how to write an essay on comic books

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10 Tips for Writing an Extended Essay on Comic Books

Over the past few decades, comic books have emerged as an art form with a serious purpose and an adult audience. Today, thousands of comics are published in a variety of print and online formats. Consequently, a growing number of writers are producing extended essays in which they attempt to analyze and understand the complex world of comics and the audiences who consume them. However, the longer the essay, the more difficult it can be to sustain a good idea over many pages. In this post, we’ll look at ten tips for writing an extended essay on comic books to help you produce the best possible essay when you start writing about comics.

1. Read comics. It may serve to state the obvious, but you need to actually read comics in order to write about them. Before you begin your essay, start by reading the comics you are writing about. The more that you read, the more you will understand the overarching themes and ideas that animate the comics industry. If you don’t have time to read every issue, choose a representative sampling so you can get a sense of how the comic has changed over time.

2. Read what others have written. It’s important to know what other people have written about the same comics you’re writing about. There is no point in writing a massive essay only to discover that someone else has already written about the same topic. Instead, carefully review the literature so you can develop your own unique ideas.

3. Understand what is unique about comics. Comics are a unique art form, but it is important to understand what makes them different from other types of literature. Your essay should highlight these differences and adjust the theoretical underpinnings to account for the differences and to ensure that your explanatory analysis fits the topic.

4. Outline your essay. Before you start writing, begin with an outline. This will help you to stay on track and will also help to ensure that you are pacing out the main topics of your essay evenly across its length in order to sustain the reader’s interest. You don’t want to run out of ideas before you get to the end.

5. Collect your research before you write. Gather and organize your research before you start writing. By pulling out key quotes and developing your ideas about what information you’ll need and how to use it, you’ll be able to write more quickly and efficiently without stopping to gather more facts.

6. Save the introduction for the end. The introduction is often the most difficult part to write, especially if you aren’t entirely sure where your paper is going. If you save it until the end of the essay, you can create a more comprehensive and compelling introduction because you already know how the paper is going to end. That way you’ll be able to set the reader up to expect the ending you have coming for them.

7. Remember to request permission for illustrations. Comic book art is generally protected by copyright except for some older titles whose copyrights were not renewed on time or have expired. Always obtain permission from the copyright holder before reproducing any comic art in an essay to ensure that you stay on the right side of the law. While reproducing a single panel is often considered fair use, there are some companies that can be very litigious and many not see it that way. Save yourself legal fees by doing things the right way.

8. Take breaks as you write. > Writing an essay from start to finish in one sitting is a recipe for disaster. Avoid stress and keep your mind fresh by taking breaks between sections of the essay to give yourself a chance to rest and refresh.

9. Proofread carefully. It’s always a good idea to revise and proofread several times. The longer the essay, the more likely you are to miss something important after just one proofread. Try reading sentences in reverse order to give yourself a fresh perspective and catch lingering errors.

10. Seek out professional help. If all else fails and your extended essay isn’t quite coming together, look for someone who could provide you with professional essay writing help online to get you over the hump. There are many great pros online who are willing to help you develop your paper into the best it can be.

About Author

Giovanni Aria

Geo, is the Guido of Greatness, the King of Comics and the Toa of Techies. Its not cool until Geo certifies it cool. He likes everything from Archie to WWE and everything in-between, as long as its funny, edgey, or over the top exciting.

See author's posts

Columns > Published on June 11th, 2012

Don't Write Comics: How To Write Comics Part 1

Don't Write Comics is a multi-part essay about writing comics, understanding what your options are, finding the right artist, and everything you need to do to get a strong comic book pitch package together.

If you’re interested in comics solely because you think it might be easy or that it might be a shortcut to another end (like having a movie made of your comic) let me just stop you right here and point you towards the exit.  While it's true that some screenplays get reverse engineered into comics, and then after being successful comics are turned into successful films (30 Days of Night springs to mind), there's nothing "quick and easy" about making comics. In fact, if you’re not well connected to artists (and possibly some publishers) and/or willing to lay out your own money upfront in some cases, then it can be the very opposite of quick and easy. In order to make good comics, I truly believe you have to already love comics. It’s the love that’s going to get you through.

IDENTIFY WHAT YOU’RE WRITING

So you’ve made it this far…which means you either do have a love of comics, or you’ve decided to ignore my advice - in which case I’m not sure why you’re reading on, but whatever, you’re here!

First and foremost, I would suggest identifying what kind of book best fits your idea. Because we are assuming you are not already a well-established comics professional, we’re going to assume that you’re not pitching an ongoing series (i.e. a comic series that has no definitive end).  In fact, let’s just list out what your options are and we’ll go from there.

One-Shot: A one-shot is simply that, it’s one comic book (generally between 20 and 22 pages depending on the publisher) that tells a complete story. This is probably not the venue for you as one-shots are not only very difficult to do successfully, they are also not a great jumping in point unless you’ve been commissioned to do one.

Anthologies : Anthologies are collections of short comic stories. And it's one of the best ways to get your foot in the door -- creating a solid short piece and getting it accepted to an anthology, or banding together with talented similarly motivated friends to create an anthology of your own. Short comic stories, just like prose, take a very particular set of skills, but getting a publisher to take a chance on you for one short piece (a short story could range anywhere from one page to more than a dozen) can be easier since they're risking less page space (and money) on an unknown.

Mini-Series: A mini-series is also exactly what it sounds like. It’s a small series of single issue comics – most mini-series run from 4 to 6 issues in length (so if you figure 22 pages per issue you’re looking at between 88 and 132 pages total). There are some 3-issue minis out there as well as the rare 7 or 8-issue series. Anything at 9-issues or above likely falls into a “Maxi-series” category, these are less common and generally run between 9 and 12 issues. 

Ongoing: An ongoing comic is a comic that has no intended end. While it will likely end at some point, it is not designed that way. It is open-ended and continuing. Like a one-shot, this is usually not the kind of book you want to pitch unless you are established already or have been asked to pitch (in which case, why are you reading this? You already know what you're doing).  An ongoing, depending on the ownership of the concept and characters, can continue on, even once the creative team leaves.  For example Batman is an ongoing title.

Trade Paperback aka TPB aka Trade : Trade Paperbacks are collections of single issues that come in two forms. The first collects an arc from an ongoing run, and packages it as one volume. The second collects a completed mini-series into one volume. Most publishers these days like to release a mini-series in single issues and then, once the entire series has released, they will bundle it together into a trade and release it for a price that is slightly less than buying the issues individually. Many publishers have adopted this method of late as it not only allows them to sell the book twice – once as a monthly, and once as a trade - but it also makes it easier to get those trades onto bookstore and library shelves. To add a bit of confusion, technically a Trade Paperback can also be a Hardcover, but is usually still called a Trade (see the Batwoman hardcover edition below). Sometimes collected trades include an intro or foreward. They can also include additional material like covers, sketches, and notes from creators.

Graphic Novel: A graphic novel is considered a longer comic book and it's designed to be released as one volume, as opposed to smaller pieces. Graphic Novels are published by both comics’ publishers and by regular publishing houses with regularity. Graphic Novels are all the rage these days, and they're great things, but you should understand that they're essentially longer and complete comic books. Comics is not a bad word, though in comparison to the much more hip "graphic novel" it seems to have become one.

Webcomic : There are a million ways to do webcomics these days. From posting randomly on a blog or tumblr, to posting with a weekly or daily schedule, from releasing a page at a time that appears like a regular comics page and contributes to a larger story, to releasing only fully realized strips. There are many sites that host webcomics, and there are some VERY successful webcomics out there – like Kate Beaton’s Hark A Vagrant! – which is brilliant. But like any other medium, there's a lot of dreck out there, so while this avenue might eliminate the publisher for you, you’ll still have to find a way to rise to the top and get noticed, which can be difficult.

Most people writing a comic for the first time should aim for the mini-series category, which, if you do it correctly, can also overlap with Graphic Novels, giving you a little more flexibility about where you can pitch and how you can organize things.  We’re going to talk more about how to actually write the comic in the next installment, but you should definitely be thinking a bit about length here. CAN you tell your story in 132 pages? If not, what’s it going to take?

After identifying how you should package your story, you should certainly identify what your genre is. Though I like to assume anyone that does any kind of writing knows the difference between medium and genre, I will admit that I’ve come across a lot of people that get confused about these two categories when it comes to comics, so I’ll break it down just in case.  The medium is comics. Period. The genre can be anything from memoir or horror to superhero to western. You should definitely know, with ease, what genre your story falls under, or if it’s a hybrid of a couple genres – like a superhero comedy, etc.

There are other things to consider here as they relate to the artwork inside, tone, color, font, panel layout, etc., but we’ll cross that bridge when we get to it, further down in the process.

READ, READ, READ

If you are already a big comics fan, then you probably have already done all the reading you need to do, but if you’re fairly new to the medium then I suggest, the same way I would for prose, that the best education is reading a lot of great comics. Reading great comics can teach you all kinds of things about how much text works on a page, what kind of visuals might be a good fit for your story, and perhaps most importantly, pacing. Pacing is, for my money, one of the single greatest things that differentiate a great comic book from a good comic book. And while a lot of this is going to have to do with your artist (and picking the correct artist) down the line, you can really set the pace and tone by how you initially lay out the story in your script, thus guiding your artist to the result you’re looking for. 

I would suggest reading a wide breadth of comics, so you can get a feel for everything that’s out there, but you should certainly look at books in your genre especially closely. Really examine what works and doesn’t work and why, the same way you would with prose. And while reading great books is always helpful, sometimes reading mediocre or bad books can be equally as helpful in illustrating what not to do. While I don’t urge people to waste money on bad comics, a day spent at a comic book store, reading through a lot of different books (but make sure to buy some good ones – support your local comic book store!) can teach you a lot. The library is also a great resource if you have one with a good comics & graphic novel section. Every book I mentioned above I'd recommend reading, as well as these and these !

GETTING PROFESSIONAL HELP

Writing comics is simply not the same as writing prose. Though it's closer to writing screenplays, it's still quite a bit different, even when it comes to formatting. So you may need some more specific (and more professional) help as you continue your research. While there is certainly a deluge of information out there, much of it bad, some of it is also very good. One book on my reading list when I was at the Savannah College of Art and Design studying comics (yes, that’s an actual major, if you’re insane, as I apparently am) was Scott McCloud’s Understanding Comics . It was then, and is now, one of the best books I’ve ever read about comics. It breaks down both the broad and the detailed into easy to understand pieces. It’s a book I would never part with and have referred to frequently over the years. If there is a single book you buy in your attempt to begin writing comics, this is the book.

If you’re looking for a little more guidance, I’ve found Alan Moore’s Writing For Comics is a great resource about the writing side of comics, and Jessica Abel and Matt Madden’s Mastering Comics , a sequel of sorts to their popular Drawing Words & Pictures is also good. Mastering Comics is not for the light of heart, as it’s more like a great textbook and includes activities, homework, and even extra credit.

So now you have your story idea, an idea of what format it should be, what genre you’re working in, and you’ve researched your competition and looked at some educational books…I think you’re ready to write.

So come back next month to figure out where to begin. I’ll be using an example from a mini-series pitch I put together with artist Meredith McClaren this past spring to help illustrate some of the hurdles we faced and how we solved them.

About the author

Kelly Thompson is the author of two crowdfunded self-published novels. The Girl Who Would be King (2012), was funded at over $26,000, was an Amazon Best Seller, and has been optioned by fancy Hollywood types. Her second novel, Storykiller (2014), was funded at nearly $58,000 and remains in the Top 10 most funded Kickstarter novels of all time. She also wrote and co-created the graphic novel Heart In A Box (2015) for Dark Horse Comics. Kelly lives in Portland Oregon and writes the comics A-Force, Hawkeye, Jem & The Holograms, Misfits, and Power Rangers: Pink. She's also the writer and co-creator of Mega Princess, a creator-owned middle grade comic book series. Prior to writing comics Kelly created the column She Has No Head! for Comics Should Be Good.

She's currently managed by Susan Solomon-Shapiro of Circle of Confusion.

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Subject and Course Guides

Graphic novels, comics, and manga.

• Comics @ WMU
• Graphic Novels @ WMU
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• Online Resources and Collections
• Researching Comics, BN, & Manga

Citing Graphic Novels in MLA

Citing comics in mla, comics, graphic novels, and manga in apa.

There are many debates about how to cite comics, graphic novels, etc. Traditional citation formats do not always include what typical comic, graphic novel, and manga fans value such as the artists and scriptwriter. These are some suggested ways to cite your sources. When selecting a citation format, keep in mind your audience and any restrictions (from your instructor or publisher).

Citing Graphic Novels and Manga in MLA

Most follow the basic form as a book but special cases are explained below. See Section 5.5.12 of the  MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers   for more information.

Basic Format

Author’s last name, first name.  Title of work . Publication city: Publisher, year. Medium of publication.

Author as Artist/Illustrator

In a graphic novel, text and illustrations are intermingled. The entry in the works-cited list for a graphic novel entirely created by one person follows the same format as any other non-periodical print publication

Barry, Lynda.  What It Is . Montreal: Drawn & Quarterly, 2008. Print.

Collaborative Works (different author, artist/illustrator)

For graphic novels created through collaboration, start with the person whose contribution is most relevant to your research , following it with a label identifying the person’s role. List other collaborators after the title in the order in which they appear on the title page, also with labels identifying their roles.

Pekar, Harvey, writer.  The Quitter . Art by Dean Haspiel. Gray tones by Lee Loughridge. Letters by Pat Brosseau. New York: Vertigo-DC Comics, 2005. Print.

Robertson, David.  7 Generations: A Plains Cree Saga . Illus. Scott B. Henderson. Winnipeg: HighWater Press, 2012. Print.

(Illus is the abbreviation for illustrator)

Multi-Volume Work 

If the graphic novel is part of a multi-volume work, you may add information about the series following the medium of publication. 

Miller, Frank.  Just Another Saturday Night . Milwaukie, OR: Dark Horse Books, 2005. Print. Vol. 6 of Frank Miller’s Sin City: Booze, Broads, & Bullets . 

Content adapted from  http://www.comicsresearch.org/CAC/cite.html

Citing Comics and Cartoons in MLA

See Section 5.7.9 of the  MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers    for more information.

Basic Format

Lastname, Firstname. “Name of comic.” Comic Strip.  Source of Comic . Date comic published. Print.

Example Cartoon

Gross, Sam. Cartoon.  New Yorker . 23 May 2011: 28. Print.

Example Comic Strips

McDonnell, Patrick. "Mutts." Comic strip.  San Francisco Chronicle. 25 June 2011: E7. Print.

Krahulik, Mike and Jerry Holkins. “Penny Arcade.” Web Comic.  Penny-arcade.com. 28 Jan. 2011. Web. 15 Feb. 2011.

How APA Addresses Illustrated Works

This post by the APA describes how they recommend citing children's books and other illustrated works

Author, A. (Year). Series: Story Name, vol (no) (A. Author, Illus.). Publisher.

Straczynski, J. M. (2007). Thor: Special Delivery, 3 (5) (O. Coipel, & M. Morales, Illus.). Marvel Comics.

What a Comic Book Professional Recommends

This blog post by Dr. Travis Langley describes his recommendations for citing comic books and graphic novels.

Series or graphic novel title issue number if any (year, month/season if identified). "Story title if any." Script: Writer(s). Art: Penciller(s), inker(s). Publisher.

Thor vol 3 #5 (2007, December 28). "Special Delivery." Script: J. M. Straczynski. Art: O. Coipel, & M. Morales. Marvel Comics.

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The Hooded Utilitarian

A pundit in every panopticon, analyzing comics 101: visual sentence vs. page layout.

Having taught my spring term seminar Superheroes a half dozen times now, I’m converting it to one of the gateway courses for Washington and Lee students entering the English major. The overhaul means jettisoning the pre-history of the genre (I love that stuff, but I could just hand my students  On the Origin of Superheroes and be done with it) and focusing much more on comics as an art medium. So I’m trying to boil down the basics, the must-know criteria for analyzing a comic book.

So now it’s time to invite Neil Cohn to the lectern. If you haven’t read his The Visual Language of Comics , please do. Meanwhile, here’s my boiling down of his visual language grammar.

Narrative panel types : images may be categorized according to the kinds of narrative information they contain and how that information creates a visual sentence when read in sequence:

Orienter : introduces context for a later interaction (no tension).

Establisher : introduces elements that later interact (no tension).

Initial : begins the interactive tension.

Prolongation : continues the interactive tension.

Peak : high point of interactive tension.

Release : aftermath of interactive tension.

Cohn only looks at comic strips, which typically express a single sentence in a linear arrangement of three or four panels, but longer graphic narratives can express multiple sentences on a single page or extend a single visual sentence over multiple pages.  To analyze the different ways that can work, I’m adding some terminology to Cohn’s.

Closed sentences : two sentences that begin and end without sharing panels.

Overlapping sentences : sentences that share panels.

Interrupted sentence : an overlapping sentence that does not complete or initiate its tension before another sentence replaces it; sentences might share an Orienter, or an Establisher may introduce two elements that do not interact until later as a form foreshadowing.

Dual-function panel : in overlapping sentences, one panel performs two narrative functions. A panel may, for example, serve as the Release of one sentence and also the Orienter, Establisher, or Initial of the next. Or an Orienter may  serve as the Establisher of an interrupted sentence that initializes tension later.

Sentence Layout : the relationship of visual sentences to pages.

Page sentence : a sentence that begins with the page’s first panel and ends with the page’s final panel.

Multi – page sentence : a sentence that extends beyond one page.

End stop : a page and a visual sentence end simultaneously.

Enjambed : a page ends before the visual sentence ends, also called a visual  cliff-hanger .

This is all awfully abstract, so let me give specific examples from The Walking Dead again.

Robert Kirkman and Tony Moore like enjambment . Their first issue includes several  cliff-hangers.  The bottom row of page five begins with an Establisher (introducing the door to the already established figure of Rick), is followed by an Initial panel (Rick removes the piece of wood holding the door closed), and ends with a Peak (Rick is opening the door).

But the Release  only appears after turning to page six. That full-page panel is also a dual-function panel because it serves as the Establisher  (introducing the zombies to the already established Rick) for the next, overlapping sentence .

The turn from page nine to ten is similar. The first panel in the bottom row of page nine is an Establisher (Rick and the bicycle), followed by the page-ending Peak of Rick’s shocked reaction. The top of page ten provides the Release (we finally see what he sees).

A similar grammatical pattern repeats on pages thirteen and fourteen. The first panel in the bottom row of thirteen is an  Orienter . The second is an Establisher (Rick’s face seems to be reacting to something, a sound presumably), and the last panel is an Initial . Turn the page, and there’s the Peak .

The visual grammar also shows that cliff-hangers only work on the final panel of a two-page spread, in order to prevent a reader’s eye from skimming to the critical image prematurely (which happens in my arrangements above).

Also, Moore and Kirkman don’t always enjamb their visual sentences. Page one, for instance, ends on a Peak . The page also begins with an Initial , followed by four Prolongation panels. Page one is a complete  page sentence , both beginning and ending on a single page.   

Instead of a Release , the next page begins with an Orienter  (Rick in his hospital room) for the next visual sentence, which does not overlap.

In terms of interrupted sentences , page ten begins a new visual sentence with the top Establisher (introducing the bicycle zombie to the already established Rick), followed by two Initials (Rick and the zombie interact) in the second. The bottom row begins with two  Prolongations , followed by a Peak (Rick’s tear) and a Release (the zombie closes its mouth).

The visual sentence appears to have ended when the next page begins a new sentence with no further interaction between Rick and the zombie. So page ten reads as a complete  page sentence , until the bottom of page twenty-three continues the interaction with a  Prolongation panel, retroactively showing that the visual sentence was interrupted .

Page twenty-four provides a new Peak (Rick shoots the zombie), followed by two Release panels (Rick looking down, the zombie with a bullet hole in its forehead).

Rick’s tear is also a Prolongation of his tear on page ten, an additional overlapping sentence  that reaches its Peak in the next panel when Rick wipes the tear away. The final three panels are Releases . They’re also their own overlapping, three-panel sentence: Initial (Rick and the car), Peak (Rick gets into the car), and Release (car has driven off).

4 thoughts on “ Analyzing Comics 101: Visual Sentence vs. Page Layout ”

Chris, fun to see you using the narrative grammar to analyze some sequences with my theory! I enjoyed your previous post on page layouts quite a bit, as it interfaces with a lot of work we’ve done recently. I’d like to respond to a few things in your post if you don’t mind…

I used the grammar to discuss strips, just because they are easier to show the structures because they are shorter. My recent paper uses mostly examples extracted from longer books, and discusses more complex structures of the narrative grammar:

http://www.thevisuallinguist.com/2015/10/new-paper-narrative-conjunctions.html

I use linear layouts just because they are easier to put tree structures on top of. Actually, they don’t require linear sequences at all. The narrative structure is separate from the page layout, which means that single narrative grammatical structures can cross pages, as you discuss. The page layouts follow a different structure (in the book in Chapter 5), which interfaces with the narrative. This linkage is discussed in this article:

http://journal.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00680/full

The terms you discuss are interesting additions for describing things, and are in line with a lot of what we’ve considered (which is nice!). In some of the cases, it sounds like you’re labeling surface aspects of where a bigger hierarchy connects things together (like the overlapping or interrupted sentences). Finally, you might also be interested in my recent “tutorial” for applying the narrative grammar:

http://www.thevisuallinguist.com/2015/11/how-to-analyze-comics-with-narrative.html

Interested to see where you keep going with this column!

Thanks so much, Neil! I actually have a print-out of your new essay about multimodal narratives on my desk at work right now.

And I was just working on an essay about closure that seems to correspond with your narrative conjunctions. As you’ll see in one of my next posts, I’m dividing McCloud’s closure into four types, including spatial.

And your “Interfaces between narrative and layout” is exactly the direction I hoped you’d be researching next. I’m glad my suggested terms line-up.

I’d not seen your Peanuts tutorial, which I now plan to use with my “Making Comics” course in the spring. I used the Walking Dead in my post because I was trying to apply your ideas to multi-page works, which it clearly does. I wanted to use Watchmen too, but didn’t want to go on for too long.

I also have an essay coming out in Writers Chronicle on Jennifer Egan’s novel A Visit from the Goon Squad, which I analyze through comics theory, your narrative grammar especially. Basically, she drops the Peak moments into the gutters of her chapter breaks.

Anyway, glad my posts are of interest. Hopefully my students will find them useful too.

I am indeed enjoying your posts, and glad to hear the theory is useful to you! I speculated on using the narrative grammar for discourse too, so great to hear you’ve been able to apply it directly. Please shoot me a note when that essay comes out!

You’ve probably seen that I don’t really “believe in” closure much any more. My OLD book actually divided panel transitions into lots of subcategories, but that eventually morphed in the narrative grammar approach.

Dropping Peaks out of certain sequences is actually a conventionalized thing it seems. I’m going to talk about these in future works, but I have one paper that discusses them here (which also discusses inference): http://www.visuallanguagelab.com/P/NCMK_inference.pdf

Anyhow, looking forward to seeing more of your posts!

Yeah, “inference” is an equivalent but descriptively better term than “closure.” Plus McCloud’s types of transitions don’t always play out clearly. I’m going to suggest types of closure instead, which could as easily be called types of inferences (spatial, etc.). But I guess I’m holding on to closure as a term because it’s still so pervasive. Of course I strike other terms despite their pervasiveness, so I will probably end up on your inference train sooner than later.

Comments are closed.

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / How to Cite Sources / How to Cite a Comic Book in APA, MLA, or Chicago

How to Cite a Comic Book in APA, MLA, or Chicago

She’s fierce, she’s powerful, she’s a skillful fighter, she’s…..WONDER WOMAN! Wonder Woman is one of the most popular DC Comics superheroes to make it to the big screen. Her first movie made over $435 million in box office sales after just two weeks in theaters, so it’s safe to say she’s kind of a big deal.

Quickly cite a comic by using our online form here .

If you’ve caught the Wonder Woman buzz and you’d like to cite her comic books, or any other characters’ comic books, in your own projects, follow the steps below to cite them correctly. We have instructions on how to cite your comic book, both in print and online versions, in MLA format , APA format, or Chicago formats.

To cite a comic book in print, find the following pieces of information:

1. The author’s name and the names of any relevant artists/illustrators 2. The title of the comic book issue 3. The title of the comic book series 4. The volume and issue number 5. The name of the publisher 6. City, or city and country of the publisher 7. Year published 8. A page or page range (if citing only a specific portion of the comic book)

To cite a comic book in print using MLA 9, follow this format:

Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Comic Book Issue . Title of Comic Book Series , vol. number, issue no., Name of Publisher, Year Published.

If the comic book has separate writers and illustrators and you’d like to credit them all equally, begin your citation with the issue title and include additional contributors (e.g., writers, illustrators, inkers, colorists, or letterers) in the contributor container instead.

Title of Comic Book Issue . Title of Comic Book Series , by Author First Name Last Name, illustrated by Artist First Name Last Name, vol. number, issue no., Name of Publisher, Year Published.

Here are two examples of how to cite a Wonder Woman comic book found in print in MLA 9:

Azzarello, Brian. Wonder Woman. No. 1, DC Comics, 2011.

Wonder Woman . By Brian Azzarello, illustrated by Cliff Chiang, no. 1, DC Comics, 2011.

*Note that this specific issue of Wonder Woman does not have a separate title for the issue and another title for the series. This issue and series are both titled Wonder Woman . When the issue and the series have the same exact title, it is not necessary to type out both titles. Only include the series title.

In MLA citations, place a period after the first title and a comma after the second title, if there is one.

MLA 9 In-text Citations

The information in a parenthetical citation should match the full reference on the Works Cited page. If you begin your reference with the comic book’s author, their last name should go in the parentheses. If you begin with the title of the comic book, use the title (or a shortened version of it) in the parenthetical citation instead. Also include a page number if applicable.

(Azzarello 12)

( Wonder Woman 12)

To cite a comic book in print in APA 7, follow this format:

Author’s Last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year published). Title of comic book issue . Publisher.

If the comic book has separate writers and illustrators and you’d like to credit them both, begin your citation with the author’s name and include the illustrator (or other contributors) in parentheses after the comic book’s title.

Author’s Last Name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year published). Title of comic book issue  (First initial. Middle initial. Last Name, Illus.). Publisher.

Here are two examples of how to cite a comic book in APA 7:

Azzarello, B. (2011). Wonder Woman . DC Comics.

Azzarello, B. (2011). Wonder Woman (C. Chiang, Illus.). DC Comics.

APA 7 In-text Citations :

Parenthetical: (Azzarello, 2011)

Narrative: Azzarello (2011)

Though you include the illustrator’s name in the reference list entry, do not include it in the in-text citations.

To cite a comic book in print in Chicago’s author-date style:

Author’s Last name, First Name. Publication Year. Title of Comic Book Issue. City of publication: Name of publisher.

Here’s an example of how to cite a Wonder Woman comic book found in print in Chicago’s author-date style:

Azzarello, Brian. 2011. Wonder Woman . New York: DC Comics.

Chicago In-text Citation:

(Azzarello 2011, Page#)

How to a Cite a Comic Book Found Online:

To cite a comic book found online or read on an e-reader, find the following pieces of information:

• The author’s name and the names of any relevant artists/illustrators
• The title of the comic book issue
• The title of the comic book series
• The name of the e-reader, if read on one
• The volume and issue number
• The name of the publisher
• City, or city and country of the publisher
• Year published
• The page or page range, if viewed online
• The name of the website, if viewed online
• The URL, if viewed online

To cite a comic book, found online or through an e-reader, use the following structure if citing in MLA 9:

To cite a comic book found on a website using MLA 9, follow this format:

Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Comic Book Issue . Title of Comic Book Series , vol. number, issue no., Name of Publisher, Year Published, Website Name (if different from publisher), URL (remove https:// or https://).

To cite a comic book published as an E-Book using MLA 9, follow this format:

Author’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Comic Book Issue . Title of Comic Book Series , vol. number, issue no., E-book ed., Name of Publisher, Year Published.

Here’s an example of how to cite the Wonder Woman comic book in MLA 9, when viewed on an e-reader.

Azzarello, Brian. Wonder Woman .* No. 1., E-book ed., DC Comics, 2011.

*Note: Since the name of the issue and the name of the series are both Wonder Woman, the name is only included once in the citation.

Here’s how the above example would be cited in an in-text citation:

(Author Last Name Page#)

(Azzarello 1)

To cite a comic book in APA 7 that is found online, use the following structure:

Author’s Last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year published). Title of comic book issue . Publisher. DOI or URL

Here’s an example of how to cite the Wonder Woman comic, read on an e-reader, in APA format :

Azzarello, B. (2011). Wonder Woman . DC Comics. https://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/wonder-woman-vol-1-brian-azzarello/1111115880?ean=9781401238773#nok-dapps

To cite a comic book found online in Chicago’s author-date style, use the following format:

Author’s Last name, First name. Publication Year. Title of Comic Book Issue . City of publication: Name of Publisher. E-book format (Kindle, Nook, etc.) or Database Name (Overdrive, ProQuest ebrary, etc.) or URL.

Here are examples of how to cite a comic found online in Chicago’s author-date style:

Azzarello, Brian. 2011. Wonder Woman . New York: DC Comics. Nook.

Azzarello, Brian. 2011. Wonder Woman . New York: DC Comics. https://www.comicextra.com/wonder-woman-2011/chapter-52

(AuthorLastName Year, Page#)

(Azzarello 2011, 1)

Photo Source: “Infinite Wonder Woman” by JD Hancock . Licensed under CC BY 2.0. Original image was cropped.

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To cite a graphic novel in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the name of the author, title of the graphic novel, publisher, and publication date. MLA treats citations for graphic novels the same as citations for regular novels. The templates and examples for an in-text citation and works cited list entry for a graphic novel are provided below:

In-text citation template and example:

In parenthetical and in-prose citations, use the artist’s surname.

Parenthetical:

Works cited list entry template and example:

Author Surname, First Name. Title of the Graphic Novel . Publisher, Publication Date.

Moore, Alan. From Hell . Top Shelf Productions, 1999.

To cite Shakespeare in APA and MLA styles, it is important that you know basic information, such as the title of the play, the original publication date, the editor’s name, the publisher name, and the republished date.

APA reference list entry template and example:

Author Surname, F. (Publication Year). Title of the play (F.M. Editor1’s Surname & F.M. Editor2’s Surname, Eds.). Publisher. (Original work published year)

Shakespeare, W. (2020). Much ado about nothing (B.A Mowat & P. Werstine, Eds.). Simon & Schuster. (Original work published 1607)

MLA works-cited-list entry template and example:

Surname, First Name. Title of the Play. Original Publication Date. Edited by Editor1’s First Name Surname and Editor2’s First Name Surname, Publisher, Republished Date.

Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing . 1600. Edited by Beth Mowat and Patricia Werstine, Simon & Schuster, 2020.

To cite a comic strip in APA and MLA styles, it is important that you know basic information such as the name of the artist, the title of the comic strip, publisher name, publication date, and URL.

Artist’s Surname, F. M. (Publication Year). Title of the comic strip [Comic strip]. Publisher. URL

King, F. (1921). Gasoline Alley [Comic Strip]. Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/comic-strip

Artist’s Surname, First Name. Title of the Comic Strip . Publisher, Publication Year.

King, Frank. Gasoline Alley . Britannica, 1921.

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About Us › Teaching Comic Books

“Good comic book writers think in pictures as well as words.” —Anina Bennett

I created a concise comic book writing guide for a workshop I taught some years back, and I’ve used it many times since then. Friends in the comics business tell me they regularly send students to read it, so I’m keeping it available online and supplementing it with recommended books and resources. You can read the HTML version below, or download it as a free PDF . (The HTML version is more up to date, while the PDF has some additional visuals.)

If you like bulleted lists, you can also download the  slides  I made for a different version of my writing workshop. And if the process images on this page caught your eye, they’re from the  “Creative Chaos” presentation  I did with Paul, which shows different types of comic book plots, scripts, and art.

My writing guide is intended for newbies, and parts of it may need a little updating. For more in-depth and current resources, see my  Comic Book Creators  page. This whole section of our site is devoted to serving as a gateway to helpful information about making, teaching , and reading comic books. I add new links periodically, so send me your suggestions !

Visual Language: Writing for Comic Books

How Do You Define “Comic Book”?

Many people, especially in the U.S., equate comic books with the superhero genre or dismiss them as kiddie fare. In fact, comics are not a genre, but a medium of expression — like movies or prose — that can communicate a wealth of ideas and emotions spanning all genres. If you want to write mysteries, science fiction, autobiography, or even surrealist montages, you can do it in comic book form. Your stories can be verbose or wordless, serialized or self-contained, funny or tragic, color or black-and-white. In this workshop we’ll concentrate on writing for linear, narrative comic books.

Scott McCloud spends the first nine pages of his groundbreaking work Understanding Comics developing a definition of comics as a medium. What it boils down to is that all comics employ sequential art: a series of static images arranged in sequence to tell a story or express thoughts and feelings.

Know the Biz

It may seem odd to jump from an aesthetic discussion to hard, cold business facts. But the reality is that before you start writing a comic book story, you should know a little something about the comics industry and community. The publishing scene is in the midst of a sea change. Currently, comics publishers come in about six flavors:

• Self-publishers with widely varying quality, styles, and sales.
• Small-press and “indie” publishers (Top Shelf, Slave Labor, Fantagraphics).
• Mid-sized to large publishers (Image, Dark Horse, DC, Marvel).
• Manga publishers specializing in translated Japanese and Korean comics (Viz).
• Book and educational publishers that have branched out into graphic novels (Pantheon, Abrams, Henry Holt, Scholastic).
• Electronic publishers focusing on webcomics (often self-published) or digital download comics. This area of publishing is changing rapidly and also affecting print publishing.

This means there are more options in terms of format and genre — though not necessarily in terms of how to make a living. For a long time, monthly, serialized comics from major publishers were the best bet for steady income. That's still true to some extent, but now there are more publishers and more diverse content. You can make a living doing YA graphic novels, educational comics, or licensed properties. 

Speaking of format, there are essentially two types, one of which allows for more variation:

• Stapled or saddle-stitched comics, which are almost always the same size and page count.
• Square-bound or perfect-bound comics, which come in many different sizes and page counts. Self-contained stories in square-bound form are usually called graphic novels .

Another side of the business you’ll need to understand is the three varieties of intellectual property ownership:

• Creator-owned.
• Company-owned.
• Licensed (owned by a third party that licenses publishing rights to the publisher).

The first two are occasionally blended together. If you’re expecting to own the characters and stories you create, watch out for contracts that give you only partial ownership. For example, owning the copyright to a story without owning the trademark to the main character is almost useless, because you can’t use the character without your publisher’s permission — but your publisher can use the character without your permission. If you don’t own either the character or the story, you’re doing work for hire .

There are also different pay structures in comics, usually depending on the type of ownership and publisher:

• Page rate , or a fixed amount per comic book page. The page rate may be either an advance against royalties or in addition to royalties. Relatively few comics earn royalties.
• Flat fee per issue or book.
• Profit split , with specified percentages of net profit going to the publisher and the creator(s).

If you’re earning a page rate or flat fee, pay close attention to the payment period when you sign your contract. Some publishers pay within 30 days of publication, but others wait as long as 90 days. If the deal is a profit split, make sure you understand how the net profit will be calculated and when the publisher will send you statements and payments. And if you plan to give away or sell copies of your own book, see if the publisher will agree to sell you books at cost instead of at the “standard” discount.

Practice Visual Thinking

Like good screenwriters, good comic book writers think in pictures as well as words. They visualize the images in their stories, then describe them to artists via scripts. Unlike most screenwriters, though, comics writers usually give the illustrator a fair amount of direction about how to portray each scene.

These are core skills that are useful in other types of writing too. To hone your visual thinking, write concise descriptions of familiar people, scenery, or events, as if you were describing them for an illustrator to draw. Read comics with a critical eye, thinking about the visual choices made by writers and artists — what’s shown and not shown, and how it’s depicted. Try to imagine how the writer described each image in his or her script. Writing your own panel descriptions of published comics may help too.

Learn the Lingo

Now let’s consider the basic components and terminology of comic books. Campy sound effects like the old Batman TV show’s “Biff! Bang! Pow!” are only a tiny (and trite) part of the picture.

The essential elements of a comic book page are:

1.     Panel: One still image in a sequence of juxtaposed images. A comics writer can call for panels of any shape or size that’ll fit on a page: square, round, triangular, narrow vertical, shallow horizontal, diagonal, etc.

There are specialized terms for different types of panels:

• An inset is a panel contained within a larger panel.
• In a bleed panel, the art extends or “bleeds” off the edge of the page on one or more sides.
• A splash is a very large or full-page panel; the latter is usually called a full-page splash.
• A double-page spread is a giant splash panel covering two facing pages.

Although panels are usually bounded by heavy lines called borders , parts of the art sometimes pop outside panel borders for dramatic or ironic effect. Borderless images can also qualify as panels.

2.     Lettering: Any text on a comics page. Bold lettering is used to emphasize words, large letters in dialogue represent shouting, and small dialogue lettering usually stands for whispering. Dialogue and caption lettering was traditionally all uppercase, but these days there's more room for variation, and many creators use upper/lowercase. Display lettering includes sound effects and any other text that is not contained in a balloon or caption (store signage, license plates, words on a computer screen, etc.). Lettering and balloon placement are crucial but often underappreciated skills.

3.     Word balloon: A bordered or borderless shape containing dialogue, usually with a tail that points to the speaker. Tailless balloons sometimes denote “voice-over” or off-panel dialogue. As with panels, balloons come in various shapes, the most common being ovoid. You can use different shapes for different characters or moods. To avoid distancing your readers, though, it’s best not to mix balloon shapes and styles willy-nilly. (In the U.K., balloons are often called “bubbles.”)

4.     Thought balloon: A bordered or borderless shape containing a character’s unspoken thoughts. Thought balloons almost always have bumpy, cloudlike borders and tails that look like trails of bubbles. Do not overuse them, especially not for lengthy internal monologues — that’s a terrible cliché in comics. As in movies, the maxim is “show, don’t tell.”

5.     Caption: A tool often used for narration, transitional text (“Meanwhile...”), or off-panel dialogue. Captions usually have rectangular borders, but can also be borderless or floating letters.

6.     Sound effects (SFX): Stylized lettering that represents noises within a scene. Most SFX are floating letters, and sometimes they’re an integral part of the imagery. As with many other elements of comics, overuse of sound effects is distracting. They should be reserved for significant sounds, whether large (explosions) or small (a door softly closing on a lonely room).

7.     Borders: The lines that enclose panels, balloons, and captions. Various styles and line weights can be used to evoke different effects or moods. Typical examples include rough or jagged borders for anger or distress; thin, wavy borders for weakness or spookiness; “electric” balloons and tails for radio, TV, or telephone dialogue; burst or double-bordered balloons for very loud shouting, and rounded panel corners or uneven borders for flashbacks. In some comics, such as Sandman (DC/Vertigo), major characters have their own distinctive balloon border and lettering styles. Different background colors or borders can also be used to denote different characters or types of dialogue/narration. A more recent trend is to use borderless shapes for balloons, tails, and captions, as in Paper Girls .

8.    Gutter: The space, usually white, between and around panels. Colored or shaded gutters can help establish mood, denote flashbacks, or be used purely for aesthetic effect. Gutters are an almost subliminal part of the comic book reading process, since they represent the events between panels and pages.

No matter how you combine these elements, always keep in mind that each comics panel and page should read in the same order as a page of text: from left to right and top to bottom. For example, when two characters are speaking to each other in the same panel, whoever talks first should be on the left side.

In some cultures, comics are read from right to left. Traditional manga, for example, are read in what looks to most Westerners (hard-core manga fans excepted) like back-to-front order. You probably won’t need to worry about writing comics that are read this way, but you should be aware that reading order is a primary determinant of certain visual storytelling techniques.

Between the Panels

Obviously, the main action in comics is portrayed within panels. But gutters play a crucial role by connecting sequential panels into a coherent story. Whether two seconds or two years elapse between consecutive panels, the gutter is where that unseen action occurs.

Through the phenomenon Scott McCloud calls “closure” ( Understanding Comics , Chapter 3), readers imagine some of what happens in the gutters — thus they experience sequential art as a unified narrative rather than a series of isolated, disconnected panels. Abrupt or unclear shifts between panels can confuse readers and distance them from a story, so most comic book creators strive to create smooth transitions.

This is especially true for comics that have a potential bookstore, as opposed to comic book shop, audience. Believe it or not, reading comics is something of a learned skill. People who rarely read comic strips or comic books may have a hard time perceiving sequential art as anything more than a series of disconnected images. Or they may simply ignore the images in favor of the words if the layout is confusing.

McCloud identifies six categories of panel-to-panel transitions (see attachments in PDF):

• Moment to moment: Consecutive panels portraying the same subject (e.g., a person or thing) during a sequence of different moments, with little time elapsing between panels.
• Action to action: Panels showing the same subject in a sequence of different yet connected actions, with more time between panels than in moment-to-moment transitions.
• Subject to subject: Panels depicting different subjects within the same scene, such as two people conversing and elements of their surroundings.
• Scene to scene: As you might guess, panels that show completely different scenes. In such transitions, the gutter usually represents a substantial distance across time, space, or both. Captions, dialogue, and panel composition are good tools for bridging scene changes between panels.
• Aspect to aspect: Panels depicting different elements of a place, mood, or concept. Evoking feelings or thoughts takes primacy, while time and space between panels tend to be highly variable. This type of transition is unusual in genre stories in the U.S. but more common in manga.
• Non sequitur: You might call this a surrealist leap, with no obvious connection between the imagery in consecutive panels. Non-sequitur transitions are extremely rare in narrative comics.

Temporal Mechanics

If you’ve ever sat through an Andy Warhol film, you know just how boring “realtime” looks on screen. Showing every single action in continuous sequence is the least efficient (and often dullest) way of staging a scene and telling a story.

One means by which both movies and comic books make fiction more dramatic than real life is the manipulation of time. They show certain significant moments within their stories, while omitting others. Comics, unlike cinema, do so through still images, absorbed by different readers at their own speeds. Reading comics is a more interactive process than watching films, relying partly on the reader’s actions and partly on the writer’s and artist’s control of pacing.

Because of this interactivity, there are two interrelated types of pacing in comics: The pace at which time seems to move within the story, and the pace at which your audience reads the story. Factors that influence the reader’s pace include panel size and shape, dialogue and caption length, page layout and pagination, the type of scene being depicted, and the level of visual detail within each panel. Wordy panels almost always slow down the reader, for example.

However, because these elements all work in combination, any one technique can have different effects depending on context. For example, a large, silent panel in a contemplative scene may slow the reader. But a large, sparsely worded panel in an action scene may quicken the reader’s pace. This is another aspect of visual storytelling that deserves close attention when you’re reading comics critically.

Your primary tool for controlling the pace of time within the story is panel arrangement. You can heighten the impact of certain moments either by telescoping them into a sequence that seems slower than realtime, or by compressing them into a quicker sequence with more time elapsing between panels.

In Chapter 4 of Understanding Comics , McCloud shows five different ways of slowing down time during a conversation (see attachments in PDF):

• Insert a “pause” panel.
• Lengthen the pause by devoting several panels to it.
• Lengthen the pause by widening the gutters between panels.
• Lengthen the pause by widening the panel.
• Lengthen the pause by removing borders, suspending the panel in time and space.

And in Chapter 3, he shows how a long story can be increasingly compressed by removing entire sequences and individual panels, even to the point of paring it down to two simple yet clearly sequential and interrelated panels:

A longer version of the same tale might include the main character (Carl) buying beer, getting in his car, veering off the road, in an ambulance, and at the hospital. Note the efficient use of subject-to-subject and action-to-action transitions to show only the moments most crucial to this brief narrative. The final scene-to-scene jump in the two-panel version transports the reader seamlessly from the story’s beginning to its end.

Time within individual panels is also malleable. One panel can depict a single moment in time, several moments, or a longer sequence of interdependent moments such as a back-and-forth conversation.

However, avoid writing panel descriptions containing multiple sequential actions that are impossible to depict in one image (“The Hulk uproots a tree, turns, and throws it at the Humvee”). This can sometimes be achieved by showing multiple or blurred images of a character or object in the same panel (the Flash superspeeding from one action to the next), but such tricks should be used only when necessary to the story.

Outline Your Plot and Characters

Have you ever gone to a movie, then later described the story to a friend? Well, that was a plot summary, and you probably even focused on the film’s dramatic turning points — moments at which the main character undergoes the significant changes that define his/her arc.

To work out your story structure, write an outline that at least covers your opening, turning points, climax, and resolution, focusing on characters as well as events. Try to keep the plot loose at this stage, since it’ll likely change as you write your script. Start by getting to know your main character(s). Write brief personality profiles or bios of them. Then ask yourself: Where are these characters, physically and psychologically, at the story’s beginning and at its end? What must they do to make that journey — face their fears? Forgive someone? Commit a crime? Make a sacrifice or compromise? Suffer a loss? Seek help?

The characters’ goals and actions are the skeleton of your story, its crucial support structure. Once you’ve got a handle on them, you can flesh things out with specific events, settings, and relationships that help propel your characters along their arcs.

Here’s an example of a bare-bones plot synopsis:

A young boy and his parents are walking home in the city one night. They’re a happy, wealthy-looking family. But everything changes when a mugger accosts them, then panics and shoots the parents. The boy, devastated, watches his mother and father die in the street. He vows vengeance.

The boy grows into a driven young man. For years he trains in martial arts and hones his skills as a detective, all the while building his inherited fortune into a commercial empire. He adopts the public persona of a flighty playboy to mask his inner obsession with justice.

At last, as an adult, he deems himself ready to exact his revenge on the criminal underworld. Inspired by a creature glimpsed flying past his window, he dons a dark costume and sets out to fight crime... as the Batman.

Now pretend you don’t know that Batman’s been a famous superhero for decades. From the simple plot outlined above, you could spin your story in several different directions.

1.     Expand on his training period, adding emotional and physical obstacles:

• one of the young man’s teachers turns out to be evil;
• he falls in love, then must choose between romance and vengeance; or
• he questions his own need for revenge, but is re-inspired by another tragic event.

2.     Condense his backstory and show his early crime-fighting career. For instance, what would happen if:

• he initially fails as Batman;
• Batman’s actions cause the death of an innocent bystander;
• his secret identity is revealed; or
• Batman comes into conflict with the police or government?

Under any of these what-if scenarios, would Bruce Wayne become more callous or more caring? Would he give up being Batman and seek other ways of pursuing justice, or is he fated to wear the cape and cowl? As you ask and answer questions such as these, write as much as you need to — then strip your story down to its essentials. Focus on turning points and on making every scene contribute to the progression of plot as well as characters.

Many narrative comics, like movies, follow a classic three-act structure that, at its most basic, is divided into beginning, middle, and end:

Act 1: Introduction and establishment of the central characters, setting, and problem or conflict.

Act 2:  Development of the same, including complications, setbacks, reversals, suspense, and interim resolutions (“rising action”), leading to a climactic resolution.

Act 3:  “Falling action” or “denouement,” in which we see the post-climactic major resolution and learn what/who has changed, and why it matters. Don’t short-shrift the third act, or you’ll leave your audience unsatisfied and possibly angry.

Some writers follow a general formula when structuring their plots in three acts and breaking each act into pages: 25% first act, 65% second act, and 10% third act. You needn’t adhere to this if it doesn’t work for your story, but it’s a good guideline to start with.

Test out your outline on someone who’s unfamiliar with your story. If it holds their interest and makes them want to read more, you’ve done a bang-up job! Whatever their reaction is, be sure to ask for feedback on your plot’s clarity, plausibility, pacing, and emotional impact. There’s always room for improvement.

For a handy guide to developing character profiles, see Chapter 3 of Making a Winning Short by Edmond Levy. And for an excellent discussion and critique of narrative structures, see Alternative Scriptwriting by Ken Dancyger and Jeff Rush (listed on my page of resources for comic book creators ).

Length and Format

One piece of good news for budding writers and artists is that comics come in many formats these days. You can aim for anything from a one-page short story (Carol Lay’s Story Minute strips), to a paperback-sized graphic novel (Craig Thompson’s Blankets ), to an ongoing monthly series (DC’s Wonder Woman ). You can even publish comics in chapters online, building up an audience, then collect them in print.

Thanks to the popularization of manga, which are typically published as a series of small graphic novels, you now also have the option of writing longer tales broken down into large chapters. (In addition, manga offer another form of paying gig: rewriting translated scripts. The translations can be stiff, so manga publishers often hire writers to polish the dialogue and captions.)

In some cases, the plot dictates the format. In others, usually when you’ve already established a relationship with an editor or publisher and are doing work for hire, the format controls the plot structure.

The not-so-good news is that you need to consider your story’s marketability and your professional goals even at this early stage. If you want to make a living by writing comics, concentrate on serial titles published by big companies, as mentioned in “Know the Biz.” Don’t be overambitious in this arena — you may want to write an epic 24-issue series, but publishers are unlikely to take such a gamble on a beginning comics writer.

If, on the other hand, you want to either (1) just get published and possibly make a few bucks on the back end or (2) work your way up to the big leagues, try small press or self-publishing. Indie publishers tend to offer a wider range of content and book formats. They can also be a good way to break in, giving you a chance to cut your teeth and gradually get noticed by fans, trade press, and other publishers. You’d better truly love writing and/or comics, though — if you don’t, your work probably won’t earn you any emotional or financial rewards, and it may become sheer drudgery.

The book publishers that are dabbling in graphic novels may be worth pitching to, but are probably a long shot for novices. So far they’re busy picking up established small-press creators, and they seem particularly interested in writer-artist auteurs. Keep an eye on them nonetheless, and check out educational publishers too.

In a nutshell: Examine what’s being published by various companies, think about your writing goals and your story’s needs, then choose your preferred page count and format. Combine that with your character profiles and plot outline, and you should be ready to do a page breakdown (see samples), then start on your script.

Break It Down

As you work on your plot, imagine how it’ll play out visually. Try doing rough sketches of some scenes at first, to help yourself visualize panel and page layouts. Estimate how many pages you’ll need for each scene. Consider factors such as: Is there a built-in limit on the total number of pages? Which scenes are turning points that may require extra space and emphasis? What kind of mood(s) and pace do you want to establish? Can any scenes be cut or condensed to improve the pacing? Will the story be serialized or self-contained?

Now estimate the total page count of your story — and be generous. Allow extra room for elements such as establishing shots, action sequences, crowd scenes, sweeping vistas, and text-heavy pages. If the story will be serialized, add chapter breaks at appropriately suspenseful points. Always bear in mind the left-hand/right-hand pagination described in “Learn the Lingo.”

One way to help practice doing page breakdowns is to analyze published comics that are similar in genre and format to your story. Pick a comic, write a summary of its plot and action, then compare that to the comic. Break down each scene in your summary according to how many pages are devoted to it in the printed comic. You can also use this technique to get a feel for how many panels per page are used for different types of scenes, how the panel size and page layout affect pacing, and how much visual information you can comfortably fit into different sizes of panels.

If you’re writing for monthly, serialized comics (which I call “floppies” because they’re, well, floppy), be aware that the page count of each issue is almost always inflexible. Most floppy comics are saddle-stitched and 32 pages long, but contain only 22 to 26 pages of story. You won’t usually be given the option of departing from the standard page count.

Even in serialized comics and manga, each issue or book should end with a resolution of some sort (character arc, subplot, and/or major plot thread) as well as an element of mystery or suspense. The trick is to both satisfy the reader and leave her wanting more, which can be a difficult balancing act.

Scripting Your Story

Creating comic books, like filmmaking, is largely a collaborative process, excepting those few talented auteurs who can write, draw, letter, and color their own comics. The usual sequence of creation is writing, pencilling, lettering, inking, then coloring, with variations depending on the creative team, schedule, and publishing model. Monthly comics usually follow this process in assembly-line fashion to stay on schedule as much as possible. If the writer blows a script deadline, it puts pressure on everyone else down the line to catch up.

There are two basic methods of writer/artist collaboration in comics:

• Plot first or “Marvel style”: This method was typically used by Marvel Comics (based on Stan Lee’s working relationships with artists such as Jack Kirby), writer/artist teams who have a strong collaborative rapport (me and my husband, Paul Guinan), and solo creators who both write and draw their own stories (Paul Pope). The plot and page breakdown can be generated by the writer alone, or by the writer and artist together. Then the artist pencils the story, after which the writer scripts the in-panel text — everything but the panel descriptions — to fit the art. The advantage is that the writer knows exactly what the art looks like, and how much room there is for text, when scripting. The disadvantage is that the writer gives up some control over pacing and composition, and may get undesired results from the artist. You can’t use this method unless you have an existing relationship with the artist and editor.
• Full script: This more common method involves the writer producing a complete script with panel descriptions, based on which the artist then pencils the story. Although you never know exactly how the artist will interpret your descriptions, this method gives the writer more control over layout and pacing. The disadvantage is that you may need to trim or otherwise revise your dialogue and captions after seeing the art. No matter which method you use, sometimes you’ll be surprised by what the artist draws.

We’ll focus on the full-script method, but you can see examples of both in my “Creative Chaos” process slides .

Comic book scripts are somewhat similar to screenplays in format, except that there’s no single standard format (see samples). The most important thing is to make your script format clear and easy to follow. It should have clearly labeled page and panel numbers, with indented paragraphs for all balloons, captions, sound effects, and display lettering. Once you’ve settled on a format, create a template, styles, and auto-text in your word-processing software if possible, so you won’t have to constantly reformat text and type “Panel” over and over.

Page layout: The visual composition of each page is determined by a combo of the individual panel compositions and how the panels all work together. One of your goals is to lead the reader smoothly through the page, with no jarring transitions or discontinuity. In addition, each panel should advance the story or character arc, and/or contain important information about character, setting, or mood. This all means you’ve got a lot to think about when writing a single comic book page.

For the most part, especially when you’re just starting out, it’s best to stick with some variation on a basic grid of rectangular panels, using wider and taller panels to suit the demands of your story. It’s okay to toss other panel shapes into the mix occasionally, but don’t go hog wild with them (unless your intent is to confuse or challenge the reader). Unusual page layouts and panel shapes make it harder for you to control pacing and visual flow. And if the visual flow is unclear, your reader will be frustrated, distracted, and less involved in your story.

Also be judicious in your use of splashes and double-page spreads. Save them for establishing shots, climactic action, or significant turning points. Like many storytelling techniques, big panels lose impact when overused.

Conversely, don’t try to cram too many panels into a page. The average number of panels per page is usually five. Using more panels per page tends to compress time, whereas using fewer panels per page tends to telescope time, as in action scenes. This is one of your main methods of shaping a story’s pacing and rhythm. If you have a specific reason for employing scads of tiny panels, give it a shot — after you consider the pacing effects and the fact that it’ll probably alienate plenty of people who would otherwise have read your comic.

Panel descriptions: There’s a certain tension in the way comics writers think and write. You must show visual information to the reader, but verbally tell the artist how to draw that information. And you need to do it as efficiently as possible, giving complete direction while still allowing room for the illustrator’s own interpretation and imagination. Try to strike a balance between directing, inspiring, and entertaining the artist. A script that’s fun to read is also more saleable to editors.

Panel descriptions are similar to, but usually more detailed than, shot descriptions in screenplays. Comics writers often use cinematic directions such as “establishing shot,” “close-up,” “up angle,” “background,” and the like, while avoiding motion-related terms such as “pan” or “track.” Don’t overload your descriptions with meaningless detail, but don’t make them too sparse either. And, as with page layouts, don’t clutter up your panels with too much text or visual information.

Important visual elements — such as objects or characters that will play a significant role in a later panel or scene, or even what time of day it is — should always be mentioned in establishing shots so the artist knows about them from the start. Even if an element isn’t seen in the establishing shot, it’s a good idea to mention it so the artist has a complete mental image from the start. One sure way to make your artist mad is to wait until the end of a scene, then finally announce that it’s sunrise, or there’s a blood stain on the wall, or the coffee table is floating in mid-air, or one of the characters is wearing a hideous necktie that’ll later serve as a crucial clue.

When visualizing panels, you also need to keep track of the left-to-right composition and try not to reverse it unexpectedly. In other words, don’t move your mental “camera” to the opposite side of the subject. On the comic book page, this will look like the scene has been abruptly rotated 180 degrees, which can be very disorienting for the reader, especially if there’s motion in the panels. Sometimes the effect is unintentionally comical too.

Dialogue and other text: Ideally, the words and images in a panel should be interdependent. Avoid verbiage that merely echoes the visual information in a panel (sometimes called “Mickey-Mousing”), unless you’re intentionally going for a repetitive effect. For example, if we can see in the art that it’s raining, you don’t need to waste space by telling us the same thing in words — but you might want to tell us that it’s been raining for 40 days, or that the hero hates rain. Chapter 6 of Understanding Comics demonstrates the effects of several different types of word/image interplay for the same scene (see attachments).

Write your dialogue, captions, and SFX in the order in which they should appear in the panel. Remember that characters must always appear in speaking order. If character A talks first, she should be on the left side of the panel, and character B should be to her right. Violating this rule will result in awkward balloon placement and probably confuse your readers.

Dialogue scenes in comics often employ one of the following visual layouts:

• “Cutting” back and forth between close shots of the speaking characters, with brief dialogue in each panel.
• Splash panels or pages that show only one visual “moment,” yet include lengthy back-and-forth dialogue.
• Repeating a similar image multiple times, focusing on changes in expression, posture, or environment.

Here comes the mantra again: Don’t overuse any one of these techniques. Vary them according to your story’s needs, along with different shot sizes and word/image juxtapositions (e.g., dialogue from off-panel, voice-over captions, SFX, or thought balloons).

Steer clear of “talking heads” scenes that merely show characters conversing and nothing else. There are many ways around this: give your characters something visually interesting to do while they’re talking, put them in a visually compelling environment, focus on symbolic details in their environment, etc.

If you have specific lettering effects in mind, give the letterer some direction in your script. For example, for a mortally wounded character, you might write “NELSON (weak letters): Kiss me, Hardy.” Boldface any words that you want to be emphasized in the lettering, based on natural speech rhythms. And (all together now) don’t overuse bold emphasis or it will be distracting and less effective.

To get a grasp on how much text you can comfortably fit into each panel, use a technique similar to the one described earlier for plot breakdowns: grab a published comic and type all the dialogue and captions in the same format you’ll use for your script, omitting panel descriptions. This will help give you a visual sense of how much room your typed text takes up in a lettered comic book panel, and you’ll soon be able to “eyeball” your own scripts to determine whether you’ve overwritten the in-panel text.

Action: Whether they involve clashing superheroes, runaway baby carriages, or dogs chasing cats, comic book action sequences usually have one thing in common: they’re primarily visual, not verbal. They also tend to telescope time, often spending several pages on an event that might only last two minutes in realtime. Significant moments are usually depicted in large splash panels, and only the most visually exciting, dynamic, or suspenseful moments are shown. Dialogue and other text are best kept to a minimum and used as a counterpoint to or commentary on the action.

Rewriting:  You probably already know that “writing is in the rewriting.” If you have time, get a little distance on your work by setting it aside for a few weeks, so you can read it with a fresh eye. Don’t get so attached to your script that you can’t bear to delete dialogue, panels, characters, or whole scenes if necessary. Strong scripts tend to be very economical in their storytelling, conveying a great deal of information and emotional impact in deceptively simple form.

Before revising your script, try these evaluation methods:

• Read dialogue aloud to hear how it flows and whether it really sounds like people talking.
• Review panel descriptions without dialogue, to assess visual pacing and check for overcrowding.
• Write a new plot outline based on your script, then analyze the story structure and character arcs.
• Ask people whose opinion you respect to read your script and give you specific feedback.

Finally, always watch out for some of the common weaknesses mentioned in various sections above:

• Too much text, visual information, or sequential action in a panel.
• Too many panels on a page.
• Confusing or awkward panel and scene transitions.
• Giving too much, too little, or unclear direction to the artist.
• Needlessly long speeches or internal monologues.
• Redundant text that gives the same information as the images in a panel.

Preexisting Characters

Many comics scribes have the itch to write stories about their favorite characters, or about fascinating historical figures. Research is especially important when you’re writing existing characters, be they fictional or factual. Don’t think of research as a chore, though — it’s a great opportunity to read, cogitate, and discover new story ideas.

For fictional people, whether company-owned (Spider-Man) or licensed (Princess Leia), first find out if the publisher has a “bible”; if so, get your hands on a copy of it. The bible will give you necessary info on the character, her world, and editorial preferences. Don’t ignore the bible or try to radically re-invent a character, unless you’re working with an editor who specifically suggests a new approach.

If you plan to send in a blind submission, check to see if the publisher has submission guidelines; if so, acquire a copy and follow them. The guidelines should tell you whether or not the publisher accepts unsolicited writing submissions for company-owned or licensed characters. Many publishers do not. Even if they do, unsolicited submissions to the larger publishers are rarely successful and may not even get a response. Smaller publishers are sometimes more receptive. In any case, it’s usually best if you can make personal contact with an editor — at a comic book convention, through a mutual acquaintance, or via correspondence or an online forum — then ask if she’ll look at your proposal.

Once you’ve found a publisher or editor who’s willing to accept your submission, read the bible (if any) and published stories featuring the character(s) you want to write. Again, read the stories critically. Ask yourself if there are facets of this person that haven’t been fully explored, or new situations in which you could reexamine familiar facets. Keep a sharp eye out for unresolved plot threads from previous stories, as well as minor characters who may be worth resurrecting. Examine work by your favorite authors on every level. Think about why characters act or react as they do, how stories are structured, and what storytelling techniques the writer used that really got you involved.

Factual people can be more difficult to write, since their lives often don’t conform to the dramatic structures of fiction. You can take one of two general approaches to writing real-life characters:

• Structure your plot around the true history, condensing or omitting facts without altering them.
• Fictionalize their story, changing certain facts to make events or relationships more dramatic.

If you choose the latter route, consider cluing your readers in as to which parts of the story are true, maybe in endnotes or an introductory or concluding essay. In either case, do extensive research on the people involved, and ask the same kinds of questions you would while creating fictional characters.

Another way to add depth to your characters is by drawing on your own experiences and observations. Think of yourself and everyone you meet as characters, each with their own backstory, arc, and subplot. What motivates you? How does your past affect your actions in the present? What circumstances form and change your personality? Exaggerate the patterns you notice in reality and apply them to fiction, and your characters’ lives will resonate with those of your readers.

Sell Your Story

Comics publishers range in size from self-publishing artists to large bureaucracies, each with its own methods and priorities. Target your proposal at companies that publish the genre and format you’re working in.

As noted in the previous section, a good approach is to make contact with editors of works you admire, then arrange to send your proposal directly to them. You probably shouldn’t attempt to pitch your story to an editor at a convention, though, because (1) she will probably be far too stressed out to listen to you for more than a few minutes, and (2) editors need time and privacy to read and properly evaluate writing submissions. When you meet an editor in person, find out a little about what she’s looking for and determine whether she’ll accept a submission. Then ask for the editor’s business card so you can follow up by sending a copy of your proposal.

Your proposal package should include:

• An introductory cover letter (if you’ve met or contacted the editor, mention when and where/how).
• Plot teaser (think of this as the “elevator pitch” for your story).
• Estimated story length and format.
• Plot outline.
• Character bios.
• A brief description of the setting, with added detail if your story is not set on present-day Earth.
• Sample script pages or full script.
• Illustrations, if at all possible.
• Appropriate copyright and trademark notices.
• Your name and contact information on every page.

The proposal, excluding the script pages and illustrations, should be about two pages long for a short or single-issue story, or five pages for a graphic novel or multi-issue tale.

If you’re sending it to a submissions editor, consult the publisher’s guidelines to find out whether or not you should follow up on the submission. Most publishers get reams of unsolicited submissions and won’t reply to subsequent pestering.

If you’re sending your proposal to an editor you’ve made personal contact with, wait about a month, then call or write to inquire about the status of your pitch. You may need to do this multiple times, as most comics editors are woefully overworked.

And once your proposal is accepted… then the really hard work begins!

Text © Anina Bennett. All excerpts from Understanding Comics are © Scott McCloud. Used with permission.

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• How to write a literary analysis essay | A step-by-step guide

How to Write a Literary Analysis Essay | A Step-by-Step Guide

Published on January 30, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on August 14, 2023.

Literary analysis means closely studying a text, interpreting its meanings, and exploring why the author made certain choices. It can be applied to novels, short stories, plays, poems, or any other form of literary writing.

A literary analysis essay is not a rhetorical analysis , nor is it just a summary of the plot or a book review. Instead, it is a type of argumentative essay where you need to analyze elements such as the language, perspective, and structure of the text, and explain how the author uses literary devices to create effects and convey ideas.

Before beginning a literary analysis essay, it’s essential to carefully read the text and c ome up with a thesis statement to keep your essay focused. As you write, follow the standard structure of an academic essay :

• An introduction that tells the reader what your essay will focus on.
• A main body, divided into paragraphs , that builds an argument using evidence from the text.
• A conclusion that clearly states the main point that you have shown with your analysis.

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Table of contents

Step 1: reading the text and identifying literary devices, step 2: coming up with a thesis, step 3: writing a title and introduction, step 4: writing the body of the essay, step 5: writing a conclusion, other interesting articles.

The first step is to carefully read the text(s) and take initial notes. As you read, pay attention to the things that are most intriguing, surprising, or even confusing in the writing—these are things you can dig into in your analysis.

Your goal in literary analysis is not simply to explain the events described in the text, but to analyze the writing itself and discuss how the text works on a deeper level. Primarily, you’re looking out for literary devices —textual elements that writers use to convey meaning and create effects. If you’re comparing and contrasting multiple texts, you can also look for connections between different texts.

To get started with your analysis, there are several key areas that you can focus on. As you analyze each aspect of the text, try to think about how they all relate to each other. You can use highlights or notes to keep track of important passages and quotes.

Language choices

Consider what style of language the author uses. Are the sentences short and simple or more complex and poetic?

What word choices stand out as interesting or unusual? Are words used figuratively to mean something other than their literal definition? Figurative language includes things like metaphor (e.g. “her eyes were oceans”) and simile (e.g. “her eyes were like oceans”).

Also keep an eye out for imagery in the text—recurring images that create a certain atmosphere or symbolize something important. Remember that language is used in literary texts to say more than it means on the surface.

Narrative voice

Ask yourself:

• Who is telling the story?
• How are they telling it?

Is it a first-person narrator (“I”) who is personally involved in the story, or a third-person narrator who tells us about the characters from a distance?

Consider the narrator’s perspective . Is the narrator omniscient (where they know everything about all the characters and events), or do they only have partial knowledge? Are they an unreliable narrator who we are not supposed to take at face value? Authors often hint that their narrator might be giving us a distorted or dishonest version of events.

The tone of the text is also worth considering. Is the story intended to be comic, tragic, or something else? Are usually serious topics treated as funny, or vice versa ? Is the story realistic or fantastical (or somewhere in between)?

Consider how the text is structured, and how the structure relates to the story being told.

• Novels are often divided into chapters and parts.
• Poems are divided into lines, stanzas, and sometime cantos.
• Plays are divided into scenes and acts.

Think about why the author chose to divide the different parts of the text in the way they did.

There are also less formal structural elements to take into account. Does the story unfold in chronological order, or does it jump back and forth in time? Does it begin in medias res —in the middle of the action? Does the plot advance towards a clearly defined climax?

With poetry, consider how the rhyme and meter shape your understanding of the text and your impression of the tone. Try reading the poem aloud to get a sense of this.

In a play, you might consider how relationships between characters are built up through different scenes, and how the setting relates to the action. Watch out for  dramatic irony , where the audience knows some detail that the characters don’t, creating a double meaning in their words, thoughts, or actions.

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See an example

Your thesis in a literary analysis essay is the point you want to make about the text. It’s the core argument that gives your essay direction and prevents it from just being a collection of random observations about a text.

If you’re given a prompt for your essay, your thesis must answer or relate to the prompt. For example:

Essay question example

Is Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” a religious parable?

Your thesis statement should be an answer to this question—not a simple yes or no, but a statement of why this is or isn’t the case:

Thesis statement example

Franz Kafka’s “Before the Law” is not a religious parable, but a story about bureaucratic alienation.

Sometimes you’ll be given freedom to choose your own topic; in this case, you’ll have to come up with an original thesis. Consider what stood out to you in the text; ask yourself questions about the elements that interested you, and consider how you might answer them.

Your thesis should be something arguable—that is, something that you think is true about the text, but which is not a simple matter of fact. It must be complex enough to develop through evidence and arguments across the course of your essay.

Say you’re analyzing the novel Frankenstein . You could start by asking yourself:

Your initial answer might be a surface-level description:

The character Frankenstein is portrayed negatively in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

However, this statement is too simple to be an interesting thesis. After reading the text and analyzing its narrative voice and structure, you can develop the answer into a more nuanced and arguable thesis statement:

Mary Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

Remember that you can revise your thesis statement throughout the writing process , so it doesn’t need to be perfectly formulated at this stage. The aim is to keep you focused as you analyze the text.

Finding textual evidence

To support your thesis statement, your essay will build an argument using textual evidence —specific parts of the text that demonstrate your point. This evidence is quoted and analyzed throughout your essay to explain your argument to the reader.

It can be useful to comb through the text in search of relevant quotations before you start writing. You might not end up using everything you find, and you may have to return to the text for more evidence as you write, but collecting textual evidence from the beginning will help you to structure your arguments and assess whether they’re convincing.

To start your literary analysis paper, you’ll need two things: a good title, and an introduction.

Your title should clearly indicate what your analysis will focus on. It usually contains the name of the author and text(s) you’re analyzing. Keep it as concise and engaging as possible.

A common approach to the title is to use a relevant quote from the text, followed by a colon and then the rest of your title.

If you struggle to come up with a good title at first, don’t worry—this will be easier once you’ve begun writing the essay and have a better sense of your arguments.

“Fearful symmetry” : The violence of creation in William Blake’s “The Tyger”

The introduction

The essay introduction provides a quick overview of where your argument is going. It should include your thesis statement and a summary of the essay’s structure.

A typical structure for an introduction is to begin with a general statement about the text and author, using this to lead into your thesis statement. You might refer to a commonly held idea about the text and show how your thesis will contradict it, or zoom in on a particular device you intend to focus on.

Then you can end with a brief indication of what’s coming up in the main body of the essay. This is called signposting. It will be more elaborate in longer essays, but in a short five-paragraph essay structure, it shouldn’t be more than one sentence.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, protagonist Victor Frankenstein is a stable representation of the callous ambition of modern science throughout the novel. This essay, however, argues that far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to portray Frankenstein in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as. This essay begins by exploring the positive portrayal of Frankenstein in the first volume, then moves on to the creature’s perception of him, and finally discusses the third volume’s narrative shift toward viewing Frankenstein as the creature views him.

Some students prefer to write the introduction later in the process, and it’s not a bad idea. After all, you’ll have a clearer idea of the overall shape of your arguments once you’ve begun writing them!

If you do write the introduction first, you should still return to it later to make sure it lines up with what you ended up writing, and edit as necessary.

The body of your essay is everything between the introduction and conclusion. It contains your arguments and the textual evidence that supports them.

Paragraph structure

A typical structure for a high school literary analysis essay consists of five paragraphs : the three paragraphs of the body, plus the introduction and conclusion.

Each paragraph in the main body should focus on one topic. In the five-paragraph model, try to divide your argument into three main areas of analysis, all linked to your thesis. Don’t try to include everything you can think of to say about the text—only analysis that drives your argument.

In longer essays, the same principle applies on a broader scale. For example, you might have two or three sections in your main body, each with multiple paragraphs. Within these sections, you still want to begin new paragraphs at logical moments—a turn in the argument or the introduction of a new idea.

Robert’s first encounter with Gil-Martin suggests something of his sinister power. Robert feels “a sort of invisible power that drew me towards him.” He identifies the moment of their meeting as “the beginning of a series of adventures which has puzzled myself, and will puzzle the world when I am no more in it” (p. 89). Gil-Martin’s “invisible power” seems to be at work even at this distance from the moment described; before continuing the story, Robert feels compelled to anticipate at length what readers will make of his narrative after his approaching death. With this interjection, Hogg emphasizes the fatal influence Gil-Martin exercises from his first appearance.

Topic sentences

To keep your points focused, it’s important to use a topic sentence at the beginning of each paragraph.

A good topic sentence allows a reader to see at a glance what the paragraph is about. It can introduce a new line of argument and connect or contrast it with the previous paragraph. Transition words like “however” or “moreover” are useful for creating smooth transitions:

… The story’s focus, therefore, is not upon the divine revelation that may be waiting beyond the door, but upon the mundane process of aging undergone by the man as he waits.

Nevertheless, the “radiance” that appears to stream from the door is typically treated as religious symbolism.

This topic sentence signals that the paragraph will address the question of religious symbolism, while the linking word “nevertheless” points out a contrast with the previous paragraph’s conclusion.

Using textual evidence

A key part of literary analysis is backing up your arguments with relevant evidence from the text. This involves introducing quotes from the text and explaining their significance to your point.

It’s important to contextualize quotes and explain why you’re using them; they should be properly introduced and analyzed, not treated as self-explanatory:

It isn’t always necessary to use a quote. Quoting is useful when you’re discussing the author’s language, but sometimes you’ll have to refer to plot points or structural elements that can’t be captured in a short quote.

In these cases, it’s more appropriate to paraphrase or summarize parts of the text—that is, to describe the relevant part in your own words:

The conclusion of your analysis shouldn’t introduce any new quotations or arguments. Instead, it’s about wrapping up the essay. Here, you summarize your key points and try to emphasize their significance to the reader.

A good way to approach this is to briefly summarize your key arguments, and then stress the conclusion they’ve led you to, highlighting the new perspective your thesis provides on the text as a whole:

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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By tracing the depiction of Frankenstein through the novel’s three volumes, I have demonstrated how the narrative structure shifts our perception of the character. While the Frankenstein of the first volume is depicted as having innocent intentions, the second and third volumes—first in the creature’s accusatory voice, and then in his own voice—increasingly undermine him, causing him to appear alternately ridiculous and vindictive. Far from the one-dimensional villain he is often taken to be, the character of Frankenstein is compelling because of the dynamic narrative frame in which he is placed. In this frame, Frankenstein’s narrative self-presentation responds to the images of him we see from others’ perspectives. This conclusion sheds new light on the novel, foregrounding Shelley’s unique layering of narrative perspectives and its importance for the depiction of character.

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Spider-Man Taught Me How to Live, Comics Taught Me How to Write

Nikesh shukla on the dual life of an immigrant son in north west london.

“People like us… we don’t get a choice.”  –Amazing Spider-Man Annual #35

Spider-Man was the perfect superhero for the child of immigrants from London in the 1990s. He understood shame and guilt like I did.

Peter Parker’s dual identity—one moment the science nerd, the other as friendly neighborhood Spider-Man—spoke to me. I empathized with the way he code-switched between shyness in one life, and cockiness in the other. He wore different masks and spoke in different languages, a duality synonymous with that of the child of immigrants. Often, while trying to do good, he was caught in lies. He led a secret life. He was unpopular at school. He could have been me.

I kept my head down at school and studied hard, trying my best not to fail at the subjects my father longed for me to succeed in—science, math, while easing my way to As in English and creative writing. I spoke in codes—at my predominantly white school, I stuck with the nerds as it was the best place to hide; at home, I spoke Gujarati; with friends, I spoke like a fan of gangster rap.

With great power comes responsibility , Uncle Ben told Peter, before dying tragically. It became a mantra—for Spider-Man and for me.

I felt the responsibility of my parents’ migration. Mum and dad came here to have a family and ensure that that family get a good education and become successful. Dad spent the 1970s buying into the conservative myth that if you work hard, you’ll be rewarded for your labor. He wasn’t so naïve that he assumed it was a level playing field—instead, he knew, as all immigrants knew, that you have to work twice as hard to have half the opportunities.

“Fate gave me some terrific super-powers, and I realize now that it’s my duty to use them… without doubt… without hesitation!!” –The Amazing Spider-Man #18

It’s a strange time, your first one in a comic shop. You don’t understand the code, feel inferior for not knowing exactly what you’re looking for, and take up space in front of shelves long-term fans feel entitled to. The first Spider-Man comic I picked up had the Green Goblin lobbing pumpkin bombs at Spidey. My best friend Junaid was obsessed with Superman. My loyalty was yet to be bought.

It was 1990 and we were at Calamity Comics, in North West London. Soon, I learned the code. Through the episodic adventures of Spider-Man, I felt a part of something.

“All these years—I’ve done my best to make up for that! I’ve worn this suit—gone out there and put my life on the line again and again! But no matter how hard I try people die!” –Amazing Spider-Man: Soul of the Hunter vol. 1

My parents weren’t wealthy and the worst thing I could do, in their eyes, was waste money. Comics were a waste of money: specifically, a fiver a week on several issues that took fifteen minutes to read, and then five minutes to re-read a day later. I binged through issues. My eyes danced across each panel.

The idea of putting on a suit and being a better version of yourself appealed to me. For Superman, putting on the suit entailed being himself (Clark Kent being the everyday mask he wore); for Spider-Man, putting on the suit meant being everything Peter Parker couldn’t be. I found comfort in that. In life I was Peter Parker—reading comics I was Spider-Man. I dreamed of the confidence with which Spider-Man dispensed of Dr. Octopus or the Green Goblin; the cockiness with which he deployed his web-shooters; the wisecracks he flung at villains with abandon.

“I’m glad you remembered the hyphen,” he told Electro. “Most people leave it out.”

“Too bad you couldn’t get a new hairstyle,” he told Doc Ock.

“You always have an answer for everything,” Richard Milestone once told me.

Comics became a lifeline as I approached my teenage years. Spider-Man lived with the consequences of bad decisions he made. To be in physical danger because of bad decisions, because of the burden of guilt, because of the need to hide your true self, that was me as a teenager.

I lived in fear of being beaten up. Not because there was any real threat of someone knocking me out, but because I was a teenager and I wore my outsider status like a brick wall I was always on the verge of getting shoved against. Comics allowed me stillness, escapism, a world where quiet nerds like me could make a difference.

The more comics I read, the more I became obsessed with being a writer. I didn’t care what: short stories, the great American novel, film scripts, arcs for comics, raps. I wasn’t fussy.

My first, terrible attempts at writing were synopses for Spider-Man arcs that were yet to be written. Thankfully, such juvenilia no longer exists, because when I moved out of home with my girlfriend at 22, I decided I could no longer have ties to such childishness. I threw it all away. I think back to what those issues taught me about storytelling, how they gave me the tools to pace, to ensure that dialogue is punchy, exciting, realistic and not overwritten.

The biggest thing comics taught me about writing was that bad writing involved characters explaining the plot to each other. Good writing showed you the plot. Writing those synopses, in a brown exercise book, I honed these skills.

I wrote Peter Parker into my school. I made his antagonists my own. I made Mary-Jane a girl he got the train with. I resituated his battles with Sandman and the Vulture in North West London. Peter Parker became a cypher for me. Spider-Man became the best possible version of myself.

Being a writer was the furthest thing from what my dad wanted me to be. He was desperate for me to take over the family business and expand it. Our small family business, importing gift-wrapping paper from abroad and selling it to high street retailers, was a homespun affair. In tandem with my homework, my mother and I would sit in front of the television, watching sitcoms like The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air while folding reams of gift-wrapping paper to the correct size for the correct retailer. Start at the bottom and you will then understand every level of the business for when you take it over, my dad thought. He probably also liked my sister and I for the cheap labor. He sat on the other side of the room, listening to ABBA records, a whisky in hand, thinking, strategizing. We watched television with subtitles on.

Most Sundays, I went with him to the warehouse to pack orders. While they took breaks, I was expected to do my homework, time I saw as an opportunity to find comfortable boxes to slouch on, and read comics. They were my dirty secret.

Our lives were about saving money. Mum bought most things in bulk, because cooking for our family, my dad’s brother’s family and my grandparents—all of whom were working on the family business—was cheaper than shopping meal to meal. I made money to buy Spidey comics by buying up cheap Batman and Superman comics I could sell on to rich kids at my school who lived in the suburbs and wouldn’t go to the comic shop.

I wrote in secret. I read in secret. When I was caught, I lied: “I borrowed this comic from Junaid. This rap song, with the swear words still in? Taped off the radio. These notebooks of writing? They’re for English class. That film script that has my name on the cover? Junaid wrote it. I just helped.”

I felt shame that my heart was not in the family business.

Flicking through the racks in Calamity Comics one Saturday, I came across parts one and two of a four-part arc called Kraven’s Last Hunt. In it, Kraven the Hunter hunts down Spider-Man, defeats him, and appears to shoot him dead. Kraven then buries him, and, donning a copy of Spider-Man’s costume, seeks to prove himself superior at his adversary’s former activities. By becoming Spider-Man, he becomes his best attempt at his public perception of who Spider-Man is. But he misses a crucial component—Peter Parker. He has no idea who he is. He has no knowledge of his rage, his caring for others, his compassion, his humanity. These are the key ingredients for Spider-Man. The person behind the mask. I didn’t understand that at the time. That much as I hid, people could still see me.

Years later, my mum was in hospital, diagnosed with lung cancer. About a fortnight before she died, I came to visit her and dad and to give her a finished copy of my first novel. She held it in her hands and looked at me

“I always knew you’d do it,” she said. Dad nodded.

In that moment, I felt like my parents were finally looking at the teenager behind the mask, the boy driven by guilt and shame but also responsibility. I felt like they were really seeing me.

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How to Write a Comic Essay or Research Paper and Book Topics

• by Joseph Kenas
• January 19, 2024

A comic research paper is one of the most interesting topics if you are looking for a topic to write on. This is because a comic essay is an excellent way to present information in a fun and engaging way.

Comic research papers provide us with an insight into what has happened in the past and also what will happen in the future without monotony.

Writing a comic research paper can be a lot of fun. It is a way to get published as well as a chance to get a good grade.

However, the process of writing a comic research paper is not a straightforward as it sounds, since many students find it challenging. This blog will look at everything you need to know about a research paper.

What is a Comic Essay or Research Paper?

A comic research paper is a research paper that uses a graphic novel or a comic as a reference or as a source of information. In a comic research paper, the comic is the actual research paper. It is a way to present a thesis or a topic in a fun and unique way.

This means that a comic research paper requires a lot of research on the comic book or the comic topic. This requires concentration and a lot of time to be put into it.

It is a great way to get your point across in a fun and interesting way. People remember things if they are presented in a visual way.

A comic research paper can help you present your ideas in a way that your audience will not only remember, but will enjoy. It can be a great way to get your point across when you are talking to your professor.

Although a comic research paper is written in comic book form, it still needs to follow the same guidelines that a regular research paper does. However, it allows the writer to use more creativity. 

When creating a comic research paper, you should start with the cover. The cover should give the reader an idea of the content of the paper.

The inside should have drawings, but it should also have the same elements as a regular research paper, which are an introduction, body, conclusion, and works cited.

How to write a Comic Essay or Research Paper

In the process of writing your comic research paper, you will need to select a topic, conduct research, learn about the research, and finally, write a comic book report.

Let’s go through the process in details

1. Come up with a Suitable Title

One of the most important parts of your comic research paper is choosing the right topic. In our guide on how to write a good research paper , we explained that coming up with a good topic is important for the whole process.

You want to pick something that is not only interesting to you but is also relevant to your topic and your audience.

You can choose to do a research paper on a comic book character, a comic book series, or a comic strip.

You can also choose to do a humorous cartoon, editorial cartoon, or comic book. 

To come up with a good topic start reading the comics books so that you can know the scope.

ou will gain a better understanding of the overarching themes and ideas that drive the comics industry as you read more. It’s crucial to study what other people have written about the same comics you’re writing about.

Remember, the topic should be something that is interesting to you. You will be spending a lot of time on this research paper, so you should make sure that you enjoy the topic.

2. Do full Research before Writing

Before you begin writing, assemble and organize your research. You’ll be able to write faster and effectively without stopping to obtain new facts if you take out essential quotes and formulate your ideas about what information you’ll need and how to use it.

new collections and materials are being generated and enhanced every day to address the requirements of fans, scholars, collectors, and researchers. Therefore it is easier to find many internet resources that can help you in gathering your information.

3. Create an Outline

The next step is to make an outline before you begin writing. An outline will assist you to keep on track and guarantee that you are equally spacing out the main issues of your essay across its length to maintain the reader’s interest.

You don’t want to run out of ideas before finishing.

Just like in a normal research paper, an outline consist of an introduction, body, and conclusion.

In the body, you include all the topic sentences in the different paragraphs that you are planning to talk about.

An outline makes the paper easier to write.

4. Writing the Body

The body of a comic research paper is the main section of the research paper. It is where you will describe the comic or graphic novel that you have chosen.

You will also need to analyze the comic and explain the author’s purpose in creating the comic. In this section, you will explain why you selected the comic and what your analysis is of the comic itself. 

In the body of your comic research paper, you will need to include a brief summary of the comic or graphic novel.

You will also need to explain the author’s purpose in creating the comic. In addition, you will need to explain the author’s message and what the comic is about.

5. Make use of a Citation Guide

When working with comic books, bibliographic references can be difficult. They combine elements of books and magazines. The main goal is to provide location information to help those looking for a cited source.

The inclusion of four essential aspects in a citation is critical: writer, artist, narrative title, and publication information. You can use an online style guide for citing comic books, which includes directions and examples.

6. Keep the Introduction Until Last

The introduction is typically the hardest element of a comic research paper to write, especially if you aren’t certain where your comic will lead.

You can write a more complete and appealing beginning if you reserve it till the end of the essay since you already know how the paper will end.

That approach will ensure you have an appealing introduction that will keep the readers hooked. 

7. Carefully Proofread Your Work

It’s usually a good idea to go through your work with rested to revise and proofread it numerous times. After just one check, you’re more likely to miss something significant especially if your essay is long.

To gain a new perspective and spot lingering problems, try reading sentences in reverse order.

Another proofreading tip is to take intervals between sections of the essay to allow yourself an opportunity to rest and rejuvenate. This will help you avoid tension and keep your mind fresh.

8. Seek Expert Assistance

If everything else fails and your lengthy essay isn’t pulling together, turn for expert essay writing aid available on the internet to get you over the hurdle.

There are several excellent professionals available online who are eager to assist you in making your essay the finest it can be.

Best Comic Research Paper Topics

Comic books have not only entertained and educated readers in a quickly changing culture, but they have also documented and analyzed many historical, social, and current events.

Therefore, it is not that hard to find a good topic. Here are some.

• Comic Books Influence Children
• Comic Strip Super Powers
• Cases Of Fraud In The Business Place
• Home From School Comic Strips
• Holocaust Survivors Comic Book
• Motion Pictures Comic Book
• Comic Book Artist Comic Book Artist And Writer Berg
• Iron Fist Golden Age

Common Comic Books for Research Paper

• Sweet Tooth
• This One Summer
• Through The Woods
• My Favorite Thing Is Monsters
• Jimmy Corrigan
• Children’s and Young Adult Comics by Gwen Athene Tarbox
• Best American Comics Criticism by Ben Schwartz
• The Art of Comics
• Autobiographical Comics by Elisabeth El Refaie

Joseph is a freelance journalist and a part-time writer with a particular interest in the gig economy. He writes about schooling, college life, and changing trends in education. When not writing, Joseph is hiking or playing chess.

Writing a Comic Book Script 101: Expert Storytelling Tips

Think comic books and graphic novels are just for kids? Guess again. Comic book writers are some of the smartest people in the writing game, creating rich stories that readers of all ages love.

In this post, we’ll explain the writing process that goes into making comics, covering formatting, industry standard terms, self-publishing, and everything else you need to start crafting your own comic book ai script generator .

We’ve got tips for writers, letterers, and artists – whether you’re looking to create a plot first (‘Marvel style’) comic script or full script comic. Our guide’s perfect for short stories, graphic novels, webcomics, and more, taking you from your first idea right through to the final draft and finished comic.

Dive into the world of comic book creation with our detailed post on the writing process. We cover everything from industry standard terms to the intricacies of self-publishing. Essential for both writers and artists is to create storyboards with AI , which can turn your comic scripts into detailed storyboards, aiding immensely in the pre-production process of your graphic novel or webcomic.

Learn essential comic book terms

There are some crucial terms to know when script writing for comic books especially if you want to be taken seriously by the likes of Alan Moore and co. The terms below cover the most important elements of a comic book page.

A still image in a sequence of juxtaposed images. Comic book creators can use a number of panel sizes and dimensions to mix up their formatting: square, round, triangular, narrow vertical, shallow horizontal, diagonal, and anything else you can dream up.

Some types of panels have special terms:

While panels are usually surrounded by heavy lines called borders, parts of the art sometimes pop outside panel borders for dramatic or ironic effect. Borderless images can also qualify as panels.

Any text on a comic book page.

Traditionally, dialogue and caption lettering was all uppercase. However, comic book writers nowadays mix things up a lot more, using upper and lowercase.

Display lettering includes sound effects and any other text that isn’t contained in a balloon or caption (like store signage, license plates, words on a computer screen, etc.).

While some comic book writers overlook them, lettering and balloon placement are vital things to get right when creating your comic book page.

Word balloon (US) / bubble (UK)

A bordered or borderless shape containing dialogue, usually with a tail that points to the speaker. Tailless balloons sometimes represent voiceover or off-panel dialogue. Like with panels, balloons come in various shapes, but ovoid is the most common when scripting.

You can use different shapes for different characters or moods. However, it’s important to use these elements consistently so that you don’t confuse your reader.

Thought balloon

A bordered or borderless shape that contains a character’s unspoken thoughts. Thought balloons almost always have bumpy, cloudlike borders and tails that look like trails of bubbles.

While thought bubbles can be useful for writing comics, it’s important not to overuse them. Like with any other form of scriptwriting , the golden rule is ‘show, don’t tell’.

A tool used for narration, transitional text (“Meanwhile...”), or off-panel dialogue. Captions usually have rectangular borders, but they can also be borderless or floating letters.

Sound effects (SFX)

Stylised lettering that represents noises within a scene. Most SFX are floating letters, and sometimes they’re an integral part of the imagery.

Again, it’s important not to overuse sound effects. Reserve them for important sounds, whether large (bombs) or small (a door gently closing).

The lines that enclose panels, balloons, and captions. You can use different styles and line weights to show different effects or moods, for example:

You can also use different background colors or borders for different characters or types of dialogue.

The space between and around panels. Although it’s usually white, you can use coloured or shaded gutters to help demonstrate mood, denote flashbacks, or just for aesthetic effect.

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Storyboard your comic book script outline

Writing a comic book script without storyboarding the outline is like going hiking without a map. You’re going to get lost (or eaten by bears).

Storyboarding your comic book helps you nail down the storyline and key plot points, saving time, money, and stress when you start writing script pages and inking your comic panels.

Whether you’re writing a one-off indie graphic novel or an ongoing, serialised comic like Stan Lee’s Spider-Man, most comic book creators agree that you should follow a traditional three-act structure. (It’s loved by screenwriting pros around the world, so you know it works.)

Some people call this the ‘inciting incident’. This alliterative treat is the fancy name for the moment when the story's set in motion.

Where your characters start going through big changes (the pros call it character arc) as a result of what's happening.

The resolution. Our characters confront the problem, the story comes together, and we wrap up any loose ends (a.k.a. the ‘denouement’).

The most important parts of your outline are the arcs for your main character and any secondary characters. You should map these out in as much detail as you can.

Once your outline’s starting to come together, it’s time to fire up a storyboard template with Boords . A storyboard is every comic book artist's friend. It shows you if you've missed some necessary details in the script, or if something only works in text but not visually.

Your storyboard is like a rough outline of your graphic novel, with each of the comic panels dedicated to an important moment in the story. The storyboarding process has two main goals: ensuring you have everything you need before you start script writing and lettering, and doing it in an efficient way so that you don't have to spend time fixing things afterwards in Photoshop.

Write your comic book script

Pick a script format.

Unless you’ve got the whole caboodle of skills needed to create comic books – writing, drawing, lettering, and coloring – then you’re probably going to collaborate with other people to make your finished comic.

The usual way comic books come together is writing, pencilling, lettering, inking, then coloring. But this will change depending on who’s involved, how much time you have, and the publishing model.

There are two basic script formats in the comic world:

We’ll explore both below.

Plot-first script (‘Marvel style’)

The plot-first script, a.k.a. ‘Marvel’ style was made popular by the legendary Marvel Comics, largely because of Stan Lee’s relationship with artists like Jack Kirby. Even if you’re writing and drawing your own comic, this can still be a good way to go. It tends to work like this:

The best thing about this script format is that the writer knows exactly what the art looks like, and how much room there is for text, when scripting. However, the writer gives up some control over pacing and composition, and might not get the results they want from the artist.

Full script

Full script is the most common format for comic book scripts. With full script, the writer produces a complete script with panel descriptions, which the artist then uses to pencil the story.

As a writer, you never know exactly how the artist will interpret your descriptions. However, this method gives you a bit more control over layout and pacing. The disadvantage is that you may need to trim or tweak your dialogue and captions after seeing the art.

Comic book scripts are pretty similar to screenplays in terms of script format. The tricky part is that there’s no single format that all comic book writers use.

Remember to make your script format clear and easy to follow. It should have clearly labeled page numbers and panel numbers, with indented paragraphs for all balloons, captions, sound effects, and display lettering.

Edit, edit, edit

Once you’ve got your story down, there’s going to be a lot of rewriting. Write as many drafts as you can, making tweaks and adjustments as you go. Send the script to friends for their input. Leave drafts for a couple of weeks before diving in again with fresh eyes.

Why so much rewriting? Because it’s much easier to make script writing edits at this stage than when you’re drawing the comic. If you make changes later, it’ll be costly. Remember: measure twice, cut once.

Strong comic book scripts are usually super economical in their storytelling, putting across a huge amount of information and emotion in a deceptively simple form. Here are a few tips to help you edit your script so it’s publisher-ready:

Also, here are a few things to watch out for when reviewing your script:

Find a publisher

If you’re thinking of going the self-publishing route (with Amazon, for example) then you can ignore this section. But if you want to get your comic published, then we’ve got some tips that'll help.

First things first, you need to identify some companies that publish the genre and format of your comic. Then decide which works you like the best, and try to make contact with the editors of those comics. See if you can find their email online, or send a quick Twitter DM asking if you can email them.

Once you’ve got an editor’s email or postal address, you can send them a proposal package. This should include:

Your entire proposal (excluding script pages and illustrations) should be about two pages long for a short or single-issue story, or five pages for a graphic novel or multi-issue title.

If you’re sending your proposal package to a submissions editor, check the publisher’s guidelines to find out whether you should follow up on the submission. Most publishers get a lot of unsolicited submissions and don’t like to be pestered.

If you’re sending your proposal to an editor you’ve made personal contact with, wait about a month, then get in touch to see whether they’ve had a chance to look at it. You might need to do this a few times as editors can be busy. Just remember to keep it short and be polite.

Hopefully, you’ll have good news soon. We’ll all be rooting for you here at Boords!

Try Boords for free

Thanks to Anina Bennett and Chris Oatley for their helpful posts on comic book writing.

Related links

More from the blog..., how to write and format a series of shots in your screenplay.

If you want to be taken seriously by Hollywood’s screenwriting elite, it’s important that your screenplay formatting is impeccable.

How to Storyboard a Parallel Storyline

Every book or movie has a storyline. But some like to double (or triple) the fun by introducing an additional parallel storyline – sometimes more!

How to Write an Amazing Film Synopsis (Step-by-step Guide)

After you’ve finished writing your latest Hollywood smash and put your pen down (or shut your computer), you might think your work’s done. But there’s one thing left to do: write a film synopsis.

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The Shortcut to Effective Storyboards

Boords is the top-rated online storyboarding software that makes planning video projects a joy, not a job.

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Home  >  Resources  >  How to Write Your First Comic Book

How to Write Your First Comic Book

Cultural essayist and journalist Jude Ellison S. Doyle ( Dead Blondes and Bad Mothers ) describes how they taught themselves the conventions of writing their first comic book, the feminist horror comic  MAW  (Boom! Studios, 2021), as well as tips on working with illustrators and editors.

Source: https://judedoyle.medium.com/how-to-write-your-first-comic-book-60995fd0f704

Categories: Advice for Writers , Essays on Writing

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How To Write An Outline For Your Comic

source: https://makingcomics.com/2014/02/24/write-outline-comic/

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The MakingComics.com project is aimed at promoting comic arts and graphic storytelling to a worldwide audience through the use of free and up to date learning materials. MakingComics.com has the bold goal of becoming the largest, and most useful, online repository of comic-making educational material. This will be achieved through active creation of new content, learning community facilitation, and our crowdsourced repository of comic-making resources from around the web.