2011, the Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli ( EHE coli ) outbreak in Germany linked to contaminated fenugreek sprouts, where cases were reported in 8 countries in Europe and North America, leading to 53 deaths. The 2011 E . coli outbreak in Germany caused US$ 1.3 billion in losses for farmers and industries and US$ 236 million in emergency aid payments to 22 European Union Member States [11] .

Unsafe food poses global health threats. The young, the elderly and the sick are particularly vulnerable. If food supplies are unsecured, population shifts to less healthy diets and consume more “unsafe foods” – in which chemical, microbiological and other hazards pose health risks, that in turn costs higher healthcare expenditure and drains national wealth [12] . In light of recurrent food contamination incidents, food safety in the 21st century should expand beyond improving nutritional profile, transparency of ingredients and regulations of unhealthy foods to include regular monitoring, surveillance and enforcement of food products in furtherance of the general public well-being and prevention of foodborne illnesses [13] . For up to date information, the Center for Science in the Public Interest provides comprehensive tracking and documentation of foodborne illness outbreaks since 1997  [14] .

Major challenges of food safety

Challenges of food safety include four major areas.

• • Microbiological Safety. Food by nature is biological. It is capable of supporting the growth of microbials that are potential sources of foodborne diseases. Viruses are more responsible for the majority of foodborne illnesses but hospitalizations and deaths associated with foodborne infections are due to bacterial agents. The illnesses range from mild gastroenteritis to neurologic, hepatic, and renal syndromes caused by either toxin from the disease-causing microbe. Foodborne bacterial agents are the leading cause of severe and fatal foodborne illnesses. Over 90% of food-poisoning illnesses are caused by species of Staphylococcus , Salmonella , Clostridium , Campylobacter , Listeria , Vibrio , Bacillus , and E . coli. For instance, in the US and France, in the last decade of the 20th century, Salmonella was the most frequent cause of bacterial foodborne illness accounting for 5700 to 10,200 cases, followed by Campylobacter for 2600 to 3500 cases and Listeria for 304 cases [15] .
• • Chemical Safety. Nonfood grade chemical additives, such as colorants and preservatives, and contaminants, such as pesticide residues, have been found in foods. Some food samples had higher levels of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, arsenic, mercury, and copper than average food samples, suggesting possible leaching from the utensils and inadequate food hygiene.
• • Personal Hygiene. Poor personal hygiene practices of food handler and preparers pose considerable risks to personal and public health. Simple activities such as thorough hand washing and adequate washing facilities can prevent many foodforne illnesses.
• • Environmental Hygiene. Inadequate recycling and waste disposal equipment and facilities lead to the accumulation of spoiled and contaminated food. This leads to an increased pest and insect population that can result in risk of food contamination and spoilage. Poor sanitary conditions in the area where foods are processed and prepared contribute to poor food storage and transport as well as selling of unhygienic food.

Why is safe food supply important?

A safe food supply is important because of significant disease burden as well as economic burden to the society and nation. In US alone, foodborne illnesses each year result in 325,000 hospitalizations and 5000 deaths [16] . Worldwide, it has been estimated that more than one billion (1,000,000,000) episodes of food poisoning-related diarrhea occur annually [16] ; these poisonings are responsible for the deaths of about 3 million children a year, mostly in underdeveloped regions.

Foodborne illnesses associated with microbial pathogens or other food contaminants pose serious health threat in developing and developed countries. WHO estimates less than 10% of foodborne illness cases are reported whereas less than 1% of cases are reported in developing nations [17] . In a recent report, WHO estimates 600 million foodborne illnesses and 420,000 deaths in 2010. The most frequent causes of foodborne illness were diarrheal disease agents, particularly norovirus and Campylobacter spp. Other major causes of foodborne deaths were Salmonella typhi , Taenia solium , hepatitis A virus, and mycotoxins especially aflatoxins [18] , [19] .

Children are disproportionately bearing this burden - accounting for an estimated half of foodborne illness cases annually. Children are also among those most at risk of associated death and serious lifelong health complications from foodborne diseases. They are at high risk for foodborne illness for a number of reasons. Children have developing immune systems that are not always well equipped to fight infection; they are often smaller in size than adults, reducing the amount of pathogen needed to make them sick; and children have limited control over their diets and lack the developmental maturity necessary to carefully judge food safety risks.

From economic perspective, access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is crucial to sustaining life, promoting good health and economic growth. According to one study, the average cost per case of foodborne illness (in US dollars) was $1626 for the enhanced cost-of-illness model and $1068 for the basic model. The resulting aggregated annual cost of illness was $77.7 billion and $51.0 billion for the enhanced and basic models, respectively. The study defines basic cost-of-illness model to include economic estimates for medical costs, productivity losses, and illness-related mortality. The enhanced cost-of-illness model replaces the productivity loss estimates with a more inclusive pain, suffering, and functional disability measure based on monetized quality-adjusted life year estimates [20] .

Major foodborne illnesses and burden

According to US Centers for Disease Control, foodborne diseases cause an estimated 48 million illnesses each year in the United States, including 9.4 million caused by known pathogens. The pathogen-commodity pairs most commonly responsible for outbreaks were scombroid toxin/histamine and fish (317 outbreaks), ciguatoxin and fish (172 outbreaks), Salmonella and poultry (145 outbreaks), and norovirus and leafy vegetables (141 outbreaks). The pathogen-commodity pairs most commonly responsible for outbreak-related illnesses were norovirus and leafy vegetables (4011 illnesses), Clostridium perfringens and poultry (3452 illnesses), Salmonella and vine-stalk vegetables (3216 illnesses), and C . perfringens and beef (2963 illnesses) [21] , [22] . Examples of unsafe food that commonly contain these hazards include uncooked foods of animal origin, fruits and vegetables contaminated with feces, raw shellfish and industrial pollution.

In a comprehensive estimation, the 2015 WHO report not only provides numbers of foodborne illnesses in terms of incidence but also number of deaths and Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) as a measure of burden due to foodborne related morbidity and mortality. The DALYs data are based on the metrics established by WHO and are consistent with the Global Burden of Disease project [18] . Together, these foodborne hazards caused an enormous human burden of 33 millions DALYs with 40% among children younger than 5 year-old. With substantial global burden of foodborne diseases and deaths, the impact is most significant among young children living in low income regions where food hygiene and water sanitation are below optimal standards. Therefore, improving microbial, personal, chemical and environmental health will improve overall health of children and adults alike. It should be noted that antimicrobial overuse and misuse in veterinary and human medicine has been linked to the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria, rendering the treatment of infectious diseases ineffective in animals and humans [24] .

From a global perspective, most foodborne pathogens and toxins, along with morbidity, mortality and health burden are summarized in Table 1 . Commonly encountered microbial pathogens and toxins include the following categories. A brief description of their illnesses is provided below for a quick reference.

• • Bacteria: Salmonella , Campylobacter , and Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli ( EHE coli ) are among the most common foodborne pathogens. Symptoms include fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhea. Sources of salmonellosis include eggs, poultry and other products of animal origin. Foodborne Campylobacter is caused by raw milk, raw or undercooked poultry and drinking water . EHE coli are associated with unpasteurized milk, undercooked meat and fresh fruits and vegetables. Listeria infection increases the risk of spontaneous abortions and stillbirths. Listeria is found in unpasteurized dairy products and various ready-to-eat foods and can grow at refrigeration temperatures. Vibrio cholerae infects people through contaminated water or food. Symptoms include abdominal pain, vomiting and profuse watery diarrhea, which may lead to severe dehydration and possibly death. Rice, vegetables, millet gruel and various types of seafood have been implicated in cholera outbreaks.
• • Viruses: Norovirus infections are characterized by nausea, explosive vomiting, watery diarrhea and abdominal pain. Food handlers infected with Hepatitis A virus are common source of contamination and spreads typically through raw or undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce.
• • Parasites: Some parasites, such as fish-borne trematodes, are only transmitted through food. Others, for example Echinococcus spp, may infect people through food or direct contact with animals. Other parasites, such as Ascaris , Cryptosporidium , Entamoeba histolytica or Giardia , enter the food chain via water or soil and can contaminate fresh produce.
• • Worms: Cestodes, nematodes, trematodes and helminths are worms most prevalent in regions where food preparation and storage, personal hygiene, water sanitation and environmental health are not routinely practiced Even though worm related foodborne illness are not as fatal as virus and bacteria, they account for a substantial burned to foodborne disability.
• • Chemicals: Naturally occurring toxins and environmental pollutants have caused many outbreaks. In addition, chemical residues used to eradicate or control pests and worms can be an independent risk of foodborne hazard. Mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, cyanogenic glycosides and poisonous mushrooms are all natural toxins. Staple foods like corn or cereals can contain high levels of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin. A long-term exposure can affect the immune system and normal development, or cause cancer. Environmental pollutants are becoming major concerns for pediatricians and public health practitioners. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that accumulate in the environment and human body. Dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are byproducts of industrial processes and waste incineration. They are found in the environment and accumulate in animal food chains. Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental problems, damage the immune system, interfere with hormones and cause cancer. Finally, heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury can cause neurological and kidney damage. Contamination by heavy metals in food occurs mainly through environmental pollution of air, water and soil.

Common foodborne pathogens and their medical and economic impacts.

The Uncertainty Intervals (UI) are not shown

Diagnostic advances to ensure food safety

Due to the globalization of the world's food trade, food has become a major pathway for human exposure to pathogenic microbials responsible for foodborne illness entering at many points along the value chain [23] . Thus, tracking and detecting microbials especially pathogenic bacteria in foods back to their sources pose challenges to producer, processor, distributor, and consumer of food alike. In addition, clinicians and epidemiologists are frequently confronted with diagnostic and treatment uncertainty of patients with potential foodborne infectious diseases at the point of care.

Rapid and accurate detection of foodborne pathogens is essential for public health bio-surveillance to prevent foodborne infections and ensure the safety of foods. Detection methods of microbials have improved over time [25] , [26] , [27] . Generally speaking, culture-based tests are being substituted by faster and more sensitive culture-independent diagnostic tests such as antigen-based assays and PCR panels [28] . However, these tests are used mainly in the public health laboratories not readily available for practitioners in the industry and clinical fields.

Non-culture based applications are gaining importance mainly because of their relatively quick results when compared with culture based methodologies. There are several diagnostic technologies to detecting pathogenic microbes such as Salmonella and Vibrio spp in animals and food. Ideally, microbial pathogens and contaminants can be detected at relatively low cost in the field because of assay and instrument simplicity. This will ensure higher sampling efficiency of analyte of interest as a result of higher sample measurement volume, detects with near 100% specificity and accuracy as a result of orthogonal measurement [29] of biomarkers with flexibility in sample type such as soil, feces, animal tissue, fruits, water and blood. The goals are savings in time due to higher speed of detection and savings to overhead expenses. However, Point of Need Test (PONT) devices for field diagnostics do not exist for many of the pathogens of interest in agriculture, animal farming, aquaculture, wild caught animals, and food safety in general.

• • NMR-nanotechnology

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) nanotechnology platform detects multiple target microbials hybridizing to pathogen's DNA or protein in same the device chamber that runs assays using nucleic acid, antibodies, and other biomarkers [30] . Orthogonal confirmatory tests can be achieved via multiple biomarkers of single microbial in same detection device. This raises specificity and accuracy thus serving as both screening and confirming tool at the same time. It has a dynamic range of 8 log before saturation, more sensitive than other systems due to standard amplification process plus signal amplification through the nanoparticles. Hence, this technology increases the sensitivity and specificity of detecting target microbial. End point PCR can be applied on DNA amplification while antibody ligands method can be used for protein structure amplification. Multiplexing with large sample volume enables multiple biomarker measurements to be analyzed thus further increases specificity of the detection method.

• • PCR-based

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) based assay enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) and instruments rely on extensive enrichment (up to 24 h) to produce enough cells for detection. Following enrichment, the assay requires DNA amplification and detection. The entire process from enrichment through detection may take several hours to days. Because of sample preparation processes and ancillary lab equipment (shakers, incubators, microplate readers) such detection system may not be practical as PONT devices. Another commonly utilized technology is based on either standard or real-time PCR (qPCR) depending on the instrument and takes up to 3.5 h for detection. The system is limited to using PCR method thus unable to perform multiple biomarkers detection. Table 2 provides an example of comparing two non-culture based detection systems for Salmonella [31] , [32] . The commercial testing brand names are not mentioned in this analysis.

Provides an example of comparing two non-culture based detection systems for Salmonella .

Medical provider's role in food therapy

Most medical professionals have focused on the treatment of diseases without seeking which are caused by long-term exposure to problematic food and food products. Some dietitians tend to keep counting the calories of macronutrients without considering chemicals adding in the food and food product that have no nutrient values. The food industry for business reasons may look mainly for continuous profit over the health of general population. Many diseases could be prevented or treated with appropriate and safe food under proper medical supervision. Ketogenic diet therapy for epilepsy is a good example. This medical food therapy began at least 100 years ago, but was abandoned gradually over the next five decades because of the appearance of antiepileptic drugs [33] , [34] . This approach has been revived about 20 years ago because 40% of epileptic patients are resistant to antiepileptic medications. As a result of medically promising indications of the ketogenic diet, it is expanding its therapeutic efficacy from epilepsy to diabetes mellitus, malignancies, and many selective neurodegenerative disorders [35] , [36] , [37] . Therefore, the important role of medical providers in food therapy cannot be over emphasized. The late Professor Ja-Liang Lin, aka Lin Chieh-liang [38] , renowned toxicologist–nephrologist left behind an important legacy that serves as a role model [39] for medical professionals to exercise the duty to improve and safeguard food quality and safety of Taiwan and international community for many years to come.

Government's role to regulate and enforce food safety

Safe food supply depends on both sound science and equitable law enforcement. Periodically, new laws and regulations must be enacted to further protect a continuing supply of food products that are safe and wholesome for the health and wellness of people.

In most countries, the overarching goal of having Food and Drug Administration (FDA) or similar agency is to take responsibility for compliance of food safety law to ensure a three-fold aim in protecting public health and safety: (1) inform citizens of nutrition and components of important food products; (2) enforce existing laws and regulations on food industry to ensure supply of safe food products; and (3) investigate and eliminate potential toxic contaminants and prosecute economic fraud via regular monitoring and surveillance on chain of food supply.

Once the laws are enacted, they must be enforced to ensure compliance by the entire food industry including industries that are directly or indirectly connected with the food source, labeling, packaging, transportation, distribution down to retail sales. The FDA is given resources and authority to write rules and regulations, assemble experts both as agency employees or consultants so to fulfill the three-prong aim of informing, enforcing and eliminating any food related safety and risk.

All governmental agencies involved in potential food chain supply must be given resources and authorities to discharge the 3-fold duty of (1) inform, (2) enforce, and (3) eliminate as described above. In addition to FDA, other governmental agencies collaborations are required. For example, US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is in charge of safe drinking water, clean air, and nontoxic natural resources such as soil and land; the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) is in charge of ensuring animal and plant health, as well as food and nutrition services; and Immigration and Customs Enforcement of US Department of Justice are all involved in stopping illegal and contaminated toxic substances. Therefore, to enforce food safety, inter-agency sharing of information and database is necessary [40] . Some have proposed to expand FDA's discretionary authority as part of the anti-terrorism in the post-9/11 period, particularly with respect to FDA's authority to monitor and publicize potential health risks linked to food, dietary supplements, nonprescription drugs, and other consumer health products [41] .

To equitably enforce food safety laws, sound science must be the basis of setting the regulations and protocols to inform, enforce and eliminate unsafe foods. Risk assessment is a scientific process that puts the concern about food contaminations in proper perspective. As the purpose of scientific risk calculation is to get the best estimate of the true risk using available and current information.

Generally, to assure the public safety, regulatory agencies go beyond scientific risk. To calculate regulatory risk, agencies first start with the scientific risk level. Then, the maximum consumption is estimated as if that item is consumed daily for a person's entire lifetime. This risk is multiplied by a factor of 100 or 1000 [42] , [46] as additional safety factor for the vulnerable individuals. Animal toxicology studies and any available human reports and studies are extensively reviewed and analyzed for relevancy and validity. The sponsor (usually the food manufacturer) must establish scientifically that the substance is safe and free from contamination. The sponsor must also demonstrate that any residues remaining in a food product pose no threat to human health, both acutely and chronically. If toxicological studies raise the suspicion that a contaminant may cause cancer, the agency may require the sponsor to conduct chronic feeding studies in animals. If the results show that the chemical causes cancer, the FDA uses a conservative risk assessment procedure to determine how much contaminant presents the consumer with no significant risk of cancer. Under this procedure the FDA allows the upper limit of lifetime risk of cancer to be one in one million (that is, if one million consumers ingested the contaminant for their entire lifetime of 70 years, one of them might get cancer from the drug/chemical residue). Such a risk is approximately 10 times less than the risk of being struck by lightning [42] , [43] , [44] , [45] , [46] , [47] .

Programs and tools to ensure the safety of food supply

In general, periodic food monitoring provides a 95% assurance that microbial or chemical contaminant of any targeted food is detected if it occurs in more than 1% of product lots. Food surveillance is used to investigate and control the movement of potentially contaminated products. The field inspectors are granted the power of the agency vested by the executive branch of the government. Anonymous tips may trigger some food products for surveillance testing if they appear reasonably suspicious of foul play such as unclear labeling, or coming from questionable sources. Contaminants above legal limits are to be re-tested in split samples given to two separate laboratories to ensure fairness. Food safety inspector has responsibility to inspect foods during packaging, labeling, processing and distribution and storage. Similarly, inspector of different training may assume responsibility when the food products are in the grocery store or in retails.

The voluntary report of “accidental” exposure program has worked well in many countries. Food products may accidentally be exposed to contaminants without any deliberate or knowingly use contaminated products such as microbial, pesticides, industrial chemicals or natural toxicants. In such event, the merchant or manufacturer may voluntarily report such contamination to FDA. FDA may then send specially trained consultant to provide regulatory and scientific assistance to the food industry. Depending on the nature and extent of consultation, consultant or laboratory fees may be assessed to be paid by the company owner or corporation [48] .

In the US, programs such as the Food Safety and Inspection Service (FSIS) ensure safety of current and future food supply must be implemented. Regular monitoring, surveillance and voluntary report or recall are all part of risk management that will minimize mishaps and ensure safe food supply [50] . The Pathogen Reduction/Hazard Analysis & Critical Control Points System has been implemented by US FDA so that food safety risks are addressed more adequately and the allocation of inspection resources is improved further [48] , [49] , [50] .

The future food safety

Safe food provides basic human necessity. It supports national economy, trade and tourism, contributes to nutrition security, and underpins sustainable development. Globalization has triggered growing consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, resulting in an increasingly complex and longer global food chain. As the world's population grows, the intensification and industrialization of agriculture and animal production to meet increasing demand for food creates both opportunities and challenges for food safety. The food producers, distributors, handlers and vendors must bear the primary responsibility to ensure food safety. Consumers should remain vigilant and literate on food safety issues. Government agencies such as FDA and EPA are the legal enforcers to protect public health and safety. They must enforce the law equitably and with fairness.

The legal professionals appear to be more active in advocating food safety in the global market. The medical and healthcare professionals should be equally passionate to take the lead in addressing food safety. After all, safe and nutritious food implies healthier population. Regardless of who is taking the lead in food safety, in the end, a close collaboration between all the stakeholders should be the goal in achieving a meaningful food safety for every person in a global perspective [51] , [52] , [53] , [54] , [55] .

In summary, food safety and nutrition are closely connected. Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition affecting infants, young children, elderly and the sick. Because food supply chains cross multiple national and regional borders, collaboration between governments, producers, suppliers, distributors and consumers will ultimately ensure food safety in the 21st century.

Conflicts of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Peer review under responsibility of Chang Gung University.